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DsiiizoGbyGoOl^le 


.yGooi^le 


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.yGooi^le 


Copyright,  1918 

BV 

The  Encvclopbdia  Aubucana  Cokforation 


jyGoot^Ie 


237059  "^''-^-'^ 
m  -2  1919     f: 

PARTIAL  LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  VOLUME  X 


BERST,  GEOROS  R.,  Ph.D^  DJ). 

PiDfeBni    of    Old   Tntuaent    Interpretatioa    uid 
Semitic  Luiguoga.  ColBota  Uiuv*imty 

ESTHER,  BOOK  OF 
BOGART,  ERITBST  L^  Ph.D. 

ProfoKT  a£  Economica.  Univenity  of  lUinoi* 

FACTORY  SYSTEM,  THE 
BOTHNB,  GISLE,  A^. 

Piofeaior  o{  Samdanaviui  Ltutsuuie*  uid  Utantim, 
University  of  Minneaata 


ERASMUS  MONTANUS 
BREWSTER,  WILLIAH  T.,  A.U. 

ProfoBT  ol  Biwlish.  Columbia  Univenity 

ENGLISH   UTERATURE,    VICTORIAN 

PERIOD— POETRY  AND  PROSE 
ESSAY  ON  MAN,  THE 

BUCK,  H.  W.,  E.B.,  PhJ>. 

Consulting  Electrical  Engineer,  New  York 

ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING 
BUBU^  UARCnS  D.,  S.T^  DJ>. 

ProfMjor  of  New   Tealament    Greell  and  ExeSeiig. 
Bonon  University  School  of  Theology 

EPHESIANS.  EPISTLE  TO  THE 
BOTLER,  AHOS  W.,  A.H.,  LLJ>. 

Zoobgin  and  AnthiDpoUieiat.  Indiwupolii 

ETHNOLOGY 
CAIRHS,  WOLIAH  B^  FIlD. 


CHITTENDEN,  FRAHX  H.,  8cJ>. 

EntoiDoksia.  la  Buratu  of  BntmUba)',  United 
Statea  I>epartaient  oC  Agricultan.  Waibington, 
D.  C 

ENTOMOLOGY 
CHDBB,  FERCIVAL 

Leader  of  tlu  Ethical  Society  of  Saiot  I<ouit 

ETHICAL  MOVEMENT  AND  ETHICAL 

SOCIETIES 

CLAR£,  L.  PIERCE,  MJ>. 

New  York  City 
EPILEPTIC  CONSTITUTION 


COOFmt,  LANE,  PIlD. 

Profeeaor    of    Bnfliih    Language    and    Literature, 
Cornell  Uoivemly 

ENGLISH  MAIL  COACH,  THE 

COUMBE,  CLEMENT  W. 

Technical  Art  Bipert 

ENAMELS  AND  ENAMELING 


in  Utokture,  Uoi' 


CAJORI,  FLOHIAH.  Ph.D.,  LI.D.,  Sc.D. 

Profeaor  of  History  of  Mathematics.  Univenity  a 
CaliCoroia 

EQUATIONS,  GENERAL  THEORY  OF 
CAHFIELD,  ARTHUR  G.,  PtLD. 


DARTON,  NELSON  H. 

Gaalogiit  United  State*  Gsokigical  Survey 

EXPLOSION  CRATERS 
DEUEL,  RICHARD  P.,  B.S,,  MjL 

AwMant  "PrafoKr  c<  Uccbaoio,  SCevou  Inctitu 
of  Technology 

ELASTICITY 
DEWEY,  JOHN,  PhJ).,  LLJ>. 

ProfoBorof  Fhiloaophy,  Columbia  Univsiity 
ETHICS 


3f  Chicago 

EMBRYOLOGY  OF  PLANTS 


CHAHDI^R,  PRANK  W.,  PIlD. 


Univenity  of  Cincinnati 
ELECTRA 
EXEMPLARY  NOVELS 


PUJadelphia  Electric  Company 

ELECTRIC  DIRECT  CURRENT 


Biblical  Inatitutt 

EXODUS,  BOOK  OF 


,y Google  ^ 


Contributors  to  Volume  X— Continued 


ERSEntB,  JOHIT,  A.M- 

Adjunct  PideMOT  of^EnjUthi  Cottuillm  tAiiv*i«ttr 
ENGLISH        LITERATURE,        ELIZA- 
BETHAN PERIOD-N  ON- DRAMATIC 
POETRY 

FASQUHAR,  HBKRT  H. 

CooiultaDt  in  IndustriBl  MatuBecnent  soil  tnitnicw' 
in  Ibe  HwBfd  BmioesB  School 

FACTORY  MANAGEMENT 
FERRIS,  RICOASB,  C.B^  ScJ>. 

EdhoiiBl  Staff  of  The  Ammicu* 

ETHER 
FOKD,  J.  D.  H.,  PIlD. 

Smith  FrofaMOr  of  Frencli  ud  Spi 
Hamrd  Uninnitv 

EL  SOMBRERO  DE  TRE3  PICOS 
PABULAS  of  TOMAS  DE  IRIARTX 

FOTUR,  HEKRT  THATCHER,  PhJ). 

Profa—or  <^  Bibli««l  UteraX"*  "*  HiAofy.  Blow* 
Univemty 

EZEKIEL,  BOOJC  OP 

OARnSR,  JAMBS  W.,  PhJ). 

PnrfcHoi  of  Palitica]  Sc[«ice.  Univenity  of  llUnrji 

ENEMY  ALIEN  PROBLEMS 


HIBBEN,  JOHN  GRIER,  PhJ>.,  LLJ}.,  LAD. 

PKwdant  it  Ptiaeeton  DniMnity 

EPICUREANISM 
HOWARD,  WILUAH  O^  A.H. 

AMiMaot  PnUama  of  Gennu,  Harvard  Uoimivty 

ELECTIVE  AFFINITIES,  THE 
IHOERSOLL,  ERNEST 

NatuialBt  uid  Author 

EYESIGHT  IN  THE  LOWER  ANIMALS 
INGBRSOIX,  HEIJEN 

Natunliat 

EVERGREENS 
JACKSON,  DUGALD  C,  C.E. 

Profemr  of  Electrical  Bngiosriiig,  Hutachiuetti 
Institute  of  Technology 


EMILE 
OREENLAT,  BtfWtS,  A.B.,  A.H.,  I%.D. 

Kenan  Profenor  of  BntUab  in  tfaA  Uaivioity  ol 
North  Carolina 

FAERIE  gUEENE.  THE 

HALE,  EDWARD  E.,  I%J>. 

Profenor  of  Bngliih.  Union  Colkae,  SEbeiMCtady, 
N.  Y. 


KSIXOOO,  VERnON,  A3.,  M.& 

ProreMor  et   Bnt^dpty,  Lelasd  QlMidaii  Juokr 

EVOLUTION 

EVOLtfTION,  THEORIES  OP 

KENNELLY,  A  E.,  ScJ). 

*       Prafeiaoi  of  Elecnical  BiigiiiaeiilS,  Harvaid  Dni- 
venity 

ELECTRICAL  TERMS 
ERAPP,  GEORGE  P.,  PhJ). 

Profenor  ol  BngUsh.  Columbia  Dniveraitjr 

ENGLISH  CHRONICLES 
LAWREKCE,  WILLIAM  WITHBRLE,  Hi.D. 

ProfeooT  of  Bngiiali.  Coliunbja  TToivcnity 

ENGLISH       LITERATURE,       MIDDLE 
PERIOD 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 
ESSAYS  OP  BACON 
FAIRY  TALES  OF  HANS  CHRISTIAN     LIIfDOinST,  DAVID,  BX 
ANDERSEN  

HAUER,  WILLIAM,  PIlD. 

Innructof  in  EiiBUin,i  CohusUa  Ilalvmitr 

ENOCH  ARDEN 


amtfiT,  JOSSPB  B.,  PbJi. 

Author  of  "  The  Gnek  Tragic  Poetl," 

EURIPIDES 
HAlffiS,  DOREUnS  A.,  PhD.,  S.T3. 

~     "       r   ot    New    Taument    Bitten*,    Garrett 


HAVER,  WHUAIC  Js.,  C.B. 

Conaultiog  Electrical  BoeJneer 

ELECTRIC  MACHINE 
ELECTRIC  SIGNALING 
ELECTRIC  TRANSMISSION  OF 

ENERGY 
ELECTRIC    UNDERGROUND    CABLES 

AND  CONDUITS 
ELECTRICITY,  ITS  HISTORY  AND 

PROGRESS 

||«G«SGO&,  JABCES  H^  Bi.D. 

Profaaaar  of  Zoahvy,  Columbia  Univenity 

EMBRYOLOGY 
EMBRYOLOGY,  HUMAN 


,v  Google 


Contributors  to  Volume  X — Concluded 


KfiADBR,  JOHN  R^ 

Editor  wid  Autbot 
EMPLOYMENT  MANAGER 
EMPLOYMENT  MANAGEMENT 

UOSBS,  MOHTKOSB  J.,  B.S. 

Dnmatic  Critic 
PAITH  HEALER,  THE 
ICUnSOB,  CHARLES. E.,  S3.,  PhJ). 

Tbe  Owns  Wubinston  Univenity,  Wutiiaatoiii, 


SMITH,  EDWABO  VAITTOH,  CI1.E. 

Pictory   Eogiiuer.    Ths  Electric  Stortg*  Battny 
ConnisnTi'niiliidelptaia 

ELECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERY 


RISTBEE,  ALLAN  D.,  FIlD. 

Etinctor  TKhnicil  Roauch.  The  Travatort  lavn 

ance  Companj 

ELECTRON  THEORY 
ENERGETICS 

PIERPOITT,  JAMBS,  PhJ).,  LLJ>. 

Profcaaor  of  Mathsnatica.  Yal«  OitivnvtT 

EQUATIONS.  GALOIS'  THEORY  OP 

BIBBS,  mVIRO  E 

Bditor  of  '-  Histarr  of  tba  DniMd  9tataa  ': 
ELECTIONS 

ELECTORAL  QUALIFICATIONS 
EXECUTIVE 

ROnSH.  G.  A.,  A3.,  M.S. 


ELECTROCHEMICAL  EQUIVALENTS 
ELECTROCHEMICAL  INDUSTRIES 
ELECTROCHEMISTRY 
ELECTROLYSIS 

aAMUELS,  BERNARD,  H.D. 

NawYoricCttr 
EYE,  THE 

SAABORN.  F.  B.,  A3. 

Author  of  a  "  Ufa  (4  Bmanon  " 
EMERSON,  RALPH  WALDO 
SCHMIDT,  NATHANIBL,  AM. 


CorncD  UiiiverBtr 
ENOCH,  BOOK  OP 
ESCHA7OLOGY 

8CHULUAN,  A.  G.,  B.A. 

Dapartswnt  of  Art,  Colksa  CitT  of  Nan 


ComiiBraliTi  Litentuio,  CollUDbk  Univenity 

ENGLISH    LITERATURE,    ELIZA- 
BETHAN   PERIOD— PROSE 
STBINHETZ,  CHARLES  P.,  PhJ>. 

Gowral  ElK^tric  Company,  SebeoMtady,  N.  Y. 

ELECTRICITY 
TASSm,  ALGKNON,  AM. 

AnJataU  Profaaaor  of  Bnsliah,  Colombia  Univoaity 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE,  VICTORIAN 
PERIOD  —  DRAMA 
TENNBY,  ALVAH  A.,  PhJ). 

AiaiBisiit  FnfaMoi  of  Sodology,  Columbia  Univ. 
EUGENICS 
THOMSON,  BUHU,  PhJ}.,  ScJ). 

Gananl  Qoctiic  Comiiany.  WeM  Lynn,  Um>. 

ELECTRIC  WELDING 
THORNDIEB,  A.  H.,  Ph.D.,  L.B.D. 

PnfBMOT  of  Baaliih.  Columbia  Univenity 

ENGLISH      LITERATURE.      ELIZA- 
BETHAN PERIOD— THE  DRAMA 
TOUSET,  SOTCLAm,  M.D. 

New  York  aty 

ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS 
TKBNT,  WILLIAM  P.,  LLJ}.,  D.CX. 

Proftnor  of  Bngliib  Literature,  Cotumbia  Univ. 
ELEGY    WRITTEN    IN    A    COUNTRY 
CHURCHYARD 
TUCKER,  MARION,  PhJ)., 

ProfaMor  i^  Bn^idi.  The  Polytac^nie  Inititnle  o( 
ftooldyn 

EPISTLE  TO  ARBUTHNOT 
EPISTLE  TO  AUGUSTUS 
PABLE  FOR  CRITICS,  A 
UNDBRHILL,  JOHN  OARRBTT,  Ph.D. 

RepnaenlatiTa  of  tbe  Sodadad  de  Aotoits  Bapanolaa 
m  tbe  United  State*  and  Cuuubi 

EL  GRAN  GALEOTO 
ELECTRA 
VAN  DORBN,  CARL,  PhJ). 


EVANGELINE 
VBAZIB,  VALTBR  B.,  Pb.D. 

Decartment  of  Philoio[ibv.  Columbia  Univenity 

ESSAY    ON    THE    HUMAN     UNDER- 
STANDING, AN 


8ELLARS,  ROT  WOOD,  Pb.D. 

Profeiaor  of  PhikaDphy,  UnivBTiity  of  Hlehi(>a 

EUCKEN,  RUDOLF  CHRISTOPH 
SHERMAN,  STUART  P.,  Ph.D.  "^ 

ProfaoOT  of  Ensliab.  Univenity  of  ICinni 

iHUPEDOC3.ieS  ON  ETNA 
EOTHEN,  ALEXANDER  WILLIAM 
KINGLAKE 

8INGLBT0N,  ESTHER 

Author  of  "  Preach  and  Bnglidi  Pumhtve,"  "Aft      WILCZYRSKI,   ERNEST    Jn  Pb-D. 

in  Bdgian  OallariB."  ate  Pnrfeaaor  •d  Hathematica,  UniveiKtr  of  Chkaco 

EMBROIDERY  EQUATIONS 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 
EIGHTH  CENTURY 
ELEVENTH  CENTURY 


lyGoot^Ie 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 


far,  father 

R 

Span,  a,  as  in  eiAoH 
Unon  (pen-yon)      . 

(cSn'Tftn) 

5 

fate,  hate 
at.  fat 
air,  care 
ado.  sofa 
all,  fall 
choose,  church 
eel,  we 

ng 
nk 

a 

0 

mingle,  unging 
bank,  ink 
no,  open 
5     not,  on 
com,  nor 
atom,  symbol 

e 

bed,  end 

9 

book,  look 

her.  over:  also  Fr.  e, 
fu,  as  in  tieuf;  and 
botuf,  coeur;  Ger.  . 
as  in  dkonomie. 

as  i 
ottt, 
i   (oi 

n  de; 
■  oe). 

oi 

oor  . 

oil,  soil;  alsoGer.  «*.! 
oo    fool,  rule 

u  in  btuttl 

befall,  elope 

ouor 

ow  allow,  bowsprit 

agent  trident 

' 

satisfy,  sauce 

oS,  Irougb 

sh 

show,  sure 

gas,  get 

th 

thidc  thin 

anguish,  guava 

(h 

father,  thithv 

bat,  hot 

a 

mute,  use 

.« 

Gw.  ch,  as  in  %iehl,  wacht 

UOTU 

b«t,.M 

what 

•    u 

pull,  put 

file,  ice 

between     e     and     i,     mostly 

Oriental      jinal      syllables,      i 
Ferid-ud-din 

gem,  genius 

quaint,   qqite 


'(prime 


of,  very 

(consonaotal)  yes,  young 
pleasant,  rose 
azure,  pleasure 


.yGooi^le 


EGUSQUIZA,   Joan  BantiatK,    hoo-Mi' 
ba-tes'ta    i-gaos-lce'tha,     Paraguayan 
siatesman :  b,  Asunci&i,  1845.    He  was 
a   lieulcnant-colonel   in   the   war  with 
Uruguay,   Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Republi 


ol  Paraguay  from  1894  to  1896. 

EGYPT.  (Greek,  AlyvTrTos.Aiguplos;  Hebrtw, 
O'TSD,  Misraim  or  IITO  Maior;  also  calleil 
Vnn9fPathroi  (Is,  li,  II)  and  DH  pK  Sret- 
Ham,  *The  land  of  Ham*  (Ps.cvi.za).  Assyrian 
^  y^HM. Mam;  Arabic /*r,Mtn-orM(Ur. 
In  Hieroglyphics,  ^  t^o'  ^"'*')-  'f  present 
name  is  derived  from  the  Gred^  Aigupipt 
(meaning  obscure).  The  Hebrew  name  3fu- 
rmm,  is  die  dual  form  of  Mazor  (a  fortified  or 
walled-in  place  or  country),  vir.,  two  Mason, 
■Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.*  Bui  its  principal 
name  upon  the  monuments  and  in  the  papyn  is 
Kami  or  Kamt  *Black  land*,  an  appropriate 
name,  owing  to  the  black  alluvial  soil  in  the 
Nile  Valley,  in  contradistinction  to  the  reddish 
soil  of  the  neighboring  land  on  both  sides  of 
the  Nile. 

Modem  Egypt  is  a  vast  country  extending 
from  the  Meaiterranean  Sea,  [at.  31°  35'  to 
parallel  22°  N.  I.,  called  Egypt  Proper,  thence 
southward  to  the  British  possessions  in  equato- 
rial Africa,  which  latter  region  (kr  "' 


Red  Sea,  and  on  the  extreme  northeast,  Wady- 
el-Arish,  Syria.  The  western  boundary  runs 
northwest  to  Tripoli,  and  thence  southeast 
tht^Ugh  the  Libyan  desert,  to  a  point  200  miles 
west  of  Wady-Halfa.  The  area  of  Egypt  (ex- 
clusive of  the  Sondan)  is  about  363,181  square 
m3es,  the  country  extending  675  miles  north 
and  soudi,  and  5C>0  miles  east  and  west. 

Twography.— In  modem  as  in  ancient 
times  Egypt  was  always  divided  into  the  Upper 
and  the  Lower,  or  the  Southern  and  Northern 
countries.  At  a  very  early  period  it  was  fur- 
ther subdivided  into  a  number  of  departments, 
called  nomes,  varying  in  different  ages ;  42  was 
probably  the  usual  number.  A  third  great  di- 
vision, the  Heftanomis,  'seven  names*  pre- 
served in  the  modem  (Pfurtani)  "Middle 
Egypt,"  was  introduced  at  the  time  of  the 
geographer  Ptolemy  (fit^t  half  of  the  2d 
century  a.d.).  Each  iiome  had  a  separate  local 
government.  In  the  5th  century  a.d.,  Egypt 
was  divided  into  six  eparchies.    Augusta  Prima 


and  Secufida  on  the  east,  £gyptiaca  on  the 
west,  Arcadia  (the  former  Heptanomis),  The- 
bals  Proxinia  as  far  as  Panapolis,  and  Tbebais 
Supra  to  Phils.  Under  the  Mohammedans,  *the 
triple  division,  Misr-el-Bahri  (Lower  Egypt); 
el-Wustani  (Middle)  ;  and  es-Said  (Upper) 
lias  prevailed,  but  the  number  of  suboivisions 
has.  varied.  At  present  there  are  altogether 
fire  governments  of  principal  towns,  and  14' 
provinces  subdivided  into  districts. 

Egypt  is  connected  with  Asia  by  the  Isthnms 
of  Suez,  across  which  runs  the  great  canal, 
about  100  miles  long.  The  infaabitea  portion  of 
Egypt  is  mainly  confined  to  the  valW  and 
delta  of  the  Nile,  the  widest  part  of  which  does 
not  exceed  120  miles,  while  in  many  parts  of 
the  valW  it  is  only  from  3  to  15  miles  wide, 
and  at  tne  southern  frontier  of  Egypt  proper, 
only  two  miles.  West  of  the  Nile  are  several 
oases.  Two  ranges  of  lofty  mountains,  the 
Arabian  Hills  on  the  east  and  the  Libyan  on 
the  west,  enclose  this  valley.  The  delta  of  the 
Nile  is  traversed  by  a  network  of  primary  and 
secondary  channels  and   is  also  intersected   by 

Seven  principal  channels  or  mouths  were 
usually  reco^ized  in  ancient  times,  the  natnes 
of  which,  gomg  from  east  lo  west,  were  the  Pe- 
lusiac  mouth,  the  Tanitic,  the  Mendesian,  die  ' 
Pathmilic,  the  Sebennytic,  the  Bolbitine  and  the 
Canopic.  Now  only  the  Bolbitine  (called  Ro- 
setta)  and  the  Pathmitic  (Damtetta),  are  in  ex- 
istence. The  Nile  has  a  current  running  sea- 
ward at  the  rate  of  ZYi  or  3  miles  an  hour  and 
the  stream  is  always  deep  enough  for  naviga- 
tion. The  water  becomes  a  reddish-brown  dar- 
ing the  aannal  overflow ;  it  is  esteemed  hi^ly 
salubrious.  Near  the  sea  are  the  lakes  Men-' 
zateh,  Birket-cl-Mariut  and  other  extensive  but 
shallow  lagoons. 

The  openings  or  lateral  valleys  of  the  hills 
confining  the  valley  of  the  Nile  are  compara- 
tively few,  or,  being  little  frequented,  are  not 
well  known.  Those  on  the  east  side  wKh  which 
we  are  best  acquainted  are  the  Wady-el  Till, 
■Valley  of  the  Wanderings*  (of  the  children 
of  Israel),  leading  from '  the  neighborhood  of 
Caina  to  the  head  of  the  GuH  of  Suei,  and  that 
throuffh  which  Msses  the  road  from  Koptos  lo 
Kosseir  on  the  Red  Sea.  A  short  distance  west 
of  the  Nile  and  above  the  Delta  is  the  fertile 
vallej-  of  Fayum,  in  the  northwest  and  lowest 
part  of  which  is  the  Birket-el-Kenin  Lake,  fed 
by  a  canal  or  brtmch  from  the  Nile.  The  level 
of  the  lake  is  now  130  feet  below  that  of  die' 


.lOOgle 


M^tenanean.  Tliis  lake,  formcrl)'  knono-  u  - 
Lake  Moeris,  covered  a  far  larger  area,  and  by 
meaos  of  sluices  and  other  wcines  was  utilized 
for  irrigation  punwses.  The  deserts  on  tUe 
weM  ba^  of  the  Nile  generally;  present  to  view 
plakis  of  gravel  or  of  Sot  drifting  sand;  on  the 
east,  'th«  scene  u  varied  by  rocks  and  mDun- 
taim. 

CKmate.— The  atmosphere  hi  Egypt  is  ex- 
tremely deal  and  dry,  the  temperature  regular 
and  hot,  though  the  ht^at  is  tempered  during  the  . 
daytime  for  seven  freight  months  of  the  year 
by  tN  strong  wind  which  blows  from  the  sorth 
and  'iwhich  enables  sailing  vessels  to  ascend  the 
river  against  the  stream.  The  winter  months 
are  the  most  deti^tful  of  the  year,  the  air  beitU 
cool  and  balmy  and  the  ground  covered  wiA 
verdure;  later,  the  ground  becomes  parched 
and  dry,  and  m  spring  the  sufiocating  kkam- 
SM%,  or  aimoom,  frequently  blows  into  the 
I^e-  valley  from  the  desert  plains  on  each  ^ide 
of  h,  raising  lofty  clouds  of  fine  sand  and 
cau^g  great  annoyance,  until  the  risii^  of  the 
river  again  comes  to  bless  the  land.  It  lains 
bat  rarely,  except  near  die  seashore.  At  Mem- 
phis the  rain  falls  perhaps  three  or  four  times 
ID  the  course  of  a  year,  and  in  Upper  Egypt  ' 
only  once  or  twice,  if  at  all;  showers  of  nail  . 
sometuaes  reach  the  borders  of  Egypt,  but  the 
formation  of  ic*  is  very  tmcommon.  Earth' 
quakes  are  occastonatly  felt  and  thunder  and 
ligJitniiMi  are  neither  frequent  nor  violent. 
Egypt  is  not  remaekably  healthy,  especially  in 
the  delta,  where  ophthalmia,  diarrhcea,  dysen- 
tery and  boils  are  somewhat  prevalent  But 
many  invalids  now  winter  in  EgTpt,  especially 
in  the  neigfiborhood  of  Cairo,  or  hif^r  iqi  the 
river,  where  the  air  is  dry  and  pure. 

The  Nile,  Irrigation  and  Agncaltnre.— The 
KToat  historic  river  Nile,  GreeK  Neilos;  Latin 
Nilns;  HebiTw  Yeor  or  Shihor;  Arabic  En- 
Neel  (blade),  is  3,400  milesin  length,  the  long- 
est in  Africa  and  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the 
worid  It  divides  at  lat.  30"  15',  jvst  below 
Cairo,  into  tvro  main  streams,  the  one  entering 
the  sea  by  the  Rosetta  mouA  on  the  west,  the 
other  by  the  Damietta  mouth  on  the  east  These 
two  streams  carry  the  bulk  of  the  Nile  water 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  enclose  a  large  por- 
tion  of  the  territory  known  as  the  delta,  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  Greek  letter  A  and  which 
owes  its  existence  to  the  deposits  of  alluvial 
matter  brought  down  by  the  stream.  The  most 
remarkable  phenomenon  connected  with  the  Nile 
is  its  annual  regular  increase,  arising  from  the 
periodical  rains  which  fall  within  the  equatorial 
regions  and  the  Abyssinian  Mountains.  As  rain 
rarely  falls  in  Egypt,  the  prosperity  of  the 
cotmby  entirely  depends  on  ttus  overflowing  of 
the  river.  On  the  subsiding  of  the  water  the 
land  is  found  to  be  covered  with  a  brown 
slimy  deposit,  which  so  enriches  the  soil  that 
with  a  sufficient  inundation,  it  produces  twt) 
crops  a  year,  while  beyond  the  liihits  of  the 
inundation  there  is  no  cultivation.  The  Nile 
begins  to  rise  about  the  middle  of  June  and 
continues  to  increase  until  about  the  end  of 
September,  overflowing  the  lowlands  alonR  its 
course,  the  water  being  conveyed  to  the  ndds 
by  artificial  courses  where  natliral  channels  fail. 
After  remaining  stationary  for  a  shi>rt  time, 
the  river  rises  again  but  subsequently  begins  to 
subside,    showing  a   markedly   k>wcr  level  in 


r,  February  and  March  and  reaeWng  i^ 


-Jaauaj?,  1  „  _^ 

lowest  in  ^ril.  May  and  early  June.  The  over- 
flow  water  IS  now  te-a  great  eitteW  managed , 
artificially  by  means  of  an  extensive  system  of 
reservoirs  and  canals,  so  that  after  the  river 
subsides  it  may  be  used  as  required,  A  oertiiv 
proportion  of  tiie  fields,  after  receiving  the  over* 
flaw  and  being  sown,  can  ripen  the  ccap  without 
further  moisture;  but  many  otihers  always  te^ 
quire  artificial  irrigation.  Steam  putrtip  are 
now  largely  used  in  northern  Egypt  "LatteT\y 
the  government  has  tried  to'  nlake  the  farmei^ 
less  and  less  directly  dependent  on  the  inunda- 
.  lion,  and  the  great  barrage  of  the  Nile  belW 
Cairo,  the  largest  weir  in  the  world,  is  one 
meafta  to  this  end,  the  great  dam  or  tarrage  at 
Assouan  being  another. 

The  native  methods  of  raising  water  for  irri- 
gadoir  are  chle^  ^>^'^  sbkUh,  or  wsUef  s^^ce^ 
and  the  thidoaf.  The  first  consists  of  a  hod" 
zontal  wheel  turned  by  one  or  two  oxen,  whtcb 
sets  in  motion  a  vertical  whed,  around  which 
are  hung  a  nunil>er  of  earthen  jars,  this  wheel 
being  sunk  into  a  reservuir  connected  with  the 
river.  The  jars  thus  scoop  up  the  water  and., 
bring  it  to  a  trough  on  a  level  with  the  top. 
Into  this  trough  each  jar  empties  iUelf  in  suc- 
cession and  the  water  is  conducted  by  an  in-  . 
dined  channel  into  the  cultivated  ground  ad- 
joining, which  may  have  been  previously  divided' 
into  compartments  of  1  or  2  yards  square  to.' 
raising  the  mold  into  walls  or  ridges  of  5  Or  0 
inches  in  height.  Into  these  campnTtmenta.thc 
cultivator  forms  an  entrance  for  the- water  by,. 
depressing  a  little  space  in  the  ridge  or  wall 
with  the  sole  of  his.  foot;  and  this  overlooking 
of  the  channels  of  irrigation  and  adjustment  ol 
the  openings  from  one  compartment  to  the 
other  with  the  foot  is  continued  till  the  culti- 
vator is  assured  by  the  growth  of  the  plants 
that  each  compartment  is  daily  and  duly  sup- 
plied with  its.  proper  quantity  of  water.  The 
second  means  of  raising  water,  namely,  the 
sk&douf,  consists  oi  a  leather  bucket  slung  at- 
one end  of  a  pole  which  has  a  weight  at  die 
other  and  sways  up  and  down  on  a  vertical  su]^ 
port,  a  contrivance  by  which  the  cultivator  is 
enabled  _to  scoop  up  the  water  considerably 
below  his  feet  and  raise  it  with  comparative 
ease  to  the  mouth  of  a  channel  on  a  level  with 
his  breast  The  latter  mode  of  raising  water  is 
of  great  antiquity  and  is  depicted  on  the  walls 
of  the  ancient  tombs  of  Egypt  and  also  in  the 
sculptures  of  Nineveh.  A  sulhrient  rise  of  the 
river  (the  rise  varies  at  different  points)  is 
essential  to  secure  the  prosperity  of  the  country ; 
and  as  the  water  subsides,  the  daaplet  of  buckets 
on  the  sakieh  is  lengthened,  or  several  sh&doufs, 
rising  one  above  the  other  on  the  river  bank, 
are  required.  Should  the  Nile  rise  aixive  the 
requisite  height  it  may  do  great  damage;  on  the 
other  hand  if  it  should  not  attain  the  ordinary 
height,  there  is  a  deficiency  of  crops;  but  with 
rare  exceptions,  the  inundations  are  regular  and 
nearly  uniform.    .See  Delta  ;  Ikbioatioh. 

Ilia  Nile  Barrage-- One  of  the  greatest 
wonders  of  modern  times,  rivaling  the  Pyra- 
mids of  the  ancients,  is  the  Nile  Barrage. 
Thanks  to  Lord  Cromer  and  Lord  Kitchener, 
the  stupendous  work  at  Assouan  and  Assiut  of 
taming  the  Nile,  is  an  aocomplished  fact,  E^W 
is  no  more  subject  to  (he  caprices  of  the  Nife. 
Tb4  precious  fertilizing  fluid  coming  down  from  , 


.yGooi^le 


\^^ 


3ai€  e 


MMl:^  if/' 


■J^ 


C    -'l^.- 


/>  >}^^ 


,%' 


Hifl 


-^-r- 

-^ 


:\ 


Oh  a  i 
OS  f 


.yGooi^le 


ae  gmng  oi  perpeiuai  irngauon  two  or 
crops  may  be  raised  jumually,  acd  the 

utivitr  of  the  soil  is  increased  by  50  per 
Millions  of  acns  on  both  sides,  of  the 


equatorial  Africa  by  way  of  Bahr-el-GtiaEBl  and 
Bahr-el-Abyad  are  halted  atid  stored  in  an  im- 
mense reservoir  200  itiiles  long,  with,  since  1912, 
a  holding  capacity  of  9,000,000  cnbic  feet. 
By  the  giving  of  perpetual  irrigation  two  or 
three  crop 
prodtutivil 

cent.     Mil.  __._    

river  have  been  reclaimed.  Other  works  have 
been  constructed  within  the  past  10  years,  show- 
ing- equally  marvelous  residts.  Egy^it's  pros- 
perity always  depended  upon  the  Nile.  The 
*acven  year  famine*  recoroed  in  Scripture  was 
the  result  of  insufficient  irrigatioii,  and  there  is 
an  earlier  instance  of  a  similar  character  re- 
corded in  hieroglyphics  on  the  rocks  of  Assouan. 
After  many  centuries  of  inertness  and  decay 
Egypt  lifts  up  her  head  and  promises  to  become 
again  the  storehouse  of  the  East. 

Oases. — The  fertile  spots  peculiar  to  the 
deserts  of  Africa  are  fOtmd  in  Egypt  along  the 
hollow  region  of  the  Libyan  Desert,  parallel  to 
the  general  direction  of  die  valley  of  the  Nile, 
and  above  80  miles  west  of  it  The  Great  Oasis 
or  Wah-el-Khargeh,  lies  immediately  west  of 
the  Thebaid,  and  has  a  lei^h  of  100  niles. 
About  50  miles  west  of  the  northern  extremity 
of  this  oasis  lies  the  Wah-el-Dalchileh  24  miles 
long  and  10  miles  broad.  West  by  south  from 
the  Fayum  the  date  groves  of  the  Little  Oasis, 
or  Wah-el-Babarieh,  display  their  unusual  ver- 
dure. In  this  fertile  Spot  artesian  wells  arc 
numerous  and  some  of  ancient  construction 
have  been  discovered  which  have  a  depth 
exceedmg  400  feet.  On  the  road  between  this 
oasis  ana  that  of  El  Dakhileh.  inclining  to  the 
west,  occurs  half  way  the  Wah-el-Farafrah  of 
small  extent.  West  of  the  Fayum  and  about 
200  miles  from  the  Nile,  lies  the  oasis  of  Siwah. 
The  inhabitants  of  this  secluded  spot,  though 


ward  the  north  in  the  desert  of  the 
Natron  lakes.    See  Oasis. 

Fauna. —  Owing  to  the  absence  of  forests  in 
Egypt  there  are  few  wild  animals,  the  principal 
species  being  the  iax,  jackal,  hyena,  the  wild 
ass,  the  ibex  in  the  Red  Sea  hills  and  several 
kinds  of  antelope.  The  chief  domestic  animals 
are  camels,  horses,  asses,  horned  cattle  and 
sheep.  The  hippopotamus  is  no  longer  found  in 
Egypt,  though  il  IS  met  with  in  the  Nile  above 
the  cataracts  and  the  crocodile  is  found  in 
Upper  Egypt.  Among  the  birds  are  three  species 
of  vultures  (one  of  which  is  very  large,  individ- 
uals sometimes  measuring  eight  feet  across  the 
wings),  eagles,  falcons,  hawks,  buziards,  Icites, 
crows,  linnets,  larks,  sparrows  and  the  beautiful 
hoopoe,  which  is  regarded  with  superstitious 
reverence.  Pigeons,  quail  and  various  kinds  of 
poultry  are  very  abundant  and  numerous  aguatic 
birds  and  pelicans.  The  ostrich  is  found  in  the 
deserts.  Among  the  reptiles  are  the  horned 
vii)er  (cerastes)  and  the  asp  (naja  haja),  both 
poisonous.  Fishes  abound  in  the  Nile  and  lakes 
and  furnish  a  favorite  article  of  food.  Water- 
fowl are  plentiful  and  were  anciently  prepared 
and  salted  like  fish.  The  sacred  ibis  is  still 
a  regular  visitor  during  the  inundation  and  the 
pelican  is  found  in  the  northern  lagoons.  Among 
the  countless  insects  are  the  sacred  beetle 
{Ateuchus   iacer)    and   the   migratoiy  locust. 

Flora. — The  few  trees  found  in  Egypt  in- 
clude the  date-palm,  tamarisk,  sycamore,  Qirist's- 


Lebbeh)  and  the  eucalyptus.  The  papyrus  plant, 
once  so  important,  is  now  to  be  found  only  in 
one  or  two  spots.  A  paper  was  mannfactured 
from  it,  which  was  mipplied  to  all  the  ancient 
world.  Boats,  baskets,  cords  and  shoes  were 
aba  made  from  it.  Wine  was  abundantly  pro- 
duced in  ancient  Egypt  and  the  sculptures  bear 
ample  testimony  to  the  extent  to  which  the  an-- 
cient  Egyptians  indulged  in  wine  and  beer  or 
other  intoxicating  beverages.  The  vine  is  still 
much  cultivaled,  but  little  or  no  wine  is  made, 
as  it  can  easily  be  imported.  The  following;  plants 
are  sown  immediately  after  the  inundation  be- 
gins to  subside  and  are  harvested  three  or  four 
months  later:  wheat,. barky,  beans,  peas,  lentils, 
vetches,  lujons,  clover,  flax,  lettuce,  hemp,  cori- 
ander, poppies,  tobacco,  watermelons  and  cucum-- 
bers.  The  following  plants  are  raised  in  summer 
chiefly  by  means  of  artificial  irrigation:  durra, 
maize,  onions,  henna,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  coSee,. 
indigo  and  madder.  Several  varieties  of  dates 
and  grapes  are  the  most  common,  but  other 
fruits  such  as  figs,  pom^ranatest  apricots, 
peaches,  oranges,  lemons,  citron^  bananas,  mul- 
berries and  olives  are  plentiful.  The  lotus  or 
water-lily  is  the  chief  species  of  flower  found 
in  Egypt.  There  is  a  high  coarse  grass  called 
kalia  and  various  kinds  of  reed  and  canes. 

Geolosy  and  Mineralogy. —  Granite,  eocene 
limestone  and  sandstone  are  the  principal  rock 
formations  fotmd  in  Egypt,  But  in  the  Nile 
Valley  from  25°  North  Latitude  to  the  Fayum, 
sandstone  predominates.  At  Syene,  the  souUiem 
extremity  of  Epypt  proper,  granite  predomi- 
nates. Its  quarries  have  supplied  the  materials 
for  the  obelisks  and  many  colossal  statues  of 
Ancient  Egypt,  A  great  extent  of  the  country  is 
covered  with  moving  suids;  the  soil  bordering 
the  Nile,  owing  to  the  encroachment  of  the 
shifting  sands  of  the  desert,  consists  of  an  argil- 
laceous earth  or  loam,  more  or  less  mixed  with 
sand.  This  sedimentary  deposit  shows  no  trace 
of  stratification.  In  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  there  are  various  other  minerals, 
which  were  employed  in  architecture,  sculpture, 
etc  These  include  syenite,  basalt,  alabaster, 
breccia  and  porphyry  Among  other  valuable 
products  of  Ancient  Egypt  were  emeralds,  gold 
from  the  mines  in  Upper  Egypt,  iron  from  the 
desert  plains  of  Nubia  and  natron  from  the 
lakes  in  the  Oasis  of  Ammon  (hence  named  Am- 
monia, Latin  sid-amm,oniac»m) .  Bitumen,  salt 
and  sulphur  are  also  among  the  minerals  of 
Egypt. 

Govcmmcnt. —  Egypt  in  modem  times  has 
been  held  as  a  suzerain  of  Turkey  under 
the  rule  of  a  Khedive.  In  1879  it  came 
under  the  joint  control  of  Great  Britain 
and  France  as  security  for  the  European 
bondholders.  During  the  i^bellion  organized 
by  Arabi  Pasha  in  lw2  France  refused  to  Inter- 
vene and  after  his  defeat  and  the  restoration 
of  the  Khedive's  authority  the  dual  control  came 
to  an  end  and  the  government  of  the  eountiy 
was  effectively  controlled  by  the  British  authori- 
ties, but  still  under  Turkish  suzeralntj'.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  British  occupation  great 
reforms  have  been  carried  through  in  every 
department  of  the  public  service;  the  finances 
have  been  placed  on  a  sound  basis;  extenrive 
public  wotks  tuv«  been  carried  tbron^;  die 


8l^ 


In  18S3  an  organic  law  wu  promulgated  by 
the  Khedive  creating  a  number  of  repiEEentative 


and  trade  schools. 

Justice. — The  administration  of  Eftyptian 
justice  is  extremely  comptiotted.  There  are 
four  classes  of  courts:  (1)  The  mehkemmehs, 
or  Mohammedan  courts,  conducted  according 
to  the  precnts  of  the  Koran  and  the  prindjtlei 
of  the  Mohammedan  religrion,  and  retaining 
jurisdiction  in  matters  of  personal  law  only. 
(2)  The  so-called  native  tribtuials,  composed  of 
90  summary  tribunals,  8  central  tribunals  and 
a  court  of  appeals  at  Cairo.  These  deal  with 
crimes  committed  hy  natives  and  civil  actions 
between  natives.  The  most  recent  addition  in 
this  category  has  been  the  creation  of  village 
or  cantonal  courts,  having  powers  analogous  to 
those  possessed  by  English  justice  of  peace 
courts.  J3)  The  consular  courts,  which  deal 
with  dvil  cases  between  forrigners  of  the 
same  nationality  and  also  try  criminal  cases  in 
which  the  accused  are  foreigners  not  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  mixed  tribunals.  (4)  The 
mixed  tribunals,  dating  from  1876,  which  have 
jurisdiction  in  all  matters  civil  and  commercial 
Detween  natives  and  foreigners  or  between  for- 
eigners cif  different  nationalities.  These  courts 
are  admittedly  successful,  A  code  of  laws  has 
been  published  for  the  greater  systemization  of 
native  jurisprudence. 

Education.— The  chief  se^l  of  Koranic  edu- 
cation is  the  famous  University  of  El  Aihar, 
founded  by  Saladin  about  1170  and  still  em- 
ploying the  same  methods  of  instruction  that 
were  originally  in  use.  The  faculty  numbered 
in  1918  about  300  moulahs  or  pnests,  many 
having  wide  reputation  for  scholarship ;  the 
students,  some  10,000,  are  from  India,  Turkey, 
Syria,  Afghanistan  and  other  Mohammedan 
countries.  There  is  no  regular  university  or- 
ganization nor  arrangement  for  the  endowment 
of  departments  or  founding  of  chairs.  Anyone 
who  can  collect  a  class  is  allowed  to  lecture. 
Frequently  the  professors  practise  law,  hold 
clerkships  or  are  connected  with  mosques  ■- 
Cairo.      There    is    no    charge    for    '     '       "' 


phy  and  astronomy  are  also  taught.  There  are 
also  in  Cairo  eight  colleges  and  professional 
schools  of  excellent  grade.  The  Egyptian  Min- 
istry of  Public  Instruction  has  under  its  direc- 
tion schools  for  engineering,  medicine,  law  and 
agriculture,  technical  schools  and  normal  train- 
ing schools  for  teachers.  A  military  school  is 
under  the  management  of  the  war  office.  The 
number  of  indigenous  schools  under  control  of 
the  provincial  councils  on  31  Dec.  191S  was 
3,666,  with  a  total  enrolment  of  250,575  (225,073 
h<)ya).  Higher  educational  institutions  under 
the  board  of  education  have  an  enrolment  of 
26,662  <20,S07  bcp-s.  6,115  girls).  Of  naUve 
Egyptians,  aecordjns  to  the  census  of  1907,  85 


per  1,000  males  were  i^Ie  to  read  and  vrrite  and 
three  per  1,000  females. 

.  Technical  Trainiiig,— In  1907  the  authori- 
ties introduced  a  new  system  of  techiucal  edu- 
cation  in  Egypt  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
Sidney  Wells,  which  has  made  remarkable 
progress  despite  peculiar  difliculties  in  a  cotm- 
tiy  t^ere  a  technical  or  an  industrial  career 
carried  with  it  a  social  stigma.  It  was  divided 
into  three  branches  —  industrial,  agricultural, 
commercial.  In  the  first  two  branches,  obvi- 
ously the  most  important  three  sections  iiave 
been  organized,  corresponding  with  the  social 
grades  of  the  pet^e  and  me  needs  oi  the 
various  classes  of  either  branches.  In  the  gen- 
eral educational  scheme  are  the  Kittabs  or  vil- 
lage schools,  tlie  primary  and  the  secondary 
spools.  The  new  plan  provides  for  manual 
workmen,  foremen  and  managers  and  skilled 
professional  workers.  Under  industrial  educa- 
tion are  comprised  trade  schools,  a  technical 
sdioot  and  a  school  of  engineering;  under  agri- 
cultural are  included  farm  schools,  intermediate 
schools  and  a  school  for  agriculture.  The  trade 
schools  —  some  called  model  workshops—pro- 
vide a  system  of  apprenticeship  in  trades  that 
are  in  demand  and  of  local  interest;  the  ap- 
prentices, all  of  the  poorer  classes  and  from  the 
age  of  12  and  with  but  a  very  rudimentary 
knowledge,  are  taught  a  four  years'  course  in 
caipentry,  furniture-making,  plumbing,  shoe- 
making,  tailoring,  saddlery,  etc.  They  accept 
outside  work,  and  in  1914  17  such  workshops 
executed  orders  valued  at  $150,000.  The  11 
farm  schools  afford  practical  training  in  ele- 
mentary agricultural  matters  to  the  poorer 
class. 

Demanding  primary  certificates  the  Boulac 
technical  and  the  intermediate  agricultural 
schools  deal  with  the  middle  classes.  The  first 
has  three  sections  in  a  four-j-ear  course  —  me- 
chanical and  electrical  engineering,  building 
trades  and  scavenging,  artistic  crafts.  The 
second,  in  a  three-year  course,  creates  in  the 
first  case  draftsmen,  architects,  assistant  engi- 
neers, builders,  clerks  and  lecturers  on  techni- 
cal topics;  and  also  to  improve  the  knowledge 
of  landed  proprietors  and  to  train  pupils  to  fill 
managers'  positions.  The  highest  schools  — 
iose  of  enpneering  and  apiculture  ^  form, 
with  the  schools  oi  medicine  and  law,  the 
nucleus  for  the  future  university.  The  course 
is  four  years  and  conditioned  on  the  secondaiy 
certificate.  Irrigation,  engineering  and  archi- 
tecture, with  very  advanced  agricultural  educa- 
tion, are  taught.  Graduates  are  fitted  to  fill 
vacancies  in  the  ministries  of  public  worts  and 
agriculture,  to  become  expert  lecturers  and  oc- 
cupy higher  technical  posts  outside  government 
service.  Besides  mere  instruction  the  depart- 
ment encourages  local  industries  and  introduces 
moderti  methods  in  carpel  making  or  weaving 
and  will  provide  new  industries  after  the  pres- 
ent war.  A  specialty  has  been  made  in  Upper 
Egypt  of  the  manufacture  out  of  natural  col- 
ored wools  of  carpets  of  much  beauty  and 
unique  design. 

Commercial  education,  the  third  branch  of 
technical  training,  is  more  recent.  Evening 
dasses  for  shorthand  and  then  in  typewriting 


I,  Alexandria  and  Mapsura.    Later  two 


ichools  of  conunerce  were  opened,  to  include 
special! ung  in  accountancy,  secretarial  work 
and  genera]  commerce.  The  authorities,  too, 
co-operate  with  the  training  of  girls  at  the 
Cairo  Trade  School  where  dressmakinE,  em- 
broidery and  stocldng-maldng  are  taught,  the 
articles  being  s«ld  at  an  adjacent  shop.  Fur- 
ther five  economic  schools  are  operated.  In 
the  51  schools  imparting  various  fdnds  of  in- 
struction are  over  5,500  pupils ;  nine  years  bko 
there  were  1,029  pupils  m  eight  such  schools. 
Efforts  will  be  made  not  to  neglect  the  maay 
native  industries  in  the  encouragement  of  cer- 
tain European  trades.  Consult  London  Tinut 
Educatiotial  Supplemt»t,  7  Sept.  191S. 

ReligioB<— -At  the  present  day  about  91.84 
/  per  cent  of  the  people  in  Egypt  profess  the 
'^  Sunnite  (Mohammedan)  fai*.  and  7.81  per 
cent  Christian.  The  Armenians  also  have  a 
church  and  a  bisfaoj)  at  Alexandria  and  Cairo. 
There  is  an  American  mission  in  both  cities, 
but  the  natives  are  conservative  and  not  inclined 
.  toward  religious  beliefs  other  than  their  own. 

Commerce  and  Industry. —  To-day  the  one 
branch  of  industry  for  which  E^pt  is  pecu- 
liarly adapted  by  nature  is  agnailture  and 
lai^e  quantities  of  cereals,  cotton  and  other 
agricultural  produce  are  rxised;  yet,  generally 
speaking,  agriculture  is  still  in  a  very  low  state, 
the  necessary  consequence  of  the  wretched  con- 
dition and  extreme  poverty  of  those  engaged  in 
it  The  Egyptians  still  adhere  to  their  ancient 
custom  of  uniting  the  followers  of  each  busi- 
ness or  profession  into  a  guild,  governed  by 
their  sheikh,  who  acts,  if  need  be,  as  their  rep- 
resentative. These  guilds  are  exceedingly  nu- 
merous, as  mi^t  be  expected  among  a  people 
whose  social  oiganiiation  dues  from  a  remote 
antiquity. 

Among  the  crops  which  the  Egyptians  grow 
with  success,  cotton  is  the  most  popular  and 
pr^table.  <5ce  Cotton).  The  cotton  plant  of 
^lypt  differs  materially,  in  »Mie  respect  at  least, 
from  that  of  other  countries.  In  America  it 
has  been  found  unprolitable  to  allow  the  plants 
to  continue  in  the  ground  longer  than  one  year. 
In  Egypt,  however,  the  case  is  different,  for  the 
cotton  plant  yields  five,  and  sometimes  six,  con- 
secutive crops  before  replanting  is  found  to  be 
necessary.  This  being  the  case,  a  cotton  field 
once  planted  is  a  secure  investment  for  at  least 
five  years,  and  as  peasants  of  the  Nile  do  not 
love  labor,  more  cotton  is  grown  in  Egypt  in 
proportion  to  the  population  engaged  in  agricul- 
ture than  in  aiw  other  part  of  me  world.  In 
both  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  cotton  is  there- 
fore the  standard  crop,  and  as  it  is  not  troubled 
with  worms  as  in  America,  and  by  the  method 
of  irrigation  the  farmer  can  give  it  exactly  the 
right  portion  of  moisture  and  no  more,  the  crop 
is  tolerably  reliable.  Boats  transport  the  prod- 
uct to  Cairo  or  to  Alexandria,  the  leading 
cotton  markets.  The  exchange  in  the  former 
city  is  located  on  one  of  the  principal  streets, 
while  the  market  prt^Kr  is  in  a  public  square 
opposite  the  ^eat  mosque  of  Hassan.  The  time 
of  the  river  journey  to  Alexandria  is  from  six 
do's  to  six  months,  but,  as  the  Mohammedans 
say,  *God  is  great,  and  there  is  no  hurry.* 

The  business  of  tanning  is  also  one  of  the  in- 
dustries in  which  the  Egyptians  perfectly  suc- 
ceed, by  a  process  peculiar  to  themselves.  They 
make  excellent  morocco  leather,  which  is  goat- 
skm  dressed  and  dyed  in  a  particular  manner. 


The  pottery  of  Egypt  also  deserves  a  word  of 
praise,  chiefly  for  the  merit  of  the  bardaks  or 
water-jars.  Coarse  cotton  cloths,  and  cloths  of 
mixed  cotton  and  wool,  are  largely  made  in  the 
country;  silk  is  cultivated  to  some  extent;  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  received  a  great 
impulse  from  the  viceroy,  Ismail,  who,  at  a 
great  expense,  erected  a  number  of  mills.  Goods 
carried  by  the  Suei  Canal  do  not  form  part  of 
the  commerce  of  the  conntry,  and  the  transit 
trade  proper  is  of  little  importance.  In  1915, 
4,590  steamers  of  registered  tonnage  of  12,353,- 
573  cleared  at  Egyptian  ports  and  1,465  sailing 
vessels  (foreign  and  coastaJ'l  of  S5,726  toni. 
The  produce  of  cotton  haa  increased  from 
.^OOLOOO  kanUrs  (1  kan tar  — 99.05  lbs.)  in 
1909-10  to  6,878,000  kantars  in  1914-15.  In 
1915  the  area  sown  and  yield  of  wheat  were 
1,592,065  acres  and  1,060,000  tons;  hariey  462,- 
.577  acres  and  300,000  tons;  maize  and  millet. 
2,194,031  acres;  rice,  330.923  acres.  In  the  same 
year  the  su^r  exports  amounted  to  26,257  tons, 
valued  at  fi,868.075,  and  of  the  cotton  exports 
to  6,899,122  kantars  valued  at  $95,728,220.  The 
imports  for  1915  were  valued  at  196,644.965 
(of  which  Great  Britain  sent  $43,692,99^  and 
exports  at  $135,234,360  (of  which  Great  Britain 
took  $69,678,125), 

Fioancea. —  The  unfortunate  financial  situa- 
tion under  the  former  khedives,  becoming 
bankrupii  in  the  time  of  Ismail  Pasha,  was  in 
reality  a  blessing  in  disgwse  for  the  laboring 
classes,  since  it  led  to  the  reform  of  conditions 
which  had  become  well-nigh  intolerable.  The 
taxes  were  exacted  with  brutal  rigor,  even 
torture  being  resorted  to  in  their  collection  and 
they  were  moreover  excessive.  The  principal 
taxes  were  the  Kharagh  or  territorial  tax, 
Werka  or  income  tax  and  Html  or  tax  on  com- 
merce. From  the  start  the  property  of  the 
khedive  and  his  higher  officials  were  exempted. 
The  English  regime  has  lowered  the  imposts 
by  over  {2,000,000  ($10,000,000)  annually  and 
has  abolished  altogether  the  bated  tax  on  salt, 
also  the  bridge  and  port  tolls  on  the  Nile  ana 
those  collected  from  trading  barks  and  lishing 
vessels.  The  registration  tax  on  land  sales  has 
been  reduced  from  5  to  2  per  cent,  also  those 
on  water  transport,  and  the  customs  duties  on 
coal,  combustible  liquids,  building  wood,  petro- 
leum, meat  and  foodstuffs.  The  mland  fisheries 
have  been  relieved  of  the  vexatious  restrictions 
under  which  they  formerly  labored.  The  postal, 
telegraph  and  railway  rates  have  also  under- 
gone a  material  reduction.  Thus  it  may  be  said 
that  at  present  the  Egyptians,  espctnally  those 
dwelling  in  the  citijes  and  towns,  are  unburdened 
by  imposts  of  any  kind.  Up  to  1888  the  finances 
of  the  country  were  piling  up  a  yearly  deficit. 
This  conditiwi  has  been  remedied  until  there 
is  now  an  annual  surplus  and  each  year  there  ap- 
pears less  and  less  necessity  of  imposing  special 
taxes  for  the  various  public  works  whidi  the 
country  needs  imperatively  and  the  government's 
reserve  fund  haa  increased  and  also  the  sum  set 
aside  for  the  amortization  of  the  foreign  debt 
There  has  been  established  a  Farmers'  Bank 
which  has  advanced  over  £9,000,000  ($45,000,- 
000)  to  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  through  the 
medium  of  co-operative  societies  under  die 
patronage  of  the  government  Until  188S  resi- 
dent Europeans  were  exempt  from  taxes,  oc- 
cupfring  a  privileged  situation,  thanks  to  the 
capitulation  privileges  granted  at  the  time  the 


Turks  were  defeated.  In  the  year  mentioned." 
bowerer,  the  several  powers  interested  declared 
resident  Europeans  subject  to  several  taxes, 
sndi  as  the  house  tax,  stamps  and  licenses,  etc., 
but  these  provisions  were  not  enforced  until 
1891.  The  1913  budget  estimated  the  revenues 
from  all  sources  at  $8,065,000  and  the  disburse- 
ments at  $78,150,000.  The  chief  sources  of 
revenue  are  land  taxes,  about  $27,500,000  annu> 
ally,  railways  ($19,00a000),  customs  (fll,000,- 
000)  and  tobacco  ($19,000,000).  The  chief 
items  of  disbursement  are :  administration  costs 
(abont  $25,000,000  yearly),  the  debt  service 
($17,500,000  yearly)  and  the  railvrays  ($10,000.- 
000  yearly).  The  foreign  debt  of  Egypt  dates 
from  1862  when  loans  were  made  to  wipe  out 
the  floating  debt.  Other  loans  followed  and 
finances  were  subject  to  the  joint  direction  of 
France  and  England  until  1879.  In  1876  the 
several  issues  were  consolidated  into  one  debt 
of  $455,000,000.  The  administration  of  the 
finances  is  almost  entirely  in  British  hands.  In 
1912  the  foreign  debt  consisted  of  the  3  per 
cent  guaranteed  loan  of  $36,592,500,  the  3^4 
per  cent  privileged  debt  of  $155,638,900.  the 
unified  4  per  cent  debt  of  $279,659800  and  the 
4yi  per  cent  dominion  loan  of  $1,017,100,  a 
total  foreign  debt  of  8473,108,300.  with  yearly 
interest  of  $17,803,475.  Reserve  fund  estab- 
lished in  1880-90  amounted  in  1911  to  $29.~ 
238,060.  At  the  beginning  of  1913  the  for- 
eign debt  was  reduced  to  $471,748,400.  The 
revenue  for  191S-16  was  $73,780,000  and  the 
expenditure  $79,500,000.  In  January  1915  the 
public  debt  stood  at  $470,144,200,  the  charges  for 
interest  and  sinking  fund  amounting  to  $17.- 
756.330. 

Honey,  Wirights  and  Heasnres^- Bjr  de- 
cree of  14  Nov.  1883  the  monetary  unit  of 
Egypt  is  the  Egyptian  pound,  divided  into  100 
piastres,  weighing  8.5  grammes,  .875  fine  and 
containing  therefore  7.4375  grammes  of  pure 
gold.  Therefore  £  E"£l  — Os  — 6^^  =$S.0O. 
The  piastre  (kush  or  kunish')  equals  5  cents, 
and  19  divided  into  10  parts  called  ochrel 
guercke. 

The  principal  pieces  in  circulation  are  the 

rund;  20,  10,  5,  2  and  1  piastre  pieces  (silver)  ; 
,  Vi.  1/5  and  1/10  of  a  piastre  (nickel),  and  ^ 
and  1/40  piastre  for  copper  pieces. 

The  unit  of  capacity  is  the  ardeb,  equal  to 
43.759  English  ^llons  or  5.44739  bushels.  Its 
approximate  weight  is  315  rolls  for  wheat  and 
maize,  320  rotls  for  beans,  250  rolls  for  barley 
and  260  rotls  for  cotton  seed.  Weights  are  the 
o*tA  =  1.3205  English  ounces,  the  roll"' 
0.99069  En^ish  pounds,  the  Ojfef2.7S13  pounds 
and  the  Kantor  ==  100  rotls  or  36  okes  or  99.0492 
pounds.  Linear  measures  are  the  diraa  baladi 
=  22-8350  inches;  the  diraa-mimari  — 29.5281 
inches,  and  the  feojjoiw  ~  139,7663  inches.  For 
square  measure:  the /?ddan"=  7.468  square  pics; 
pic —  0.562  square  metres -"  0.936  inches. 

Railways,  Telegraphs  and  the  Post-Office. 
—  On  1  Jan.  1915  there  were  2,065  miles  of  railJ 
way  under  state  control  (eiclu'ive  of  the 
Sudan  Military  Railway)  and  816  miles  of  light 
railways  privately  owned.  In  1914,  3,594,049 
tons  of  freight  were  carried,  and  24.215,000 
rassengers,  with  net  receipts  of  $1,061,912. 
Telephones  and  telegraphs  belonging  to  the 
Egyptian  government  on  1  Jan,  1915  had  a  total 
length  of  9,250  kilometers,  the  length  of  the 
wires   being  21,882  kilometers.     The   Eastern 


Telegrafh  Ompoiiy  has  (by  cAflcesslons)  fine* 
across  Egypt  from  Port  Said  to  Suez  and  from 
Alexandria  (via  Cairo)  to  Suei.  There  were 
in  1914  1.937  post-ofiices  and  stations  in  Egypt 
Army  and  Navy.— On  19  Sept.  1882.  the 
organication  of  the  Egyptian  army  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  a  British  otScer,  with  the  title 
of  Sirdar,  Military  service  is  compulsory,  but 
since  a  very  small  army  is  maintamed  only  a 
very  small  portion  of  the  men  of  militaiy  age 
are  in  the  ranks.  The  term  of  service  is  three 
3rears,  The  forces  consist  of  administration 
ojfictals,  music'corps,  four  squadrons  of  cavalry, 
nine  Egyptian  and  seven  Sudanese  battalions  of 
infantry,  a  camel  corps,  artillery  and  sanitation 
corps,  engineers  and  railway  corps,  and  a 
veterinary  corps.  There  is  a  total  of  138  Eng- 
lish officers,  709  Egyptian  officers  and  18,381  Eng- 
lish soldiers.  The  army  of  occupation,  or  the 
English  garrison,  consists  of  a  cavalry  regiment, 
a  batten-  of  artillery,  a  mountain  battery,  a  com- 
pany ot  engineers  and  four  battalions.  It  b 
stationed  in  the  Delta.  Moreover,  in  the  Sudan,  . 
tbere  is  a  battalion  of  infantry  and  a  detach- 
ment of  artillery.  The  total  English  force 
numbers  6,067  men  of  all  arms.  The  Egyptian 
government  makes  an  annual  budget  provision 
of  $750,000  for  the  maintenance  of  the  English 
force.  The  navy  consists  of  a  steamer  for 
coast  and  lighthouse  service,  five  revenue  cut- 
ters, two  of  which  are  steam  vessels,  five  skiffs. 
11  schooners  and  one  school  ship.  On  the 
Upper  Nile  are  three  steamers  and  ei|^t  gun- 
bosls.  No  details  are  available  since  the  out- 
break of  the  European  War,  when  the  defense 
of  the  country  was  undertaken  largely  by  troops 
from  the  overseas  Dominions,  aided  by  British 
war^ps  in  the  Suei  Canal.    See  section  /fir- 


is  tmknown.  Ethnologists  have  endeavored  to 
establish  a  relationship  with  the  peoples  of  the 
south,  any  differeiices  being  accounted  for  by 
variations  of  eninronment.  Philologists  have 
looked  to  the  East  for  their  next  of  kin  as  re- 
gards descent  as  well  as  speech.  It  has  be<^ 
thought  by  some  that  an  Eastern  origin  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  that  the  Egyptian  oriented 
himself  by  looking  to  the  south,  but  this  is 
lather  due  to  the  direction  of  the  Nile.  Be- 
tween the  results  thus  reached  there  is  an 
evident  conflict,  with  no  obvious  means  of 
harmoninng  them.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  facts  can  best  be  reconciled  upon  the 
theory,  not  of  a  migration  of  a  whole  people, 
but  of  an  incursion  of  a  smaller  band  who  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  iheir  rule  over  the 
original  people  and  in  gradually  forcing  their 
own  language,  as  that  of  a  ruling  class,  upon 
those  whom  they  had  subjugated,  while  still  the 
ancient  ethnological  type  persisted.  This 
theory  is  merely  a  working  hypothesis,  and  it 
has  reference  to  a  time  long  anterior  to  any 
historical  monuments  or  traditions,  for  long 
before  the  earliest  extant  inscription  Egypt  was 
a  united  country  under  the  rale  of  native  kings, 
and  possessed  of  a  well  and  independently  de- 
veloped government  and  of  well-defined  classes 
of  society.  Judging  from  the  language  and  the 
□hysical  condition  of  the  mummies  of  ancient 
Epypt,  the  population  appears  to  have  been  of 
mixed  origin,  pari  Asiatic  and  part  Nigritic; 
and  there  seems  also  to  have  been  an  aboriginal 
race  of   copper  color,   with  rather  thin    leg*. 


laTKC  feci,  high  cheek-bones  and  large  lips; 
botu  types  are  represented  on  the  monuments. 

A  national  name  ior  tfae  people  as  such 
never  seems  to  have  existed.  Among  them- 
selves they  were  Romet,  men,  far  excellence;  all 
others  wer^  interior  races,  "miserable"  Cushitcs, 
Libyans,  Asiatics,  Shasu.  They  themselves 
were  the  wards  of  the  great  gods,  and  Pharaoh 
was  descended  from  Ra,  who  had  himself  once 
mled  in  Egypt.  Other  peoples  were  descended 
from  the  enemies  of  their  deities,  and  when  Ra 
had  overdirown  them  at  Edfu  a  portion  escaped, 
those  southward  became  Ethiopians,  northward 
Asiatics,  westward  Libyans,  eastward  Bedouin. 

Personal  experience  has  warped  the  judg- 
ment of  observers  as  to  their  character. 
Herodotus  praises  the  cleverness  of  the  Egyp- 
tians and  their  excellence  of  memory;  Diodorus 
declares  them  to  be  the  most  grateful  of  people; 
the  Emperor  Hadrian  characterized  them  as 
'thoroughly  frivolous,  unstable,  following  every 
rumor,  refractory,  idle  and  libelous*  The 
modem  notion  is  that  they  were  so  occupied 
with  the  dioughts  of  the  future  as  to  be  ob- 
livious of  the  present.  There  is  undoubtedly  a 
degree  of  truth  in  all  of  these  estimates,  but 
a  broader  survey  shows  tliat  they  were  enernctic 
in  their  undertakings,  as  is  evidenced  by  their 
temples  and  the  Pyramids,  still  the  wonder  of 
the  world ;  possessed  of  sufficient  skill  to  per- 
form by  force  of  numbers  labors  vrhicfa  would 
test  modern  mechanics  severely,  practical  in 
their  methods  of  utiliring  the  forces  of  nature: 
peaceable  as  compared  with  other  nations,  and 
little  given  to  love  of  novelty  j  artistic  in  their 
execution  and  accurate  in  their  observation;  it 
people  given  to  realism,  unversed  in  literary 
arts,  devoted  to  agricultural  pursuits,  developed 
within  narrow  limits,  and  little  affected  by 
external  and  foreign  ioflnences. 

The  peasant  class,  or  Fdlahin,  is  the  most 
numerous  class  in  the  population  of  tlie  present 
day  and  is  indigenous.  They  are  to  a  certain 
extent  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
but  they  have  been  subjected  to  crossings  and 
have  embraced  Mohammedanism.  Next  in 
number  are  the  Copts,  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians  who  embraced  and  still  cling 
to  the  Christian  religion.  ( See  Cons ) . 
Though  comparatively  few  in  number  (about 
600,000),  their  education  and  useful  talents  en- 
able them  to  hold  a  respectable  position  in 
societv  filling  the  posts  of  clerks,  accountants, 
etc.  With  these  aboriginal  inhabitants  are 
mingled  in  various  proportions  Turks,  Arabs 
(partly  Bedouins),  Armenians,  Bethers,  negroes, 
and  a  considerable  number  of  Jews,  Greeks  and 
other  Europeans.  The  Turks  hold  many  of 
the  principal  offices  under  the  government.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  people  are  Mohammedans, 
the  Christians  being  only  about  7.5  per  cent 
The  Egyptians  in  the  mass  are  quite  illiterate, 
but  under  the  supervision  of  the  Ministry  of 
Public  Instruction  progress  is  beinp  made. 

The  language  in   general  use  is  Aratnc 

The  Fellahin,  the  most  superior  type  of  the 
Egyptian,  are  a  fine  race,  handsome,  of  excellent 
physique,  and  courteous  in  their  manners.  In 
northern  Egypt  they  are  of  a  yellowi*  com- 
plexion, growing  darker  toward  the  sooth,  until 
the  hue  biecomes  a  deep  bronte.    Mr.  Lane,  the 


for  uncommon  <]uicknesB  of  appreheneioa  and 
readiness  of  wit  They  are  fnshly  religious, 
and  are  generally  lionest,  cheerful,  humane  and 
iiospitable.  But  these  are  exceptions  in  a  mixed 
population  of  Bedouins,  Bcgroes,  Atyssiniaiii,  ■ 
Turks,  Syrians,  Creeks,  Armenians,  Jews  and' 
Europeans. 

PopulKtioiL^ — The  population,  according  to' 
the  census  of  1907,  was  11,189,978,  and  is  esti-. 
mated  at  present  to  be  about  12,500,000,  Of 
this  total  5,667,074  were  males,  and  5(620,285 
females.  The  population  was  divided  hy 
nationality  as  follows:  Egyptians,  10,903,677; 
Ottomans,  69,725;  Sudanese,  65,162;  Greeks, 
62,973;  Italians,  34,926;  English,  20,653 ;  Frotich. 
14,591;  Austro-Hungarians,  7,704;  Russians,  2,- 
410;  Germans,  1,847;  Persians,  1,385;  all  others,' 
4,925.  In  1800  the  French  estimated  the  popu- 
lation at  2,460,200.  In  1821  the  census  returns 
showed  2,536,400;  that'  of  1646  4,476,440;  of 
1882  6,831.131;  1897,  9.734,405;  1907,  11,189,97& 
According  to  its  religious  beliefs  the  population  ■ 
is  divided  as  follows;  Mussulmans,  i0^2£9,445; 
Copts,  706,322- Orthodox  Greeks,  76^953;  Roman 
Ca*oliCB,  57,744;  Protestants,  12,736;  Jews, 
^635;  others,  28,143.  Of  the  Egyptian  popula- 
tion over  10  years  62t6  per  cent  was  engaged 
in  agriculture  and  of  tbe  foreign  element  lest 
than  1  per  cent;  1627  per  cent  of  the  natives 
engage  m  commerce  ana  indostry,  in  which  are 
employed  47.^  per  cent  of  Ac  foreigners. 
<  History.— The  history  of  Egypt  and  it«r 
civilisation  covers  a  period  that  the  most  recent 
studies  estimate  as  extending  over  10,000  years. 
From  this,  according  to  Petrie,  should  be  de- 
ducted the  3,500  years  that  witnessed  the  first 
stumbling  prehistoric  effort  at  exoression,  and 
in  addition  the  centuries  of  GrsM^o-Roman 
dcmiination,  and  die  period  from  ^he  beginning 
of  Christianity  down  to  our  days.  This  leaves 
a  period  of  over  50  centuries  during  which  the 
religions,  artistic,  social  and  political  ideas  of 
the  people  underwent  little  change,  and  did  not 
absorb  any  elements  of  the  civilization  of  Asia 
and  the  resf  of  the  Mediterranean  littoral. 
Egyptian  chronology,  to  which  reference 
is  constantly  made  in  treating  of  the  monu- 
ments executed  during  the  30  dynasties  deemed 
historical,  arrives  only  at  exact  historical  certi- 
tude from  the  period  of  the  conquest  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  (about  340  B.C.).  The  divi- 
sions established  b^  historians  and  archaeolo- 
gists are  based  cluefly  on  the  fra^ents  of 
Egyptian  history  written  in  Greek  in  the  3d 
century  b.c  by  Manetho,  priest  of  HeSopolis. 
It  contained  the  Usts  of  the  Idngs,  from  the 
1st  dynasty  down  to  Alexander.  But  unfor- 
tunately only  about  one-third  of  the  original 
has  come  down  to  us.  (llie  fragments  and 
lists  of  kings  were  published  in  Mfiller's  'Frag- 
menta  historicorum  grsecorum,'  Paris  1648). 
The  exactitude  of  the  periods  at  which'  began 
the  several  dynasties  varies  greatly.  The  ■ 
!^yplians  divided  the  solar  day  into  24  hours, 
the  latter  the^  subdivided  into  minutes,  seconds 
and  thirds  of  seconds;  10  days  formed  a  week, 
and  3  weeks  one  month,  12  months  (360  <fays) 
and'  5  complementary  days  formed  the  Egyp- 
tian year.  In  remote  times  the  year  consisted 
of  360  days,  but  the  premature  arrival  of  die 
seasons  being  noted;  m  the  reign  of  Pepi  II' 
(6th  dynasty),  the  five  complemenlary  days 
were  added.    The  year,  was  divided  into  three 


8l^ 


seasons:  the  first  (Shot),  CommBnced  19  July, 
terminated  about  15  November  and  corresponded 
to  the  period  of  the  inundation  of  the  Nile;  ^te 
second  (Ftrt)  from  15  November  to  15  Uardi, 
and  the  third  ISkmu)  from  IS  March  to  19 
July.  There  is  as  we  have  noted  above  consid- 
erable  difference  among  Egyptologists  in  re- 
gard to  fixing  the  dates  of  the  various  dyus- 
ties.    Myer  and  Setbe  have  assigned  the  begin- 


Breasted,  Ennan  and  SteindorS  also  favor  thii 
date.  A  noteworthy  drcumstance  in  this  coii< 
nectioQ  is  the  complete  lack  of  any  reference  to 
eclipses  in  the  Egyptian  texts  so  far  intetpreted. 
The  history  proper  divides  itself  into  six  fp^eat 
periods:    (1)    The  Pharaohs  or  native  kings; 


The  Pharaohs. —  The  main  sources  of  ils  his- 
tory under  the  Pharaohs  are  the  Scriptures,  the 
Greek  writers  Herodotus,  Diodonis  and  Erato^ 
thenes,  and  fragments  of  the  writings  of  Mane- 
tbo  (an  Eiyplian  priest  in  the  3d  century  B.C.), 
From  the  Scriptures  we  learn  thai  the  Hebrew 
patriarch  AbrjJiam  went  into  Egypt  because  of 
a  famine  that  prevailed  in  Canaan.  He  found 
the  country  ruled  by  a  Pharaoh,  Egj^tian  per 
Sa,  meaning  'Great  house,*  the  Eg^tian  term 
for  king.  The  date  of  Abraham's  visit,  accord- 
ing to  the  chronology  of  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Bible,  was  1920  b.c.  ;  according  to  the  Scp- 
tuaginl,  2551 1  while  Bunsen  fixed  it  at  2876. 
Nearly  two  centuries  later  Joseph,  a  .descendant 
of  Abraham,  was  sold  into  Elgj^it,  as  a  slave  to 
Potiphar,  the  captain  of  the  guards  of  another 
Pharaoh,  whose  prime  minister  or  grand  vizier 
the  young  Hebrew  eventually  became.  Joseph's 
father,  Jacob,  and  his  family,  to  the  number  of 
70,  accompanied,  as  Bunsen  conjectures,  by 
1.000  or  2,000  dependents,  followed  their  for- 
tunate kinsman  into  Egypt,  where  they  settled 
in  a  district  called  the  land  of  Goshen.  There 
they  remained  until  their  numbers  had  multi- 
plied into  two  or  three  millions,'  when  under 
the  lead  of  Moses  they  revolted  and  quilted 
Egypt  to  conquer  Canaan. 

Ptolemaic  Period.—  When  Alexander's  anny 
occupied  Memphis  the  numerous  Greeks  who 
had  settled  in  Lower  Egypt  found  themselves 
the  ruling  class.  Egypt  became  at  once  a  Greek 
kingdom,  and  Alexander  showed  his  wisdom  in 
the  regulations  by  which  he  guarded  the  preju- 
dices and  religion  of  the  Egyptians.  He  founded 
Alexandria  as  the  Greek  capital,  which  became 
the  emporium  of  commerce  and  centre  of  learn- 
ing for  several  centuries.  Ptolemy  I  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Ptolemy  II,  Fhiladelphus.  He  was 
successful  in  bis  exteirnal  wars,  built  the  Mu- 
seum, founded  the  famous  library  of  Alexan- 
dria, purchased  the  most  valuable  manuscripts, 
engaged  the  most  celebrated  professors,  and  had 
oraered  70  Hebrew  sages  to  translate  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  into  the  Greek  language,  hence 
known  as  the  Septuagint,  and  the  Epyptian  his- 
tory to  be  written  by  Manetho.  His  successor 
Ptolemy  HI,  Eueigetcs,  pushed  the  southern 
limits  of  his  empire  to  Axtim,  Ptolemy  IV, 
Philopator  (221-204  b,c.>  warred  with  Antio- 
chus.  persecuted  the  Jews  and  encouraged 
learning.  Ptolemy  V,  Epiphanes  (204-180  bx.) 
experienced  rep(at«d  rebellions,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Ptolemy  VII,  Philometor  (ISO-MS 


Bfi.)  and  Euergetes  (145-116  b.c)  by  Ptolemy 
X,  Sotcr  U  and  Qeopatra,  till  106  b.c.  and  by 
Ptokmy  XI,  Alexander  I  (87  B.C)  under  whom 
Thebes  rebelled;  then  by  Cleopatra,  Berenice, 
Ptolemy  XII,  Alexander  II  (80  B.C.).  and 
Ptolemy  XIII,  Neos  Dionysius  (SI  B.C.),  and 
finally  by  the  celebrated  Cleopatra.  After  the 
battle  01  Actium  (31  b.c.)  ^gypt  passed  into 
the  condition  of  a  province  of  Rome,  governed 
always  by  a  Roman  governor  of  the  eques- 
trian,, not  senatorial,  rank. 

The  Egyptians  had  continued  building  tpm- 
ples  and  covering  them  with  hieroglyphic  in- 
scriptions as  of  old;  but  on  the  spread  of  Cihris- 
tiani^  the  older  religions  lost  their  sway.  Then 
the  Christian  catechetical  school  arose  in  Alex- 
andria, which  produced  Clemens  and  Origen, 
Monasteries  were  bujlt  all  over  Egypt;  (iris- 
tian  monks  took  the  place  of  the  pagan  hermits, 
and  the  Bible  was  translated  into  Coptic.  See 
Egyptian  Abchaiolocv  and  Explosaiion; 
EoYPTiAM  AaCHiTEtTURB;  EcvPTiAN  Abis;  . 
Egyptian  Language  and  Writing;  Egyptian 
Literature;  Egvptian  Music -Egyptian  Reli- 
gion AND  Sociology;  Moses;  Pharaoh;  Ptol- 
EUY ;  Cleopatba. 

.  Christian  Era.— Oa  the  division  of  the  great 
Roman  empire  by  Theodosius  (337  aj).)  into 
the  Western  and  Eastern  empires,  E^pt  became 
a  province  of  the  latter,  and  sank  aeeper  and 
deeper  in  barbarism  and  weakness.  It  then  be- 
came the  prey  of  the  Saracens,  'Amribu-el'asr, 
their  general,  under  the  CaUph  Omaj.  taking 
Alexandria,  the  capital,  by  assault.  Tuis  hap-., 
pened  641  a.d.,  when  Heraclius  was  the  emperor 
of  the  East  As  a  province  of  the  calii^  it 
was  under  the  government  of  die  celebrated, 
Abbassides  —  Hanin  el-Rashid  and  Al-Mamon 
and  that  of  the  famous  Sultan  Saladin.  The 
last  dynasty  was,  however,  overthrown  by  the 
Mamelukes  (1240),  and  under  those  formidable 
despots  the  last  shadow  of  former  greatness 
and  civilization  disappeared.  Selim,  Sultan  of 
the  Turks,  eventually  (1516-17)  conquered  the 
last  Mameluke  sultan,  and  Egypt  becanje  a 
Turkish  province,  governed  by  a  pasha.  After, 
this  it  was  the  theatre  of  internal  wars  hy  the 
Mameluke  beys  against  the  Turkish  dtnninion, 
which  was  several  times  nearly  extinguished 
Confusion  and  civil  war  between  the  different 
factions  of  the  Mamelukes  continued  to  prevail 
till  1798,  when  the  French  invasion  under 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  united  their  chiefs  in  self- 
defense  ;  but  the  Mameluke  army  was  all  but 
annihilated  in  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids.  The- 
French  then  conquered  the  whole  of  Egypt  and 
held  it  till  1801,  when  they  were  driven  out  by 
the  British  under  Ahcrcromby  and  Hutchinson. 
On  the  expulsion  of  the  French  the  Otton 


hammed  'Ali  to  the  pashalic  in  1805  imparted  a 
galvanic  prosperity  to  Egypt  by  the  merciless 
destruction  of  the  turbulent  Mamelukes  (whom 
a  disastrous  British  expedition  in  1807  vainly 
sought  to  restore),  the  formation  of  a  regular 
army,  the  increase  of  securi^,  the  improvement' 
of  the  irrigation  and  the  introduction  of  the 
elements  of  European  civilisation.  In  1816 
M^iammed  'Ali  reduced  part  of  Arabia, 
brought  it  under  his  sway  by  the  .generalship 
of  his  son,  Ibrahim;  in  IJCO  he  annexed  Nubia 
and  part  of  the  Sudwt;  and  from  1821  to  tS28 


his  troops,  under  Ibrahim,  occupied  various 
points  in  the  Morea  and  Crete,  to  aid  the  Turks 
in  their  war  with  the  insurgent  Greeks.  The 
Egyptian  fleet  was  annihilated  at  Navarino, 
and  Ibrahim  remained  in  the  Morea  till  forced 
to  evacuate  by  the  French  army,  under  Maison, 
in  1828.  In  1831  Ibrahim  be^an  the  conquest 
ot  Syria,  and  in  the  following  year  totally 
touted  the  Ottoman  army  at  Kontya,  after 
wMcb  the  Porte  ceded  Syria  to  Mohammed 
'All  on  condition  of  tribute.  War  breeldng  out 
again,  the  victory  of  Nisib  in  1839  would  per- 
haps have  elevated  him  to  the  throne  of  Con- 
itantinople;  but  the  quadruple  alliance  in  IMO, 
the  fall  of  Saint  Jean  d'Acre  to  the  British  and 
the  consequent  evacuation  of  Syria,  compelled 
bim  to  limit  his  ambition  to  the  pasiialic  of 
Egypt  In  1848  Mohammed  'Ali  became  im- 
becile (he  died  in  1849),  and  his  son  Ibrahim 
sat  on  bit  throne  for  two  months,  when  he 
died,  and  'Abbas  Pasha,  Mohammed  All's 
grandion,  succeeded  him,  and  was  succeeded  in 
turn  (1854)  by  Said  Pasha,  youngest  »on  of 
Uohammea  'Ali.  M.  de  Lesseps  then  obtained 
the  co-operation,  hitberto  witlAeld,  of  the 
Egyptian  Kovcrnment  in  his  scheme  of  the 
Suez  Canal,  which  was  opened  in  1869.  Sa'id 
was  succeeded  (1863)  l>y  bis  nephew,  Ismail, 
son  of  Ibrahim,  who  by  a  firman  purchased 
from  the  Sultan  (1866)  the  hereditary  title  of 
Khedive.  He  ob^ned  the  hereditary  title  of 
Khedive  lo  the  throne  of  ^ypt,  direct  from 
father  to  son,  instead  of  descending,  according 
to  Turkish  law,  to  the  eldest  male  of  the  fam- 
ily, and  in  1972  the  Sultan  gninted  to  the  Khe- 
dive the  rights  (withdrawn  in  1879)  of  con- 
cluding treaties  and  of  maintaining  an  army,  and 


series  of  vast  internal  reforms,  built  roads, 
bridges,  lighdiouses,  railways  and  telegraphs, 
reorganised  the  postal  service,  improved  the 
harbors  at  Suez,  Port  Said  and  Alexandria, 
supported  education,  and  introduced  mixed 
courts  .  of  law.  Extending  his  dtHaiuions 
fouttaward,  he  annexed  Dar-Fnr  in  1874,  and  in 
that  and  Uie  following  year  further  conquests 
were  made.  The  condition  of  the  finances  led 
to  the  esCabtiahmetit  of  "dual  control"  by  Great 
Britain  and  France,  and  in  1879  Ismail  was 
forced  to  abdicate  under  pressure,  of  the  Brit- 
ish and  French  governments,  and  was  replaced 
iw  his  son,  Tewfik.  His  position  -was  soo«i 
torealened  by  the  so-called  National  party  with 
Arahi  Pasha  at  its  head,  who  aimed  at  his  depo- 
sition and  at  the  abolition  of  European  inter- 
vention. In  May  1882,  a  rising  took  place  in 
Alexandria,  when  many  Europeans  were  kilted 
and  their  houses  pillaged.  "The  Khedive  fled 
fcom  Cairo,  where  :Arabi  remained  autocrat. 
The  French  refusing  to  interfece.  Great  Britain 
determined  to  act,  and  on  11  July  a  British 
fleet  bombarded  the  forts  at  Alexandria,  cans~ 
ing  the  rebels  to  retreat  In  August  a  force 
under  Sir  Garnet  (afterward  Lord)  Wolseley 
landed  at  Ismailia,  and  on  13  September  Arabi's 
forces  were  tolaJly  defeated  at  Td-el-Kebir 
and  the  rebellion  crushed,  Arabi  and  his  asso- 
ciates being  banished.  Before  this  a  rebelhon 
against  EnTtian  rule  had  broken  out  in  the 
Mdan  nnaer  the  leadership  of  Mohammed 
Ahmed,  who  professed  to  be  the  Mahdi  or 
tfvinely'Beiit     Uobsmmedan     conqueror.    His 


followers  soon  became  numerous,  defeated' 
Egyptian  troops  that  opposed  tbem^  and  threat- 
ened the  existence  of  all  the  Egyptian  garrisons 
in  the  Sudan.  In  1883  they  annihilated  an 
F-gyptian  force  under  Hicks  Pasha  near  El 
Obeid  in  Kordofan,  and  in  1884  Osman  Digna, 
as  representing  the  Mahdi,  defeated  another 
force  under  Baker  Pasha  near  Sualdm.  British 
troops  were  now  dispatched  to  Suakim,  and  at 
El  Teb  and  Tamai  severe  defeats  were  inflicted 
on  the  Arabs  by  General  Graham.  Meantime 
General  Gordon  had  been  sent  to  Khartum  lo 
withdraw  the  garrisons  from  the  Sudan,  but 
he  was  shut  up  in  the  town  for  nearly  a  year, 
and  perished  before  the  relief  expedition  under 
Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  could  reach  him  (January 
1885).  The  Sudan  was  then  given  up,  and  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  E^ptian  dominions 
fixed  at  Wady-Halfa. 

In  1892  Tewfik  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Abbas  Hilmi,  who  is  the  seventh  vice- 
roy and  third  khedive  of  Egypt  In  1896  an 
Anglo-Egyptian  expedition  for  the  reconquest 
of  the  lost  provinces  was  dispatched  under  Sir 
Herbert  (afterward  Lord)  Kitchener.  I>}ngola 
was  soon  occupied.  Abu  Hamed  was  captured 
in  the  following  year,  and  (8  April  1898),  the 
insurgents  were  defeated  in  a  tettle  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Atbara.  Finally  (2  Sept 
1896)  the  forces  of  the  Khalifa,  as  the  Mahdi's 
successor  was  called,  were  defeated  with  great 
slai^bter  at  Omdurman,  near  Khartum.  The 
terntoiy  thus  reconquered  was  placed  under  a 
governor-general,    and   was   rapidly   organized. 


Gbaial  'Blue  River*  Valley  led  to  some  friction 
with  Great  Britain. 

Egypt  Ihiring  tfa«  Bnropean  Wkr.—  Owing 
to  the  entrance  of  Turkey  into  the  war  on  the 
side  of  the  Central  Powers,  and  to  the  adhesion , 
of  the  kbedive  to  the  king's  enemies,  a  British 
protectorate  was  declared  and  the  Khedive 
Abbas  Pasha  deposed  on  18  Dec  1914  Prince 
Hussein  Kamil,  the  eldest  living  prince 
of  the  family  of  Mohammed  'Ali,  a  former 
viceroy  of  ^ypt,  was  appointed  in  hi»  steady 
under  the  title  of  Sultan  of  Egypt  Two  un- 
successful attempts  at  hts  assassination  have 
been  made  (8  April  and  9  July  1915).  Sir  Ar- 
thur McMahon  was  api>ointed  British  high  com- 
missioner. Turkish  armies  under  German  leader- 
ship have  made  successive  attempts  to  attack 
the  Suez  Canal  as  preliminaries  to  an  iirrasion 
of  Egypt  The  most  dangerous  of  these  incur- 
sions were:  (1)  On  2  Feb.  1915  the  Turks  at- 
tempted to  cross  near  Toussoum,  35  miles  north 
of  Suea;  (2)  on  23  April  1916  an  attempt  was 
made  at  the  Quatia  Oasis,  25  miles  east  of  the 
canal,  on  die  road  to  £1  Kastara;  (3)  the  most 
formidable  effort  was  made  on  4  Aug.  1916 
when  14,000  Turks  attacked  the  British  position 
near  Romani,  22  miles  east  of  Port  Said  and 
just  north  of  Katia,  on  a  front  of  seven  or 
eight  miles.  The  British  troops,  under  die 
command  of  Sir  Archibald  Murray,  and  com- 
posed mainly  of  Australians  and  New  Zeafeind- 
ers,  succeeded  by  a  strategic  retirement  in  in- 
volving the  Turks  in  the  sand-dunes,  and  then 
fell  upon  their  rear,  and  succeeded  in  taking 
2,500  unwounded  Turkish  and  German  prison- 
ers. See  Was,  Eusopeah.  See  also  Alexait- 
dria;  Cairo;  Csokex;  Ehin  Pa3IIa;  Gokdon, 


8l^ 


^10 


EGYPTIAN  AKCHAO^OQY  AMD  EXPLORATION 


Gbh.  C  G.;  Khbdive;  Mad  Mituab;  Uohah- 
MEQANisu;  Napoleok;  Sudan;  Suez  Canal; 
TEwyut;  Wady-Haua, 

Bibliomphy.— *Antiuaire  Statutique  de 
I'E^iypte*  (Cairo  Amiual);  Anninjon,  P.,  'Sil- 
.uatian  ^conomique  ct  tnanciire  dc  I'Egypte' 
(Paris  1911);  Anin,  Y.  P.,  'Enrfwid  S  the 
Soudan'  (London  1911)  ;  Balll,  WTL,  'Egypt 
of  the  Egyptians)  (London  1915)  ;  Brehier, 
L.,  'L'Egypte  de  1789  i  )900>  (Paris  1901); 
Colvin,  A.,  'The  Making  of  Modem  Egypt* 
(London  1906) ;  Cromer  (Earl),  'Modem 
Exypt>  (London  1908).  'Abbas  IP  (London 
mS)  ;  Weigall.  A.  E.  P.,  'History  of  Egypt 
from  1763  to  1914'   (London  1915). 

Samuel  Aogustds  Binion, 
Author  of  'Anciint  Egyfl  or  MurtUm^ ;  Revittd 
by  Ediloriai  Staff  of  the  Americana. 

EGYPTIAN  ARCHEOLOGY  AND 
EXPLORATION.  The  attention  of  the 
world  was  drawn  to  Egypt  a»  a  rich  field  for 
scientific  exploTation  in  the  ^rly  part  of  the 
19th  century.  M.  Boussard,  a  French  officer 
under  Bonaparte  (1799),  discovered  at  Fort 
Julien,  near  Rosetta,  a  large  block  of  black 
granite,  with  the  remains  ot  three .  inscriptions, 
the  first  in  hieroglyirfts,  the  second  in  demotic 
diaracter?,  the  third  in  Greek.  This  Rosetta 
Stone  was  taken  to  England  after  the  caiMtula- 
tion  of  Alexandria  (1801),  and  presented  by 
George  HI  to  the  British  Mnsetun.  It  con- 
tains a  decree  promulgated  at  Memphis,  in 
honor  of  Ptolemy  V,  Epiphanes,  by  the  pnest- 
hood  of  Egypt  tn  synod  assembled,  thanldng 
that  sovereign  for  the  benefits  which  he  had 
conferred  on  them.  They  ordered  it  to  be  sent 
to  all  the  temples  of  the  first,  second  and 
third  rank,  there  to  be  engraved  on  stete  in 
ihe  three  forms  of  writing  then  used  through- 
out the  land.  When  found,  half  of  the  hiero- 
^yphic  portion  of  the  Rosetta  copy  was  want- 
ing, but  the  donotic  and  Greek  were  nearly  com- 
plete, and  the  Work  of  decipherment  began  with 
'  diem.  The  Frendi  orientalist  Silvestre  de 
Sacy  made  out  in  the  demotic  some  of  the 
proper  names  mentioned  in  the  (ireek  ('Let- 
tre  au  Citoyen  Chaptal  iur  I'inscriptiou  <^yp- 
-tienne  du  monutnent  dn  Rosette'  Paris  1802)-; 
and  the  Swede  Akerblad,  following  in  his  steps, 
assigned  phonetic  vahies  to  most  of  the  signs 
cmfNa^cd  in  the  proper  names  ('Lettre  BUr 
I'i&scnptian  ^gyptienae  de  Rosette  adressie  au 
Citoyen  S.  de  Sacy,'  Paris  1S02).  In  1814 
Thotnas  Youi^,  the  English  mathematician, 
smcoeded  in  isolating  a  nmnber  of  groupe 
which  express  common  names,  and  even  in 
translating  some  fragments  of  demotic  phrases. 
Turotag  to  the  hieroglyphs  be  tried  to  det«n»iBe 
the  power  of  the  characters,  which  being  en- 
dosed  in  cartouches  or  rin^,  were  known  to 
indicate  the  names  of  kings.  Thus  he  read 
the  names  of  Ptolemy  and  Berenice,  but  be 
'failed  to  analyee  them  exactly;  five  onlj^  of 
the  values  wtuch  he  proposed  for  the  si^ns 
torned  out  to  be  true.  The  problem  wth 
which  Young  had  such  poor  success  was  solved 
four  years  later  by  Jean  Francois  Champed 
lion,  who  had  felt  attraeled  to  the  study  of 
the  Oriental  languages  from  his  early  youth  and 
published  at  24  the  famous  work  'L'figypte 
aous  les  Pharacns'  <2  voU.,  Paris  1814),  on 
the  ctviliiation  and  history  of  Egypt.  Guided 
by 'hit  thorou^  knowledge  aCtbeOoptic,  he 


appUed  binaself  to  the  decipbennent  of  the 
inscriptions,  and  ascertained  very  soon  that 
the  three  kinds  of  characters  found  oo  the 
monuments,  far  from  representing  three  inde- 
pendent systems,  were  three  successive  develop* 
ments  of  one  system  of  writing,  of  which  the 
hiero^ypbs  were  the  prototype,  the  hieratic  and 
demotic  the  cursive  forms.  ( 'De  I'^riture 
hieratique  des  anciens  figyptiens,'  Oeaoble 
1821).  He  then  dissected  the  cartoudies  wUdi 
had  been  studied  by  Young  and  proved  that 
the  hieroglyphs  in  ihera  were  always  taken  al- 
phabetically, and  that  the  alphabet  thus  em- 
ployed for  the  rendering  of  the  Greek  royal 
names  vras  the  same  that  had  been  used  from 
the  time  of  the  first  dynasties,  not  only  for 
proper  names,  but  for  the  common  parts  of  the 
language.  He  gave  a  general  outline  of  his 
KStem  to  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  on  22, 
se;it.  1822,  a  day  famous  as  marking  the  toMsi- 
dation  of  Egyptology.  Then  he  completed  his 
revelations,  and  explained  fully  his  method  in 
bis  'Prids  du  syscteie  bieroglyphique  des  an- 
ciens figyptiens'  (Paris  1824;  18Z8).  He  spent 
the  last  eight  years  of  his  life  in  working  out 
the  principles  which  he  had  established  for  the 


and  Italian  arcbieoiogists.  Upon  his  return  he 
was  made  professor  of  Egyptian  literature  at 
the  College  de  France.    He  died  4  March  1832, 


having  overtaxed  his  strength  during  the  jour- 
~ey  to  Egypt.  His  rapid  success  had  raised  u 
host  of  detractors  and  oj^nenls.     Rlaproti 


criticized  his  work  with  a  bad  fai^  a  _  . 
lence  which  even  death  did  not  abate;  Spobn 
and  Seyffarth  started  a  rival  system,  which 
was  rejected  in  Europe  by  18SS,  but  continued 
to  find  some  degree  of  acceptance  in  the  United 
States  until  about  1880.  The  general  public, 
however,  had  received  his  labors  with  delight 
and  after  his  death  men  of  every  nation  twA 
up  his  Cachings  and  advanced  the  work  he  had 
so  well  begun.  Nestor  Lhote,  Charies  Lenor- 
mant  and  Dulaurier  in  France ;  Salvolini,  Rosel- 
lini.  Ungardli,  in  Italy;  Seemans  in  the  Neth-. 
crlands;  Wilkin sc«i.  Birch  and  Osbom  in  Eng- 
land. Champollion-Figeac  devoted  himself  to 
the  memory  of  his  younger  brother  and  pub- 
lished the  most  important  of  his  unfinished 
books,  his  'Lettres  Writes  d'Egj^'  (Paris 
1833);  and  his  'Grammatre  figyptienne'  (ib. 
1836^1)  ;  his  'DictiomiaiTe  Egyptien  en  ^rituK 
hieroglyphi(]ue>  ib.  1841-^) ;  'Monuments  de 
I'Egypte  et  de  la  Nubie'  (ib.,  1835-75).  com- 
pleted by  Maspero.  ^aitx  then  the  stoiy  has 
been  a  pert^etual  record  of  success  and  discov- 
eries. Lepsius  analyied  critically  in  his  'Lettre 
a  M.  Rosellini  sur  I'alphabet  hi^glyphique' 
(Rome  1837)  the  structure  of  the  old  language, 
and  elucidated  the  origin  and  mechanism  of  the 
siHlabic  characters,  the  existence  of  which  had 
only  been  surmised  by  Champollion.  Lepsius, 
however,  early  left  ptulological  for  historical 
and  archceological  researches.  From  1837  to 
1885  nearly  every  year  was  marked  by  *e  ap- 
pearance of  some  important  work  from  his  pen : 
'Das  Todtenbuch  der  A^ypter' ;  'tJber  die  XII 
^p^Iische  Konigsdynastie' ;  '^nleitung  in  die 
CSronolo^e' ;  'Uber  den  ersten  agyptisdien 
Gotterkreis' ;  'K5nigsbuch  der  alten  Agypter.' 
etc    Lai^  portions  of  these  have  become  tuid- 


.»^ 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


.yGooi^le 


EOYPTIAN  4A«iAMU3aY  AND  SXPLORATION 


qnated,  but  th^  fonned  the  solid  g^iUfd'upOn 
which  the  chronology  and  history  .•%- waent 
Egypt  have  been  built  up.  His  tfaFwfiyean' 
stay  in  the  Nile  Valley  at  the  head  of  a  com- 
mission of  German  scientittj  (1842-45)  pro- 
duced the  gigantic  'Denkm^er  aus  Xgypten 
uod  Athiop^'  (12  vols.,  Berlin  184^59),  in 
which  all  the  historical  texts  known  at  the  time 
were  reproduced  by  the  aldlful  hand  of  Weid- 
enbach.  Bunsen  popularized  the  ideas  of  Lep- 
lius  in  his  'Agyptens  Stelle  in  der  Weltfe- 
achichte'  (Hamburg  1849) ;  Brugfich  applied 
himself  to  the  detnotic  texts  ('Scriptura  Aegyp- 
loriiuD  demotica,'  Berlin  1&48) ;  'Graramaire 
dimodque'  (ib.  1885).  While  things  went  thus 
in  Germany,  Emmanuel  de  Rouge  oammeuced 
his  labors  m  Prance  with  his  'Examen  critique 
de  I'ouvTage  de  M,  le  Chevalier  de  Bunsen,' 
in  which  UM  merits  of  Bunsen's  and  Lepsius' 
work  were  fully  recognized,  while  their  errors 
and  fallacious  hypo^etcs  were  p^ted  out 
with  a  vigor  of  method  and  a  certainty  which 


^CHirestomathie  fiayptienne'  (Paris  1867-76), 
he  called  back  to  life  the  £rst  dynasties  in  'Re- 
cherches  sur  les  monimieflts  qu'on  petit  attribuer 
aux  six  premieres  dynasties  de  Kunithon'  (ib. 
1866),  and  in  his  pam^ets,  he  wu  die  first 
who  really,  trandated  whole  Egyptian  books  and 
inscriptions,  both  hiero^yphic  and  hioatic. 
He  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  stu^  not  only 
in  FraDce,  where  Qiabas,  Deveria,  Pierret  and 
Maipero  followed  him,  but  also  in  £i»land, 
where  his  influence  was  felt  by  Bireh,  iflncks, 
Renouf,  Le  Page  and  in  Germany,  where 
Brugsch,  Dumichen  and  Ebers  seconded  the  ef- 
forts of  Lepsius.  Brugsch  left  many  monu- 
mental works,  the  great  faults  of  which  are 
lost  in  greater  merits.  With  the  exception  of 
Weidemanp  the  more  recent  Gernian  sdiool  in- 
clines more  and  more  to  grammars  and  Et- 
iology under  the  lead  of  Adolf  Eiman.  lite 
French  school,  while  not  neglecting  philology, 
has  directed  much  of  its  stren^h  toward  htfr- 
lory  and  archeology.  Young  ^(yptoloS>sts  "< 
sent  every  year  to  Egypt  to  esccavate,  draw, 
copy  and  public  the  monumants.  They  are 
helped  in  the  work  of  finding  and  prescrying 
the  remains  of  antiquity  by  an  Angla-American 
society,  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  the  first 
secretary  and  real  promoter  of  which  was 
Amelia  B,  Edwards  (1882-92).  In  1683  they 
sent  out  their  ftrst  agent,  E,  Naville  of  (lenevs, 
and  he  deared  the  site  of  Pithom  in  the  land 
of  Goshen.  Since  tlien  Naville,  Flinders  Petrie, 
Griffith,  (Gardner  and  Newberry  have  been  at 
work.  Naucratts  has  come  to  light,  Tanis  and 
BubastTS,  the  IVramids  of  the  Fayiim,  the 
tombs  of  Bent-Hasan  and  EI-Amsma  have 
yielded  unexpected  treasures  of  arcltcolM^cal 
and  historical  lore.  The  last  few  years  have 
aeen  wonderful  discoveries  in  ^ypt,  for  the 
tombs  of  the  kings  of  Abydos  have .  tmai 
opened  and  the  (tvasures  which  have  been  fotmd 
bring  us  face  to  face  with  archaic  history. 
Among  rile  retttarkablc  finds  were  a  carved  slate 
stab  slwwinff  King  Nir-mer  -nniting  his  enemy, 
an  ebony  taole,  a  bar  of  gold,  gold  jowelry,  ' 


Zer  or  Teta  (4366  b.c),  which  was  discov« 


with  a  portion  of  the  mununy  in  a  hole  in  a 
wall.  This  is  1,500  years  earlier  than  any  other 
jewelry  thus  far  identified  The  bracelets 
show  a  wonderful  perfection  in  the  soldering  of 


.   than  those   on   the  gold 


more    archaic   for 
pieces. 

An  American  archKologist,  Theodore  M. 
E}avies,  has  made  one  of  the  most  interesting 
discoveries  of  recent  years  in  excavating  the 
tomb  of  Thotfames  IV  of  the  18th  dynasty.  The 
tomb  contained  the  chariot  in  which  he  rode  at 
Thebes.  Like  other  royal  tombs  it  consisted  of 
a  gallery  cut  in  the  heart  of  the  motmtain. 
After  sloping  downward  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance it  is  interrupted  by  a  deep  square  well ;  on 
one  o£  the  walls  ii  a  buid  of  paintings.  On  the 
farther  side. of  the  wall  the  passage  turns  back, 
and  finally  opens  into  a  large  chamber,  at  the 
extreme  end  of  which  is  a  magnificent  sarcopha- 
gus of  granite  covered  with  texts  from  'The 
Book  of  the  Dead.*  On  either  side  are  smaller 
chambers;  the  floor  of  one  of  ihem  was  covered 
with  the  offerings  made  to  the  dead  king,  con- 
sisting of  miunroihed  loins  of  beef,  legs  of 
mutton  and  trussed  ducks  and  geese.  Clay  seals 
with  the  name  of  the  Pharaoh  had  been  attached 
to  the  doors  of  the  chambers,  and  it  is  stated 
the  iwaed  portions  of  the  seals  had  been 
smeared  with  blue  ink  before  being  pressed  on 
the  day..  A  great  many  of  the  objects  in  the 
tomb  of  Thothmcs  were  found  to  be  broken,  and 
this  was  explained  b^  a  hieroglyphic  inscripticHi 
on  one  of  the  paintuigs  whi^  adorn  the  vralls 
of  the  vestibule  to  the  chamber  in  which  the  sar- 
cophagus was  found.  That  inscription  states 
that  the  tomb  was  plundered  by  robbers,  but  that 
it  had.  been  restored  as  far  as  possible  to  its 
orit^nal  condition  by  Har-an-hd>,  the  feigning 
Thanab.  The  floor  was  covered  with  v«m>, 
dishes,  symbols  of  life  and  other  objects  in  blue 
faience.  Unfdrtunately,  nearly  all  of  them  had 
be«n  wantonly  brbken,  thon^h  in  some  cases  the 
breakage  had  been  repaired  in  the  time  of  Hot^ 
em-heb.  Equally  interesting  is  a  piece  of  textile 
fabric  imo  which  hieroglyphic  characters  of  dif- 
ferent colors  have  been  woven  with  such  won- 
derful skill  as  to  present  the  appearance  of 
Dating  on  linen.  The  chariot  is  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  art  that  have  come  down 
to  us  from  antiquity.  Along  with  the  chariot 
was  found  the  leather  gauntlet  irith  whidi  die 
king  protected  his  hand  and  wrin  when  ariog 
the  bow  or  reins. 

Later  ercaVations  at  Atwdos  have  broujjht 
to  light  the  royal  tomb  of  Menes,  of  the  first 
dynasty,  in  wtuch  was  found  a  large  globular 
vase  of  green  glaze,  with  Menes'  name  inlaid  in 
purple.  Tlius  polychrome  glaring  is  taken  bade 
thousands  of  years  before  it  was  previously 
known  to  exist.  There  are  also  several  pieces  of 
delicately  carved  ivory  of  that  age.    One  repro- 

'  the  figure  of  an  ^ed  king,  which,  fdr  snh- 
of  character,  stands  in  the  first  raidc  of 
work,  and  ranks  with  the  finest  work  of 
Greece  and  Italy.  A  camel's  head  modeled  in 
pottery  takes  back  its  relation  to  Egypt  some 
4,000  years.  Hitherto  no  trace  of  the  camel  had 
^ipeared  before  Gi«ek  bUnea.    The  ivory  csiv- 


dety  c 
snch  V 


IS 


SGYPTXAN  AscmtoeruRB 


ing  of  a  bear  also  extends  ihe  fauna  of  early 
Egypt. 

Records  begin  to  appear  with  the'  3d  dynasty 
of  Manetfao.  The  Sphinx  of  Ghizeh  is  cer- 
tainly older,  but  being  uninscribed,  it  is  not 
known  to  which  king  or  dynasty  it  belongs.  A 
few.  stelK  bear  the  name  of  Sondon  (2d  dy- 
nasty), and  the  step  pyramid  of  Sakkarh  pur- 
ports to  be  the  tomb  of  Tosiri  (2d  dynasty). 
These,  however,  are  isolated  instances  and  an 
unbroken  line  of  monuments  only  begins  under 
Snofroni,  the  last  Pharaoh  of  the  3d  dynasty, 
about  (4300  B.a}.  From  his  time  to  Ihe  death 
of  Pepi  II  (about  3800  B.C.)  the  necropohs  of 
Ghizeh,  Salckarb,  Dashour  and  Midoum,  tombs 
of  feudal  families  at  Zawret-d-Maietin,  at 
Sheik-said,  the  rock  graffiti  of  Wadi-Magharah 
in  the  Sinaitic  peninsula,  furnish  material 
enou^  to  trace  the  succession  of  the  kings  and 
call  back  to  life  the  whole  civilization  of  those 

frimKvat  ages.  The  series  breaks  off  after  Fepi 
I,  but  B  few  scarabs  and  other,  objeas  are 
the  only  records  we  jpossess  of  the  Heradeopoli- 
tan  house.  Widi  the  tlth  d^asty  the  monu- 
ments came  to  light  again  in  great  ntunbcrs 
and  are  dispersed  all  over  the  Nile  Valley,  in 
the  grottoes  of  Beni-Hasan,  Bersfaefa,  Siut, 
Assouan,  in  the  tombs  of  Thebes  and  Abydos, 
in  the  temples  of  Nubia  and  in  die  Delta  cities, 
in  the  Fayum  pyramids  and  the  inscriptions  of 
Sinai.  There  are  many  inscriptions  and  statues 
of  the  13th  and  14th  dynasties,  and  the  area  of 
ground  they  cover  from  the  fourth  cataract  to 
the  sea  shows  the  extent  of  the  Egypt  of  that 
day.  The  invasion  of  the  Hj^csos  suspended  for 
at  least  400  years  the  productioD  of  monuments' 
(about  2100  B.C.),  and  nothing  remains  of  their 
kings  except  a  few  names  scratched  on  the 
statues  of  the  old  Pharaohs.  EgyM  revived 
after  their  expulsion  and  the  three  Theban  dy^ 
nasties  of  the  New  Empire  (1750-1100  a.c)  en- 
i^ched  by  the  spoils  of  Asia  and  of  Etfatopia, 
covered  the  banks  of  the  Nile  with  t«m^es  and 
palaces,  the  remains  of  which  arc  counted  to- 
day in  hundreds.  The  Roman  Ccsars  con- 
tinued the  constmctions  and  thtf  logns  of  the 
Flavians  ttoA  Antoninca  are  recorded  by  many 
n)onumenis.     The  impulse  died  out  about  250 


acter.  The  English  .  have  recognized  French 
intervention  in  Une  direction  of  the  Cairo  Mu- 
seum which  has  a  ri^t  to  one-half  of  all  dift- 
coveries  of  antiqwties,  etc,  made  in  Egypt. 
Gaston  Msspero  was  appointed  director  in  1899 
of  the  Service  of  Antiquities,  as  this  branch  is 
known,  and  was  succeeded  in  October  1914  by 
Pierre  Lecau,  Several  permanent  oommissioos 
are  at  work  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
Consult  Champoliion,  'Monuments  de  I'^ypte' 
(1843)  ;  Mariette,  'Monuments  of  Upper  Egypt' 
(1877);  Petrie,  'History  of  Egypt'  (1®4) ; 
Rawlinson.  'History  of  Ancient  ^ar*'  (1881). 
EGYPTIAN  ARCHITECTURB.  The 
most  andent  monuments  of  the  world's  archi- 
lecture  in  stone  arc  those  of  the  Nile  Valley. 
The  ruins  of  some  ancient  Chaldean  buildings 
are  probably  of  earlier  date,  hot  iJiey  are  almost 
formless  piles  of  sun-dried  bride,  while  the 
tombs  and  pyramids  of  the  early  Egyptian 
dynasties  are  many  of  them  in  excellent  preser- 
fation.  The  people  who  built  them  were  prob- 
ably of  Asiatic  origin  but  long-settled  along 


the  KI&-aB<J  were  a  highly  civilized  race  thou- 
sands ol  years  b.c.  It  is  customary  to  divide 
the  histoty  of  andent  Egyptian  art  into  five 
periods:  (I)  the  Ancient  {or  Memphitic)  Em- 
pire, cir.  34(n-2160  b.c,  comprising  ten  dynas- 
ties of  kings;  (2)  the  Middle  Empire,  with 
Thebes  as  capital,  2160-1788  b.c,  two  dynasties; 
(3)  the  Second  Thebaic  or  New  Empire  (1S8&- 
lloO  B.a),  comprising  the  dynasties  xvit-xx,  and 
separated  from  the  Middle  Empire  by  the 
artistic  interregnum  of  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd 
kings  (Arabs)  ;  (4)  the  Decadence  or  Saitic 
penod  of  six  d)^asties,  1150-324  B.C,  whidi  in- 
dudes  the  Persian  conquest  in  525  b.c,  and  (5) 
the  Ptolemaic  and  Roman  period  (324  B.C.-J00 
A.D.).  TTicn  followed  a  period  of  over  three 
centuries  during  which  the  only  architectural 
works  were  Coptic  churches  aiid  monasteries. 
The  Arabs  conquered  Egypt  in  642  a.d.,  since 
which  date  the  architecture  has  been  of  the 
Arabo-Moslem  or  "Saracenic*  style,  an  ar^- 
tedure  of  mosques,  tombs,  palaces,  baths,  foun- 
tains and  dty  gates.  As  this  last  period,  with 
its  infiltrations  of  Turkish  influence  since  1517, 
b  treated  of  under  M051.EU  Art  (q.v.),  the 
present  artide  will  be  confined  mainly  to  the 
andent  art  of  the  five  periods,  with  brief  ref- 
erence to  the  Coptic  development. 

Materials  and  Character.— There  is  evi- 
dence that  the  primitive  architecture  of  the 
Egyptians  was  of  mud  ('crudo"  or  sim-dried 
bnck)  and  wood,  but  the  monuments  that  have 
survived  to  our  time  are  of  stone,  except  for 
scanty  remains  of  brick.  The  stones  emplo}'ed 
were  granite  of  various  kinds  and  limestone; 
the  coarser  stone  being  often  furnished  with 
a  thin  layer  of  stucco  to  receive  painted  decora- 
tion. The  architecture  was  almost  entirely  of 
tcMnbs  and  temples,  although  remains  of  palaces 
of  the  New  &npire  have  been  excavated,  and 
there  are  vestiges  of  fortifications  at  Semneh 
and  Goumah.  The  dvilizaiion  of  l^^pt  was 
distinctivdy  monarchical  and  religious  and  this 
is  dearly  shown  in  the  architecture.  There  is 
little  change  of  style  luitil  the  time  of  the 
Ptolemies;  what  variations  there  were  came 
about  by  in^erceptibly  slow  degrees,  and  an  air 
of  changeless  duration  marks  every  work  of 
andent  Egypt  Yet  earthquakes  and  the  d»- 
itructive  invasions  of  Persians  and  Arabs  have 
wrecked  partly  or  completely  nearly  every  one 
of  these  massive  structures. 

All  the  Egqitian  monuments  of  antiquity 
were  built  on  me  post-and-lintel  or  wall-and' 
lintel  principle,  the  arch  beitig  used  only  in 
minor  constructions  of  brick.  But  one  form 
of  cornice,  is  f otmd  —  the  "cavetto-comice"  —  in 
all  the  wide  range  of  the  ancient  monuments 
through  more  than  3,000  years.  There  were  no 
"orders*  employed;   the  columns  show  a  wide 


pani  form  type ;  and  the  shafts  are  with  a  few 
exceptions  either  round  or  dustered.  the  former 
predominating.  The  4)ad"  and  ■fioral*  types 
of  catHlal  are  dthcr  simple  or  compound,  the 
latter  predominating  in  the  later  periods.  Ail 
the  wallsk  ceiUu^  and  columns  of  the  temples 
were  covered  with  symbolic  or  historical  deco- 
rations, indsed  and  painted  in  brilliant  color^ 
and  sculptured  figures  of  the  ddlied  king  or  of 
the  god  Osiris,  fronted  the  entrances  and  the 
coui^r&rd  iMCis  e£  the  tetnpLea. 


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EGYPTIAN   ARCHITECTURB 


18 


Totnbs.^The  religion  of  Egypt,  with  its 
insistence  on  a  future  life,  assigned  an  enor- 
mous importance  to  the  arts  of  sepulture,  and 
the  tombs  are  far  more  numerous  Chan  the 
temples.  They  arc  of  two  chief  kinds;  the 
hypOBcum  or  excavated  tomb,  cut  in  the  rock 
of  the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  with  many 
jassagea,  chambers  and  shafts ;  and  the  struc- 
tural or  built-up  tomb.  Of  this  class  there  were 
two  chief  types,  the  pyramid  (see  Pyrauid) 
and  the  maslaba  or  'bench*  This  latter  type, 
rectangular  in  plan,  hfd  usually  sloping  walls 
and  a  flat  top,  and  contained  a  vanety  of 
chambers  and  passages,  with  one  or  more 
serdabs  or  secret  chambers,  and  wells  or  shafts 
leading  to  deep  chambers,  in  one  of  which  the 
sarcophagus  was  deposited.  Statues  of  the  de- 
ceased ("ka' statues')  were  secreted  in  the 
serdabs  in  order  to  assist  in  preserving  the  life 
and  identity  of  the  'ka*  or  spirit  while  in  the 
tonib,  while  the  walls  were  covered  with  pic- 
tures of  his  daily  life  and  sports  in  order  that 
the  *ka*  might  by  their  help  enjoy  the  same 
pleasures  until  admitted  by  Osiris  and  his  as- 
sessors to  the  final  home  in  the  underworld 
Two  fine  tombs  of  this  type  have  been  taken 
down  and  re-erected  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum at  New  York. 

Temples —  The  fundamental  scheme  of  the 
Egyptian  temple  was  early  developed  and  re- 
mained uhchanged  in  essentials  for  over  3,000 
years.  It  appears  to  have  been  an  expansion  of 
the  ancient  Oriental  house-plan,  with  its  en- 
closing wall,  gate,  fore- court,  reception-hall 
and  livingr  rooms.  These  became  respectively 
the  enclosing  wall  (sometimes  of  crude  brick), 
the  pylon-gate  with  its  twin  truncated  pyramid 
towers  or  pylons,  the  fore-court  flanked  or 
surrounded  with  colonnades,  the  hyposiyle  or 
columnar  hall  for  the  princes  and  magnates,  and 
the  sekos  or  sanctuary,  with  its  shrine  or  "holy 
of  holies'  and  its  surrounding  rooms  for  the 
priests.  These  various  parts  might  be  dupli- 
cated or  variouily  elaborated,  but  they  are  to 
be  found  in  ah  the  temples,  large  or  small. 

Historic  MonumentB. — From  the  Ancient  or 
Memphite  Empire  there  have  been  preserved 
to  us  innumerable  tombs  and  a  few  temple- 
rains.  Of  the  greatest  importance  are  the  pyra- 
mid-tombs, of  which  there  are  nearly  a  hundred 
in  six  groups.  They  are  all  royal  tombs,  but 
vary  in  size  and  shape,  some  having  stepped 
sides,  some  being  built  with  two  slopes  —  the 
lower  part  steeper  than  the  upper;  the  re- 
mainder are  built  with  a  single  slope  from  the 
square  base  to  die  apex.  Three  of  these,  at 
Ghizeb,  are  far  larger  than  the  rest;  they  be- 
long to  the  4th  dynasty.  The  largest  is  that 
of  Cheops  or  Khufu,  with  a  base  764  feet 
square  and  an  original  height  of  482  feet.  The 
second,  of  Chephcen  or  Khafra,  is  slightly 
smaller;  the  third,  of  Mycerinus  or  Menkhaura, 
rise*  218  feet  from  a  base  254  feet  square.  The 
stepped  pyramid  of  Sakkara  is  older,  dating 
possibly  from  the  First  dynasty;  it  is  about  350 
by  400  feet  at  the  base  and  not  quite  200  feet 
Ugh- _  All   of   these,   and   most   of   the   others. 


peared;  they  all  contain  corridors  and  chambers 
of  elaborate  construction.  There  are  also  many 
mastabas  and  many  excavated  tombs  cut  in  the 
rock  of  the  cliffs;  the  ka'paintings  of  some  of 
these  (e.g.,  the  tomb  of  Ti)  are  extraordinarily 


detailed  and  interesting.  The  temples  of  this 
period  are  all  connected  with  or  adjacent  to 
the  tombs,  to  which  they  served  as  chapels. 
The  best  preserved  is  that  of  Chepbren,  known 
as  the  Sphinx  Temple,  having  square  piers  in- 
stead of  columns. 

The  Middle  Empire  has  .left  us  only  scanty 
monuments,  of  which  the  most  interesung  are 
tombs  cut  in  the  cliffs  of  Beni'Hassan,  with 
columnar  porches  whose  columns  somewhat  re- 
semble the  Greek  Doric,  hence  called  "proto- 
Doric."  There  have  been  found  scanty  remains 
of   temples   of   this  period   at   Bubastis   and   at 

The  New  Empire  was  the  great  age  of 
Egyptian  artJiitecture  as  well  as  of  political 
greatness  under  a  succession  of  mighty  rulers  — 
die  Thutmoses,  Amenhoteps,  Setis,  Kamesesand 
others  of  the  18th  dynasty,  of  whom  Ramcses 
II  was  the  greatest  builder.  The  tombs  of  this 
period  arc  all,  or  nearlv  all,  deep  tunnels  cut 
in  the. rock,  with  many  chambers  and  corridors; 
the  temples  are  the  largest  in  Egypt,  especially 
that  of  Kamak,  over  1,200  feet  long  and  340 
wide,  whose  hypostyie  hall  with  16  rows  of 
colossal  columns,  is  the  grandest  ruin  in  Egypt. 
Not  far  away  is  ihc  great  temple  of  Luxor, 
next  to  which  in  size  and  splendor  is  the 
Ramesseum.  Others  of  almost  equal  extent  and 
splendor  are  at  Abydos  and  at  Medinet  Abu; 
while  at  Deir-el-Bahari  are  the  remains  of  the 
stupendous  hemispeos  «f  Queen  Hatshepsut,  a 
sepulchral  temple  partly  excavated  and  partly 
structural.  At  Ipsambul  (Abu  Simbel)  are  two 
colossal  temples  of  Rameses  II  and  111,  entirely 
hewn  into  the  rocky  cliif.  Many  smaller  tem- 
ples, as  of  Khonsu  at  Karaak,  are  in  good 
preservation. 

The  Ptolemaic- Roman  age  created  the  two 
temples  of  Hathor  and  I  sis  at  Denderah,  built 
by  Cleopatra ;  the  temple  of  Edfu  and  the 
superb  group  at  Phila:;  and  the  Roman-built 
temples  of  Esneh  •  and  Koom  Ombos,  with 
others  in  Nubia.  All  these  late  temples  have 
screen-walls  between  the  front  columns  of  the 
hyposiyle  hall,  crested  with  carved  serpents  — 
a  "new  feature;  and  the  capitals  of  columns  are 
very  complex  and  elaborate. 

Coptic  Architecture,— This  is  unimportant 
except  in  its  relations  to  later  Arabo-E^ptian 
art  and  to  the  architecture  of  Christian  Europe 
and  Asia  of  the  same  period  (4th-7th  century). 
The  Copts  are  the  Christian  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  erected,  during  the 
above  period,  many  churches  and  monasteries, 
mostly  of  small  size.  These  are  interesting 
chiefly  for  their  use  of  the  arch,  of  the  dome 
over  the  sanctuary,  and  of  minutely -detailed 
surface  carving  and  elaborate  wooden  screens. 
It  was  the  Copts  who  built  the  earliest  Arab 
mosques  in  Cairo,  and  the  Arabo- Egyptian  style 
owes  much  of  its  character  to  their  work. 
See  ABCHiTECTtiRE;  Obelisk  ;  Pyiiaiiid;  Sphinx. 

Bibliography.—'  Consult  for  history  in  gen- 
eral. Breasted,  f.  H.,  'A  History  of  Egypt  from 
the  Earliest  Times'  (London  1906).  For  the 
architecture,  any  of  the  general  histories  of 
architecture;  also  Maspiro,  G.  C,  'Egyptiao 
Archioiogy>  (Paris  1910)  ;  Perrot  and  Chipiei: 
'History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egypt,'  and  the 
works  of  Flinders  Petric,  Manette,  Prisse 
d'Avennies,  Rossellini  and  Wilkinson. 

A.  D.  F.  Hamuw, 
Professor  of  Arehilectwe,  Columbia  University. 


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14 


BQYFTIAN   ARTS 


EGYPTIAN  ARTS.  Sculpture,  Punting 
and  Minor  Art».—  Sculptors  were  numerous 
and  very  prolific.  Several  great  collecttcms 
of  extant  works  have  been  made  in 
modem  times-  of  these  the  greatest  is 
that  of  the  Museum  of  Ghi?eh.  next  come 
those  of  the  Louvre,  British  Museum,  the  Vati- 
can, Florence,  Turin,  The  Hague  and  Berlin. 
Uany  works,  however,  are  still  in  situ,  in  the 
temples  and  tombs,  both  colossal  statuary  and 
series  of  reliefs.  Of  the  Old  Empire  all  the 
sculptures  have  been  found  in  tombs.  They  are 
realistic  and  are  of  value  as  portraits.  In  the 
Middle  Empire  the  official  and  colossal  style 
was  developed  in  connection  with  temple  archi- 
tecture reaching  its  greatest  period  under  the 
Rameses  and  Setis  of  the  New  Empire. 
Plastic  art  was  earljr  employed  to  illustrate  the 
daily  life  of  the  subject.  Each  tomb  contained 
a  representation  in  detail  of  the  person,  family 
and  occupation  of  the  deceased,  and  near  the 
tomb  were  statues  of  him  or  ber  as  they  ap- 
peared in  life.  Under  the  New  Empire  sunken 
relief  and  outline  ■  relief  come  into  vogue. 
Methods  of  quarrying,  carving,  polishing  and 
finishing  sculptures  are  represented  in  these 
Styles  together  with  others.  Wood  was  used  in 
sculpture  as  is  testified  by  the  number  of 
wooden  statues  remaining,  some  dating  from 
the  Old  Empire,  the  most  noteworthy  being  the 
famous  figure,  Sheik- El-Beled.  Red  granite  and 
basah  were  favorite  materia  for  statuary, 
while  limestone  and  sandstone  were  used  more 
in  relief.  Red  porphyry  was  especially  popular 
in  Uie  later  periods.  The  representation  was 
purely  cooventiotial,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
veying an  idea  and  not  creating  an  illusion. 
Perspective  was  avoided  in  scenes  where  several 
planes  of  figures  appear,  the  rows  being  raised 
one  above  another.  Despite  their  lack  of  real- 
ism the  sculptors  were  careful  of  detail.  The 
earliest  work  of  sculpture  is  the  famous  Sphinx 
of  Ghizeb  now  disintegrating  under  the  changed 
climate,  A  common  portrait  is  die  seated 
group  of  husband  and  wife,  found  through  all 
the  remains  of  |he  Old  and  Middle  Empires. 
The  representation  of  divinities  was  usually 
effected  by  placing  an  animal's  head  on  a  human 
body,  a  jackal's  head  for  Anubis;  a  hawk's  for 
Horus,  etc.  The  gods  were  worshipped  on  the 
opposite  walls  of  a  temple  and  the  image  of  the 
god  was  repeated  several  htmdred  times  on  the 
waits  and  columns  and  on  the  outer  pylons. 
There  were  also  small  images  of  the  gods  in 
bronze,  glazed  earth,  etc.,  used  for  objects  of 
devotion.  Another  theme  might  be  termed  the 
political ;  consisting  of  the  giant  king,  at  whose 
feet  cower  many  captives.  There  was  little 
variation  in  the  several  representations  durittg 
long  periods.  Of  particular  interest  are  the 
reliefs  and  paintings  on  the  tombs  of  private 
persons,  A  tomb  of  the  Middle  Empire  repre- 
sents the  migration  of  a  tribe  in  all  its  details 
showing  how  traveling  was  done  in  the  age  of 
Moses.  Under  the  New  Empire  there  was  a 
change  to  the  stiff  and  colossal,  Greek  art  was 
introduced  under  the  Ptolemie?  and  had  a  pro- 
found influence  on  Egyptian  forms.  Painting 
in  ancient  Egypt  can  hardly  be  called  an  inde- 
pendent art,  being  largely  an  adjunct  to  archi- 
tecture. Wall  paintings  were  popular  from  the 
5th  to  the  13th  dynasty  and  closely  resemble  the 
reliefs  of  the  same  period  in  theme  and  treat- 
ment.   In  portrait  sculpture  the  Egyptians  at- 


tained extraordinary  perfection  at  an  early 
date,  the  skill  with  which  they  worked  in  hard 
stone,  such  as  diorite  and  basalt,  being  surpris- 
ing. Some  of  the  early  statues  are  of  colossal 
size,  but  a  higher  style  of  art  is  shown  in  those 
of  ordinary  size,  though  a  certain  conventional 
treatment  ls  always  apparent.  The  most  usual 
kind  of  mural  sculpture,  a  kind  peculiar  to  the 
Egyptians,  is  that  known  as  hollow  or  sunk  re- 
lief (cavo-tiiievo).  The  general  outline  of  the 
object  intended  to  be  represented  is  cut  into 
the  smooth  surface  of  the  stone,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  minor  forms  and  rotundity  are 
represented  within  the  incised  outline.  By  this 
contrivance  the  details  of  the  sculptures  are  pro- 
tected. Sometimes  the  outline  is  excessively 
deep,  at  others  the  surface  of  the  figures  is  alto- 
gether much  lower  than  the  general  surface  of 
the  wall,  and  in  others  the  outline  is  but  slightly 
incised  with  a  corresponding  flatness  within. 
Wherever  the  Egyptians  practised  the  true  bas- 
relief  the  sculpture  is  almost  invariably  in  very 
low  relief.  The  back  view  of  the  human  figure 
is  never  represented  in  the  sculptures  excepting 
in  the  case  of  an  enemy,  and  then  rarely;  the 
figure  is  generally  represented  in  profile,  and 
there  are  but  few  attempts  at  delineating  the 
front  view  of  the  fool  or  of  the  face;  however, 
whether  the  face  be  represented  in  front  or  side 
view,  a  profile  eye  is  never  found.  The  figures 
of  the  king  in  battle-pieces,  and  of  tfie  landed 
proprietor  in  domestic  scettes,  are  always  on  a 
much  larger  scale  tban  the  other  actors  in  the 
piece.  Statues  and  reliefs  were  always  painted, 
and  when  wall  painting  is  employed  it  is  always 
as  a.  substitute  for  sculpture.  There  is  no  proper 
perspective,  and  certain  conventionalities  of 
color  arc  emploved.  The  Egyptians  arc  repre- 
sented with  red  and  yellow  complexions,  red 
ochre  for  the  men  and  yellow  for  the  women. 
The  hair  of  the  king  is  frequently  painted  blue, 
but  that  of  ordinary  men  black.  In  represent- 
ing the  various  nations  with  whom  Egypt  had 
intercourse,  the  artists  seem  to  have  endeavored 
to  imitate  the  complexions  peculiar  to  each. 
Ammen-Ra,  the  chief  divinity  of  Thebes,  is  al- 
ways painted  blue,  and  he  is  further  distin- 
guished by  two  high  feathers  which  he  wears 
in  his  cap.  The  inferior  divinities  are  not  un- 
commonly of  the  complexions  of  mortals.  The 
sky  or  heavens  are  invariably  indicated  by  a 
strip  of  blue  coming  downward  at  the  lower 
side  of  each  extremity,  and  occasionally  having 
upon  it  a  row  of  five-pointed  stars.  Water, 
seas  and  rivers  are  represented  by  zigiag  lines 
of  a  blue  or  green  color.  Mountains  have  a 
yellow  color,  with  red  spots  upon  it.  Egyptian 
art  was  at  its  highest  during  the  period  between 
the  4th  and  6th  dynasties,  and  notwith- 
standing its  defects  it  was  superior  to  that  of 
Nineveh  and  Babylon.  Gold  and  enamel 
jewelry  with  rich  necklaces  and  pectorals  of  a 
very  early  period  have  come  down  to  us.  Ar- 
tistic design  was  skilfully  applied  by  the 
Egyptians  to  articles  of  furniture,  ornament 
and  articles  of  domestic  use  —  mirrors,  spoons, 
chairs,  etc.  Wood,  ivory  and  various  metals 
were  used.  The  Phcenicians  and  Greeks  spread 
these  works  along  the  Mediterranean  littoral 
where  they  exerted  a  very  great  influence  on 
design,  (Sec  Art;  ScuLprtniE).  Consult  Lep- 
sius,  'Denkmiler'  (1874);  Perrot  and  C:hipiei, 
'History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egvpt'  (1883). 
Russell  SitiBcn. 


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HATHORIC  COLUMN.  TEMPI.F,  OF  DRNnRBA 


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EGYPTIAN   BEAN  — BOypTIAHLAHatTAOE   AND   WRITING 


15 


BGYPTIAN  BSAN,  a  name  sometimes 
givcD  to  the  bean-like  fruits  of  the  Nelimtbium 
tpecioaim,  the  sacred  loftus,  found  in  Asia  and 

EGYPTIAN  BLUB,  a  brilliant  pigment 
COTisisting  of  the  hydiated  protoxide  of  copper 
mixed  with  a  minute  quantity  of  iron. 

EGYPTIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  WRIT- 
ING. To  formulate  an  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
Eoup  to  which  the  ancient  language  of  Egypt 
longed,  it  b  best  to  follow  step  by  step  the 
Sradual  process  of  interpretation  and  secondly 
le  translation  of  the  numerous  texts  existing 
in  inscriptiDns  and  panvrl.  £y  so  doing  one  is 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  language  of  old 
Egypt  belonged  to  the  Semitic  family,  an  opin' 
Mln  objected  to  until  quite  recently.  The  first 
modem  studies  tending  to  elucidate  the  myste- 
rious tongue  locked  up  in  the  Egyptian  hiert*- 
glyphics  were  those  of  the  learned  Jesuit 
Athanasius  Kircher  (1601-80),  but  Ihcy,  like 
those  of  other  savants  of  the  17tfa  and  18tfa 
centuries,  were  without  result  until  the  discov- 
ery of  a  tablet  inscribed  in  three  languages  fur- 
nished the  key  to  the  history  of  an  ancient  civ- 
ilisation, whose  annals  extended  over  40  centu- 
ries. A  French  military  officer,  Captain  M. 
Boussard,  found  in  1798  or  1799  in  the  fori  of 
Saint  Julien  de  Rosetta  an  inscription  drawn 
1^  bj|  the  priests  of  Egypt  ^thered  at  Mem- 
phis, in  honor  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  (196  B.C.). 
The  first  inscription  was  carved  in  hieroglyph- 
ics, the  second  in  demotic  characters  and  the 
third  in  Greek.  The  inscriptions  were  comed 
and  copies  sent  to  several  academies.  The 
Rosetta  tablet  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Brit- 
ish in  1801  and  now  rests  in  the  British  Mu- 
setmi.  The  first  Greek  translation  was  that  of 
Du  Theil  and  Weston  in  I801-O2,  and  about 
the  same  time  Akerblad,  a  Swedish  Orientalist 
connected  with  the  embassy  at  Paris,  deciphered 
several  demotic  phrases,  identifying  the  equiv- 
alents of  the  names  of  Alexander,  Alexandria, 
Ptolemy  and  others,  being  ^ided  principally 
by  the  position  they  occupied  in  the  Greek  text. 
Subsequently  Thomas  Yomig  published  in  1819 
the  result  of  his  labors  in  this  field,  fominlat- 
ing  some  rudiments  of  an  Egyptian  vocabulary 
from  (he  Rosetta  Stone  and  from  other  monu- 
ments. Warburton,Barthelemy,Zaf^  and  others 
indicated  the  possibility  of  the  existence  of  a 
hieroglyphic  alphabet.  Finally  Champollion  the 
Youtwer,  prepared  by  his  studies  of  history 
and  philology,  brought  an  almost  complete  Ught 
to  bear  on  the  subject,  revealing  the  contents 
of  hieroglyphic  writing  on  many  inscriptions. 
His  'Precis  du  syst^me  hieroglvphique'  was  fol- 
lowed, after  his  death  in  1832,  bv  the  publication 
of  a  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  E^gyptian 
tongue.  Lepsius,  Birch,  Rouge,  Chabas  and 
others  continued  the  work  but  without  success 
hi  establishing  the  grammatical  structure  of  the 
works  on  a  solid  basis.  Gaston  Maspero  and 
Revillout  added  considerably  to  the  collection 
of  translation,  but  the  admirable  scientific  pre- 
cision of  the  modem  translations  was  first 
reaclud  in  1880  when  Louis  Stem  published  his 
Coptic  grammar,  and  when  Erman  published 
his  in  1502.  This  last-named  work  is  bwed  on 
wide  study  of  the  linguistic  variations  during 
the_  time  that  the  ancient  Egyptian  tongue  was 
a  hving  idiom.  It  shows  the  changes  of  dif- 
ferent periods  and  permits  that  those  who  stu# 


this  old  tongue  may  now  do  so  with  as  great 
security  as  those  who  undertake  the  study  of 
Latin  or  of  Greek.  The  investigations  of  tlu 
German  school,  which  counts  illustrious  mem- 
bers in  England,  Denmark,  the  United  States, 
Italy  and  France,  are  published  in  the  annals  of 
the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences.  From  the 
most  recent  studies  it  appears  that  the  ancient 
Egyptian  belonged  to  the  Semitic  branch. 
Until  recently  and  because  of  the  biliteral  roots 
of  the  Coptic,  it  was  supposed  thai  the  Egj'ptian 
language  should  be  classified  with  the  three 
sub-families  of  the  Hamite  group  previous  to 
the  formation  of  the  Semitic,  of  which  the 
tri literal  root  is  characteristic.  But  it  was 
shown  that  the  biliteral  roots  of  the  Coptic 
had  originated  from  triliterat  roots  of  the  early 
Egyptian  and  other  similarities  were  shown 
which  prove  conclusively  that  ancient  Egyptian 
belonged  to  the  Semitic  branch.  The  ancient 
language  had  four  periods:  (I)  that  of  the 
Ancient  Empire,  employed  until  some  centuries 
previous  to  our  era ;  (2)  colloquial  Egyptian, 
employed  by  merchants  and  in  social  inter- 
course, and  which  existed  from  the  5th  to 
the  17th  or  18th  dynasty;  (3)  the  popular 
tongue  from  the  18th  dynasty  to  the  end  of  the 
period  of  Roman  domination,  and  (4)  the 
language  of  the  country  from  the  propagation 
of  Christianity  until  it  ceased  to  be  spoken 
three  centuries  ago,  except  in  the  liturgy  of  the 
Coptic  Christians. 

Ancient  Egyptian  writing  had  three  forms: 
(!)  the  Hieroplypkic,  the  post  ancient,_  em- 
ployed on  inscriptions  on  temples,  tombs,  pillars 
and  statues ;  (2)  the  Hieratic,  the  abbreviated 
form  of  the  former.  It  was  employed  1^  the 
priests  from  the  4th  to  the  36th  dynasty;  (3) 
the  Drmoiic  or  popular  form,  which  began 
about  the  end  of  the  22d  dynasty  and  consisted 
of  conventional  signs.  The  hieroglyphic  writ- 
ing was  employed  with  small  variation  from 
the  4th  dynasty  nntil  the  3d  century  of 
onr  era.  The  signs  were  employed  in  three 
ways  —  1st,  representing  in  themselves  an  ob- 
ject, idea,  a  word  or  root;  2d,  representing  a 
syllable  or  part  of  a  word;  3d,  limiting  the 
sense  of  a  word  already  expressed  by  one  or 
more  signs.  Phonograms  were  few,  about  100 
in  all,  of  which  70  or  80  were  in  current  use. 
The  most  important  signs  are  those  represent- 
ing a  single  letter;  in  the  (Did  Empire  there 
were  24  of  these.  Signs  representing  two  let- 
ters were  about  SO,  and  those  which  represented 
three  letters  were  formed  by  combinations  of 
this  and  the  first  group.  Ideographic  signs 
were  represented  by  hieroglyphs  symbolizing  an 
idea,  viz. :  V  a  sceptre  signified  prince  or  ruler; 
^  the  moon;  O  the  sun;  an  inclined  wall 
S^  represented  the  action  of  falling,  etc.,  etc. 
HieroghTjhs  were  written  horizontally  or  per- 
pendicularly, reading  in  the  direction  in  which 
the  signs  figuring  birds  were  faced,  which  was 
generally  from  right  to  left  of  the  reader,  ex- 
cept in  cases  where  the  horizontal  direction 
was  changed  to  conform  with  the  sides  of  a 
door,  pylon,  etc.  To  preserve  a  symmetrical 
appearance  _  the  _  scHbes  were  accustomed  to 
firoup  the  signs  in  squared  areas  and  by  adopt-  " 
ing  syllabic  notation  when  the  signs  hindered 
such  symmetrical  disposition.  Only  the  con- 
sonants were  Kpresenled,  dius  adding  mate- 
rially to  the  difficulty  of  interpretation,  which 


8l^ 


BOYPTIAN   LITBRATURE 


is  also  complicated  by  the  fantastic  writing  of 
various  scribes  and  their  errors.  See  HlEBO- 
(a.VFHics ;  Egyptian  LinxATUBE, 

EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE.  The  advance 
that  has  been  made  in  recent  years  in  the  de- 
cipherment of  theancientwritings  of  the  world 
enables  us  to  deal  in  a  very  matter-of-fact  way 
with  the  Egyptian  inscriptions.  Their  chief 
mysteries  are  solved,  their  philosophy  is  almost 
fathomed,  their  general  nature  is  understood. 
The  story  they  have  to  tell  is  seldom  startling 
to  the  modern  mind.  The  world  was  younger 
when  they  were  written.  The  heart  of  man 
was  given  to  devious  ways  then,  as  now  and  in 
the  (wys  of  Solomon, —  tlial  we  can  affirm  full 
well;  but  his  mind  was  simpler;  apart  from 
knowledge  of  men  and  the  conduct  of  affairs, 
the  educated  Egyptian  had  no  more  subtlety 
tlian  a  modern  boy  of  15,  or  an  intelligent  Eng- 
lish rustic  of  a  century  ago. 

To  the  Egyptologist  by  profession  the  in- 
scriptions have  a  wonderful  chartn.  The  writ- 
ing itself  in  its  leading  form  is  the  most  at- 
tractive that  has  ever  been  seen.  Long  rows 
of  clever  little  pictures  of  things  in  heaven 
Knd  earth  compose  the  sentences ;  every  sign 
is  a  plaything,  every  group  a  pretty  puzzle,  and 
at  present,  almost  every  phase  well  under- 
stood brings  a  tiny  addition  to  the  sum  of  the 
world's  knowledge.  But  these  inscriptions,  so 
rich  in  facts  that  concern  the  history  of  man- 
kind and  the  progress  of  civilization,  seldom 
possess  any  literary  chann.  If  pretentious,  as 
many  of  them  are,'  they  combine  bald  exaggera- 
tion with  worn-out  simile.  In  which  ideas  that 
may  be  poetical  are  heai>ed  together  in  defiance 
of  art  Such  are  the  priestly  laudations  of  the 
kings  by  whose  favor  the  temples  prospered. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  dating  of  a  stela  erected 
under  Rameses  11  on  the  route  to  the  Nubian 
gold  mines.    It  nms:— 

On  tlw  {oorth  day  of  thi  fircl  n 


Bull,  bsloved 

and  of  the  ntu~,  , _,  ^^w«,««,^  *.„, 

As  t«t«niia.  tha  Gotden  HoTDS.  rich  in  nui.  great  ia 
TWtoriati  King  of  Upper  BKvyt  and  Kbib  at  Lown  Bnrpt. 


a  dindenn.  pntectinc  Bgnit  and  mtnmliu 


Bdtroe4  pf  Amtn,  snmtiw  life  rar  ever  and  ever,  beloved  cj 
Amen  Ra  lord  of  the  "Throne  of  the  Two   Land*"  hi  Apt 


pfotoctcil  _,,,- ., . 

lortros  of  Mrength  and  ol  nctoryi  lie  iriio  • 
from  tlw  ■mim'ti  to  take  to  hiouelf  hia  strenMh.  to  extend 
Ilia  txirden,  to  wboae  body  color  wai  given  cH  the  magth 
of  Mentu;  the  god  Honn  and  th*  god  Sat.  There  *■* 
exnltatkin  in  heavm  on  the  i\y  of  his  birth;  the  godi  nid, 
"We  h»ve  Ijegotlen  him"  :  the  goddeHei  "•"  "  «•  «-"• 
— .t  f ...  .^  ^^  jjij  lonsdom  of  Ra": 


Aitien  epalce.  "I 


forth  froiB  IK  to 

place;  the  mrth  ii  eslabii 
soda  an  Btiified  b)r  nUnn 

utinat  the  vile  Bthioiiua*.  wbicb  utteretfa  hit  roaiing  -^ 

tbe  land  of  the  lunioca  irtiile  tun  hoofi  Imnple  the  Troa- 
'  '  ■  1,  hia  horn  l&uiteth  ■*  timi.  hi.  m.v;f  ii  Tninh.u  T„ 


The  S 


sap. 


HoTua  of  the  1i 

the  South  m 


b  «i\  land!  becai 


I  of  Baica;  beloved 


migbty  m 

of  the  victoTT 

ime  Boia  cometh  fortt 

of  bu  father,  the  god 

'    '      'he  Lands  of 

the  Lmdof 


ing  his  similes  straight  from  nature,  as  in 
following  description,  also  of  Rameses  II  :- 

A   Victorioui  lion   putting   forth    iti.   i-lnw.    whllr   m 

loodlv  and  uttering  iti  voice  in 

.    .    .    A  Jackal  awift  □'  ' 

oolaa  Tound  the  circuit  oL  ._ , . .     .     .     . 

plant  with  the  Moim  behind  it.  like  the  atrong 

OBme  wtiich  hath  txted  the  fire,  deatroying,  until  every- 
thing that  i>  la  it  becometh  adua;  >  itonn  howling  terribly 
on  the  )e«,  its  wavei  like  oiountaini.  none  on  eoUx  it.Vvery 


Here  and  there  amoi^  the  hieroglyphic  in- 
scriptions are  found  memorials  of  the  dead,  in 
which  the  praises  of  the  deceased  are  neatly 
strung  together  and  balanced  like  beads  in  a 
necklace,  and  passages  occur  of  picturesque  nar- 
rative worthy  to  rank  as  literature  of  the  olden 
time.  We  may  quote  in  this  connection  from 
the  biographical  epitaph  of  Ameny,  who  was 
governor  of  a  province  in  middle  Egypt  for 
25  years  during  the  long  reign  of  Usertesen  I 


_  the  achievements  of  Ameny  and  the 

royal  favor  which  was  shown  him,  but  also 
tells  us  in  detail  of  the  capacity,  goodness, 
charm,  discretion  and  insight  1^  which  he 
attached  to  himself  the  love  and  respect  of  the 
whole  court,  and  of  the  people  over  whom  he 
ruled  and  for  whose  well-being  he  cared. 
Ameny  says; — 

.  profesBor  of  f  av( 
"-•"      Moreover 

I  the  work. .__ 

..,  Behold,  the  superintendent  of  th-  _ — . 

ornKiTiB  of  ttK  herdsmen  of  the  Oryi  nome  gave  me 

bulla  of  their  draught  atodr.  I  waa  praiaed  iat  it  in 

house  of  the  King  e«h  jmr  of   -    -  ■  '■         ■        ■       • 


wronged.  T 


the  King  eacti  y«r  of  atodc-ta^^Tt 
miks  to  the  King'i  hoose:  there  «eie  nu  wroin 
any  of  hia  offices. 
ittre  Oryx  nome  aerved  me  in  numoious  attend- 

waa  not  the  daughter  of  a  goor  man  that  1 

h  widow  that  I  opitroBcd.  There  was  not  a 
chaBtiaed,  not  a  herdsman  whom  1  drove 
•WB«.  ttot  a  foreman  of  five  whose  men  I  took  away  for  the 
works.  Tbwe  was  not  a.  pSTrper  around  rae,  there  waa  not 
a  hungry  man  of  my  time.  When  there  came  ycsn  of  famine, 
T  aroae  and  ploughed  bQ  the  f^lda  of  the  Oryx  nome  to  ita 
bomidarf  south  and  north.  Riving  life  tn  its  inhr*''" 

' ler  that  possssada  1 


and  I  favored  not  the  elder  above  the  younger  in  alt  that  f 

Sve.    Thereafter  great  rises  of  the  Nile  took  pUica.  p 
cmg  wheat  and  baiiey.  and   producing  a"  " -^ 

dantly.  but  I  did  not  euct  the  aireaii  of  tun 


following  may  be  selected  both  on  account  of 
jncturesqueness  of  expression  and  the  apprecia- 
tion of  fine  character  which  they  display; — 

Stxperintendent  of  all  tbinga  wbicb  heaven  giv^  and 
earth  producea.  owseer  of  horna.  hot^  featheim.  and  shells. 
.  .  .  Master  irf  the  ut  of  eiusiug  writing  to  speak. 
-  .  .  Caressing  of  heart  to  all  people,  making  to  prosper 
the  timid  man.  hospitable  to  all.  escorting  [travelenl  up  and 


le  of  planning  ei 


.  without  prvedinr 


banter,  the  abode  of  the  heart  of  the  Ki 
ing  the  right  when  he  judges  between  si 
ing  fraud,  knowing  how  to  proceed  ij 


suodl 


sin  bis 
S^k- 


tbegodol 


Buhea,  King  of  Upper  and  Lower  ^ypt.  MttMy  in  Trtt-k 
,^  Ra,  son  of  Ra.  of  hia  body.  Lord^of  Diadema.  trsmsa 
Btlixtd  of  Amm.  giving  life  for  ever  and  ever  like  hia  (atbei 


_Jng  lie  knot  i- . .     . 

favors  in  the  hooie  of  the  King,  contenting  the  heart  on  the 
day  of  making  division,  csrefol  of  hia  goingB  to  hit  equals. 
gaining  reverence  on  the  day  of  weii^ing  worda.  tiskived 

The  cursive  forms  of  writing  —  hieratic 
from  the  earliest  times,  demotic  in  the  latest  — 
were  those  in  which  records  were  committed  to 
papyrus.  This  material  has  preserved  to  us 
documents  of  every  kind,  from  letters  and 
ledgers  to  works  of  religion  and  philosopfav. 
To  these,  again,  literature  is  a  tem  rarely 


BGYPTIAH  UTBRATURK 


IV 


to  l>e  w^cd;  y*t  tbe  tales  and  poetry  occasion- 
ally met  with  on  papyri  are  perhaps  the  most 
pleasing  of  all  tiie  productions  of  uie  Egyptian 

be  confessed  that  tbe  knowledge  of 


writing  in  Egypt  led  to  a  kind  of  primitive 
pedantry,  and  a  taste  for  unnatural  and  to  us 
childish  formality;  the  free  play  and  naivete  of 
the  story-teller  is  too  often  choked,  and  the  art 
of  literary  finish  was  little  understood.  Sim- 
plicity and  truth  to  nature  alone  gave  tasting 
charm,  for  though  Bdomment  was  often  at- 
tempted, their  rude  arts  of  literary  anbellistiT 
mcot  were  seldom  otherwise  than  clumsily  em- 
ployed. 

A  word  should  be  said  about  the  strange 
condition  in  which  most  of  the  literary  texts 
have  come  down  to  us.  It  is  rarely  that  mon- 
umental inscriptions  contain  serious  blonders  of 
ortbograpfay;  tbe  peculiarities  of  late  archaistic 
inscriptions  which  sometimes  produce  a  kind  of 


intended  to  convey.  But  it  is  otherwise  with 
copies  of  literary  works  on  papyrus.  Some- 
times these  were  the  productions  of  schoolboys 
co^ng  from  tfictation  as  an  exercise  in  the 
wriliiig  school,  and  the  blank  edges  of  these 
pafprri  are  often  decorated  with  essays  at  exe- 
cuting tb«  more  difficult  signs.  Tbe  master  of 
the  school  would  seem  not  to  have  cared  what 
nonsense  wai  produced  by  the  mieondersiand- 
log  of  his  dictation,  so  lon^  as  the  signs  were 
wul  formed.  The  composition  of  new  works 
on  the  model  of  the  old,  and  tbe  accurate  nnder- 
standiiur  of  the  ancient  works,  were  taught  in  a 
very  ditFerent  school,  and  few  indeed  attained 
to  skill  tm-  diem.  The  boys  turned  out  of  the 
writing  school  would  read  and  write  a  little; 
the  dercr  ones  would  keep  accounts,  write  let- 
ters, make  out  reports  as  cler^  in  the  govern- 
ment service,  and  might  ultimately  acquire  con- 
siderable pn>ficieocy  in  this  land  of  work. 
Apparently  men  of  the  official  class  sometimes 
amused  themselves  with  puzzling  over  an  ill 
written  copy  of  some  ancient  tale,  and  with 
trying  to  copy  portions  of  it  The  work,  how- 
ever, was  beyond  them ;  thn  were  attracted  by 
it,  tbey  revered  the  compiUktions  of  an  elder 
age  and  those  which  were  'written  by  the  finger 
of  Thoth  himself* ;  but  the  science  of  language 
was  unborn,  and  uiere  was  little  or  no  mle- 
matic  instruction  given  in  the  principles  of  the 
ancient  grammar  and  vocabulary.  Those  who 
desired  to  attain  eminence  in  sdiolarslnp  after 
they  had  passed  through  the  writing  school  bad 
to  go  to  HeIioi»olis,  Hermopolis  or  wherever 
the  principal  university  of  the  time  might  be, 
and  there  sit  at  the  feet  of  priestly  professors; 
who  we  fancy  were  reverenced  as  demigods, 
and  wbo  in  mysterious  fashion  and  with  nig- 

Srjlly  hand  imparted  scraps  of  knowledge  to 
sir  eager  pupils.  Those  endowed  with  spe- 
cial talents  might  after  almost  Kfelong  study 
become  pro6cient  in  tbe  ancient  langnaee. 
Would  that  we  might  one  day  discover  om 
hoard  of  rolls  of  such  a  cooyist  and  wiJterl 

There  must  have  been  a  large  class  of  hack' 
copfista  practised  in  fanning  characters  both 
uncial  and  cursive.  Sometimes  their  cofries  of 
religiotis  works  are  models  of  deft  writing,  the 
embdlisiiinents  of  artist  and  colorist  being 
added  to  those  of  the  calKgrapber ;  die  magnifi' 


cent  rolls  of  the  'Book  of  the  Dead'  in  tbe 
British  Museum  and  elsewhere  are  the  admira- 
tion of  all  beholders.  Such  manuscripts  satisfy 
the  eye,  and  apparently  neither  the  multitude  in 
Egypt  nor  even  the  priestly  royal  undertakers 
questioned  their  efficacy  in  tbe  tomb.  Yet  are 
diey  very  apples  of  Sodom  to  the  hiero^yphic 
scholar,  fair  without  hut  ashes  within.  On 
comparing  different  copies  of  the  same  text,  be 
sees  in  abiost  every  line  cKnissions,  perversionj, 
corruptions,  until  he  turns  away  bamed  and  dis- 
^sted.  Only  here  and  there  is  the  text  prac- 
tically certain,  and  even  then  there  are  probably 
grammatical  blunders  in  every  copy.  Nor  is  it 
only  in  the  later  papyri  that  these  blunders  are 
met  with  The  hieroglyphic  system  of  writing, 
especially  in  its  cursive  forms,  lends  itself  very 
r^uUly  to  perversion  by  ignorant  and  inattentive 
copyists;  and  even  moniunental  inscriptions,  so 
long  as  they  are  mere  copies,  are  usually  cor- 
rupted. The  most  ridiculous  perversions  of  all 
date  from  the  Rameses  epodi  when  the  dim 
past  had  lost  its  diarm,  for  the  glories  of  the 
18th  dynasty  were  still  fresh,  wnile  new  mi- 
pulses  and  forei^  influence  bad  brdcen  down 
adherence  to  tradition  and  isolation. 

In  the  8th  century  B.C.  the  new  and  the  old 
were  definitely  parted,  to  the  advantaRe  of  each.' 
On  tbe  one  hand  the  transactions  ol  ordinary 
life  were  more  easily  registered  in  tbe  cursive 
demotic  script,  while  on  tbe  other  the  sacred 
writings  were  more  thoroughly  investigated  and 
brought  into  order  by  the  priests.  Hence,  in 
spite  of  absurdities  ttut  had  irremedia^  crept 
in,  the  archaistic  texts  copied  in  the  2oib  dy- 
nasty are  more  intell^ble  than  the  same  class 
of  work  on  tbe  19th  and  20th  dynasties. 

In  reading  translations  from  ^^yptian,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  uncertainty  still  re- 
mains concerning  tbe  meanings  of  multitudes 
of  words  and  phrases.  Every  year  witnesses  a 
great  advance  in  accuracy  of  rendering;  but  the 
translation  even  of  an  easy  text  still  requires- 
here  and  there  some  close  and  careful  guess- 
work to  simply  tbe  connecting  links  of  passives 
or  words  that  are  thoroughly  understood,  or  tbe 
resort  to  some  conventional  rendering  Utat  ha» 
become  current  for  certain  111  understood  but 
frequently  recurring  phrases.  The  Egyptolo- 
gist is  now  to  a  great  extent  himself  aware 
whether  tbe  ground  on  which  he  is  treading 
is  firm  or  treacherous,  and  it  seems  desirable  to 
make  a  rule  of  either  giving  tbe  public  only 
what  can  be  warranted  as  sound  translation, 
or  else  of  warning  tfaem  where  accuracy  is 
doubtful.  A  few  years  ago  such  a  course 
would  have  curtailed  die  area,  for  selection  to 
a  few  of  the  simplest  stories  and  historical  in- 
scriptions; but  now  we  can  ran^  over  almost 
tbe  whole  field  of  Egyptian  writing^  and  gadier 
from  any  part  of  it  irarranted  samples  to  set 
before  the  reading  public  The  labor,  however, 
involved  in  producing  satisfactory  translations 
for  publication,  not  mere  hasty  readings  which 
may  give  somethii^  of  the  sense,  is  very  Rreat; 
and  at  present  few. texts  have  been  nbnlTren' 
dered 

We  mi^  now  sfcetid)  bri^y  the  hiatdrycof 
Egyptian  literature,  dealing  with  the  subject  iir 

1.  The  Andent  Kfatgdom,  About  4400  B.C^ 
3000  B.C.— The  earlier  historic  period  — fronr 
the    1st    dynasty   to   the    3d,    about    37(6 '%C- 


.lOOgle 


18 


bqyphan  litbraturb 


^las  left  no  insciiptions  to  any  extent  Some 
portions  of  the  'Book  of  the  Dead*  (ti.v.)  pro- 
less  to  date  from  these  or  earlier  times,  and 
Drobably  much  of  the  religious  literature  is  of 
extremely  ancient  origin.  The  first  book  of 
'Proverbs'  in  the  Prisse  Papyrus  is  attributed 
by  its  writer  to  the  end  of  the  3d  dynasty 
(about  3766  B.C.).  From  the  4tb  dynasty  to 
the  end  of  the  6th  (3100  b.c)  the  nimiber  of 
the  inscriptions  increases;  tablets  set  up  to 
the  kings  of  the  4th  dvnas^  in  memory  of 
warlike  raids  are  foond  in  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai,  and  funerary  inscriptions  aoound.  The 
pyramids  raised  at  the  end  of  the  5th  and 
during  the  6tb  dynasties  are  found  to  ccmtain 
interminable  reli^ous  inscriptions,  ionnii^  al- 
most complete  ntuaJs  for  the  deceased  kings. 
Professor  Maspero,  who  has  published  these 
texts,  states  that  they  "contain  much  verbiage, 
many  pious  platitudes,  many  obscure  allusions 
to  the  atfairs  of  the  other  world,  and  among 
all  this  rubbish  some  passages  full  of  movement 
and  wild  energy,  in  which  poetical  inspiration 
and  rehgious  emotion  are  still  discemible 
through  the  veil  of  mythological  expressions.* 
Of  the  funerary  and  biographical  inscriptions 
the  most  remarkable  is  that  of  Una,  an  official 
of  King  Mer-en-ra  (6th  dynasty). 

Another,  later  but  hardly  less  important,  is 
on  the  facade  of  the  tomb  of  Hehrhuf,  at  As- 
wan, and  recounts  the  expeditions  into  Ethiopia 
and  the  southern  oasis  which  this  resourceful 
man  carried  through  successfully.  In  Hehi^ 
huf's  later  life  he  delighted  a  boy  king  of 
Egypt  by  bringing  back  for  him  from  one  of 
his  raids  a  grotesque  dwarf  dancer  of  excep- 


on  the  tomb  as  an  addition  to  the  other  records 
there.  It  is  to  the  5th  dynasty  also  that  the 
second  collection  of  "Proverbs'  in  the  Prisse 
Papyrus  is  dated.  The  7th  and  8th  dynasties 
have  left  us  practically  no  records  of  any  kind. 


dynastj'  shows  a  great  literary  development. 
Histoncal  records  of  some  len^  are  not  un- 
common. The  funerary  inscnptioiis  descrip- 
tive of  character  and  achievement  are  often 
remarkaUe. 

Many  papyri  of  this  period  have  survived: 
the  Prisse  Papyrxis  of  'Proverbs,*  a  papyrus 
discovered  by  Mr.  Flinders  Petrie  with  the 
'Hymn  to  Usertesen  HI,'  papyri  at  Berlin  con- 
taining a  dialiMCue  between  a  man  and  his  soul, 
the  'Story  of  Sanehat,'  the  'Story  of  the 
Sekhti,'  and  a  very  remarkable  fragment  of 
another  story;  besides  the  'Westcar  Papyrus  of 
Tales'  and  at  Saint  Petersburg  the  'Ship- 
wrecked Sailor.'  The  productions  of  this  pe- 
riod were  copied  in  later  times;  the  royal 
^Teaching  of  Amenemhat'  and  the  worldly 
'Teaching  of  Daaf  as  to  the  desirability  of  a 
scribe's  career  above  any  other  trade  or  pro- 
fession exist  only  in  late  copies.  Portions  of 
the  'Book  of  the  Dead'  are  found  inscribed  on 
tombs  and  sarcophagi. 

3.  The  New  Kintdoiiit  etc—  From  the  New 
Kingdom,  1600-700  b.c.,  we  have  the  'Uaxims 
of  Any,'  spoken  to  his  son  Khonsu  Helcp,  nu- 
merous hymns  to  the  gods,  IncIudiAg  that  of 
King  Akhenaten  (Amenhotep  IV>  to  the  disc 
of  me  sun,  and  hymns  to  Amen  Ra.    Inscrip- 


tions of  every  kind  historical,  mythological 
and  ftinereal,  abound.  The  historical  inscrip- 
tion of  Piaokhi  is  of  very  late  date.  On  papyri 
are  the  stories  of  'The  Two  Brothers,'  of  'The 
Taking  of  Joppa,'  of  the  'Doomed  Princ*.' 

From  the  Saitc  period  (26th  dynasty,  160 
B,c.)  and  later,  there  is  little  worthy  of  record 
in  hiero^yphics ;  the  inscriptions  follow  ancient 
models.  In  deinotic  we  have  the  'Slory  of 
Setna,'  a  papyrus  of  moralities,  a  chronicle 
somewhat  falsified,  a  harper's  song,  a  philosoph- 
ical dialogue  between  a  cat  ami  a  jackal  and 

Here  we  mi^t  end.  Greek  authors  in  l^c^ 
were  manyj  some  were  native,  some  of  foreign 
birth  or  extraction,  but  they  all  belong  to  a  dif- 
ferent world  from  the  anaent  Egyptian.  With 
the  adaptation  of  the  Greek  alphabet  to  the 
spelling  of  the  native  dialects,  Egyptian  came 
again  to  the  front  in  Coptic,  the  language  of 
Christian  Egypt  Coptic  literature,  if  such  it 
may  be  called,  was  almost  entirely  produced  in 
Egyptian  monasteries  and  intended  for  edifica- 
tion Let  us  hope  that  it  served  its  end  in  its 
day.  To  us  the  dull,  extravagsnt  and  fantastic 
'Acts  of  the  Saints,'  of  which  its  ori^nal  worics 
chiefly  consist,  are  tedious  and  ridiculous  ex- 
cept tor  the  linguist  or  the  Church  historian. 
They  certainly  dismay  the  adjustment  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  mud  to  new  conditions  of  life 
and  belief. 

Some  Modem  Texts  and  Tranalations^— 
The  bulk  of  the  Egyptian  literature  has  been 
preserved  in  papyri,  nearly  all  of  which  are  scat- 
tered in  the  various  museums  of  Europe.  Nine 
papyri  out  of  10  contain  the  religious  books  and 
rituals  which  were  placed  with  the  mummies 
in  the  coffins  or  in  the  sepulchral  -chambers. 
The  most  famous  of  them  is  the  'Book  of  the 
Dead, '  a  compilation  of  prayers  and  magical  in- 
cantations intended  to  ensure  the  security  of  die 
soul  in  the  other  world,  and  to  serve  it  as  a 
sort  of  password  in  the  travels  it  was  compelled 
to  undertake  before  reaching  the  Hall  of 
Jud^ent  EUld  the  Elysium  Fields.  Several 
copies  of  this  book  have  been  reproduced  in 
facsimile  by  Lepsius  ('Das  Todtenbuch  der 
alten  Agypter,'  Berlin  1842)  and  by  E.  de  Rougi 
('Ritud  fundraire  des  Aaciens  Sgyptiens,' 
Paris  1861-64)  but  the  sUndard  edition  is  that 

grojected  by  the  International  Congress  of 
orientalists  in  London  (1S74)  and  executed  in 
part  by  Naville  in  'Das  thebanische  Todten- 
buch der  XVIIl  bis  XX  Dyuastie'  (Berlin 
1886).  It  gives,  however,  only  those  chapters 
which  are  to  be  found  in  the  manuscripts  of 
the  Theban  period.  Translations  of  the  whole 
book  exist  in  English,  prepared  by  Birch  (in 
Bunsen's  'Egypt's  Place  In  Universal  History,' 
Vol  V,  1866)  and  by  Lc  Page^RenouE  in  'Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Archeology.' 
Rituals  proper,  that  is  collections  of  the  cere- 
monies of  prayers  performed  in  the  temples  and 
tombs  — are  very  numerous;  such  are  the  ritual 
for  the  cult  of  the  Theban  Amon.  The  Open- 
ing of  the  Mouth  and  the  other  rites  performed 
on  tne  day  of  burial  have  been  preserved  to  us 
in  the  pyramids  of  the  5th  and  6th  dynasties 
and  in  the  private  and  royal  vaults  of  the  The- 
ban cemeteries.  The  texts  in  the  iwramids  have 
been  odlecied  and  translated  by  Maspero  and 
those  of  the  Theban  hypogees  by  SchiaparelU 
('11  libra  dei  Funer«Ii  d^  AntidiL  Egidam,' 


.yGoot^Ic 


BOYPTIAN    HUSIC  — EOYPTIAN    RBLIGION   AND   SOCIOLOGY 


Rome  ie8(M>0) .  Books  of  magic  abound, 
though  Ihe^  are  not  as  numerous  as  the  ritual- 
istic or  religious  worics.  Most  of  them  are  un- 
published  as  yet,  but  the  translation  of  Giabas 
(<Le  papyrus  magique  Harris,'  Chalons-mr- 
Saone  1861);  Pleyte  ('Etude  sur  un  rouleau 
magique,  etc')  and  Lefebrtire  ('Un  chapitre  de 
la  cbronique  solaire*)  give  a  sufRcient  idea  of 
the  trays  in  nrfiich  Pharaoh's  magidans  were 
wont  to  conjure  (he  demons.  That  they  were 
s  prosecuted  as  adepts  in  die  black  i 


III.  Magicians  often  acted  as  phystda  _  __ 
surgeons,  and  no  remedy  could  be  properly 
applied  without  their  help.  About  20  treatises 
on  tnedidne  are  known  to  exist,  of  whidi  a  few 
have  been  published  ( 'Papyrus  midical  de 
Berlin').  H)ers  studied  and  published  com- 
ments upon  portions  of  his  papyrus  which  relate 
to  the  diseases  of  the  eye.  No  papyrus  treating 
of  astronomy  has  yet  been  dis<^>vered,  but  the 
calendars,  zodiacs,  astronomical  and  astrolo^cal 
tables  which  abound  on  the  walls  of  temples  and 
torobs  at  Ombos,  Esneh,  Edfu,  Denderah  the 
Ramesseum,  the  Memnonium  of  Abydos  and 
others,  furnish  a  large  quantity  of  material. 
Three  mathematical  papyri  have  been  found, 
one  of  Roman  times  and  one  from  the  IZth 
dynasty  and  one  at  Thebes.  There  are  several 
works  on  philosophy,  which  was  limited  to  a 
rendition  of  mor^  precepts  and  aphorisms  on 
the  conduct  of  life.  Some  are  very  ancient  — 
the  'Papyrus  Prisse'  seems  to  have  been  writ- 
ten in  the  12th  dynasty  and  has  been  called 
■the  oldest  book  in  the  world."  Poems  and 
songs  are  by  no  means  rare  in  the  manuscripts. 
The  remains  of  two  collections  of  love-songs 
have  been  studied  by  Maspcro  ( 'Etudes  Egyp- 
tiennes,*  Vol.  1)  and  the  poem  on  the  battle  of 
Kadesh,  in  which  Rameses  JI  is  made  to  de- 
scribe how  he  fought  against  the  Hittites,  u 
widely  known.  There  was  a  whole  literature 
of  stories  akin  to  the  'Arabian  Ni^ts.'  De 
Roug^  discovered  the  first  of  them  in  1852  and 
entitled  it  <A  Tale  of  Two  Brothers'  and  since 
then  about  20  have  been  published;  the  most 
curious  among  them  are  the  'Tale  of  the 
Wicked  Mariner*  {(Jolenischeff,  <Su 


Papyrus  Westeor,'  Berlin  1891).  They  have  been 
collected  by  Maspero  in  his  'Conte.'i  populaircs 
de  I'andenne  figypte'  (2d  ed.,  Paris  1890). 
Even  fables  were  current  in  Egypt  which  the 
Greeks  attributed  to  .Ssop;  the  fable  of  'The 
Lion  and  the  Mouse'  (Lauth,  'Their  nabe!  in 
Agypten,'  Munich  1868)  and  'Dispute  of  the 
Members  and  the  Stomach'  (Maspero,  op,  cil.. 
Vol.  1).  Private  letters  have  come  down,  many 
of  them  sealed  and  unopened,  others  preserved 
in  anthologies,  where  teachers  of  the  19th 
and  20lh  dynasties  had  inserted  spedmens  of  de- 
scriptions and  poetical  epistles,  offidat  reports 
on  administrative  subjects,  as  models  of  ele- 
Mnt  style  for  the  young  scribes,  their  oupils. 
Several  of  these  have  been  published  by  the 
trustees  of  the  British  Museum  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  'Select  Papyri'  (London  1841-44). 
The  Old  Egyptian  language  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  continuous  research  and  there  are  many 
excellent  grammars  but  lexicognqihy  is  ool  so 
wdl  advanced.     For  die  constant  progress  in 


this  field  of  uncovering  the  andent  literature  of 
Egypt  consult  the  notes,  pamphlets,  papers,  etc., 
inserted  in  the  various  journals  of  Europe  and 
America.  Consult  also  'Transactions  and  Pro- 
ceedings' of  the  Sodety  of  Biblical  Archxology 
and  'Memoirs  of  the  Egyptian  Exploration 
Fund'  in  England;  the  'Zeitschrift  der 
Deutschen  Moi^enlandischen  Gesellscbaft'  and 
the  'Zdtschrift  fiir  Agyptische  Sprache  uad 
Alteithiunskunde,'  in  (jermany;  and  the  Jour- 
nal Asiatiqut,  Revut  de  fHistoire  dtt  Rtligiom, 
Ae  Revue  Egyptologigne,  in  France;  (Prince) 
Ibrabim-Hilmy,  'The  Literature  of  Egypt  and 
The  Soudan'   (2  vols.,  London  1886-88).     See 

H:EB0(a.YFBIC3. 

Samuel  Augustus  Binion, 
Author  of  ^Ancient  Egypt  or  Mitraim.* 
SOYPTIAN  HU8IG.  Our  knowledge  of 
the  music  of  andent  Egypt  is  vety  meagre. 
We  have  short  accounts  of  it  in  Greek  author* 
and  we  find  spedmens  of  their  musical  instru- 
ments and  there  have  survived  nmnerous  illus- 
trations of  others,  together  with  scenes  repre- 
senting the  singing  of  odes  to  the  gods,  or  meir 
heroes,  funeral  dirges,  and  we  know  that  musi- 
cians and  dancers  formed  a  part  of  all  enter- 
tainments. In  general  thnr  instruments  arc  of 
At  same  character  as  those  of  the  Hebrews  and 
Assyrians,  from  which  we  infer  that  thrir 
music  was  of  the  same  general  type  as  that  of 
these  neighboring  dvilized  peoplejs.  Their  first 
mnsic  was  merely'  an  accompaniment  to  the 
dance,  as  we  find  representations  of  singers 
dapping  their  hands  in  rh:^thm  to  the  moboni 
of  the  dance.  Vocal  music  was  made  up  of 
solos  and  chornses.  Women  often  sang  without 
musical  accompaniment,  but  it  appears  that  men 
rarely  did  so.  Man;^  songs  have  been  preserved, 
one  of  the  oldest  being  that  of  the  oxen  thre^- 
ing  out  the  com:  The  Egyptians  had  no  clear 
or  fixed  ideas  of  harmony  and  possessed  no 
system  of  notation  although  they  had  many 
treatises  on  music.  The  harp,  lyre,  flute, 
trumpet,  drum,  cj^nbals  and  tambourine  were 
their  principal  instruments.  We  find  notices  of 
the  harp  prior  to  3000  ac.  At  first  it  had  but 
7  strings  increasing  gradually  to  22.  The 
strinp  were  of  catgut.  It  had  no  pedals  and 
coufcj  be  played  in  but  one  key.  The  lyre  was 
also  a  popular  instrument  of  from  6  to  20 
strings.  Flutes  were  in  use  at  an  early  period. 
About  500 'B.C  the  Ir-bouni,  a  kind  of  banjo, 
came  into  use.  It  generally  had  tnit  one  string, 
allhoiuih  some  specimens  have  two  or  three.  A 
shoulder  harp  was  also  in  vogue  about  this  time ; 
it  was  played  when  resting  on  the  shonlder.  It 
was  a  medium  between  the  harp  and  guitar.  All 
these  instruments  underwent  considerable  de- 
velopment in  the  course  of  lime  and  Uiere  were 
also  a  number  of  derived  instruments.  Both 
women  and'  men  played  on  these,  although  cer- 
tain instruments  appear  to  have  been  peculiar  to 
each  sex.  Consult  Engel,  'Music  of  the  An- 
cients' (London  1864) ;  Mathews,  'Popular 
History  of  Music'  (Chicago  1894) ;  Smith, 
'Worid's  Earliest  Music'   (London  1904). 

v:  EGYPTIAN  RBLIGION  AND  SOCI- 
OLOGY. Religion.— No  satisfactory  treat- 
ment of  andent  Egyptian  religion  has  ap- 
peared, thou^  the  subject  was  one  of  the  first 
to  awaken  interest  in  modem  times.    The  namn 


BOYPTIAN   RELIGION   AND   SOCIOLOGY 


of  the  deities  of  the  Pantheon  are  well  known 
and  their  general  characteristics  are  sufficiently 
defined,  but  the  gradations  between  them  and 
the  conceptions  which  gave  ihem  force  are  ob- 
scured not  only  by  the  most  curious  inconsisten- 
cies but  by  the  fog  of  mythology  which  is  for 
the  most  part  unknown  to  us.  Religious  con- 
ceptions ejcisted  during  all  periods,  but  never  a 
religion  in  any  true  sense.  It  is  plain  enough 
that  the  differences  in  religious  belief  and  prac- 
tice corresponded  to  the  primitive  condition  of 
the  land,  each  district  having  its  chief  object  of 
veneration.  It  was  a  condition  of  Henotheism 
out  of  whiciL  in  consequence  of  the  closer  con- 
tact produced  by  the  union  of  the  nomoi  under 
a  central  government,  there  grew  up  a  system 
of  national  polytheism  in  wnich  the  print^al 
god  of  the  capital  gained  pre-eminence.  The 
ori^nal  deities  were  objects  of  nature,  but 
their  development  was  varions  in  the  different 
nomoi.  Only  at  a  later  date  did  gods  appear 
who  represented  abstract  or  cosmogonical 
ideas.  When  intimate  association  occurred 
there  was  a  resultant  confusion  of  attributes 
and  names.  The  hegcmonr  of  the  god  of  the 
capital  contained  in  itself  tne  motives  of  Mono- 
theism, but  there  is  no  indication  that  Mono- 
theism was  the  original  form  of  the  Egyptian 
religion  or  that  the  people  ever  advanced  to  it, 
in  spite  of  such  phrases  as  "the  only  god'  and 
the  like.  When  carefully  examined  these  ex- 
pressions are  found  to  refer  to  the  deity  held 
in  special  reverence  in  a  particular  locality,  the 
'city  Kod*  or  the  leader  of  the  local  triad  or 
enneao.  Endowed  temples  and  independent 
priests  of  separate  deities  prove  that  a  deter- 
mined resistance  was  made  to  any  attempt  to 
introduce  monotheism,  such  as  is  actually  seen 
in   the  case  of  Amenophis  IV.     Ptah  was  the 

Gd  of  Memphis;  Neith,  the  warlike  goddess  of 
byan  Sais ;  Chnum  of  Elephantine  was  the 
deity  of  the  cataract  regions ;  Nechebt  was  god- 
dess of  the  south  in  general;  Min  was  the  desert 
Sod ;  Osiris  of  Abydon  supplanted  an  earlier 
eity;  Amon  of  Thebes,  Anubis  of  Tycopolia, 
Turn  of  Heliopolis.  Bast  of  Bubastis,  Sebek  of 
the  Fayum,  Hathor  of  Denderah,  Horus  of 
Edfu,  Thotfa  of  Hermopolis,  Mont  of  Her- 
motithes  are  examples  of  the  local  ftods. 

The  forms  of  many  of  the  deities  are  ex- 
tremely grotesque.  It  may  be  a  human  or  ani- 
mal shape  but  frequently  it  is  a  mixture  of  the 
two;  the  human  trunk  being  surmounted  by  an 
animal  head.  Thus  Ptah  appears  as  the  Apis- 
Bull;  Hapi,  Amon  and  Chnum  as  rams;  Sebek 
as  a  crocodile-headed  man;  Nechebt  as  a  ser- 
pent; Mut  as  a  vulture;  Anubis  as  a  jackal- 
headed  man ;  Bast  as  a  cat-headed  woman ; 
Secfamet  and  Tefmut  as  lion-headed;  Hathor  as 
a  cow;  Horus  as  a  hawk,  or  hawk-headed  man; 
Thoth  as  an  ibis.  The  Phicnix  is  ^ssibly  de- 
rived from  Benu  of  Hieropolis,  which  aj^ieari 
as  a  heron. 

In  various  periods  of  the  history  certain 
deities  appear  as  deifications  of  the  powers  of 
nature:  Ra,  the  sun,  the  ruler  of  the  world, 
having  his  sanctuary  at  Heliopolis,  was  even  in 
prehistoric  times  conceived  as  a  person ;  Horus, 
the  bringer  of  light,  is  represented  in  conflict 
with  Set,  the  god  of  darkness;  Ra-Harmachis 
w»s  the  rising  sun;  Ra-Ttlffl  Ae  sun  at  evening. 
Thoth  was  also  worshipped  as  the  moon.  The 
number  of  mythological  beings,  such  as  Nun, 
the  original  ocean,  out  of  which  Ra  proceeded. 


is  beyond  number.  Mat,  the  goddess  of  truths 
represents  a  large  class  which  symbolizes 
abtiract  notions.  Deities  are  also  portrayed  in 
pairs,  such  as  Aeb,  god  of  earth,  and  Hut,  god- 
dess of  Heaven,  Snu  and  Tefnut,  Osiris  and 
Isis,  In  these  pairs  is  seen  the  family  relation 
which  is  carried  out  in  numerous  ways,  not 
without  great  confusion.  Much  of  the  religion 
has  its  explanation  only  in  connection  with  the 
future  life.  When  the  soul  or  "double"  (Ao) 
left  the  body,  the  latter  was  preserved  with  ex- 
treme care  and  deposited  in  a  secure  tomb,  for 
the  personal  existence  of  the  disembodied  spirit 
depended  upon  the  absolute  preservation  of  the 
mummy.  The  future  of  the  individual  was  de- 
termined by  a  judgment  which  ts  represented 
as  weighing  of  the  heart  by  Horus,  who  coun- 
terbalances it  with  the  symbol  of  the  truth. 
Mat,  the  goddess  of  truth,  watches  the  opera- 
tion, and  Thoth,  scribe  of  the  gods,  registers  the 
result.  In  the  earliest  periods  specific  beliefs 
as  to  their  nature,  qualities  and  powers,  clustered 
about  the  individual  deities,  but  these  did  not 
become  a  true  mythology  till  the  amalgamation 
of  variant  views  under  the  iniluence  of  the 
national  union  of  the  nomoi.  The  confusion 
which  resulted  led  to  attempts  at  harmony.  But 
little  is  known  of  this  mass  of  m^hology, 
which  must  have  been  very  extensive  if  one  is 
to  judge  by  the  allusions  abounding  in  every 
religious  text. 

The  ancient  Egvplian  religion  was,  there- 
fore, a  kind  of  philosophical  pantheism,  the 
various  attributes  of  the  deity  being  divided 
amone  the  different  gods  of  the  Pantheon.  Un- 
like the  Greek,  where  a  god  was  honored  in  a 
separate  temple,  each  Egyptian  diviniw  was 
accompanied  by  a  p<Mt,  or  'company*  of  com- 
panion-gods. 

A  few  foreign  deities  became  at  the  close  of 
the  18th  dynasty  engrafted  upon  the  religious 
system —  as  Bar.  Baal:  Asktarata,  Ashtaroth; 
Anta,  Anaitis;  Ken,  Kiun;  Reshpu,  Reseph; 
Set,  or  Sutekh,  sometimes  identified  with  Baal. 
All  the  ^ds  had  human  passions  and  affections, 
and  their  mode  of  action  was  material  -  they 
walked  on  earth,  or  sailed  throu^  euiereal 
Miace  in  boats.  First  amongr  the  deities  comes 
Ptah,  the  opener,  represented  as  the  creator  of 
the  world,  the  sun  and  moon,  out  of  chaos  (ha) 
or  matter,  to  whom  belong  Sekhet,  'the  lioness* 
and  Bast,  Bubastis,  lion-beaded  goddesses  pre- 
siding over  fire,  and  Nefer-Tum,  his  son,  a  god 
wearing  a  lotus  on  his  head.  Next  in  the  cosmic 
order  is  Chnum — worshipped  at  Elephantine  — 
the  ram-headed  god  of  the  liquid  element,  who 
also  created  the  matter  of  which  the  gods  were 
made ;  and  connected  with  him  are  the  goddesses 
Heka  the  Frog,  or  "primeval  formation,'  Sati, 
or  'sunbeam*  and  Anuka,  alluding  to  the  gene- 
sis of  the  cosmos.  The  Theban  triad  comprised 
Amen-ra,  "the  hidden"  power  of  the  'sun,*  the 
Jupiter;  Mul,  the  'Mother*  goddess  of  "Mat- 
tel* the  Juno;  Wi(,  the  "Shuttle,*  tie  Minerva; 
and  Khons,  'Force*  is  Hercules,  a  lunar  type. 
A  subordinate  type  of  Amon  is  Khem  or 
Amsu,  'the  enshrined,*  who,  as  Hamekhl, 
or  Powerful  Horus,  unites  beginning  and  end, 
or  cause  and  effect. 


worshipped  by  the  multitude,  though  the  doc- 
trine of  one  God  was  privately  taught  by  ibe 
priests   to   a  select   few.     Many  of  the   ani- 


EGYPTIAN  RSLIOION  AND  SOCIOLOOT 


nuls,  birds  and  reptiles  were  held  sacred  by 
the  Ancient  Egyptians ;  whoever  killed  a 
sacred  animal,  an  ibis  or  a  hawk,  was  put  to 
death.  If  a  cat  died  a  natural  death  every  per- 
son in  the  house  shaved  his  eyebrows ;  if  a  doe 
died,  the  whole  body  and  the  head  were  shaved. 
The  cat3  were  sacred  to  the  goddess  Bast  and 
were  buried  at  Bubastis  and  the  dogs  in  the 
vaults  of  their  own  cities,  Geld-mice  and  hawks 
at  Buto,  the  ibis  at  Hermopolis  and  other  ani- 
mals where  they  were  fonad  lying.  Of  all 
animals  the  sacred  bull,  Apis,  was  the  most 
revered.  His  chiaf  temple  was  at  Memphis.  Ttie 
cow,  being  sacred  to  Isis,  was  thrown  into  the 
Nile,  which  was  considered  sacred;  and  the  Apii 
bull  was  buried  in  the  Serapeum  near  Memphis. 
Of  the  doctrines  of  the  Egyptian  religioa 
Uttic  is  accurately  known.  The  existence  of  the 
spirit  after  death  was  believed  and  a  future 
state  of  rewards  and  ptmishments  inculcated, 
in  which  the  good  dwdt  with  the  gods,  while 
the  wicked  were  consigned  to  fiery  torments 
amid  perpetual  darkness.  It  was  believed  that 
after  the  lapse  of  ages  the  spirit  would  return 
to  the  body,  which  was  therefore  carefully  em- 
balmed   See  Book  of  the  Dead;  Emkaluihg; 

MOHAUUEDANISU;  iDOLATBri  Paktueisu. 

Social  Oiganizatioii,  Manners  and  Cns- 
7^m».^The  monuments  are  fuller  than  the 
enumeration  of  Herodotus  and  Diodorus,  who 
name  seven  and  five  classes  respectively. 
Herodotus  gives  priests,  warriors,  cowherds, 
swineherds,  tradesmen,  mleryreters  and  boat- 
men' Diodorus,  priests,  warnors,  husbandmen, 
^epnerds  and  artisans.  All  these  existed,  but 
the  enumeration  is  defective.  True  caste  was 
unknown.  The  population  was  divided  into 
two  ^reat  parts  —  nobles  and  slaves  —  while 
the  middle  class  has  left  its  traces  from  the 
Middle  Empire  onward.  The  upper  class  in- 
cluded royaltjr  and  those  in  the  service  of  the 
state  or  religion,  a  ruling  class,  far  removed 
from  the  slave  population,  foreign  and  native. 
They  formed  the  backbone  of  the  state,  filled 
all  the  higher  offices  and  were  obeyed  by  all 
their  social  inferiors.  At  the  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment stood  Pharaoh,  "King  of  the  Upper 
and  Lower  E^pt,  son  of  Ra,  eternal.*  Rameses 
II  is  bombastically  called  "Horus,  the  mighty 
bull,  beloved  of  the  Goddess  of  Truth,  pro- 
tector of  Egypt,  subduer  of  barbarians,  rich 
in  years,  great  ,in  victory,  chosen  ot  Ra, 
Rameses,  beloved  of  Ra.'  Similarly  thequeen 
is  called  *the  consort  of  the  God,  mother  of 
the  God,  the  great  consort  of  the  kin^— god 
and  long  being  interchangeable  terms.  She  was 
usually  of  royal  blood,  often  own  sister  of  the 
king,  liis  equal  in  birth  and  place  —  'Mistress 
of  the  House."  Crown  prince  and  princes  came 
next  in  order.  The  umcr  classes  consisted  of 
*lbc  nearest  friend'  ot  the  king  and  friends  of 
various  grades,  generals,  hi^h  priests,  officers, 
physicians,  overseers,  distnct  chiefs,  judges, 
keeper  of  the  seal,  master  builders,  treasurers, 
fan-bearers,  scribes  and  others.  Officialdom 
ramified  in  trambcrless  class  gradations,  whe^r 
the  order  was  jiriestly,  military,  literary,  archi- 
tectural or  agricultural.  Advancement  went  by 
royal  or  other  favor.  The  middle  class  remained 
m  die  backeround  and  is  less  known  because  its 
members  could  not,  like  Idnss  and  nobles,  erect 
those  enduring;  tombs  from  wnich  our  knowledge 
of  the  tiinea  is  obtained.  After  the  removal  of 
the  necropolis  from  Uemphis  to  Abydos  during 


its  of  untitled  persons  begin  to  appear,  giv- 
ing a  conception  of  their  number  and  position. 
Tney  possessed  households  similar  to  those  of 
offiuals  and  in  many  ways  appear  to  hare  been 
their  equals.  They  were  merchants,  traders, 
artisans,  free  workmen,  weavers,  potters,  car- 
penters, joiners,  smiths,  etc.  The  lowest  class 
was  composed  of  the  sh.ves,  native  or  taken  in 
war,  who  were  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of 
water,  performing  all  menial  offices.  They  were 
mere  diattcls,  belonging  to  temple,  necropolis) 
or  landed  estate  and  were  often  organized  as  a 
part  of  the  military  establishment  Closely 
allied  to  them  were  the  shepherds,  the  pariahs 
of  Egyptian  society. 

Agriculture,  manufacture  and  trade  were 
carried  on  in  Egypt  in  the  very  earliest  days. 
Upon  the  ancient  monuments  we  find  repre- 
sentations of  the  mechanical  arts,  where  we  see 


, ,    ...  have  also  glaied  pottery,  the 

potter's  wheel  and  the  kiln ;  and  dated  specimens 
of  glass  of  the  time  of  (Thothmes  III,  1445  B.C.). 
Gold-beating,  damascening,  engraving,  casting, 
inlaying,  enameling,  wire  drawing  and  other 
processes  were  practised.  Weapons  and  other 
mstruments  of  war,  shields,  cuirasses  of  quilted 
leather,  helmets,  spears,  clubs,  maces,  daggers, 
bows,  battle-axes,  pole-axes,  hatchets  and  fal- 
chions are  shown.  The  testudo,  ladders,  torches 
and  lanterns  were  also  in  use.  In  agriculture  the 
plow,  hoe,  sickle  and  other  implements  were 
employed.  The  processes  of  growing  and  pre- 
paring tlax  and  making  it  into  thread,  string; 
ropes   and   cloth,  as   well   as   the    looms   em- 

61oyed,  are  all  depicted.  Mats  and  .baskets  were 
eautifully  made,  either  of  the  halfa  grass  or 
palm  leaves,  or  of  the  outer  rind  of  the  papyrus 
plant,  which  was  used  in  making  paper.  Cof- 
fins or  wooden  sarcophagi  were  chiefly  of 
s^amore  or  cedar,  covered  with  stucco  and 
nchly  painted  The  ordinary  boats  of  the  Nile 
were  planks  of  the  acacia  and  had  two  rud- 
ders or  large  oars,  with  a  sail  of  cloth  frequently 
painted  or  worked  in  colored  patterns.  Many, 
ot  the  vessels  of  burden  were  of  great  sire.  The 
boats  made  of  papyrus  were  mostly  punts  for 
fishing,  or -for  gliding  throu^  the  canals  of  the 
Delta.  Implements  for  painting  ladles,  bells, 
crucibles  and  surgical  instruments  have  also 
been  found.  The  commerce  of  the  Egyptians 
with  neighborinfir  nations  enriched  the  country 
with  slaves,  cattle,  ^ems,  metals,  rare  animals 
and  objects  of  cunosity.  The  Egyptians  ex- 
pended enormous  wealth  on  die  tombs  and  fur* 
niture  of  the  dead,  and  the  paintings  acquaint 
us  fully  with  the  various  ceremonies  followed. 
In  embalming  they  excelled  Each  administra- 
tive department  had  its  own  troop  of  laborers 
under  its  own  overseer,  who  kept  minute  tally 
of  wotk  performed,  rations  dbtributed  and  oif 
absentees.  The  troop,  not  the  individual,  was 
the  unit  All  artisans  as  well  as  the  slaves 
were  regarded  superciliously  by  the  scribes  and 
held  in  lower  repute  than  the  a^culturtsts 
thou^  the  products  of  their  skill  still  command 
admiration.  Weavers  working  with  papyrus 
reeds  or  with  linen  thread,  produced  baskets, 
boats,  mats,  or  the  finest  linen  cloths ;  joiners 
thou^  handicapped  hy  lack  of  good  raw 
material,  nevertheless  produced  creditable  woric 


EOYPTIAM  RELIGION  AND  SOCIOLOGY 


bv  th«  use  of  instnunents  most  simple  in  their 
character.  Potters  through  all  penods  reprO' 
duced  palttms  tenaciously  and  with  Ultle  varia- 
tion, but  atoned  for  the  rudeness  of  much  of 
their  work  by  the  fineness  of  their  products  in 
faience,  the  glazing  of  stone  objects  being  es- 
pecially noteworthy.  Metal  workers  used  gold, 
silver,  bronze,  iron  and  tin,  the  source  whence 
tin  was  derived  being  problematical.  A  bronze 
is  mentioned  which  was  an  alloy  of  six  metals. 
Objects  in  bronze  and  iron  have  been  found 
among  the  remains  of  the  Old  Elmpire,  thou^ 
the  earliest  bronze  statue  is  one  of  Rameses  11. 
The  sources  of  most  metals  were  the  mines  of 
Nubia  and  Sinai.  In  value  silver  exceeded 
gold  and  a  mixture  of  the  two  is  frequently 
mentionedL  The  processes  of  agriculture  are 
well  portrayed  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs.  The 
plow  was  simply  a  sharpened  stick  dragged 
through  the  ground  by  oxen ;  the  hoe  a  broad 
blade  fastened  to  a  handle,  a  second  cord  mid- 
way of  each  preventing  too  great  3  strain.  The 
seed  once  scattered  was  trampled  in  by  ani- 
mals. Harvesting  was  done  by  a  short  sickle; 
the  grain  was  carried  in  sheaves  to  the  thresh- 
ing floor,  where  the  hoofs  of  cattle  performed 
the  required  labor.  Winnowing  was  done  with 
shovel  and  wind  and  the  grain  was  stored  in 
conical  receptacles  open  at  the  top.  to  which 
the  bearers  mounted  on  ladders.  Supplement- 
ary irrigation  was  by  a  well  sweep  similar  to 
the  modern  skadouf-  These  labors  were  so 
essential  a  part  of  Egyptian  life  that  the  future 
life  was  portrayed  under  exactly  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, happiness  consisting  essentially  in 
the  degree  in  which  personal  perforinance  could 
be  avoided.  Cattle  of  all  sorts,  asses,  sheep, 
pigs  and  goats  existed  in  great  herds  and  were 
tended  by  staves  and  peasants  whose  occupa- 
tions in  marshy  districts  so  far  removed  them 
from  civilixation  that  they  were  regarded  with 
detestation.  Their  disrepute  is  the  more  re- 
markable in  view  of  the  evident  pride  with 
which  landed  proprietors  enumerated  their 
flocks. 

The  schools,  "bookhouse*  or  'house  of  io- 
Mruction"  presided  over  bj^  a  scribe,  was  an 
institution  of  the  Old  Empire,  which  received 
all  classes  alike  and  prepared  them  for  the 
technical  education  of  the  special  bureau.  In 
the  New  Empire  both  branches  were  combined 
in  the  departmental  schools.  Orthography,  cali- 
graphy,  style  and  the  formulc  of  etiquette 
comprised  the  known  curriculum;  the  rest  was 
learned  by  practice.  Uany  corrected  school 
exercises  have  survived,  containing  various 
specimens  of  literature ;  tales,  religious  and 
magical  texts,  poems,  codes  of  rules,  or  Instruc- 
tion" of  ancient  sages  for  the  proper  regulation 
of  daily  life  and  statements  of  the  unkrvely 
condition  of  soldiers  and  laborers  as  contrasted 
with  the  beauty  of  the  scribe's  life,  at  once 
inciting  to  industry  on  tiie  part  of  the  pupil  and 
to  profound  respect  for  the  teacher.  These 
papyri  are  of  great  value  in  affording  a  knowl- 
edge of  orthography,  language  and  literature. 
The  tombs  of  the  Old  and  Middle  Empires 
represent  the  various  operations  of  laive  landed 
estates  in  all  thdr  complexity.  Suth  private 
ownership  of  the  soil,  of  large  tracts  and  even 
of  whole  villages,  seems  to  have  been  a  survival 
from  the  time  when  the  princes  of  the  nomor 
were  at  the  head  of  the  independent  districts 


dded  change  is  seen  in  the  New  Empire  when 
the  title  to  all  land  except  that  attached  to 
temples  was  vested  in  the  king  and  when  it 
was  worked  for  the  state  by  slaves  or  let  out 
at  an  annual  late  per  cent.  The  change  <ame 
about  during  the  Hyksos  period  or  in  the 
transition  to  the  revived  native  dynasties.  The 
biblical  account  of  Joseph  is  of  interest  in  this 

.  connection.  The  dwellings  of  tiie  common  peo- 
ple probably  resembled  those  of  the  fellakin 
of  to-day,  being  mud  hovels,  whose  destruction 
accounts  for  the  formation  of  the  tells  which 
mark  dty  sites.  The  dwellings  of  nobles  and 
kings  were  more  pretentious,  but  no  remains 
have  survived.  The  only  models  by  which  to 
judge  are  some  ancient  sarchophagi  of  house- 
like  form  and  some  mural  representations.  Rec- 
ord has  survived  of  a  palace  which  stood  300 
cubits  square. 

^  FamUy  Life.— The  position  occupied  by 
woman  was  quite  extraordinary.  In  the  house- 
hold there  was  generally  only  one  wife,  though 
there  might  be  several  concubines  or  female 
slaves.  Actual  polygamy  was  infrequent,  though 
the  royal  harem  often  contained  200  women. 
Private  persons  also  maintained  harems,  the 
number  of  inmates  depending  on  the  financial 
ability  of  the  individual.  Inheritance  and  geneal- 
ogy were  reckoned  by  the  mother,  not  the 
father,  and  while  a  man's  possessions  might 
descend  to  his  sons,  the  line  mi^t  also  jiass 
through  the  daughter  to  her  sons.  Sometimes 
marriages  were  contracted  upon  these  considera- 
tions. It  was  a  father's  ambition  to  hand  down 
his  ofiicial  position  to  his  sons,  and  the  title  of 
■hereditary  prince'  is  often  met  with.  The 
practice  of  marriage  with  a  sister  is  met  with 
in  early  periods,  but  under  the  Ptolemies  it  was 
quite  the  rule,  and  the  marriage  contracts  speci- 
fied the  amounts  which  the  husband  engaged  to 
(^ve  annually  to  his  wife  for  family  purposes. 
Costume.—  There  is  a  constant  development 
'observable  in  the  dress  of  the  upper  classes. 
Royalty  set  the  fashions,  and  they  were  followed 


king  and  noble,  and  between  noble  and  plebeian. 
The  simple  apron  bound  about  the  loins  was 
always  the  essential  garment.  To  this  the  king 
added  a  lion's  tail,  and  the  noble  a  panther's 
sldn  during  the  period  of  the  Old  Empire.  Dur* 
in^  the  Middle  Empire  the  apron  took  a  pointed 
triangular  shape  and  became  longer ;  next  comes 
a  double  apron,  a  short  one  beneath,  opaque, 
and  a  lon^  and  transparent  one  outside.  The 
priest  continued  to  wear  the  short  apron,  how- 
while  the  king  had  advanced  to  a  mode  of 


complex  i.  ....  

hotidav  attire  became  the  garb  of  every  day. 
The  dress  of  women  was  more  uniform.  It 
consisted  at  first  of  a  close-fitting  garment 
which  extended  from  the  breasts  to  the  ankles, 
and  was  fastened  by  straps  over  the  shoulders. 
Only  in  the  latest  periods  were  sleeved  or 
sleeveless  mantles  worn.  Transparent  doth 
was  used  for  female  wear,  as  for  the  outer 
apron  of  males,  but  without  the  inner  garment 
The  dress  of  peasants  consisted  simply  of  the 
apron,  which  in  some  cases  amounted  only  to 
a  band  with  pendant  ends.  These  simple  articles 
were  made  of  papyrns  mats,  leather  or  doth. 


EGYPTIAN  SUDAN  — BOYPTUN  VULTURE 


The  hair  trsi  worn  short,  but  the  shaving  of 
the  head  does  not  appear  to  have  been  practiwd 
daily.  Wigs  of  vanous  forms  and  tha  were 
used  as  ceremonial  head  coverings.  Specimens 
of  them  are  not  infrequent.  Natural  beards 
were  not  worn  except  by  shepherds  and  similar 
persons  but  an  artificiai  'imperial*  beard  was 
one  of  the  marks  of  royahy  and  divinity  in  the 
tomb  representations.  Sandals  of  various  sorts 
completed  the  costume,  Egyptian  garments  of 
the  better  class  were  of  linen,  wool  being  re- 
garded as  filthy.  The  food  of  the  lower  classes 
consisted  largely  of  bread  and  vegetables.  The 
principal  vegetables  were  kidn^  beans,  lentils, 
turnips,  radishes,  carrots  and  siiinach.  Uilic 
and  cheese  were  also  common  articles  of  food. 
Pomegranates,  dates,  iigs  and  grapes  were  plen- 
tiful. The  flesh  of  the  goat,  ox,  gaielle,  ante- 
lope and  other  animals  formed  part  of  the  diet 
of  the  middle  classes,  the  flesh  of  the  bog  was 
not  in  use.  this  animal  being  considered  unclean. 
Geese,  ducks,  turtle  doves  and  hens  were  abun- 
dant and  even  to-day  are  a  source  of  consider- 
able income  to  the  laboring  classes.  Salt  was 
extracted  from  the  coast  marshes  and  from 
some  deposits  in  the  Libyan  desert  The  na- 
tional beverage  was  beer,  seasoned  with  vari- 
ous plants.  The  wealthy  classes  drank  wine 
of  the  grape  and  the  common  people  the  fer- 
mented juice  of  certain  palms. 
_^  Recreitloni.— The  dance  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  the  lute  was  a  popular  diversion.  Acro- 
bats and  clowns  performed  in  the  r^ral  and 
princely  palaces.  Checkers  and  chess  much 
m  the  form  of  our  day  were  also  popular  amuse- 
ments.  As  regards  furniture  chairs  and  tables 
resembled  closely  those  of  the  present  day. 
Other  articles  appear  to  have  been  of  simple 
construction.  The  hunting  of  wild  animals  was 
by  coursing  with  dogs  and  the  use  of  lasso 
and  spear.  The  bow  and  arrow  were  seldom 
em;doyed  Pishing  was  with  line  or  net. 
FowHne  was  done  in  the  marshy  districts  in 
boats,  Uic  weapon  used  behig  the  boomerang. 
Traps  and  nets  were  also  used  Wrestling 
matches  and  gymnastic  exercises,  ball-plajtng 
and  juggling  are  often  represoited  in  patntmgs. 
Singing  and  music  were  the  accompaniment  of 
woA  and  play  and  at  feasts,  music  and  danc- 
ing, performed  by  members  of  the  harem,  en- 
livened the  scene.  The  inslmments  used  were 
the  llute  and  a  sort  of  whistle,  the  guitar,  the 
harp,  the  lyre,  the  last  two  having  somctintes 
nearly  20  strings.  Assistants  beat  time  by  hand- 
clapping.  Bow  practice  was  engaged  in  and 
a  game  similar  to  quoits  is  represented,  along 
with  other  games  which  cannot  be  understood 
in  their  details.  T-shaped  boards  divided  into 
squares  like  checker-boards  have  been  found, 
but  how  they  were  used  is  uncertain.  The 
children  were  not  forgotten,  for  the  tombs  have 
yielded  several  specimens  of  their  toys. 

Government. —  When  the  king  was  simply 
the  first  among  equals.  Upper  Egypt  was  di- 
vided into  30  administrative  departments  of  dif- 
ferent grades,  each  having  its  nomarch  or  gov- 
ernor who  stood  as  the  head  in  everything  — 
chief  judge,  district  chief,  military  commander, 
tax  collector,  architect,  treasurer,  etc.  As  judge 
he  was  also  chief  priest  of  Mat,  the  goddess  of 
truth.    So  long  as  the  king  retain^  supreme 


power  this  arrangement  continued,  bnt  upon 
the  decay  of  royal  prestige  each  district  chief 
aspired  to  leadership,     Tms  probably  explains 


the  periods  of  confunon  in  the  history  indicated 
by  the  bkinks  between  the  7th  and  11th  and  the 
l3tfa  and  17th  dynasties,  A  new  order  came  in 
during  the  period  of  the  New  Empire.  The 
nomarch  surrendered  all  his'  functions  to  the 
military^  official  appointed  by  the  king  to  look- 
after  his  interests  and  to  gather  the  taxes  in 
Idnd,  peaceably  or  forcibly  as  the  case  might  h^ 
Royal  stewards  and  messengers,  the  "mouths* 
or  'speakers"  of  the  king  appear  as  intermedi- 
aries. Some  of  the  more  importaot  additional 
offices  were  those  of  chief  judge,  governor, 
building-master,  treasurer,  overseer  of  gran- 
aries, etc  The  chief  ju<b[e  was  a  man  of  high 
standing,  a  prince  or  noble,  or  perhaps  a  priest. 
Beneath  him  were  several  grades  in  the  office. 
Several  sat  as  a  court  ana  before  them  com- 
plaint was  made,  prosecution  and  defense  heard 
and  judgment  pronounced  or  referred  to  the 
king^  according  to  the  gravity  of  the  complaint 
The  prosecutor  might  be  a  private  person  or  a 
public  official  with  whom  the  complaint  was 
lodged.  Confessions  were  forced  with  the 
bastinado.  The  severest  punishments  were  the 
loss  of  ears  and  nose,  or  death  by  impaling 
compulsory  suicide,  or  poisoning.  Accounts  of 
trials  are  frequent,  but  no  legal  code  has  sur- 
vived In  the  earliest  periods  there  was  no 
standing  army.  Each  nomos  had  its  own  mili- 
tia and  each  temple  its  soldiers,  who  appear 
rather  to  have  been  police.  This  arrangement 
continued  through  the  Middle  Empire.  The 
chief  service  reodered  by  soldiers  in  these  peri- 
ods was  to  escort  expeditions  to  the  quarries 
of  S^ene  and  Hammamat  and  to  the  mines  of 
Sinai  and  Nubia,  They  also  rendered  service 
as  laborers.  Under  Fepi  {6th  dynasty)  a  mili- 
tary expcditioa  was  undertaken  against  the 
Bedouin  of  the  east,  Ethiopian  mercenaries 
formed  the  bulk  of  this  force.  Under  Amenemha 
III  (12th  dynasty)  expeditions  to  Nubia  were 
undertaken  and  a  stele  of  the  period,  now  in 
Berlin,  records  the  wailing  whii  attended  the 
visits  of  the  conscripting  officer,  the  'militair 
scribe*  who  came  "to  choose  out  the  likely 
youth.*  About  this  time  the  lung  came  to  have 
a  body  guard  and  during  the  contest  with  the 
Hyksos  the  armies  were  increased  Mercena- 
ries, however,  were  constantly  employed  as  con- 
scription was  little  employed  Bowmen  formed 
the  principal  arm  of  the  mercenaries ;  the  chariot 
coming  into  use  after  the  Hyksos  wars,  was  con- 
structed to  contain  two  persons,  driver  and 
warrior.  Border  garrisons  were  maintained  to 
the  east  and  south!  The  native  weapons  were 
the  spear  and  shield,  the  axe,  lance,  <^gger  and 
sling.    Naval  warfare  was  little  practised 

Bibliography,— Binion,    'Ancient  Egypt  or 
{1^}_;  Bijrch.  'Egyyt  from^e  Ear- 

_-j  ^ 

a  vols.) ;  (The  Gods  of  the  £ 
ampollion,  'L'Egypte  sousles  fharaons' 
(1814);  Ennan,  'Life  in  Ancient  Egypt' 
(ISH);  Mahaffy,  'Empire  of  the  Pto1emies> 
(1895):  Renouf,  <The  Rdlgion  of  the  Andent 
f«yptians>  (Htbbert  Lectures  1880) ;  Wiede- 
mann. 'Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians' 
(J897);  Wilinnjon  'Manners  and  Customs  of 
«ie  Ancient  Egyptrans>   (1879). 

KGTPTIAN  SUDAN.    See  Suiww. 


■8l^ 


BGYPTIANIZSD  CLAY— BHRLE 


both  shores  of  the  Uediterranean,  southern 
India  and,  during  the  winter,  South  Africa. 
It  is  the  scavenger  of  Egyptian  Tillages,  collect- 
ing in  numbers  .where  carrion  or  ^rbage  is 
deposited,  but  feeding  also  on  frogs,  lizards  and 
•  small  mammals  found  in  cultivated  fields.  The 
birds  usually  go  in  pairs,  however,  and  addict 
themselves  to  particular  localities,  being  only 
drawn  together  in  numbers  by  abundance  of 
their  favorite  food  The  name,  as  also  that  of 
Pharaoh's  hen,  is  given  because  of  the  frequent 
representation  of  this  bird  in  ^yptian  sculp- 
ture.   See  Vulture. 

EGYPTIANIZED  CLAT  is  the  name  in- 
vented for  the  purpose  of  describing  a  certain 
treatment  of  clay  by  which  a  clay  weak  in 
strength  and  in  plasticity  is  made  stronger  and 
more  plastic  In  this  process  the  clay  is  treated 
with  extract  of  straw,  tannin  and  other  plant 
products.  The  treatment  reduces  the  {articles 
of  clay  to  a  state  so  fine  that  they  will  pass 
throu^  ordinary  filter  paper,  and  will  remain 
permanently  suspended  in  water.  The  employ- 
ment of  the  extract  of  Straw  to  make  the  clay 
stronger  suggested  to  Edward  G.  Acheson 
(q.v.),  the  discoverer  of  the  process,  the  name 
'Egyptianized  clay"  because  of  the  Biblical 
storv  of  the  use  of  straw  in  the  making  of 

EGYPTOLOGY,  the  sdence  of  Egyptian 
antiquities.    See  Egypt. 

EHEBERG,  a'i-berg,  KktI  Theodor  tod, 
German  pohtical  economist:  b.  Munich  1855. 
He  recdved  his  education  at  the  University  of 
Munich  and  in  1882  was  appointed  professor  of 
political  economj"  at  Erlangen.  He  is  best 
Known  through  his  masterlrpresentation  of  the 
subject  of  finance  in  his  'Rjiantwissenschaft' 
{3d  ed.,  1891;  new  ed..  1909).  He  also  wrote 
'Ueber  das  altere  deutsche  Milniwesen  und  die 
Hausgenossenschaften  besonders  in  volkswirth- 
sehattlicher  Beziehung'  (1879),  and  <Das 
Reichsfinanzwesen'    ( 190B) . 

EHLERS,  alers.  Ernst  Heinrich,  German 
toologist:  b.  Liineburg  1835.  He  received  his 
education  at  Gottingen  and  Munich  and  in  1860 
became  professor  of  zoolos)'  at  Erlangen.  In 
1874  he  became  professor  of  loology  and  com- 
parative-anatomy at  the  Universily  of  Gottingen. 
With  A-  von  Kolliker  he  edited  the  ZeiUchrifl 
fur  wissenschaftliche  Zoologie.  He  wrote 
"Zoologische  Beitrage,'  with  W.  Kef  erst  ein 
(1861);  'Die  Borstenwurmcr>  (1868);  'Hypo- 
phorclla  Exoansa'  (1876);  '  Florida- Anneliden' 
(1887) ;  <Zur  Kenntnis  der  Pedicellinen' 
(1890)  ;  'Magellanische  Anneliden  Gesammelf 
wahrend  der  Schwedischen  Expedition  nach 
der  Magellanslandem'  (1900);  'Neuseeland- 
ische  Anneliden*  (1904). 

EHLERS,  Otto  Ehreafried,  German  trav- 
eler: b.  Hamburg  1855;  d.  1895.  He  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Jena,  Heidelberg  and  Bonn. 
In  1887  he  went  to  East  Africa,  and  later 
traveled  through  India,  the  Andaman  and 
Nicobar  islands,  Stam,  French  Tndo-Cluna, 
Korea,  Japan,  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  the 
United  States.  In  a  second  tour  he  agwn 
visited  India,  and  went  to  Samoa,  Kaiser  Wil- 
helm's  Land  and  New  Guinea.  In  an  effort  to 
traverse  the  latter  country  he  was  slam  by  his 
guides  He  wrote  *An  indischen  Furstenhofen* 
{2  vols.,  1883;  5th  «d..  1898) :  <Im  Sattd  durch 


Indochina'  (1894) ; 
Sudsee'  (3d  ed.,  18 
(4th  ed.,  1900). 

EHLERS,  RndoU,  (}erman  theologian ;  b. 
Hamburg  1834;  d.  1908.  He  received  his  edu- 
cation at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg,  Berlin 
and  Gottingen.  For  some  time  he  was  pastor 
at  Stolberg,  near  Aachen,  and  in  1864  removed 
to  the  Protestant  Reformed  Church  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  where  he  exercised  a  wide 
influence  as  a  theologian.  In  1878  he  was  made 
consistorial  councillor,  and  in  the  following 
year  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Zeitsckrift 
fur  praklitcht  Tkeologie.  He  published,  among 
other  works,  'Evangeiische  Predipen'  (1873); 
<Das  alte  Gesetz  und  die  neue  Zeit'  0877); 
'Bilder  aus  dem  Leben  des  Apostels  Paulus' 
(1886);  'Richard  Rothe>  (1906).  and  a  philo- 
sophical work  in  Latin. 

EHNINGER.  an'ing-ir,  John  Whetton, 
American  artist:  b.  New  York  1827;  d  1889. 
He  studied  under  Couture  in  Paris  and  later" 
studied  at  Diisseldorf.  He  left  a  number  of 
portraits,  and  landscapes  and  figure  subjects, 
including  'Peter  Stuyvesant'  (1850);  'Death 
and  the  Gambler' ;  'Autumn  Landscape' 
(1867);  'TwUight  from  the  Bridge  of  Pau» 
(1878) ;  fliustrations  for  LongfeUow's  'Mile* 
Standish'  (18S8)  and  for  Irvin^s  'Dolph  Hey- 
linger'    and   <Ye  Legend  of    St.   Gwendolyn* 

EHRENBERG,  i'ren-bet^,  Christiui  GoU- 
fried.  German  scientist:  b.  Delitisch,  19  April 
1795;  d.  Berlin,  27  June  1S7&  After  studying 
theology,  medicine  and  natural  history  at  Leip- 
zig and  Berlin,  he  joined  in  1820  an  expedition 
to  Palestine,  Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  returning  (o 
Berlin  in  1825.  In  1829  he  accompanied  Hum- 
bolt  to  the  Ural  and  Altai  ranges  and  to  cen- 
tral Siberia.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  full 
professor  of  medicine,  at  Berlin.  His  great 
work  on  'Infusoria'  ('Die  Infusionstierchen 
als  vollkommene  Organismen')  appeared  in 
1838,  and  was  at  once  recognized  as  the  highest 
authority  on  the  subject.  It  was  followed  in 
1854  by  his  'Microgeology.'  Ehrenberg's  woik 
gave  an  enormous  impetus  to  the  study  oi 
microscopic  organisms.  He  was  the  first  to 
show  that  the  phosphorescence  of  the  sea  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  hosts  of  animalcnles.  Gon- 
sult  Lane,  'Life'  (1895). 

EHRENBREITSTEIN,  5'ren-brlt'stln, 
Prussia,  town  and  fortress  on  die  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  opposite  Coblenz  with  which^  it  is 
connected  iv  3  bridge  of  boats  and  a  railroad 
bridge.  Tobacco,  flour,  leather,  soap,  bricks 
and  wine  are  manufactured  and  there  is  a  large 
trade  in  com,  wine  and  iron.  There  are  several 
large  fairs  held  annually.  TTie  fortress  is  on  a 
steep  rock,  385  feet  above  the  river.  It  has 
massive  fortifications  and  until  the  advent  of 
heavysiege  artillery  was  deemed  impregnable. 
In  1799  after  repeated  assaults  had  failed  and 
after  a  siege  of  14  months  the  French  succeeded 
in  capturing  it.  In  1801  they  destroyed  the 
fortifications  and  retired.  In  1826  new  fortifi- 
cations were  completed.    Pop,  5,302. 

EHRLE.  arl*.  Francia,  German  Catholic 
schoUr:  b.  Isny,  Wiirtemberg,  17  Oct  1845.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  College,  Miinster, 
Westphalia,  at  the  Maria-Laach  m  Freibui^. 
and  at  IHtton  Hall,  L^^cashire,  having  been  ad- 


"6'^ 


BHRLICH  —  BICHBNDORFP 


tiiitted  to  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1861.  After  sev- 
eral years  in  mission  work  he  was  transferred 
to  Rome,  where  he  devoted  himaeH  to  historical 
studies.  In  1890  he  became  a  member  of  the 
admin istiative  council  of  the  Vatican  Library, 
of  which  he  was  appointed  prefect  in  1895.  He 
retired  in  1914,  He  received  honorary  degrees, 
not  only  from  Munster  (1902)  and  Louvain 
(1909),  but  from  Oxford  (1899)  and  Cam- 
bridge (190S).  His  'History  of  the  Church 
and  Its  Literature  in  the  Middle  Ages*  (in  Ger- 
man) is  based  on  extensive  researches  in  the 
archives  of  Germany,  EnKland. '  Spain  and 
Italy.  It  is  on  this  work  llial  his  rejuitation 
largely  rests;  but  he  has  further  written  a 
Latin  histoiy  of  the  Papal  Library  from  1200  to 
1417,  and  (with  Stevenson)  a  history  of  the 
Vatican.  He  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Papal 
exhibit  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition, 
Saint  Louis.  His  principal  works  are  mono- 
graphs on  the  frescoes  of  Pinturicchio  in  the 
Borgia  Chambers  at  the  Vatican  Palace  (French 
1897;  Italian  1899)  ;  edition  of  the  more  im- 
portant manuscripts  in  the  Vatican  Library  and 
'Beit rage  zur  Gesdiichte  und  Reform  der 
Armenpflege'   (1881). 

BHRLICH,  arliH.  Heinrich,  German 
writer  on  music:  b.  Vienna  1822:  d.  1S09.  He 
studied  under  Henselt  and  Tbalberg,  and  for  a 
time  was  court  pianist  to  George  V  of  Hanover. 
He  removed  to  Berlin  in  1862  and  taught  the 
pianoforte  at  the  Stem  Conservatory  there  in 
1864-^72  and  1886-98.  He  also  wrote  musical  criti- 
cisms  and  other  articles  in  the  Berliner  Tage- 
blalt.  Die  Gegenwart  and  the  Neue  Berliner 
Uusikseititng.  He  published  'Wie  iibt  man  am 
Klavier'  <2d  ed.,  1884;  Eng.  trans.):  'Die 
Ornamentik  in  Sebastian  Bachs  Klavier- 
werken';  'Dreissig  Jahre  Kiinstlerlebens  1862- 
92'  (1893)  ;  'Schla^ichter  und  Schlagschaltcn 
aus  der  Musikwelt'  (1872);  <Aus  allc  Tonar- 
ten'  (1888);  'Die  Ornamentik  in  Beethovens 
Sonalen*  0896);  'Uusik-Aesthetik  von-Kant 
bis  aof  die  Gegenwart'  (1881):  'Modemes 
Musikleben'  (1895). 

EHRLICH,  Paul,  German  medical  scien- 
tist :  b.  of  Jewish  parents  at  Strehlen,  Silesia, 
14  March  1854;  d.  Homburg,  20  Aug.  1915.  He 
was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Breslau, 
Strassburg,  Freiburg  and  Leipzig.  After  gradu- 
ating in  medicine  in  1878  he  began  his  researdies 
into  the  rdationshi^  existing  between  scientific 
medicine  and  chemistry,  experimenting  on  the 
effects  of  various  chemicals  upon  living  tissue. 
He  first  chose  the  aniline  dyes,  on  account  of 
their  effects  being  visible  when  injected  into 
animals.  With  these  dyes  and  their  derivatives 
his  whole  life's  work  was  concerned  and  his 
most  brilliant  trium^s  were  gained  through 
their  employment.  By  staining  the  tubercle 
bacillus  with  dyes  he  found  that  certain  of  ihem 
possessed  a  peculiar  afHnity  for  this  bacillus 
and  this  accorded  with  the  view  on  which  he 
based  his  whole  philosophy  —  that  of  the  spe- 
d/ic  affinity  of  i«rticular  chemical  substances 
for  particular  tissues,  more  especially  for  the 
organisms  which  cause  disease.  He  next  dis- 
covered a  method  of  testing  the  potency  of  the 
anti-diphtheria  serum  hy  extierimenting  on 
jfuinea-pigs,  which  made  it  possible  to  standard- 
ize the  serum  and  accurately  measure  the 
dosage,  ^rltch  then  found  a  dye  called  'try- 
pan red*  ^ich  cared  fatal  trjrpanosome  in- 


fection jn  mice.  A  further  series  of  experi- 
ments resulted  in  his  greatest  discovery,  that 
of  salvarsan  (q.y.)  or  606,  a  specific  drug  with 
power  to  destroy  the  spirochate  pallida,  the 
specific  organism  of  syphilis.  This  epoch-m^- 
ing  discovery  has  been  described  as  the  most 
potent  therapeutic  weapon  in  existence.  Ghrlich 
laid  the  foundation  of  modem  hxmatolo^  and 
also  performed  some  notable  researches  m  con- 
necdon  with  cancer;  he  formed  the  theory 
'that  the  growth  of  cancer  dejtended  on  food 
stuffs.*  Almost  every  university  and  learned 
society  throughout  the  world  honored  the  great 
scientist;  the  Nobel  Prize  was  divided  between 
him  and  Metcfanikoff  (q.v.)  in  1908;  the  number 
of  his  decorations  conferred  by  monarchs  and 
princes  was  greater  than  he  professed  to  be 
able  to  remember.  *He  opened  new  doors  to 
the  unknown  and  left  the  world  his  debtor," 

EHUD,  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  men- 
tioned in  Judg.  iii,  12-30;  1  Chron.  vii,  10 
and  viii,  3:  he  dehvered  his  people  by  stabbing 
to  death  their  oppressor,  E^Jon,  king  of  the 
Moabites.  Doubt  has  been  cast  on  the  his- 
torical character  of  this  hero.  Consult  Kittel, 
'Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel'  (Vol.  II,  (}otha 
1909);  Moore,  'Judges'  (New  York  1895)) 
Nolaeke,  'Untersuchungen  zur  Kritik  des  alten 
Testaments'  (Kiel  1869)  ;  Weilhausen,  <Israel- 
itische  und  jiidische  Geschichte'  (7th  ed.,  Ber- 
lin 1914);  ~      

zig  1895) 

diBAR,  a'e-bar,  Spain,  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Guipuzcoa,  35  miles  south  of  Bilbao. 
Small  arms  and  metal  articles  for  decorative 
purposes  are  the  chief  manufactures.  Pop. 
9,659. 

BIBSNSTOCK,  fben-stfik,  Germany,  town 
in  the  southeast  of  Saxony,  near  the  Mulde,  17 
miles  southeast  of  Zwickau,  with  important 
manufactures  of  lace.  Its  principal  edifice  is  a 
Romanesque  church  dating  from  1864.  It  is  an 
industrial  centre,  the  chief  seat  of  the  tambour 
embroidery  manufactures,  has  manufactures  of 
chemicals,  brush  handles,  leather,  beer  and 
tobacco  and  is  a  cattle  market.  The  tin  mines 
nearby  have  been  worked  for  about  eij^t  cen- 
turies, but  are  now  practically  worked  out.  It 
is  connected  by  rail  with  Chemnitz,  about  40 
miles  distant.    Pop.  9,528. 

SICHELBBRGER,  t-H«l-birK.«r,  WOliatn 
Savder,  American  astronomer:  d.  Baltimore^ 
Md,  18  Sept.  1865,  He  was  graduated  al  the 
University  of  Johns  Hopkins  in  1886;  was  assist- 
ant in  the  Nautical  Almanac  ofBce  in  1889-^ 
and  1896-98,  and  from  1890-1896  served  as  in- 
structor in  mathematics  and  astronomyat  Wes- 
leyan  University,  Connecticut.  Since  1900  he  has 
been  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  United 
Stales  navy.  He  was  head  of  the  division  of 
meridian  instrument  in  1902-07,  and  of  astro- 
nomical observations  in  1907-06  at  the  United 
Slates  Naval  Observatory.  In  1910  he  became 
director  of  the  Nautical  Almanac.  He  has  at 
various  times  been  in  charge  of  eclipse  stations, 
notably  at  Fort  de  Kock.  Sumatra,  in  1901  and 
Daroca,  Spain,  in  1905.  He  is  a  Fellow  or  mem- 
ber of  several  astronomical  societies  and  has 
contributed  papers  to  government  publications 
and  to  the  Astronomical  Journal. 

EICHENDORPF,  raSn-dfirf,  Joseph 
BaRoh  von,  German  poet ;  b.  Castle  of  LuIk>- 
iritz,  Silesia,  10  March  17SB;  d.  Nebse,  26  Nov. 


.gle 


BICHHORN— XIDBR   DUCK 


18S7.  He  terved  in  the  War  of  Libention, 
1813-15,  and  held  »  Msition  (1831-45)  in  the 
Prussian  Ministry  of  Education.  He  wss  one  of 
the  most  gifted  and  original  romantic  lyrists  of 
Gennany.  His  principal  works  are  'Presage 
and  Presence';  'War  to  the  Philistines,*  a 
dramatic  story;;  'The  Li£c  of  a  Good-for- 
Hothing,'  idealixing  vagabondage;  the  tragedies 
'Ezzelin  von  Romano,'  'The  Last  Hero  of  Ua- 
nenburg' ;  and  other  plays,  and  a  number  of 
histories  of  German  literature,  including  'The 
Ethical  and  Religious  Meaning  of  the  New  Ro- 
mantic Poetry  in  Germany'  (1847);  'German 
Romance  of  Uie  Eighteenth  Caitury  in  Relation 
to  Christianity'  (1851)  ;  'History  of  German 
Poetry'  (J857). 

BICHHORN,  lH'h6ni,  Johaim  Gottfried 
German  iheolo^an  and  Orientalist;  b.  Dorren- 
2immern,  16  Oct.  1752;  d.  Goitingen,  25  June 
1627.    In  1775  he  became  professor  of  Oriental 


is  considered  the  founder  of  scientific 
asm  of  the  literary  and  historical  aspects  of  the 
biblical  Scriptures.  He  edited  %  'Repertory  of 
Biblical  and  Oriental  Literature'  (1777-86); 
'Universal  Library  of  Biblical  Literature' 
(1787-1803) ;  and  wrote  ' Hi storico- Critical 
Introductions'  to  the  Old  and  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  to  the  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament;  a  'Latin  Commentary  on  the  Apoc- 
alypse.' 

BICHHORST,  is'horst,  Hemuuin  Lud- 
wij,  (German  physician:  b.  KonigsbeTg  1849. 
He  received  his  education  at  the  universi^  of 
his  native  city  and  in  1877  bEcame  director  of 
the  Medical  Polyclinical  Institute  at  Gotiingca 
Seven  years  later  he  was  appointed  to  the  cnair 
of  patholc^y  and  therapy  at  the  University  of 
Ziirich.  He  has  published  many  important 
works,  including  'Lehrbuch  der  phyukalischen 
Untersucbimgsmethoden   innerer  Krankheiten' 

al  ed.,  1889);  'Handbuch  der  spe^iellen  Pa- 
logie  und  Therapie'  (5th  ed.,  1895-96) ; 
'Handbuch  der  sp«ziellen  Patholf^e  und  Ther- 
apie innerer  Krankheiten'  (1904)  ;  'Hygiene  des 
InTMns  und  der  Blutgefasse  im  Gesunden  und 
Kntnken  Zusunde'  (1906) ;  'Pathokigie  und 
liierapie  der  Nervenkrankheiten'   (1907). 

EICHLER,  iBler,  August  WUbclm,  Ger- 
man botanist:  b.  Neukirdien  1839;  d.  1887. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Marburg 
and  in  1871  was  appointed  professor  of  botany 
and  director  of  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Gra2. 
Two  years  later  he  became  professor  of  botany 
at  Kiel  and  in  1878  was  appointed  to  a  similar 
chair  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  He  wrote 
extensively  on  the  Conifera,  Cycadacex  and 
other  plant  groups  of  Brazil.  His  principal 
work  is  ' Bliitendiagramme'  (1875-78),  a  de- 
scription of  the  comparative  study  of  flov 


mazeutische  Botanik'  (188J>;  'Beilrage 
Morphologic  und  Systematik  der  Marantaceen* 
(1884) ;  'Zur  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der 
Palmenblatter'  (1885). 

EICHRODT,  iB'rot,  Ludwig,  German 
poet:  b.  Durlach,  Baden,  2  Feb.  1827;  d.  Lahr,  2 
Feb.  1892,  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Frei- 
burg and  published  in  1848  in  Fiieqettde  Biatler 
his  comic  songs,  'Wanderlust,'  wluch  had  great 
popularity.     Among  his  works  arc  'Gedidite  jn 


allerlei  Humoren'  (1SS3);  'Leben  und  IJebc* 
(1856);  'Hortus  Deliciaram'  (1875);  'GoW» 
(1880),  His  collected  works  were  published 
in  1890  at  Stuttgart 

EICH8TATT,  iH'stef,  or  EICHSTADT, 
Middle  Franconia,  Bavaria,  an  old  town  In  a 
deep  valley  of  the  Altmiihl,  67  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Munich.  Its  principal  edifice  is 
a  fine  Gothic  cathedral,  founded  in  1259,  It  has 
a  number  of  very  interesting  monuments  in 
marble  and  bronze  and  here  also  is  the  tomb 
of  Saint  Wilibald.  Saint  Walpurgis'  Church 
is  renowned  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  great 
numbers  congregating  there  annually  on  1  May. 
Other  noteworthy  features  are  the  town-hall, 
the  ancient  episcopal  palace,  now  converted  into 
barracks,  the  episcopal  lyceum,  seminary  and 
municipal  theatre.  It  has  manufactures  of 
shoes,  matches,  lithographic  stone,  etc.  It  is 
said  that  the  city  grew  up  about  a  military  sta- 
tion of  the  Romans,  In  908  it  was  chartered 
as  a  city.  It  suffered  greatly  in  the  many  wars 
of  the  18tb  and  I9th  centuries,  being  burned 
repeatedly  by  the  French,  The  episcopal  see 
was  seculariEed  in  1802  and  added  lo  the  diocese 
of  Bavaria  but  was  re-established  in  1817. 

EIDER,  i'dir^  a  river  of  Prussia,  in  ScMes- 
wig-Holstein,  which  rises  about  12  miles  from 
Kiel,  flows  generally  northwest,  and  after  a 
course  of  112  miles,  of  which  69  are  navigable, 
empties  into  the  North  Sea  at  Tonning,  where 
it  forms  a  bay.  It  is  connected  with  Kiel  by 
the  Schle  swig-Hols  tein  Canal. 

EIDER  DUCK,  a  bird  of  the  sub-family 
Fuligulime,  or  sea  ducks,  genus  Somateria,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  peculiar  form  and  feathering 
of  the  bill,  and  closely  allied  to  the  scoter  ducks. 
The  several  species  are  confined  to  the  northern 
re^ons.  The  American  eider  (_S.  dresteri)  and 
the  European  eider  (5.  mollis^ma)  are  closely 
similar  species  which  breed  on  solitary  rocky 
shores  and  islands  from  Maine  and  the  Fame 
Islands,  respectively,  norihward,  the  former  spe- 
cies wintering  as  far  south  as  the  Delaware 
River.  They  are  most  abundant  in  Labrador, 
Newfoundland,  (jreenland,  Iceland  and  Nor- 
way, where  thfry  are  stringently  protected  by 
law.  Both  speaes  breed  gregariously  and  in 
particular  spots  their  nests  are  so  abundant  that 
a  person  can  scarcely  walk  without  treading  on 
them.  Thar  nests  are  usually  formed  of  grass, 
dry  sea-weed,  etc.,  lined  with  a  quantity  of  down 
which  the  female  plucks  from  her  own  breasL 
In  this  soft  bed  she  lays  five  eggs,  which  she 
covers  over  with  a  layer  of  down;  then  the 
natives,  who  watch  her  operations,  take  awtor 
both  the  eggs  and  the  down,  and  this  removal  is 
repeated  as  often  as  she  lays  until  the  close  of 
the  season,  when  the  last  lot  of  eggs  is  allowed 
to  hatch  and  the  down  removed  from  the  nest 
only  after  the  young  have  left.  The  drake  does 
not,  as  is  often  stated,  furnish  any  of  the  down. 
One  female  generally  furnishes  a  few  ounces  of 
down.  This  down,  from  its  superior  warmth, 
lightness  and  elasticity,  is  preferred  by  the 
luxurious  to  every  other  article  for  beds  and 
coverlets;  and,  from  the  great  demand  for  it. 
those  districts  in  Norway,  Greenland  and 
Iceland  where  these  t»rds  atiound  are  regarded 
as  the  roost  valuable  property  and  are  guarded 
with  the  greatest  vigilance.  Proprietors  en- 
deavor to  attract  them  by  supplying  artificial 
nests  and  otherwise,  and  when  they  settle  in 


jOOgIc 


BIPBL  — BIOHT-HOUR  &AY 


B? 


an  istuid  off  shore,  cattle  and  berdsmeo  ace 
removed  to  allow  them  to  breed  undisturbed. 
The  down  from  dead  birds  is  little  valued,  hav- 
ing lost  its  elasticitv. 

The  length  of  tne  eider  duck  is  about  two 
feet  three  inches,  extent  of  the  wings  three  feet, 
weight  from  six  to  seven  pounds;  the  head  is 
large  and  the  bill  of  sinffular  structure,  being 
three  inches  in  length,  Eorted  at  the  base  of  the 
upper  mandible  in  a  remarkable  manner,  run- 
mng  high  up  on  the  forehead,  and  having  the 
feathers  on  each  side  descending  nearly  to  the 
nostrils;  the  whole  of  the  bill  is  of  a  dull,  yel- 
lowish horn  color,  somewhat  dusli^  in  the  mid- 
dle. The  male  is  black  beneath,  head  and  back 
white,  with  a  black  crown.  The  female  is  red- 
dish drab,  spotted  with  black,  with  two  white 
bands  across  the  wings.  Eiders  associate  in 
flocks,  diving  to  great  depths  for.  shell-fish, 
which  constitute  their  principal  food.  They 
live  much  on  the  water,  retiring  to  the  shores 
to  rest,  particularly  on  the  appearance  of  an 
approaching  storm.  Their  flesh  is  eaten,  but 
tastes  slrongly  of  fish.  The  eggs,  however,  are 
esteemed.  These  and  the  down  are  both  fre- 
quently obtained  at  the  hazard  of  life  by  people 
let  down  by  ropes  from  craggy  steeps. 

Other  species  are  the  Pacific  cider  (5'. 
v-nigraf,  and  the  remarkable  Idng  eider  (S. 
spectabtlis)  of  high  Arctic  r^ons.  The  now 
extinct  Labrador  duck  (q.v.)  is  closely  related. 

BIFKL,  rfe!.  The,  a  barren  and  bleak 
plateau  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  between  the  Rhine, 
Moselle  and  Roer  rivers,  showing  ^tensive 
traces  of  volcanic  action.  Its  surface  is  diver- 
sified by  crater-like  depressions  and  volcanic 
peaks  and  ridges.  It  is  40  miles  long  and  20 
wide,  averaging  from  1,500  to  2,000  feet  in 
heigjit. 

^IFFBL,  i-m.  or  i'f«L  Alexandr*  Gtu- 
tave,  French  engineer;  b.  Dijon  15  Dec.  1832. 
He  was  educated  at  Dijon  and  Sainte-Barbe, 
and  at  the  Central  School  of  Arts  and  Manu- 
facture. In  1858  he  was  entrusted  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  large  iron  bridge  over  the 
Garonne  at  Bordeaux,  and  was  one  of  the  first 
to  introduce  caissons  worked  with  compressed 
air.  The  bridge  over  the  Douro  at  Oporto,  the 
great  viaduct  of  Garabit,  in  Cantal,  and  that 
over  the  Tardes,  near  Montlu^on,  and  the  gi- 
gantic locks  designed  and  partly  prepared  for 
the  Panama  Canal  are  amon^  later  triumphs  of 
his  engineering  skill;  while  in  the  huge  frame- 
work erected  tor  Bartholdi's  'Statue  of  Lib- 
erty' may  be  seen  the  germ  of  the  idea  which 
afterward  assumed  the  form  of  the  colossal 
iron  structure  (1887^.89)  on  the  Champs-de-Mars 
in  Paris,  with  which  his  name  is  identified.  He 
also  constructed  the  Aerodynamic  Laboratory 
at  Auteuib  He  is  a  member  of  the  L^on  of 
Honor  and  has  received  decorations  from 
Russia,     Austria,    Portugal    and    Spain.    Se« 

ElFTEL  TOWEX. 

EIFFBL  TOWER.  A  notable  structure 
in  Paris.  The  plans  for  the  exposition  of  1889 
Included  a  monstrous  iron  tower,  to  he  raised  on 
the  Champs-de-Mars,  1,000  feet  hififa.  The  de- 
Ugner,  Gustave  Eiffel,  constructed  it  of  iron  lat- 
tice-work, with  three  elevators  giving  access  to 
the  summit.  The  uses  of  so  stupendous  an 
utidertalcing  are  many,  and  it  berame  one  of  the 
chief  permanent  ornaments  of  the  city.  Its  im- 
portance from  a  meteorological  point  of  view 


cannot  be  overestiniated,  the  tov 
meteorologists  to  study  the  decrease  of  temper- 
ature at  (ufferent  heignts,  to  observe  the  varia- 
tions of  winds,  and  to  find  out  the  quantity  of 
rain  that  falls  at  different  heights,  and  the  den- 
sity of  the  clouds. 

BIGENMANN,  rgen-man,  Cart  H.,  Ameri- 
can loologiat:  b.  Flehingen,  Germany,  1863. 
He  was  graduated  at  Indiana  University  in 
1886  and  studied  at  Harvard  18S7-^a  Between 
1888  and  1S92  he  continued  his  Scientific  inves- 
rly  to  the  tigations  in  San  Diego  Biological  Laboratory, 
dull,  yd-  the  Woods  Hole  Marine  Stations,  and  in  the 
explorations  undertaken  for  the  British  Mu- 
seum in  California,  Oregon,  Idaho,  Montana, 
Dakota  and  western  Canada.  He  was  ai^ 
pointed  professor  of  zoology  in  Indiana  Univer- 
sity in  1891  and  in  1895  founded  and  assumed 
the  direction  of  the  Biological  Station  of  Indi- 
ana University.  He  made  scientific  explora- 
tions in  Cuba  in  1902-04  and  in  British  Guiana 
in  1908.  He  has  contributed  more  than  lOO 
papers  to  the  proceedings  of  scientific  societies 
and  to  scientific  journals,  including  'CataIo£(ue 
of  Fresh- Water  Fishes  of  Central  America 
and  Southern  Mexico'  (1893J  ;  *Cave  Verte- 
brates of  America'  (1909)  :  'Kgg  and  Develop- 
ment of  Conger  Eel'  (1901);  'Fresh-Water 
Fishes  of  Western  Cuba'  (1903);  'Fresh- 
Water  Fishes  of  British  Guiana'   (1911). 

BIGG.    Sec  Egg. 

BIGHT-HOUR  DAY.  In  the  struggle  for 
the  shortest  hours  of  labor  compatible  with  the 
highest  efficiency,  begun  in  Great  Britain  earW 
in  the  19th  century,  the  first  great  landmark 
was  the  Ten  Hours'  Bill  of  1847,  enforcing  in 
all  trades  what  had  come  about  in  many.  But 
the  golden  ideal  since  1824  (announced  as  such 
by  Robert  Owen  in  1817)  has  been  eight  hours; 
possibly  in  reinembrance  that  such  was  the  nde 
in  meaiKval  England;  partly  perhaps  from  the 
tempting  threefold  division  of  the  day  into 
equal  parts,  as  in  the  rhyme  *EiB;ht  hours  for 
work,  e^ht  hours  for  T^y,  eight  hours  for 
steep,  eight  'bob'  a  day.'  Trie  eight-hour 
movement  began  in  Australia  in  1856;  by  1877 
the  short  day  was  established  for  women  work- 
ers in  factories,  for  miners  working  under- . 
ground  and  for  pablic  service  employees.  The 
movement  on  the  Continent  dates  from  the 
foundation  of  the  'International"  in  1864,  and 
■9  a  world-demand  of  the  social  reformers, 
from  the  Paris  Trades -Union  Confess  of 
1883.  In  1916  Ecuador  enacted  an  eight-hour 
law,  of  universal  application,  with  exemption 
from  labor  on  Sunda/s  and  legal  holidays.  Ex- 
tra work  is  to  be  paid  25  per  cent  overtime,  50 
p^r  cent  for  overtime  from  six  in  the  evening 
to  midnight,  and  100  per  cent  after  that  hour. 
In  the  United  States,  till  recently,  the  subject 
was  left  to  the  States  and  to  pnvate  contests. 


reduced  the  working  di^  in  the  government 
navy  yards  to  10  hours.  The  first  Sute  10- 
hour  tew,  for  textile  workers  only,  was  of  1849, 
tn  Pennsylvania.  The  first  Massachusetts  law 
was  in  1874,  and  was  due  largely  to  the 
"Knights  of  Saint  Crispin.*  But  the  eight-hour 
movement  bad  long  before  become  general: 
in  1866  the  demand  was  formulated  at  a  gen- 
eral working^nen's  congress  at  Baltimore,  and 
at   other   meetings ;    and   the   National   Labor 


joogle 


BIOHT.HOITR    L AW  —  EIOHTBBHTH   CENTURY 


Union  was  organUed  to  secure  an  eight-hour 
day.  A  six  weeks'  strike  in  New  England  and 
New  York,  April-May  1866,  attempted  to  secure 
it,  but  failed.  In  1867  Connecticut  and  Illinois 
passed  laws  making  ei^t  hours  a  legal  day 
■unless  otherwise  agreed.*  Pennsylvania  fol- 
lowed in  1868  and  New  York  in  1870.  On  24 
Tune  18«  the  United  States  enacted  an  eight- 
hour  day  for  its  establishment;  but  the  mana- 
gers reduced  wages  correspondingly,  allowing 
diose  who  wished  to  work  10  hours  at  the  old 
wages,  which  aroused  such  wrath  that  the  Pres- 
ident revoked  the  order.  All  these  laws  were 
rendered  nugatory  by  the  contracting-out 
clauses.  In  1872  eight-hour  leagues  were 
formed  in  various  places,  and  in  Connecticut 
and  New  York  a  mass  of  strikes  among  the 
wood-working  trades  won  this  goal  for  a  while ; 
but  the  great  depression  from  1873  on  pre- 
vented pressing  such  questions.  Since  1880 
nearly  al!  the  States  have  enacted  eight-hour 
laws,  subject  to  conditions,  usually  restricted 
to  work  for  the  State,  county  or  municipality. 
The  first  great  concerted  effort  for  eight  hours 
■was  in  1886,  when  200,000  workmen  went  on 
strike;  it  was  at  an  eight-hour  meeting  in  Hay- 
market  Square,  Chicago,  that  the  anarchist 
bomb  was  thrown.  A  general  strike  was  an- 
nounced for  this  object  in  1890,  but  was  only 
partially  successful;  several  hundred  thousand 
workmen  struck,  and  many  employers  yielded, 
but  soon  advanced  the  hours.  The  first  really 
efficient  national  law  was  of  1  Ang.  1892,  en- 
forcing eight  hours  upon  all  laborers,  mechan- 
ics or  contractors  in  the  District  of  Columbia 
on  public  works,  under  pain  of  fine  and  im- 
prisonment. 

Unquestionably  the  shorter  workday  move- 
ment, which  began  in  Great  Britain  about  the 
same  time  as  in  America,  had  its  inception  in 
the  desire  to  protect  women  and  children  from 
being  overworked.  Soon  the  tabor  unions  rec- 
ognized that  it  was  better  to  ask  for  shorter 
hours  than  for  hieher  wages,  and  so  in  various 
industries  there  has  been  a  steady  persistent 
effort  for  an  eight-hour  day,  at  the  same  wages 
paid  for  9  or  10  hours.  Widespread  strikes 
in  the  building  trades,  the  printing  industry, 
etc.,  were  won  by  the  employees,  and  the  num- 
bers in  the  unions  steadily  increased.  _  By  1912 
it  was  popularly  understood,  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  America,  that  eight  hours  was  a 
fair  day's  work,  and  liberal  employers  granted 
it  very  generally  without  pressure.  However, 
some  large  industries  continued  to  work  10 
hours,   notably  the  railways  i 


In  1916  the  various  unions  of  railway  work- 
ers, affiliated  through  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor,  made  a  concerted  demand  for  ei^t 
hours  at  the  same  wages  that  were  being  paid 
for  10  hours,  and  threatened  a  general  strike 
and  tie-up  of  the  railways  of  the  entire  United 
States  unless  their  demands  were  acceded  to. 
After  some  months  of  discusslonj  and  endeavor 
to  obtain  settlement  by  arbitration,  no  agree- 
ment was  reached,  and  President  Wilson  held 
conferences  with  leaders  on  both  sides.  He 
finally  succeeded  in  getting  a  promise  from  the 
unions  that  the  strike  would  he  declared  off  if 
Congress  passed  a  law  providinR  for  an  eight- 
hour  day.  and  a  bill  was  hastily  prepared  and 
rushed  through   both   houses  with  very  little 


discussion,  being  passed  by  the  Democrats,  by 
a  nearly  strictly  party  vote.  It  was  signed  3 
Sept.  1916  by  the  President,  but  its  constitu- 
tionality was  promptly  challenged  by  the  rail- 
wav  interests.  The  law  provides:  (1)  An 
-hour  day  from  1  Jan.  1917,  by  c 


pointed  to  study  conditions  and  report  to  the 
President;  (3)  that,  pending  the  report  of  the 
commission,  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  the  rail- 
ways to  reduce  wages  because  of  the  shortened 
hours,  in  other  words  they  shall  pay  the  10- 
hour  price  for  the  eight-hour  day;  (3)  a  fine 
of  $100  to  $1,000  or  imprisonment  not  to  exceed 
a  year  or  both  are  the  penalties  provided  for 
violation.    See  Labob  Legislation'. 

EIGHT-HOUR  LAW,  an  act  adopted  in 
1868  by  the  United  States  Congress,  providing 
that  in  all  government  employment  ei^ht  hours 
shall  constitute  a  day's  work.  It  originated  in 
the  aE^tation  which  had  begun  in  England  in 
1833  by  the  proposition  of  ei^t  hours  as  a  legiti- 
mate worldly  day.  The  agitation  spread  itself 
among  the  mdus trial  classes  throughout  the 
civilized  world,  and  first  bore  fruit  in  Australia 
in  1S56,  where  it  was  adopted  by  several  tradel. 
The  National  Labor  Union  of  the  United 
Slates  demanded  it  in  1866,  and  it  came  into 
effect  iti  the  government  navy  yards  in  18£0,  and 
shortly  afterward  in  all  departments  of  govern- 
ment work.  Its  universal  adoption,  however,  is 
still  unrealized,  and  it  is  the  source  of  fiersistent 
agitation  among  the  labor  organizations  and 
parties  throughout  the  United  States,  the  Brit- 
ish Empire  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
Consult  Rae,  'Eight  Hours  for  Work'  (1894). 
See  EiGHT-HouB  Day. 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY,  The.  Car- 
lyle  made  the  18th  ceniu^  for  readers  who 
accepted  his  ideas,  and  tney  were  Ic^oil  a 
period  of  extreme  decadence  and  even  deg- 
radation of  interest  in  all  that  was  best  for 
humanity.  He  called  it  'the  age  of  prose,  of 
lying  sham,  the  fraudulent  bankrupt  century, 
the  reign  of  Beelzebub,  the  peculiar  era  of 
Cant.'  Frederic  Harrison  came  in  defense  of 
the  period  with  the  suggestion  that  'invectives 
against  a  century  are  more  unprofitable  than 
indictments  against  a  nation,*  and  pointed  out 
that  almost  allof  Carlyte's  heroes  of  the  modem 
times  apart  from  Oliver  Cromwell  are  *chil- 
dren  and  representatives  of  that  unspeakable 
epoch*  from  Frederick  of  Prussia,  Miraheau, 
iSanton  and  George  Washington  to  Samuel 
Johnson,  Bums,  Watt,  Arfcwright  and  others. 
The  century  was  so  low  in  its  interest  in  ar- 
chitecture that  it  is  not  surprising  that  Ruskin 
thundered  against  it  that  "Satan  must  have  had 
a  hand  in  the  designing  of  the  churches  of  the 
Georgian  era,"  and  there  is  no  doubl  that  its 
art  and  education  were  far  below  the  standards 
of  preceding  centuries,  but  on  the  other  hand 
it  IS  the  greatest  of  musical  centuries,  the 
pioneer  in  physical  science  development,  and 
Its  sad  history  of  ntter  neglect  for  the  poor  is 
redeemed  to  a  great  extent  by  the  upward 
movements  which  made  themselves  felt  very 
widely  at  the  end  of  the  century  in  politics, 
economics  and  social  welfare,  especially  as  re- 
gards the  insane,  prisoners  and  the  defectives. 

The  last  25  years  brought  about  more  social 


BIOHTEENTH   CENTUKY 


„^_j  don  any  o^r  corresponding-  period 

in  human  histoiy.  Perhaps  the  reason  for  this 
was,  as  has  often  been  suggested,  that  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  centwy  a  great  many  of  the 
Ughest  and  best  human  interests,  especially 
those  concerning  fellow-meu  who  needed  sym- 

Ktfay  and  aid,  were  lower  than  thn*  had  ever 
en  before.  Humanity  had  reached  a  nadir  in 
social  life  from  which  there  had  to  be  an 
ascent  and  fortunately  the  reaction  against  the 
lamentable  conditions  which  existed  was  strong 
oiough  to  set  up  a  humanitarian  countErmove- 
ment  toward  the  end  of  the  century  which  made 
itself  felt  during  the  course  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury and  has  not  been  lost  even  yet.  This 
mtdtes  the  18th  century  a.  pivotal  period  in 
modern  history  and  therefore  of  ever  so  much 
more  interest  than  many  another  century  that 
represents  greater  immediate  achievements. 

What  is  particularly  notable  in  the  history 
of  the  18th  century  is  its  wars  in  almost  im- 
faroken  succession  dictated  by  royal  ambidon 
or  for  dynastic  reasons,  while  during  much  of 
the  time  king's  mistresses  or  licentious  women 
monarchs  ruled  the  internal  affairs  of  king- 
doms. The  war  of  the  Spanish  succession 
(1^01-14)  began  with  the  centnry.  The  same 
first  ^ear  of  the  new  centuiy  sow  the  active 
carrying  on  of  what  was  called  the  Northern 
War.  lasting  from  1700  to  1721.  In  1718  war 
firoke  out  between  Spain  and  Austria,  in  the 
inidst  of  which  there  was  a  formal  declaration 
of  war  by  England  agunst  Spain,  and  peace 
was  not  made  until  172CK  In  the  meantime  the 
rebellion  in  favor  of  the  Pretender,  as  he  was 
^led,  the  heir  of  the  Stuarts  who  assumed  the 
name  of  James  III,  came  in  Scotland  in  1715 
and  was  not  suppressed  until  the  foUowing 
year.  The  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1714),  which 
concluded  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
<iianged  the  map  of  Europe  as  no  previous 
treaty,  not  even  that  of  Westphalia  at  the  end  of 
the  Thirty  Vears  War  (16^),  had  done,  but 
instead  of  settling  the  politics  of  Europe  es- 
tablished a  number  of  foci  o'f  irritation  emi- 
nently calculated  to  unsettle  them.  Naples  and 
Uilan  were  given  to  Austria  and  the  Austrian 
rule  in  Italy  thus  begun  was  to  continue  for  a 
century  and  a  half,  always  the  subject  of  serious 
disturbance  from  within  and  without  Austria 
received  the  Spanish  Netherlands^  now  to  be 
called  the  Austrian  Netherlands  and  to  be  a 
similar  focus  of  disturhance.  The  Bourbon 
Philip  V  was  allowed  to  rule  in  Spain  on  condi- 
tion that  the  Frendr  and  Spanish  possessions 
should  never  be  under  the  rule  of  a  sin^e  in- 
dividual.   Great  Britain  received  Nova  Scotia 


a  frequent  subject  of  pohtical  irritation  ever 
since.  These  wars  of  the  first  quarter  of  the 
century  were  only  typical  of  the  period.    There 


ir;  there  were  long  series  of  years  when 
number  of  the  states  were  embroiled  with  each 
other.  The  War  of  the  Spairish  Succession  had 
its  counterpart  in  what  is  known  as  the  War 
oi  the  Polish  Succession  (1733),  between 
Austria,  Russia  and  Denmark,  with  France, 
Spain  and  Sardinia  becoming  involved.  When 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI  of  Austria  died  (1740), 


he  left  no  sons,  but  bad  negotiated  a  treaty; 
the  Pragmatic  Suiction  (1731),  to  secure  the 
succession  ctf  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa. 
The  very  year  of  his  death  saw  the  War  of  die 
Austrian  Succession.  In  1739  En^and  and 
Spain  were  at  war  and  in  1745  Charles  Edward 
Stuart,  the  Young  Pretender  as  he  was  called, 
encouraged  by  France,  led  an  insurrection  of 
the  Highlanders.  This  was  termmated  fay  the 
bloody  battle  of  Culloden  under  'the  buteher* 
Cumtierland.  In  1748  the  peace  of  Aix-la-' 
Chapelle  was  signed  and  the  various  cowitries 
of  Europe  made  mutual  restitution  of  ihdr 
conquests  so  as  to  assure  future  peace,  only 
Spain  and  Prussia  being  the  ^ners.  It  was 
to  no  purpose,  for  France  and  England  became 
embroiled  in  war  in  the  earjy  fifties;  in  1756 
came  the  Seven  Years  War  involving  mo^  of 
the  important  countries  of  Europe;  in  1775  the 
American  Revolution  broke  out,  Spain  and 
France  becoming  involved  in  it  before  the  end, 
and  in  1792  the  French  Revohttlonary  wart 
began  and  for  more  than  20  years  France  was 
practically  always  at  war,  and  Over  and  over 
again  the  various  nations  of  Europe  were  drawn 
into  the  Napoleonic  wars.  This  by  no  maaes 
tells  the  tale  of  all  the  wars  of  the  century,  but 
at  least  it  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  ever- 
recurring  vain  recourse  to  arms. 

The  monarchs  of  the  century  whose  names 
are  best  known  are  the  Georges  t  II,  III,  in 
England  and  Louis  XA^  in  France.  .  The  Eng- 
lish were  ruled  for  nearly  100  years  .by  kings' 
who  could  not  speak  their  language,  or  but 
as  a  foreign  tongue,  and  whose  interests  were 
much  more  in  their  German  Hanoverian 
dominions  and  mistresses  than  their  Engliah 
people.  Periiaps  the  political  conditions  of  the 
time  are  best  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  their 
rule  caused  comparatively  little  disaffection  in 
England  itself,  though  fortunately  it  provoked 
the  American  RevoluKon,  which  brought  in- 
dependence to  the  United  States.  Louis  XV, 
sticceeding  to  the  maf^ficent  dominions  created 
by  the  genius  of  Louis  XIV,  whose  personality 
subjugated  the  French  people  and  set  an  un- 
fortunate example  for  other  European  roon- 
arcbs,.  proved  utterly  unworthy  of  his  great 
position  and  allowed  himseli  to  be  ruled  by 
designing  mistress<ts.  His  reign  increased  the. 
debt  and  the  taxes  of  the  French  nation  until 
Louis  XVI  fell  hdr  to  an  impossible  utuatitm.. 
In  epite  of  Louis  XV's  weakness,  France  at  the. 
end  of  his  reign  (1774)  had  even  more  ter- 
ritory than  at  the  death  of  his  grandfather, 
Louis  XIV' (1715).  Social  conditions  had  how- 
ever, sunk  to  a  level  abnost  indescribable  and 
the  reaction  against  them  was  inevitable  and 
could  not  be  long  delayed. 

Certain  great  political  changes  which  took 
place  in  the  18th  century  had  far>-reachiiig 
efiects  cm  subsequent  gencratitms,  some  of  which 
are  only  working  out  to  legitimate  cmclusicms. 
in  our  oira  time.  Apart  from  the  creation  of: 
the  American  Republic,  itself  of  ^eatest  stgni- 
fionce  for  the  course  of  dvilizatioii,  the  three, 
most  important  political  changes  were  the  estab- 
lishment of  Prussia  as  a  kingdom  (1701),  the  rise 
of  Russia  to  be  a  great  European  power  which 
began  under  Peter  the  Great  (d.  1725),  and  the 
eslablbhment  of  British  power  in  India  which 
led  eventually  to  the  erection  of  the  British 
Empire.  In  the  light  of  recent  events  probably 
the  first  of  these  must  be  considered  tr^ " 


,5le 


BIGHTSBNTH   CSNTURY 


important.  The  electorate  of  Brandenburg, 
whose  ruler  was  one  of  those  privile^d  to 
dect  the  emperor,  came  under  the  Hoheniol- 
lem  family  ute  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was 
a  narrow  strip  of  territory  less  than  50  miles 
ast  and  west  of  the  little  town  of  Berlin.  It 
is  die  special  pride  of  the  family  that  each  one 
of  the  reiffninfT  heads  added  something  to  his 
ancestral  domain.  The  ruler  was  known  only 
as  Margrave  and  was  considered  of  no  special 
importance  in  German  life.  Prussia  whicn  fell 
to  them  by  inheritance  at  die  beginning  of  the 
17th  century  had  been  originally  nileo  by  the 
Tetitonic  Kni^ts  who  had  conquered  its  jMgan 
inhabitants  in  a  Crusade  in  the  13th  ceritury 
and  continued  to  role  it  throuj^  their  grand 
master.  At  the  time  of  the  rehgious  revolt  in 
Germany  in  the  early  16th  century  the  Teutonic 
Order  was  dissolved,  and  their  lands  were 
secularized  and  out  of  them  the  duchy  of 
Prussia  erected,  the  srand  master  of  the  time 
occuoying  what  had  hitherto  been  an  elective 
office  now  becoming  the  Duke  of  Prussia  with 
the  right  of  inheritance.  He  was  a  relative  of 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  when  this 
branch  of  the  Hohenzollems  died  out  the  duchy 
was  united  to  Brandenburg,  the  Hohenzollems 
now  ruling  over  such  distant  provinces  as  Cleves 
and  Mark  in  the  Rtiineland  and  Prussia  far  to 
Ihe  east.  The  great  elector  as  he  is  called  suc- 
ceeded in  wel(£ng  these  widely  separated  ter- 
ritories into  a  strong  state.  His  son,  Frederick 
I,  obtained  from  the  emperor,  for  military  aid 
rendered,  permis»on  to  change  his  title  from 
elector  to  king  though  be  was  but  king  in 
Prussia  as  he  did  not  rule  over  the  whole  of 
Prussia,  but  he  preferred  this  tide  because  his 
Prussian  dominions  were  outside  the  Imperial 
limits  and  he  was  more  independent.  After  the 
^rtition  of  Poland  his  title  became  King  of 

His  son,  Frederick  William  I,  though  noted 
more  for  his  eccentricities  and  for  his  rude 
boorish  manners  than  for  interest  in  an^rdiing 
higher,  consolidated  the  Prussian  dominions, 
created  an  army  of  nearly  100,000  men,  drilleil 
and  trained  ]>robably  better  than  any  odier  soU 
lUers  of  the  time.  He  was  almost  miserly  in  his 
penuriousness  with  regard  to  anything  exce^ 
military  expenses,  reduced  the  nimiber  of  his 
court  servants,  coined  the  family  silver  and 
gold  most  of  the  royal  jewels  at  auction.  He 
left  Ms  son,  Fredenck  II,  a  magnificent  arnn- 
and  a  well-filled  military  chest.  Frederick  II, 
to  be  known  in  history  as  the  Great,  whose  in- 
terest in  literature  and  the  arts  had  disgusted 
bis  father  in  his  youth,  had  no  sooner  asceoded 
the  throne. (1740),  at  the  ^e  of  28,  than  he 

Eroceeded  to  use  the  military  advantages  which 
is  father  had  secured  for  him  to  the  utmost 
Haria  Theresa  having  ascended  the  throne  in 
Austria  the  same  year,  Frederick,  taldng  ad- 
vantage of  the  expected  weakness  of  a  female 
ruler,  without  any  reasonable  grounds  laid 
claim  to  Silesia  and  began  the  War  of  the  Aus- 
trian Succession.  He  enlarged  his  territories  in 
every  way  that  he  could,  showed  great  military 
genius  in  bis  campaigns  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  encouragement  of  arts  and  sciences,  the 
building  of  public  structures  for  music  and 
hbraries  and  built  a  series  of  palaces,  not  all 
of  them  in  good  architectural  taste,  but  not 
behind  that  of  the  century  in  which  he  lived. 
He  especially  enriched  the  city  of  Berlin  with 


the  intellectual  life  of  die  Prussian  people. 
Under  him  Prussia  became  an  important  power 
ia  Europe. 

The  second  of  these  great  political 
changes  of  the  century  was  the  rise  of  Russia. 
This  was  mainly  due  to  one  man,  Peter,  to 
whom  history  has  given  the  title  of  The  Great 
The  house  of  Romanoff  came  to  the  throne  of 
Russia  on  the  extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  Rurik 
1598.  The  17th  century  was  spent  in  breaking 
the  power  of  the  nobles,  encouraging  mining, 
manufactures  and  conunerce  and  increasing 
Russian  territory  in  the  west  at  the  cn»ense 
of  Poland.  Peter  the  Great  came  to  tfie  throne 
in  1699  and  reigned  till  1725.  He  insisted  on 
introducing  the  ways  of  European  civiUxation, 
shavine  oft  the  beards  of  his  nobles  and  cutting 
^ort  tndr  long  gowns  himself  when  Ih^  re- 
fused to  obey  his  order  in  the  matter,  for  he 
declared  that  people  so  dressed  and  bearded 
could  not  be  good  soldiers.  He  made  war  on 
the  Turks  and  conquered  Aiov.  Just  at  the 
beginning  of  tlie  18th  century,  Peter  made  hit 
way  to  Holland  because  he  felt  that  Russia 
have  an  outlet  to  the  sea  and  that  Holland 


Zaandam  in  Holland  and  studied  the  shipbuild- 
ing methods  of  the  English  on  the  Thames. 
He  returned  to  put  down  an  insurrection  in 
Russia  and  the  Cossacks  mider  Maieppa 
{1707),  and  then  proceeded  to  take  territory 
away  from  Sweden  which  would  allow  him  an 
outlet  to  the  Baltic  Sea.  He  established  nearby 
his  capita],  Petersburg,  his  desired  Srindow  into 
EuToipe,*  at  immense  expense,  setting  it  np  c 


.^    _  _   wife,   Catherine^ 

who  reigned  for  several  years,  and  that  between 
Elizabeth  and  Catherine  II  for  most  of  the  rest 
of  the  18th  century  Russia  was  ruled  by  women 
of  the  most  licentious  personal  diaracter,  whose 
favorites  had  much  to  do  at  least  with  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  empire,  the  country  con- 
tinued to  gather  strength  and  importance  in 
Euro^  until  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tnry  it  was  one  of  the  strong  factors  against 
Napoleon  on  many  occasions.  German  intrigue 
riddled  the  country,  however,  and  especially 
under  Elizabeth  and  Catherine  II  succeeded  in 
Germanizing  the  nobility  to  a  great  extent  and 
especially  the  bureaucracy  and  keeping  the  Rus- 
sian people  in  the  worst  poosible  condition  of 
serfdom  and  subjection. 

The  third  important  political  event  of  the 
18th  century  was  the  subjection  of  India  to 
England.  About  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen> 
tury  the  French,  owing  to  the  genius  of  Dupleix 
who  had  been  governor  of  Pondicherry  since 
1741,  came  into,  prominence  in  Indian  affairs. 
Dupleix  dreamed  of  a  French  empire  in  India 
following  the  lines  of  the  old  Mogul  Empire 
which  had  fallen  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
oentuiv.  Robert  Clive  who  went  to  India  as 
a  clerk  took  on  himself  to  make  head  agaiiut 
I>upleix  who  was  unsupported  by  his  own  gov- 
cmmenL  In  the  midst  of  the  wars  between 
England  and  France  which  occurred  around 
1750,  the  American  events  of  which  are  Brad- 
dock's  defeat  and  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
and  during  the  Seven  Years  War,  CUve  gTad> 
ually  built  up  the  Indian  Empire,  often  under 


VIOHTKBNTH   CBHTUItY 


«1 


conditioni  that  wonld  not  have  b«en  approved 
U  home  but  that  once  concluded  were  accepted 
II  accomplished  facts.  As  a  resnlt  at  the  be* 
gmrnng:  o<  the  19th  century  some  300,000/K» 
people  in  India  were  under  English  rule. 

The  American  Revolntion  beginning  ap- 
parently as  a  revolt  on  the  part  of  scattered 
rather  disconnected  cototdes  with  less  than 
3,000,000  of  inhabitants  and  even  those  by  no 
means  strongly  welded  together,  and  with  a  very 
lai^e  party  unong  them  who  remained  loyal  to 
Enmand,  so  that  success  seemed  almost  impos- 
sible, ended  with  a  triumph  that  gave  genuine 
democracy  almost  its  first  great  omor- 
tunity  in  the  world's  history-  In  a  new  land 
far  from  the  disturbii^  political  conditions  of 
European  countries  and  with  magnificent  re- 
souroea    to    develop,    the    Amerioan    Republic 


the  people;  by  the  people  and  tor  the  people 
m^  mean.  De  Tocqueville's  'American  Democ- 
racy,* wriUen  50  years  later,  is  the  tribute  of 
a  young  enthusiastic  European  republican  to 
Americirs  success.  Undoubtedly  the  colonists 
owed  their  succescful  termination  of  the  Rev- 
olution to  the  aid  of  the  French,  though  the 
Idngdom  of  France  under  Louis  XVI  was 
tottering  to  its  fail  and  that  fall  was  hastened 
t^  the  very  success  of  the  spirit  of  democracy 
in  America-  From  Lexington  to  Yorktown 
represented  seven  long  years  of  the  severest 
trials  borne  with  ma^ificent  courage  and  per- 
sisten(7  by  the  colonists,  hampered  by  a  large 
royalist  contingent  among  ihem,  and  these 
virtues  bad  their  own  reward.  The  result  was 
a  solidarity  of  feeling  owing  to  sympathy  and 
union  in  suffering  which  more  than  all  else 
served  to  bring  the  colonists  together.    The  IJ 


colonies  had  been  anything  but  homogeneous  ii 
race  and  character  and  ttiev  were  almost  in 
fiiutely   dissimilar   in   attitude   toward   religior 


.    .        .,.,       _        _       .  „_.       __    i  after 

the  Revolution  to  bring  them  together  or  secure 
a  working  modus  vivendi  for  their  govemmenl, 
but  it  would  have  been  quite  impossible  only 
for  the  long  vears  of  bloodshed  and  the  severe 
vicissitudes  tnrough  which  they  had  passed  in 
the  neriod  of  travail  from  which  the  new 
RepuDlic  of  the  West  was  eventually  bom.  It 
has  well  been  called  the  greatest  fact  in  modem 
history;  the  greatness  otthat  fact  has  been  en- 
hanced by  the  part  which  the  American  Re- 
public, now  one  of  the  largest  of  the  nations, 
has  taken  in  the  Worid  War  for  democracy. 

The  greatest  man  of  the  18lh  century  was 
beyond  all  doubt  George  Washington.  It  was 
the  custom  sometimes  to  speak  of  him  as 
owing  his  reputation  to  a  series  of  happy  ac- 
cidents rather  than  to '  innate  genius.  Having 
been  chosen  the  general  of  the  Colonial  forces, 
it  was  said  that  he  succeeded  in  holding;  out 
against   the  British    whose   mistakes  were  so 

Seat  as  to  facilitate  this  until  the  alliance  with 
■anee  and  then  with  Spain  finally  brought  that 
combmatton  of  regular  military  slrenph  and 
organization  which  made  Vorktown  possible  and 
brought  a  happy  ending  to  the  Revolution. 
Any  spch  view,  however,  is  contradicted  b^ 
definitB  knowledge  of  the  man.  When  scarcely 
more  ihaq  a  youih  he  had  saved  Braddock  from 
-H^lc^T  defeat  in   siNte   of    that   general's   utter 


errors.  The  campaign  around  Boston  added 
further  to  his  military  reputarion.  The  battlet 
of  Princeton  and  Trenton  have  been  acknowl- 
edged by  modem  military  experts  as  one  of 
the  greatest  series  of  strategical  combinations 
under  the  most  discoura^ng  circumstances  that 
have  ever  been  made.  The  official  doctmients 
of  Washington  show  clearly  how  lar^  and 
noble  was  his  mind.  His  advice  is  still  the 
bes!  policy  of  the  republic  io  spite  of  its  broad 
extension  beyond  anything  that  he  could  ever 
have  imagined  in  his  wildest  dreams.  His  dec- 
linatioR  of  the  presidency  for  th?  third  time 
and  the  consequent  tradition  of  but  two  presi- 
dential terms  was  a  precious  heritage  for  the 
nation,  and  the  final  proof  of  his  magnanimity. 
Time  instead  of  lessening  his  prestige  nas  added 
to  his  reputation  and  made  it  clear  that  he  was 
a  great  man  raised  up  to  tit  a  ^eat  occasion. 
The  saddest  chapter  of  the  18th  century  is 
that  of  the  social  conditions.    In  order  to  ex- 

Slain  the  French  Revolution  so  much  attention 
as  been  devoted  to  social  conditions  in  France 
that  there  has  come  to  be  a  very  general  im- 
pression that  social  abuses  were  at  the  worst 
m  that  countiy.  As  a  matter  of  fact  with  the 
exception  of  England  the  poorer  classes  were 
better  off  in  France  than  anywhere  else  in 
Europe.  The  awful  picture  of  the  Ancten 
Rlgitne  is  true,  but  it  should  be  remembered 
thai  the  German  lower  classes  were  in  still 
worse  condition  and  the  Russian  serfs  were 
quite  literally  slaves  and  life  and  death  was 
practically  in  the  hands  of  iheir  masters.  The 
nobility  in  all  the  countries  apparently  felt  them- 
selves to  be  of  quite  different  clay  from  the 
human  beings  below  them  in  the  social  order 
and  treated  them  accordingly.  With  the  coming 
of  the  capitalist  class  as  the  result  of  the  in- 
dustrial revolution  something  of  this  same  feel- 
ing was  to  develop  on  the  part  of  rich  employers 
to  employees,  ^lencver  human  nature  has  the 
chance  it  imposes  on  those  below  it  and  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence in  the  last  quarter  of  .the  century  was 
written  and  most  strongly  upheld  by  men  who 
thoroughly  believed  in  the  institution  of  negro 
slavery  and  insisted  on  maintaining  it  for  neariy 
a  full  century. 

The  most  shocking  element  in  social  condi- 
tions was  the  utter  neglect  of  the  wards  of  the 
state,  prisoners,  the  insane,  feeble-minded  and 
the  poor.  The  awful  conditions  which  existed 
in  prisons  and  hospitals  were  described  by  John 
Howard  toward  the  end  of  the  century  who 
brought  about  a  beginning  of  reform.  The 
prisoners  were  huddled  together  utterly  regard- 
less of  their  influence  on  each  other,  the  young 
and  the  Old,  the  first  offender  and  the  hardened 
criminal,  and  the  treatment  of  women  was  al- 
most worse  than  that  of  men.  Hundreds  of 
women  in  London  prisons  were  crowded  to- 
gether, some  of  them  women  of  the  streets  and 
some  accused  of  little  thefts  to  keep  their 
children  alive,  and  with  many  of  the  prisoners 
children  were  allowed  to  be  there  because 
there  was  no  one  else  but  their  mother 
to  car*  for  them.  Nearly  250  crimes 
were  called  felonies  and  were  subject  ■  to 
pimishmeni  by  hanging.  Poor  women  were 
often  hanged  for  having  passed  a  counterfeit 
pound  note  which  sometimes  they  themselves 
did  not  know  was  a  counterfeit  and  the  fact 
diat  -ihey  had  diildren  at  their  breast  or  wen 


■8l^ 


EIGHTEENTH    CBNTURY 


in  an  early  stage  of  pregnancy  was  no  mitiBa- 
lion  of  their  offense.  The  insane  who  had  ever 
shown  any  sign  of  violence  were  shackled  and 
were  seldom  allowed  to  be  free  again.  The 
quarters  in  which  the  insane  were  cared  for 
were  flllby  beyond  desiiription  and  they  were 
eften  confined  in  cells  underground  or  chained 
to  the  walls  of  dark  rooms  into  which  the 
sunli^t  never  penetrated.  Quaker  philanthro- 
piats  in  England  began  a  crusade  for  the  re- 
form  of  insane  asylums  which  slowly  gained 
ground  and  the  movement  ipread  to  America, 
It  had  beed  the  custom  to  permit  visitors  in 
search  of  amusement  to  stand  at  windows 
where  they  could  view  the  antics  of  the  insane, 
a  small  sum  of  money  being  collected  for  this 
privilege.  This  amusement  became  so  popular 
that  many  thousands  indul^d  in  it  every  year 
and  the  fee  constituted  an  important  source  of 
revenue.  Pinel  in  France  dared  to  strike  the 
shackles  off  the  insane  in  the  great  asylum 
and  hospital  at  Bicetre  though  a  great  many 
even  of  his  medical  colleagues  were  convinced 
that  it  was  a  dangerous  proceeding.  The  care 
for  the  defectives  and  for  the  poor  in  the  poor- 
houses  continued  to  be  almost  tinspeakably  bad 
until  well  on  into  the  19th  century,  and  indeed 

idea  of  reform  in  these  matters,  however,  began 
to  take  hold  of  thinking  people  before  the  end 
of  the  18lh  centuiT.  The  United  States  was  a 
leader  in  these  reforms.  When  de  Tocqueville 
visited  America  and  gathered  the  material  for 
his  book  on  Democracy  he  was  here  as  a  mem- 
ber  of  a  commission  to  investigate  our  prison 
system  in  order  to  secure  the  reform  of  French 
prisons. 

Personal  liberty  on  the  Continent  had  sunk 
to  a  very  low  ebb  indeed.  Most  of  the  rujera 
were  absolute  monarchs  and  there  being  no 
written  guarantee  of  rights  men  had  almost  no 
redress  against  the  monarch's  ill  will  in  their 
regard  if  he  wished  to  exercise  it.  In  France 
particularly  the  king  might  order  the  imprison- 
ment of  a  subject  no  matter  what  his  rank  and 
keep  him  in  prison  for  any  length  of  time  that 
he  wished.  This  process  was  accomplished 
under  a  sealed  document  issued  by  the  king 
called  a  Lettre  de  Cachet.  This  mode  of  im- 
prisonment had  been  very  much  abused  under 
Louis  XIV,  but  the  abuse  reached  a  climax 
under  Louis  XV  when  it  is  said  that  over  150,000 
sealed  orders  were  issued.  Sometimes  men  thus 
imprisoned  would  be  entirely  forgotten  and  the 
reason  for  their  imprisonment  be  quite  unknown. 
A  clause  of  Magna  Charta  made  any  procedure 
a  violation  of  the  rights  of  Englishmen,  but  in 
other  countries  the  practice  was  quite  common. 
When  the  Bastille  fell  (1789)  some  of  these 
prisoners  were  found  for  whose  imprisoimieiit 
no  reason  could  be  discovered. 

A  profound  reaction  in  soda!  matters  was 
due  in  Europe.  It  came  with  the  French  Revo- 
lution, in  ]/89.  Begun  as  an  attempt  to  dis- 
tribute the  burdens  of  taxation  more  equally 
on  the  French,  or  indeed  to  solve  the  problem 
of  the  bankruptcy  of  the  coimtry,  it  developed 
into  a  great  outburst  of  the  oppressed  classes. 
As  Hilaire  Belloc  who  probably  knows  the 
period  better  than  anyone  in  our  time  suggests 
It  was  an  organized  eFFort  to  win  back  for  men 
some  of  the  privileges  which  they  had  enjoyed 
i».  the  Middle  Ages.    In  that  sense  it  continued 


to  make  itself  felt  all  during  the  19th  century 
and  down  to  our  own  time.  It  is  this  aspect  of 
the  movement  that  has  until  now  not  been  prop- 
erly appreciated.  Hailed  by  alt  the  liberal  tbink- 
ers  of  Europe  as  a  new  dawn  for  civilization  the 
Revolution  degenerated  into  the  saddest  of 
butcheries,  and  save  place  to  utter  anarchy  until 
the  French  people  themselves,  tired  of  bloodshed, 
welcomed  a  military  dictator  with  pover  to 
maintain  public  order.  In  1^9  the  States-Geit- 
eral  were  summoned  for  the  first  time  since 
1614.  This  was  changed  shortly  into  the 
National  Assembly.  A  new  canstitUtitMi  was 
proclaimed  in  1790.  In  1792  the  monardiy  was 
abolished  and  the  next  year  the  well-meaning 
but  unfortimate  Louis  XVI  was  put  to 
death  and  Marie  Antoinette,  his  queen,  Maria 
Theresa's  beautiful  but  imprudent  daughter  who 
had  been  the  admiration  of  Europe,  followed. 
These  events  alienated  all  Europe  and  the  new 
republic  fought  them  all  in  combination  and 
won  battles  that  enabled  her  to  extend  her 
territory  but  finally  brought  her  tmder  the  heelt 
of  a  military  despot 

The  most  compelling  figure  of  the  18tb  cen- 
tury is  Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  his  career  is 
the  index  that  French  affairs  had  reached  a 
point  where  reaction  was  inevitable.  This 
product  of  the  time  was,  to  quote  Freeman, 
•nearer  to  being  the  master  of  Europe  than 
any  other  man  nad  been  before.*  "He  called 
himself  consul  and  an  old  Greek  would  have 
said  that  he  had  made  himself  tyrant,  but  he 
was  a  more  absolute  ruler  than  ever  Louis  XIV 
had  been.»  One  of  die  last  reflections  made  by 
Gibbon,  the  historian  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
whose  wide  knowledge  of  world  history  would 
seem  to  give  him  a  right  to  an  opinion  on  the 
subject,  was  that  the  world  would  never  again 
see  a  great  conqueror  arise  who  like  Alexander 
or  Oesar  might  threaten  to  have  the  world 
under  his  domination.  Gibbon  died  in  1794. 
Had  he  lived  but  a  scant  10  years  more  he 
would  have  been  able  to  witness  the  utter  con- 
tradiction of  this  opinion,  though  there  is  no 
doubt  now  that  most  of  the  learned  men  of  his 
time  and  especially  those  familiar  with  history 
would  have  accepted  his  reflection  as  almost  so 
obvious  as  to  be  an  axiom.  In  this  after  all 
Gibbon  differed  very  little  from  many  a  serious 
student  of  history  of  a  century  later  who  would 
not  have  hesitated  to  say  that  he  now  felt  sure 
that  a  great  prolonged  European  war  shared 
by  most  of  the  civilized  nations  of  the  world 
was  an  utter  impossibility. 

Bonaparte  was  carried  to  the  hei^t  of 
power  on  a  Hood  of  military  success.  Arrived 
there  he  proved  to  have  a  genius  for  adminis- 
tration that  enabled  him  to  maintain  himself 
and  that  has  stamped  his  influence  on  all 
modern  legislation.  He  came  to  the  front  in 
the  Italian  campaigns  of  the  wars  of  the  French 
Revolution  when  nis  victories  in  Italy  forced  . 
the  Emperor  Francis  of  Austria  to  surrender 
the  Austrian  Netherlands  to  France  and  to  with- 
draw from  northern  Italy  with  the  result  that 
Piedmont  and  Savoy  were  annexed  to  France.. 
France  was  a  republic,  but  there  was  no  re- 
publicanism in  the  spirit  of  French  conquests 
once  the  mania  of  victory  developed.  Republics 
were  sacrificed  quite  as  readily  to  French  ambi- 
tion, or  rather  to  the  ambition  o£  French  mili- 
taiy  leaders,  as  were  monarchies.    In   return 


.lOOg  Ic 


BIOHtESNTH  CENTinR^ 


was  oliKarchical  in  its  govenunent  had  at  least 
some  thow  of  Mif-niliiu;  stbout  it.  The  French 
and  the  Austrtaiis  divioed  the  Venetian  teni- 
toriei  between  them.  When  in  1798  Bonaparte 
pbnned  Us  expedition  to  Efcypt  and  the  French 
needed  mooey  to  finuice  ii  the  Directory  of 
Fiance  calmly  proceeded  to  attadc  Switzerland, 
for  tooie  six  centuries  a  republic,  for  no  better 
reason  than  because  the  town  of  Beme  was 
known  to  pouess  a  large  treaiurc  The  French 
Revolution  would  seem  then  utterly  to  have 
failed  in  its  purpose,  but  it  was  onl^  an  ediitse 
for  a  time  and  m  spite  of  many  vicissitudes  its 
spirit  was  to  work  for  good  for  more  than  a 
century  later.  Napoleon  came  to  be  the  hammer 
by  which  a  great  many  of  the  presumedly  most 
firmly  established  things  of  the  old  order  in 
Europe  were  smashed  upon  the  anvil  of  war 
to  be  made  over  for  the  better,  though  the 
betterment  was  often  not  immediate. 

The  greatest  woman  character  of  the  century 
in  tlie  best  sense  of  the  word  was  Maiia 
Theresa,  queen  of  Austria  or  *kii%,*  as  her 
Magyar  subjects  loved  to  call  her,  and  finally 
Anstriui  empress.  Her  father  had  anticipated 
trouble  for  his  daughter's  rule  and  made  the 
treaty  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  to  secure 
it,  but  bis  worst  portents  were  confirmed  and 
Maria  Theresa  was  scarcely  seated  on  the 
throne  before  she  became  embroiled  in  a  series 
of  wars  for  the  preservation  and  integrity  of 
her  states.  Probably  no  woman  in  history  has 
ever  taken  her  duties  as  sovereign  more  seri- 
ously. On  the  other  hand  as  the  mother  of  17 
children  she  tocdc  her  domestic  duties  quite  as 
seriotaly  and  was  a  model  wife  and  mother. 
Her  letters  to  Marie  Antoinette  during  the 
French  troubles  show  her  mUernal  solicitude 
at  its  best  and  her  wisdom  as  a  ruler  and 
administrator.  She  treated  her  subjects  very 
much  as  she  did  her  fkmily,  with  the  most 
loving  care  and  profoimd  wisdom.  She  prac- 
tised strict  econmny,  encouraged  manufactures 
and  commerce,  reformed  the  army  with  the 
idea  of  preventing  bloodshed  by  being  prepared 
for  war,  and  organiied  a  system  of  military 
colonies  on  the  frontiers  so  as  to  prevent  in- 
vasion and  save  her  subjects  from  the  wont 
hardships  of  war,  that  of  having  the  entmy 
in  their  midst.  Above  all  Maria  Theresa  won 
the  love  of  all  the  different  peoples  who  com- 
posed her  multilingual  kingdom.  It  has  always 
been  a  historical  mystery  why  the  tKtert^neous 

Kples  who  constitute  the  Austrian  Empire 
e  hung  K^cther  and  it  has  often  been  sup- 
posed that  it  was  a  mere  question  of  armed 
force  and  repressiotL  There  can  be  no  donbt, 
however,  thai  there  was  real  attachment  to  the 
house  of  Hapsburg  and  that  above  all  Maria 
Theresa's  lon^  reign  of  nearly  50  years  had 
much  to  do  with  creating  a  spirit  of  solidarity 
among  these  peoples.  Her  r^diness  to  do  for 
the  suflering  amon^  her  people  was  literally 
tmboundedl  It  is  said  that  once  she  was  driving 
throu^  a  part  of  the  country  where  (amine 
was  rife  and  people  were  starving.  Passing 
by  a  mother  seated  at  the  roadside  trying  to 
nurse  her  diild,  and  evidently  unable  to  supply 
it  with  foodL  the  enqires*  threw  b  piece  of 
»ot  10— • 


eyes  insisted  that  it  would  be  too  late  to  save 
her  baby.  The  mother  of  17  children  might 
well  be  expected  to  be  in  a  condition  to  iupply 
for  lack  of  infant  food,  and  so  the  starving 
baby  nursed  at  the  Imperial  breast  and  its  life 
was  saved.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  among 
peoples  who  had  traditions  of  acts  of  this  Idna 
on  the  part  of  their  empress  queen,  deep  feel- 
ings of  affection  would  be  aroused  to  oeoome 
a  tradition  in  favor  of  the  family  of  which  she 
was  a  member. 

The  one  thing  that  stains  the  reip  of  Maria 
llieresa  is  the  partition  of  Poland.  There  is 
no  doubt  at  all  that  she  entered  upon  it  with 
great  unwillingness  and  felt  that  she  was  forced 
to  take  part  lest  there  should  be  such  a  dis- 
turbance of  frontiers  and  the  balance  of  power  • 
in  central  Europe  as  would  leave  her  kingdom 
and  people  open  to  attack  under  unfavorable 
conditions.  Perhaps  another  fault  was  the  as- 
sociation of  her  son  Joseph  II  in  the  govern- 
ment Maria.  Theresa  was  a  woman  of  heart 
and  high  administrative  powers.  Her  son 
Joseph  was  an  intellectual  prig  who  was  quite 
sure  that  humanity  could  be  made  better  by 
rules  and  regulations  and  that  men  could  b^ 
governed  by  sweet  reasonableness  and  intel- 
lectual reform.  His  career  as  a  ruler  was  an 
utter  failure.  He  tried  to  make  himself  a 
benevolent  autocrat  for  the  benefit  of  his  sub- 
jects and  was  so  terribly  disappointed  by  his 
failure  that  he  died  a  broken-hearted  man  be- 
fore he  was  50. 

Women  were  destined  to  play  an  extremely 
important  role  in  18th  century  history.  The 
reign  of  Queen  Anne  is  a  great  period  in 
Diglish  history  but  unfortunately  unworthy 
women  were  to  be  the  most  influential  char- 
acters of  the  time.  The  most  noteworthy  of 
these  whose  career  is  typical  in  many  ways  of 
the  lamentable  political  mfluences  that  were  at 
work  was  Catherine  II,  the  empress  of  Rusaa, 
who  reigned  from  1762  to  1796.  She  was  not 
a  native  Russian,  but  a  princess  of  Anhalt- 
Zerbst  in  upper  Saxony.  Her  name  Sophia 
Augusta  was  changed  to  Catherine  on  her  ad- 
mission into  the  Greek  Church  just  before  her 
marriage  with  Peter  who  had  been  sdected  to 
succeed  his  aunt,  the  Empress  £^izabelh,  on  the 
throne  of  Russia.  She  was  not  the  first  thus 
to  be  lifted  from  obscurity  to  the  high  posi- 
tion of  empress  of  the  Russians,  for  her  earliest 
predecessor  in  the  18th  century.  Catherine  I, 
the  wife  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  reigned  for 
two  years  after  his  death,  1725  to  1727,  was 


been  the  mistress  of  a  series  of  Russian  g«si- 
erals,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  tsar  and 
became  his  mistress  and  subsequently  his  wife. 
She  died  at  the  early  age  of  40,  her  end  being 
hastened  by  dissipation.  She  never  learned  to 
read  or  write,  but  she  knew  how  to  mana^ 
men.  The  second  Catherine  was  quite  as  dissi- 
pated, and  had  even  more  administrative  ability, 
but  she  had  devoted  herself  to  her  own  educa- 
tion until  she  came  to  be  looked  up  to  as  one 
of  the  scbolajTs  of  the  time.  She  was  a  friend 
of  Voltaire  and  of  the  Encyclopedists.  She 
was  a  creat  believer  in  the  new  social  philos- 
ophy v£iGfa  they  preached,  and  maintained  cor- 


8l^ 


KIOHTEBHTH  CENnnCY 


.__, e  with  llieni.    Her  husband  frittered 

away  his  life  in  senseless  dissipation,  but  whDe 
die  Empress  Elizabeth  lived.  Catherine  main- 
tained some  show  of  respectability  and  acquired 
.deep  influence  over  her.  Her  mode  of .  life, 
however,  soon  became  such  as  to  make  the 
paternity  of  her  children  a  matter  of  grave 
doubt.  With  the  death  of  EUiabeih  the  half- 
imbecile  Peter,  her  husband,  soon  got  into 
serious  difficulty  with  his  people  and  bis  nobles, 
and  Catherine  throng  her  lovers  took  advan- 
tage of  this  to  secure  the  throne. 

All  during  her  life  Catherine  continued  to 
Mve  roost  licentiously.  One  lover  succeeded 
another,  though  one  favorite,  Fotemkiti,  mun- 
taincd  his  influence  over  Catherine  for  some  15 

EfS,  supplying  her  with  new  favorites  when 
mistress's  personal  inclination  for  himself 
suffered  an  interval  or  ceased  entirely.  Cath- 
erine's lovers  are  said  to  have  cost  Russia  over 
$100,000,000  at  a  time  and  under  drctunstances 
when  mone^  was  worth  at  least  five  times  as 
much  as  it  is  now.     In  spite  of  this  utterly  de- 

e-aved  personal  character  Catherine  ruled 
ussia  for  Russia's  advanta^  though  not  for 
the  benefit  of  her  subjects.  She  pursued  relent- 
lessly the  policy  of  giving  Russia  an  e^ess  for 
its  commerce  by  sea.  She  succeeded  m  bring- 
ing Courland  with  its  Baltic  coast  line  into  the 
Russian  Empire,  had  Poniatowski,  an  old  lover, 
elected  (o  Oie  throne  of  Poland,  and  finally 
brought  about  the  infamous  division  of  Poland 
—  Catherine  obtaining  about  two-diirds  of  the 
Polish  territoiy.  An  insurrection  of  the  people 
under  Kosciusko,  the  Polish  hero  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  failed,  the  Russian  army 
stormed  Warsaw  and  the  last  trace  of  Poland 
as  an  independent  count ly  was  obliterated 
(1794).  It  was  the  foulest  deed  in  history. 
War  with  the  Turks  led  to  Catherine's  conquest 
of  Bessarabia  and  other  countries  down  to  the 
Caspian  and  came  near  realising  the  Russian 
empress'  dream  of  driving  the  Turks  entirely 
from  Ekirope  and  the  establishment  of  b^r 
own  empire  at  Constantinople.  She  was  com- 
pletely iuienaled  from  all  sympathy  for  French 
ideas  by  the  progress  of  the  Frenui  Revolutio]] 
and  prohibited  the  publication  of  French  works 
in  Russia.  French  admirers  used  to  call  her 
the  Semiramis  of  the  North  and  her  career, 
politick  and  moral,  amply  justifies  the  eoim- 
parison,  with  the  moral  balance  in  favor  of  the 
ancient  ruler  who  anticipated  Catherine  by  some 
2,500  years.  It  was  the  presence  of  such  rulers 
as  herself  and  Louis  Xv  during  the  18th  cen- 
tury that  brought  about  the  reaction  against 
monarchical  government  which  was  to  attract 
BO  much  attention  during  the  19th  century. 

This  century  contains  the  most  important 
chapter  in  the  history  of  music  Scarlatti 
(1659-1725)  who  wrote  some  hundred  (^icras,  a 
number  of  oratorios  and  an  immense  amount 
of  ecclesiastical  music,  introduced  three  novel- 
ties destined  to  influence  mnsic  deeply.  The 
two  principal  o£  these  are  the  Sinfonia  or 
Overnire  and  the  accompanied  recitative.  Every 
country  in  Europe  took  up  music  and  madie 
distinct  contributions  to  it,  Purcell's  work  in 
the  17th  century  in  England  had  finely  prepared 
the  public  mind,  and  Handel  and  Bach  com- 
pleted the  organitation  of  the  art  of  music  on 
a  firm  footing.  It  has  been  said  that  'these 
two  great  composers  of  the  ISA  oeooiry,  WQte 


every  combination  of  musicxi  itctes  that  down 
to  our  latest  times  has  ever  been  employed 
with  good  effect.*  .  .  .  'The  more  the  worki 
of  these  masters  are  studied  the  more  are  they 
fotmd  to  foreshadow  the  supposed  novelties  in 
harmony,  employed  by  subsequent  artisti.* 
(MacFarren,  'Encyclopiedia  Britannica').  The 
period  includes  also  the  Kfe  and  works  at 
Cluck  who  did  so  much  to  unite  music  and 

flot  in  opera  into  on*  harmoniooB  whole, 
'iccini,  Gludc's  rival  in  the  famous  musical 
.war  in  Paris,  was  s  mudi  less  important  musi- 
cian^  but  he  had  dramatic  power  and  real 
musical  talent  Hndn,  often  spoken  of  as  tbe 
father  of  the  sympnony,  contributed  greatly  to 
the  development  of  music  and  some  of  the 
sons  of  the  great  Sebastian  Bach  have  an  en- 
during place  in  the  history  of  musical  art, 
Mozart  whose  untimely  death  at  the  age  of 
35  cut  him  off  in  the  flower  of  his  acnievo- 
ment  is  one  of  the  greatest  musicians  of  all 
time.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  Beethoven 
had  rounded  the  symphony  into  its  modem 
form  and  left  the  worid  eternally  his  debtor 
for  his  marvelous  command  over  notes.  "The 
opera  comique  of  the  French  wbicfa  dates  from 
early  in  the  tSth  century,  the  distinction  from 
grand  opera  being  that  there  was  spoken 
dialogue  interspersed  with  the  music,  pcovided 
opportunity  for  the  developmetit- oi  l^ifater 
music  that  was  to  occnpy  so  much  attention  in 
modem  times.  What  ii  noteworthy,  however, 
in  the  18th  centniy  is  the  depth  and  serioni- 
ness  of  interest  of  even  the  general  i)uUk  in 
music.  Handel's  oratorios  were  nven  to 
crowded  houses  and  as  Frederic  Harrison 
has  said  'the  ill  designed  churches  of.  the 
period  wer^  often  crowded  with  people  who 
were  deeply  touched  by  the  sacred  music  given 
and  whose  emotions  were  heartfelt  ana  not 
at  all  the  result  of  any  fashionable  or  con- 
ventional feeling.' 

The  literature  of  the  16tb  century,  opening 
with  <The  Rape  of  the  Lock*  and  closing  with  , 

Goethe's  'Faust,'  niust  surelv  be  con•^deTed 
as  of  significant  import  in  the  oistoiy  ot  litera- 
ture.. It  includes  iu  Germany  the  work  of  | 
Winckelmann,  Lcssing  and  Herder,  as  well  as  the 
youth  of  Schiller;  in  France  the  writings  of  ] 
Uontesquieu,  of  Voltaire  and  the  Ettcydo-  | 
pedists,  and  in  England  such  historians  as 
Hume,  Robertion  and  Gibbon,  as  well  as  sttdi  ' 
potent  writers  of  English  prose  and  verse  as 
Addison,  Steele,  Samuel  Johnsoa,  young 
Wordsworth  and  Robert  Bums.  Frederic  Hai- 
rison  has  suggested  that  it  is  the  first  age  since 
that  of  Augustus  which  ever  left  inimitable 
pictures  of  its  own  daily  home  existence.  The 
Spectator,  WaJpole's  and  Fanny  Bump's  let- 
ters and  the  novels  of  Richardson,  Fielding  and 
Smollett  have  given  a  picture  of  the  times  that 
has  probably  never  been  equalled.  What  is  in- 
teresting above  all  about  the  literature  of  the 
18th  century  is  its  interest  in  ordinary  human 
beings.  The  problems  of  men  as  men  were  here 
first  stated  in  literature  and  sympathy  aroused 
the  lowest  of  mortids.     Giys  'Beg- 


gard.  Defoe  and  Swift  wrote  from  so  close  to 
the  heart  of  human  nature  that  their  best  works 
are  forever  popular. 

Education  [cached  a  very  low  ebb  in  tke 


.ibogic 


BIQHTEBHTH   CBNTURY 


18th  c«ntury  so  that  C>rififial  Newman  su^ests 
the  middle  of  the  century  a.s  representing  prob- 
ably the  lowest  period  m  the  history  of  uni- 
versity education,  when  the  students  at  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  scarcely'  more  than  "ate  their 
terms,*  that  u,  lived  m  residence  to  receive 
their  dKTees,  while  Winckelmann,  wanting  to 
teach  Plato  at  the  end  of  the  century,  had  lo 
have  manuscript  copies  of  the  author  because 
no  Greek  edition  had  been  issued  in  Germany 
for  over  100  years.  Philosophy,  however,  was 
the  subject  of  a  good  deal  of  attention  and 
exploitation  usually  on  the  part  of  men  not 
directly  coimected  with  the  universities.  It  is  the 
age  of  Locke,  of  Hume  and  of  Bishop  Berke- 
ley in  England,  whose  stay  in  America  in- 
fluenced Jonathan  Edwards,  of  Voltaire  and  the 
Encyclopedists  in  France  and  of  Kant  in  Ger- 
many. The  work  of  these  men  lived  to  in- 
fluence the  19th  century.  Reli^on  was  at  a 
low  ebb  and  it  was  an  age  of  scepticism.  The 
work  of  the  devoted  John  Wesley  in  England 
which  proved  the  incentive  for  the  Oxford 
Movement  of  the  succeeding  centuty,  was  the 
first  index  of  reaction.  French  philosophy  in 
its  atlaeistic  aspects  was  curiously  enough  a 
child  of  En^ish  scepticism.  Voltaire  and  the 
French  Encyclopedists  (see  Encyclopedia)  at- 
tracted attention  rather  by  the  brilliancy  of 
their  style,  the  keenness  of  their  wit  and  their 
biting  satire  than  by  depth  of  thought.  Vol- 
ture  himself  pronounced  the  period  an  'age  of 
trivialities.'  Rousseau  suggested  the  abandon- 
ment of  artificial  culture  and  reSnement  and 
the  goin^  back  to  the  primitive  state  of  nature 
because  it  seemed  hopeless  to  guide  men  by 
reason.  Adam  Smith's  'Wealth  of  Nations> 
represented  the  English  philoso^Ky  of  inde- 
pendent morally  applied  to  practical  life. 

The  18th  is  above  all  the  century  of  the 
fundamental  organization  of  the  physical  sci- 
ences in  their  modem  form.  The  period  crysial- 
liicd  the  data  oi  scientific  infonnatton,  till  then 
held  in  solution,  and  gave  the  physical  sciences 
the  form  they  have  maintained  since.  Physics, 
chemistry,  botany,  zoolwy,  comparative  anat- 
omy, electrid^  and  psyiSology  as  well  as  the 
elements  of  social  science  both  in  history  and  In 
statics  took  shape.  Lancisi  at  the  beginning  of 
the  cei>tiuy  in  Italy  and  at  the  end  of  the  ceu- 
tuiy  Hunter  and  Bichat  in  England  and  France 
revolutionized  methods  and  .results  in  the 
sciences  related  to  medicine.  Morgagni  founded 
pathok)gy.  Jenner's  discovery  of  vaccination 
marked  the  dawn  of  a  new  era  in  therapeutics. 
Auenbrugger  initiated  clinical  diagnosis,  and 
the  example  of  such  men  as  Percival  Pott, 
after  whom  Pott's  disease  (q.v.)  and  Pott's 
fracture  are  named,  gave  a  new  impetus  to 
accuracy  of  sur^aJ  cU^nosis.  The  Vienna 
Scliool  of  Medicine  began  its  work  as  an  in- 
heritance from  some  great  students  of  Boer- 
haave  at  the  beginning  of  the  .century,  and  snch 
men  as  CuIIen,  Heberden,  Currie,  Fothergill. 
Huxham  left  an  indelible  impress  upon  med- 
ical history.  Franklin^  Galvani,  Volta  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  science  of  electricity  while 
Priestley,  Lavoisier  and  Scheele  were  doing 
similar  work  In  chemistry.  Laplace^  La  Grange 
and  others  were  adding  to  the  magnificent  work 
that  Newton  had  accomplished  at  the  beginning 
of  the  18th  century,  recoiling  very  clearly  the 
snrpassing  value  of  their  predecessor's  work. 
La  Grange  declared  that  Newton,  whose  'Prinr 


cipia*  received  its  final  form  in  this  ceittury, 
•was  the  greatest  genius  that  ever  existed.* 
Beside  him  deserve  to  be  named  such  men  as 
Haltey  of  the  comet,  Euler,  the  BemouiUis,  the 
elder  Herschel  and  L^endre.  The  century  was 
also  particularly  fruitful  in  mathematical 
genius.  In  the  biological  sciences  Cuvier,  BuffoiL 
Geo&roy  St.  Hilaire  and  Lamarck,  most  of 
whose  work  was  accomplished  before  the  cen- 
tur]f  closed,  did  work  that  was  destined  to  leave 
its  impress  deeply  upon  their  sciences.  It  re- 
quired  much  more  than  merely  talent  and  ap- 
plication to  make  the  first  great  steps  in  these 
sciences  and  only  positive  genius  could  have 
done  what  these  men  achieved. 

The  greatest  heritage  of  the  century  to 
succeeding  generations  was  what  has  come  to 
be  called  the  industrial  revolution.  Up  to  the 
latter  half  of  the  18th  century  men  had  paid 
veiy  little  attention  to  mechanical  inventions 
and  their  development  The  people  of  western 
Eur^ie  did  their  farrning,  made  their  cloth  and 
continued  to  do  most  of  the  domestic  manu- 
factures at  least  almost  in  the  same  way  as  the 
ancients  had  done.     It  has  been  said  that  'if  a 

Sasant,  a  smith  or  a  weaver  of  the  age  of 
tsar  Augustus  had  visited  France  or  England 
1800  years  later  he  would  have  recognized  the 
familiar  flail,  forge,  distaff  and  hand  loom  of 
his  own  day.*  (Robinson).  All  this  was  to 
be  changed  in  the  course  of  a  single  generation, 
however.  A  series  of  machines  came  to  replace 
hand  labor  and  accomplish  ever  so  much  more 
in  vastly  shorter  time  than  before.  The  essen- 
tial processes  remained  the  same,  only  now  by 
the  aid  of  machinery  they  were  accomplished 

In  1767  Hargreaves,  an  English  spinner,  in- 
vented what  was  called  the  spinning  jenny. 
With  this  a  single  workman  by  the  help  of  a 
wheel  could  spin  8  or  10  threads  at  once 
and  thus  do  the  work  done  formerly  by  as 
many  spitmers.  In  1768  Arlcwri^ht  invented  a 
machine  for  rolling  threads.  Some  10  years 
later  Crompton  combined  Hargreaves'  spinning 
jenny  and  Arkwright's  roller  machine  into  what 
was  called  the  spinning  mule.  With  this  as 
many  as  200  threads  could  be  spun  at  once,  and 
when  the  steam  engine  came  and  power  was 
applied  a  few  hands  could  do  the  work  of 
hundreds.  The  gradual  improvement  of  the 
steam  engine  by  James  Watt,  who  had  been 
called  in  to  repair  a  model  of  a  steam  engine 
made  more  than  half  a  century  before  by  an 
English  mechanic  named  Newcomen.  greatly 
facilitated  the  development  of  industry.  In 
1785  a  steam  engine  was  first  employed  lo  run 
spinning  machinery,  Arkwright  adopted  it  in 
1/90,  and  after  this  such  engines  became  ex- 
tremely common  and  the  factory  system  re- 
placed the  old  domestic  system  of  manufacture 
almost  completely. 

This  so  called  labor-saving  machinery  threw 
many  out  of  employment,  thou^  it  Drought 
together  a  great  many  workmen  in  the  employ 
of  a  new  class  that  now  developed  in  the  popu- 
latian,_  the  capitalist.  John  Stuart  Mill  about 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  when  he  could 
see  clearly  the  result  of  the  mdustrial  revolu- 
tion, declared  that  all  our  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery in  spite  of  its  name  had  never  saved 
mankind  an  hour  of  drudgery,  but  on  the  con- 
trary had  made  it  possible  for  a  large  number 
of  workmen  to  work  for  a  few  and  usually  to 


8l^ 


raOHTH  CBHTURT 


v/otk  loi«  hours  in  unsanitaQr,  ill-ventilated 
factories,  compelling  them  to  live  in  crowded 
slums  not  far  from  the  factories  because  their 
long  working  day  did  not  allow  them  the 
to  go  or  come  farther  to  their  work.  The 
dustrial  revolution  worked 
of  social  harm,  led  to  the  employment  of  women 
and  children  for  such  long  liours  and  under 
such  tmsuitable  conditions  as  proved  seriously 
detrimental  to  health,  and  it  took  more  than  a 
century  before  humanity  wakened  up  to  the 
necessity  for  regulating  industry  in  such  a  way 
as  to  conserve  die  rights  of  man. 

James  J.  Walsh, 
Author   of    '■The    Thirietntk    the    Greatest   of 
Centuries.' 
pRiHCiPAi.  EVENTS  or  THE  I8th  century. 

1701.  Fredniclc  ntl)  Elector  of  BranileabUTg 
fint  Kiimof  Pninl*,  18  Tsn. 

1702.  Anns,  OnBan  of  Gnat  Britun,  bggbll  her  reigi 

1703.  St.  Petenbuis  it  foundtd  by  Peter  the  Gn»t. 
I  Tfu.  Ratth  iJ  nicoheim. 

r  Sratlaud  irith  EagUnd  a  ntified  and 

1  of  Gr«t  Britain  Baecnibks. 

:  oiiuiu  uncut  the  Preach  at  Oudeaanle. 

irlce  XII  of    Sweden   ia  defeated  at  Pultows,  30 

Battle  at  Malplaifiiet.  II  Sept. 
bpu  ^f  Utrecht  Bucoed,  30  March. 

I,  Electoi  of  Hanover,  beannea  Eiag  of  Great 

1715.  Scotland  revoKa:  the  5tua 

]T1T.  The  Turla  ma  defected  at  Belgrade. 
1718.  Oiarlea  XII  of  Siredea  ia  killed  at  the 

erickiball.  Norway. 
1710.  The  South  Sea  Scheme,  7  April-jg  S 

lapsei.     Victor  Amadena,  dnlte  of  SaTOy, 


1 780.  Bntiih  navsl  victory  aj 


r  the  Spaniarda  neat  Cape  St. 
fa'Oct.  ."* 


1783.  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Great  Bi 

1784.  Warren  Haitingi  impeached  for  miarula  in  India.  Ghar'* 
Tcballion  in  Uuaachianta. 

1787-88.  United  States  Conatitutinn  drafted  at  Philadelphia 
andiatiged. 

1789.  Hie  Statei  General  meet*  in  Piria.  The  Pnnch  Rsvo- 
lutioo  besini.  Tba  King  accvMa  the  dtdaiatioa  of  the 
Righti  of  Man.  Prance  dividnl  bto  SJ  departmeQU. 
Waihington  elected  Prendent  of  the  United  Statea. 

1790.  Titiaa  of  nobility  mipgntmi  in  Pruca. 

1791.  Coalition  bstwaen  Aoatria  and  PruMia, 
Preach  Conititutian  ratified,  3  Sept. 

I    n 1    i,„^,   g  j,n.     Ouatai 

W  Maich.    The  Sepb 

Pranoa.     Pmue  dadared  ft  npublic. ^.. 

■   "■  -   Louia  XVI  beheaded;  II  Jan.      Ooeen   Uaria 

ttfl  beheaded,  15  Oct,     War  declared  by  Bo^aod 
-. — ..  France.  1  Peb.    Toulon  captured  by  the  Bngjiab. 
28  Aog.     Reign  of  torot  in  Prance. 
L    r.. ...... —    beheaded.     Engliab    defeat    the   French 


III  of  BndMi 


'■STilB 


becomea  Queen  of  Hungary. 

I.  The  AllicB  defeat  th7>rencti  at  D 


1744.  Great  Britain  dsclsrea  w 


It  Prance,  31  Mart 


>mp1eteB   hti  voyage 

45.  Battle  of  Pontenoy,  30  AnciL  Britiih  forcea  take  Cape 
Breton.  N.  S.  Rebelhon  in  Scotland.  Boglish  foicca 
defeatad  at  Gladamulr,  21  Sept. 


1T47.  fiefeat  of  the  allied  anny  at  LafeUt.      Britiah  vict«y 

ITSli^'aMii' Yeara'  War  begini. 
1757.  Dami^aMnanSeyaMinat 

LouiaXV 

between  Great 
Pruaaian  vie- 

King  of  Pmssia  becomei  matter  of  Silesia. 

1759.  Pmnoe  loaea  Canada  in  the  final  battle  of  the  Height! 
of  Abraham. 

1760.  CcDTge  III  begini  his  reign. 


Peace  ratified  at  Paria  between  Great  Britain.  Pnnce 

1764.  The  British  Parliament  granti  Mr.  Harrison  <50.ac» 

for  diaoovering  the  longitude  by  hij  chronometer. 
1706.  American  Stamp  Act  repealed. 
1769.  Captain  Cook's  discoveries  in  the  I^dfic  Ocean. 
.,„    nz_   T,_^^,._    _r  "-■— j1  by  Russia.  Prussia    and 

eden. 

o  the  Antarctic.  raadungT]' 

1774."Lou'S'xVl'of  Prance  begins  his  reign. 

1775.  The  Amenoan  Revolutior  begbu.  19  April,     Battle  of 
BmlowHill,  7  June. 

1776.  The    American    Declaration    ol    Independence    pro- 

1777.  Tha  RDTander  of  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga.  N.  Y,.  7  Oct 


t.  Robetpierre    b 

fleet.    Battleof ,- 

1795.  Holland  innded  by  tha 
the  Prench  RepuUic.     T 
titioned  between  Ruaaia,  j\u>Lr 
treatv  between  United  SMtea  an 

1796.  Bonaparte'a  j^mp*™  in  Italy. 
1198.  Irish    Rebellion.     Bbnaoarte's 

■"     "  rttle  of  Oie  Pyraroida. 


nch.     Belgium  annexed  to 

emainder  of  Poland   uu- 

•frin  and  Pnusia.     Jay"a 

Great  BritAia. 


ratified  "Sy  Pariumeot. 


Union     ol     Ireland 


h  Great  Britain 


EIGHTH  CENTURY,  The.  The  8th  cen- 
tury is  a  cardinal  epoch  in  modem  history  be- 
cause it  witnessed  me  culmination  of  the  strug- 
gle in  the  east  and  west  of  Eurojie  by  which 
It  was  decided  that  European  civilisation  should 
be  Christian  rather  than  Mohammedan  in  char- 
acter. The  failure  of  the  Saracens  to  capture 
Constantinople  in  the  early  part  of  the  century 
(718)  and  the  decisive  defeat  inflicted  upon  the 
Moors  at  Tours  (732)  by  Charles  Martel  fol- 
lowed b^  Charlemagne's    successful  campaign 


tiauity  was  lo  have  an  opportunity  for  free 
development  in  Europe.  It  was  the  fashion  x 
gencr^lion  or  two  apo  to  suggest  the  possibility 
that  civilization  might  have  advanced  more 
rapidly  under  Mohammedan  dominion  than  act- 
ually proved  to  be  the  case  under  Christianity. 
The  opinion  was  dictated  primarily  by  the  love 


of  the  Middle  Ages  throueh  ignorance  of  their 
genuine  achievement  and  to  exaggerate  the 
place  of  the  Moors  in  education,  literature  and. 
especiall:^  in  science.  What  actually  happened 
in  the  Mohammedan  countries  in  sfHte  of  the 
magnificent  incentive  afforded  them  by  their 
close  touch  with  Greek  civiliiation  in  the  East 
is  the  historical  demonstration  thai  their  definite 
repulse  in  the  8th  century  was  for  the  benefit 
of  humanity. 

At  [he  beginning  of  the  8th  century  the 
caliphs  ruled  from  India  over  Persia,  Arabia, 
Syna,  Armenia,  Egypt,  Morocco,  Spain  and 
what  is  now  France  beyond  Narbonne.  as  well 
BS  most  of  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
not  a  little  of  southern  Italy.  The  backward- 
ness in  civiliiation  of  all  of  these  regions  that 
remained  under  Mohammedan  rule  is  the  an- 
swer of  history  to  the  insinuations  of  Gibbon 
and  his  imitators  as  to  the  benefits  the  Arabs 
might  have  conferred  on  humanity.  Fortunately 
in  ihe  8th  century  there  came  a  division  of  the 
caliphates  which  greatly  diminished    Moham- 


EIGHTH   CZNTURY 


WT 


rocdan  power  and  reunion  never  took  place. 
The  raisins'  oi  the  siege  of  Constantinople 
(718)  was  due  more  to  one  man,  Leo,  known 
as  the  IsBurian,  than  to  any  other  factor.  Leo 
was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker  who  rose  by  mili- 
tary- and  administrative  genius  to  be  emperor 


all  i>robleins  since  he  had  solved  so  many,  and 
his  interference  in  Church  matters  separated 
Christianity  into  tiv-o  parts  that  in  spite  of 
many  well-directed  attempts  have  not  united 
again.  Leo  and  his  son  Constantine  Coprony- 
mus  declared  against  the  worship  of  images  in 
religion  and  encouraged  the  so-called  icon- 
oclasts or  image  breakers  who  did  so  rouch  to 
disturt)  both  religion  and  art  in  the  East  during 
this  century. 

Defeated  in  their  attempts  on  Constantino- 
ple the  Uohammedans  forced  their  way  along 
the  northern  shore  of  Africa,  crossed  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  succeeded  in  conquer- 
ing Spain-  In  71L  they  won  a  great  victory 
over  the  Visigoths  which  made  them  masters 
of  the  country,  and  by  the  end  of  the  first 
quarter  of  the  century  they  had  overrun  the 
peninsula  and  were  crossing  the  Pyrenees  to 
menace  Gaul.  The  Duke  of  Aquilaine  held 
them  in  check  for  a  lime,  but  they  defeated  him 
near  Bordeaux  in  732  and  advanced  toward 
Tours,  Between  Tours  and  Poitiers  their  im- 
mense host  was  met  by  Charles  Martel  (the 
Hammer)  and  completely  defeated  in  one  of 
the  decisive  battles  of  history.  There  are  few 
authentic  detaib  of  the  battle  though  it  would 
seem  to  have  been,  as  far  as  we  know,  the  cour 
flict  with  the  greatest  numbers  engaged  ever 
fougbt  between  men  at  any  time  in  history  ex- 
cept in  our  present  Great  War.  Charles  Martel 
was  the  mayor  of  the  palace  of  the  western 
Prankish  Idng.  The  Merovingians  bad  ruled 
since  Clovis'  time,  but  weaklings  ascended  the 
dirone  and  the  Prime  Minister,  who  was  called 
the  mayor  of  the  palace,  became  the  real  ruler. 
Charles'  son  Pepin,  sumamed  the  Short,  ac- 

auircd  even  more  jKiwer  than  his  father  and 
nally  put  to  the  Pope  the  question  whether  the 
long  should  reign  when  his  power  was  gone, 
received  the  answer  that  it  seemed  better  that 
be  who  had  the  power  in  the  state  should  be 
Idng,  and  so  Pepin  began  the  Carolingian 
dynasty.  Pepin  was  the  father  of  Charlemagne 
who  was  destined  to  consolidate  France,  con- 
quered the  surrounding  countries,  including  a 
portion  of  Spain  from  the  Moors,  put  down 
the  barbarians  on  the  north  and  acquired 
dominion  over  northern  Italy. 

Qiarlemagne  is  the  heart  of  the  8th  century. 
The  only  man  in  history  with  whose  name  the 
adjective  great  has  become  so  thorov^ly  incoi^ 
porated  that  most  people  think  of  it  as  an 
essentia]  part  of  his  name,  and  he  thoroughly 
deserves  that  distinction.  At  his  accession 
(Hiarlemagne's  kingdom  was  the  bulwark  of  the 
Christianity  of  the  West.  At  his  death  bis 
empire  included  most  of  western  and  southern 
Europe.  Thought  of  usually  as  a  warrior  his 
greatness  is  reflected  much  more  in  his  success- 
ftd  parsnit  of  a  far-reaching  constructive  policy. 


progress  and  civilization  in  place  of  being  con- 
stantly occupied  with  resistance  to  barbarian 
aggression  which  for  three  centuries  had  been 
their  one  preoccupatioR  It  was  a  fitting  con- 
summation of  his  work  that  he  was  crowned 
emperor  of  the  Romans  by  the  Pope  at  Rome 
on  Christmas  Eve  of  the  year  800.  It  was  a 
striking  omen  of  the  new  outlook  for  Europe 
when  in  the  first  year  of  the  9th  century  and 
of  the  Imperial  reign  an  embassv  arrived  with 
precious  Oriental  presents  from  tne  great  caliph 
of  the  East  whose  name  is  as  well  known  in 
history  and  romance  as  C^iarlemagne's  own  — 
Haroun  al  Raschid. 

(Charlemagne  lives  in  romance  through  his 
expedition  into  Spain,  whither  he  went  to  put  . 
an  end  to  the  menace  of  the  Moors  to  his  king- 
dom by  attacking  them  in  their  own  stronghold. 
After  some  years  of  war,  be^un  at  the  instance 
of  an  embassy  from  Spain,  m  the  year  of  the 
mystical  number  777,  he  succeeded  in  conquer- 
ing all  (he  district  north  of  the  Ebro,  and  estab- 
lished there  the  Spanish  March,  a  name  given 
to  outlying  districts  of  his  domain  whose  rule 
was  committed  to  special  officials  called  mar- 

Saves,  or  counts  of  the  marches,  or  marks, 
om  which  our  word  marquis.  Charlem^ne's 
defeat  of  the  Moors  was  the  first  step  in  the 
gradual  expulsion  of  the  Mohammedans  from 
Spain  which  was  not  to  be  accomplished  in  its 
entirety  for  over  700  years.  On  the  return  from 
his  victorious  expedition  to  Spain  the  rearguard 
of  Charlemagne's  army  was  attacked  and  cut  to 
pieces  by  the  Basques  in  the  pass  of  Ronces- 
valles,  in  the  Pyrenees.  The  battle  of  that  name, 
fought  by  Roland  and  his  Paladins  with 
surpassing  courage  to  the  bitter  end,  was  cele- 
brated in  song  and  story  for  many  centuries 
afterward.  The  prodigies  of  valor  there  done 
tinged  even  the  tales  of  chivalry  which  were  to 
occupy  so  much  Spanish  attention  in  the  later 
Middle  Ages  and  whose  influence  was  felt  until 
Cervantes   laughed  the    romances  of   chivalry 

Charlemagne  lives  in  history  much  more  as  a 
lawgiver,  an  organizer  of  the  dvil  functions  of 
his  great  empire  and  of  education  and  oppor- 
tunities for  intellectual  development  than  even 
for  l^  succeis  in  arms.  At  bis  invitation  Al- 
Cuin,  called  a  Saxon  monk  by  Charlemagne's 
earliest  biographers,  but  claimed  an  Irishman 
(Albinus)  by  many  writers,  was  invited  to 
organize  the  schools  all  over  Charlemagne's 
dominions.  He  was  given  the  powers  of  Im- 
perial Minister  of  Education.  He  well  deserved 
Charlemagne's  confidence.  As  Duruy  says:  'Al- 
cuin  was  truly  a  scholar ;  he  was  f  amihar  with 
Pythagoras;  often  cites  Aristotle,  Homer,  Plato, 
Virgil  and  Pliny,  and  is  one  of  the  most  notice- 
able instances  of  the  union  of  those  elements  so 
difficult  to  harmonize,  the  spirit  of  ancient  lit- 
erature with  the  spirit  of  (Christianity.'  It  is 
interesting  indeed  to  read  of  his  founding  in 
Ae  palace  of  Charlemagne  an  academy  in  wnich 
the  emperor  and  all  his  family  and  all  the 
nobili^  at  court  were  members.  In  this  acad- 
emy Uie  emperor  bore  the  name  of  David, 
Alcuin  took  the  name  of  Flaccus,  while  other 
members  took  such  names  as  Homer,  Plato  and 
Virgil.  We  have  some  300  of  his  letters  ad- 
dressed by  this  modem  Aristotle  to  the  Alex- 
ander of  the  WesL 

Clharlemagne's  efforts  for  the  provinon  of 


by  Google 


EIGHTH    CENTURY 


education  Eor  bis  people  included  women  as 
well  as  men.  His  own  daughiers  as  well 
as  those  of  the  nobility  attended  the  Palace 
School,  and  there  are  letters  of  Alcuin  which 
show  that  they  were  deeply  interested  in  the 
intellectual  problems  of  the  time.  The  em- 
peror also  recognized  the  social  obliKations  of 
the  ruler  and  ordered  that  there  should  be  hos- 
pitals  in  connection  with  all  cathedrals  and 
monasteries.  At  this  time  the  word  hospital 
included  also  refuges  for  the  in&rm,  the  old,  the 
deformed  and  defective,  and  even  the  insane 
as  well  as  for  the  homeless  wayfarer. 

In  spite  of  many  vicissitudes,  wars,  political 
disturhance  and  human  incidental  frailties, 
Charlemagne's  work  for  civilization  bore  fruit 
down  the  generations,  though  his  empire  broke 
up  and  miemal  dissensions  arose  mainly 
through  the  custom  of  dividing  the  realm  among 
his  sons  which  Charlemagne  also  followed.  He 
deserves  such  expressions  as  that  of  John 
Fiske:  *When  we  think  of  all  the  work  big 
with  promise  that  went  on  in  those  centuries 
which  modem  writers  in  their  ignorance  used 
once  to  set  apart  and  stigmatize  as  the  Dark 
Age;  .  .  .  when  we  think  of  the  various  work 
of  a  Gregory,  a  Benedict,  a  Boniface,  an  Alfred, 
a  Charlemagne,  we  feet  that  there  is  a  sense 
in  which  the  most  brilliant  achievements  of 
pagan  antiquity  are  dwarfed  in  comparison 
with  these.* 

While  Charlemagne  was  reigning  ^oriously 
in  Europe  at  the  end  of  the  8th  century  a  ruler 
in  many  ways  scarcely  less  worthy  than  he  and 
equally  famous,  Haroun  AI  Raschid  (Aaron  the 
orthodox),  occupied  the  Eastern  caliphate. 
Haroun  was  the  fifth  of  the  Abasside  califihs, 
an  accomplished  scholar,  a  poet  of  distinction, 
who  gathered  wits,  poets  and  musicians  around 
him.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  he  is  so  widely 
and  favorably  known  for  it  is  to  the  Arabian 
Nights  -rather  than  to  history  that  his  fame 
is  due.  How  much  of  the  real  greatness  of 
his  reign  was  due  to  Yalya,  his  vizier  of 
die  Barmecide  family,  is  difficult  to  say.  Ha- 
r«un's  personal  character  is  revealed  by  his 
murder  of  his  sister  and  his  nephews  when  he 
learned  of  her  marriage  to  the  brother  of  his 
vizier.  While  all  his  life  he  occupied  a  posi- 
tion of  hitler  hostility  to  the  Greek  emperors, 
there  is  a  well-established  tradition  that  he  sent 
presents  to  Charlemagne  and  endeavored  to 
cultivate  his  friendship  though  perhaps  only 
with  the  idea  of  thus  making  less  of  the  rulers 
of  the  Eastern  Empire, 

Europe  had  freed  herself  from  the  danger 
of  Mohammedanism  attacking  from  the  east 
and  South,  but  before  the  end  of  the  century 
was  to  witness  an  invasion  of  almost  more 
serious  nature  from  the  opposite  quarter.  The 
Vikings  or  Norsemen  invaded  Britain  in  the 
last  decade  of  the  century  and  were  to  prove 
a  serious  foe  to  civilization  for  the  next  three 
centuries  in  many  countries  of  Enrope.  Bri- 
tain and  Ireland  had  succeeded  in  developing 
education  and  culture,  and  Gaul  had  made  a 
magnificent  beginning  under  Charlemagne,  but 
the  Danes  were  to  prove  a  serious  detriment  and 
obstacle.  Alfred  overcame  them  in  the  next 
century  for  a  time  in  Britain,  but  the  northern 
coast  of  France  had  to  be  given  over  to  them 
and  they  obtained  a  foothold  in  Sicily  and 
southern  Italy.    They  represent  a  much  more 


serious  impediment  to  the  evolution  of  dviliza- 
tion  at  this  time  than  any  internal  factor. 

The  8th  century  was  the  scene  of  the  career 
of  one  of  these  men  who,  forgetting  them- 
selves in  life,  are  never  willingly  forgotten. 
This  was  Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Genmny. 
His  name  was  Winfrid  (A.  S.,  "win-peace"J, 
and  he  received  the  surname  of  Bonifacius 
from  the  Latin  signifying  "good  face  or  the 
benevolent.'  Born  of  noble  parents  in  Devon- 
shire, England,  he  insisted  on  devoting  himself 
to  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  life  in  a  monas- 
tery at  Exeter,  and  when  his  talents  assured 
his  advancement,  he  obtained  permission  to  be- 
come a  missionary  to  the  old  Saxons.  Some 
40  years  were  spent  in  missionary  labors,  and 
Boniface  has  been  in  honor  ever  since  as  the 
apostle  of  civilization  as  well  as  of  Christianity 
to  the  German  peoide.  Distinction  came  to  him 
imsought  and  Boniface  was  made  a  bishop  and 
subsequently  archbishop  of  Mainz  and  primate 
of  Germany.  Having  salved  some  of  the 
serious  problems  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
by  his  genius  in  the  management  of  men  as 
well  as  his  kindliness  of  disposition  he  gave 
up  his  archbishopric  to  become  a  missionary 
to  the  Frisians  by  whom  be  was  put  to  death. 
His  letters  which  have  been  preserved  show  us 
the  interests  of  the  time  better,  perhaps,  than 
almost  any  other  set  of  documents  of  the  period 
that  we  possess. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  Boniface's 
developments  in  Germany  was  nis  invitation  to 
English  nuns  to  help  him  in  his  mission.  He 
recognized  that  the  German  women  still  swayed 
that  influence  in  the  communities  which  has 
been  described  by  Tacitus  and  realized  that 
women  auxiliaries  would  be  of  great  help  on 
the  mission.  Theda  and  Lioba,  to  whom  the 
title  of  Saints  has  been  accorded,  accepted 
this  invitation  and  exercised  great  influence. 
Boniface's  letters  show  how  diorot^ly  he  ap- 
preciated the  nuns  as  intelligent  fellow-laborers 
in  his  Bpostolate.  The  education  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  Germans  was  confided  to  them  and 
a  greater  influence  was  thus  brought  to  bear 
on  the  Teuton  women  than  could  otherwise 
have  been  exercised.  It  was  to  the  rising 
generation  that  Boniface  looked  for  the  exhibi- 
tion of  genuine  Christianity  for  it  had  proved 
extremely  difficult  to  bend  the  savage  natures 
of  the  Germans  to  the  milder  virtues  of  the 
Gospel.  Saint  Thecla  particularly  did  mudi 
to  organize  the  rising  generation  of  young 
German  women  to  carry  on   her  missionary 

The  8th  century  is  usually  considered  one 
of  the  low  periods  of  intellectual  life  in  history 
and  yet  it  contains  the  careers  of  three  men 
famous  ever  after  for  their  intellectual  work. 
The  greatest  of  these  is  undoubtedly  the  man 
who,  within  two  generations  of  his  death,  came 
to  bear  the  title  of  Venerable  Bede,  by  whidi 
he  has  been  known  ever  since.  Something  of 
the  place  that  he  secured  for  himself  in  Chris- 
tian scholarship  will  probably  be  best  appre- 
ciated from  the  fact  that  in  November  1899 
Pope  Leo  XIII  decreed  to  him  the  title  of 
Doctor  of  the  Church.  Bede's  influence  was 
very  great  in  his  own  time,  not  Only  in  England 
but  throughout  all  of  western  Europe  and  in 
spite  of  the  incursions  of  the  Danes  which  dis- 
turbed English  Christiant^  and  it!  inf     - 


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BIOHTH  GBNTURT 


nucb.  Bed«'9  work  ame  to  be  widdy  known. 
He  has  come  to  be  recognized  as  the  greatest 
scholar  of  hie  time  —  a  writer  whose  style 
atul  critical  jiulgment  have  made  him  a  favorite 
author  even  in  modern  times.      With  a  literary 

Jropriety  sddom  exhibited  in  his  time  he  re- 
erred  all  his  materials  to  their  sources  ana 
insisted  on  coi^sts  givii%  all  the  references. 
His  critical,  historical  judgincot  has  given  him 
a  distinct  pUce  among  the  historians.  His 
life  was  a  rouod  of  study  and  prayer  with  oc- 
casional visits  for  a  few  idays  to  friends  and 
is  the  ideal  scholarly  writer's  life  at  all  times. 
The  surprise  is  to  find  it  so  well  exemplified 
In  the  England  of  the  first  half  of  the  Sth 
century. 

The  second  of  these  great  scholars,  John 
oE  Damascus,  or  Saint  John  Damascene,  als^ 
had  the  distmetion  of  being  enrtdled  among 
the  Doctors  of  the  Cbiirch  by  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
Hit  intellectual  distinctivn  it  that  of  bang  the 
first  of  the  sdholastic  lAilosophers  and  his  'De 
fide  orthodoxa'  is  t^en  hailed  as  the  first  work 
of  scholasticism.  He  undoubtedly  had  a  deep 
influence  upon  the  Arabian  scholars  of  his 
time,  and  their  philosophy  owes  much  to  his 
inspiration  for  they  admired  him  as  much  a^ 
his  Christian  colleagues.  The  most  important 
of  his  works  is  that  one  known  as  the  'Foun- 
tain of  Wisdom.'  It  has  a  special  siguificance 
in  the  history  of  theology  because  it  is  the  first 
attempt  at  a  Summa  Theologica  that  has  come 
down  to  us,  though  there  were  to  be  many  such 
in  all  the  centunes  of  the  Middle  Ages  after- 
ward. Damascene's  work  for  the  Church  is 
due  to  Leo  the  Isaurian's  attempt  to  be  head 
of  both  Church  and  state  and  dictate  the  beliefs 
of  his  peoole  in  the  matter  of  the  veneration  of 
images,  when  Leo  issued  his  first  edict,  John 
wag  chief  councillor  of  the  city  of  Damascus 
and  not  a  cleric,  but  be  took  up  the  defense  of 
Church  traditions,  and  then,  recoEuizing  his  lack 
of  knowledge  for  Christian  apologelics,  he  en- 
tered a  monastery,  gave  himself  to  study  and' 
became,  the  great  leader  of  the  Christian 
diought  of  the  time.  He  suffered  bitter  pros- 
ecution at  the  hands  of  the  emperor  and  his 
satellites,  but  be  was  vindicated  by  the  Seventh 
General  Council  of  Nice  (787)  and  came-  to 
be  known  after  the  Greek  fashion  of  adding 
a  title  of  admiration  as  John  Chrysorrhoas, 
that  is,  'John  of  the  Golden  Stream,'  because 
of  his  golden  flow  of  words  in  defense  of 
Christianity.  DamasceiM  is  besides  one  of  the 
worid's  great  writers  of  hymns,  and  modem 
hymnologists  have  even  s(>aken  of  him  as  the 

frince  of  Greek  hymnodists.  Three  of  his 
ymns,  'Those  Eternal  Bowers,'  'Come,  Ye 
Faithful,  Raise  the  Strain'  and  <Tis  The  Day 
of  the  Resurrection,'  are  widely  known  and 
admired  in  their  English  version. 

The  third  of  the  scholars  of  the  Sth  century 
iriiose  name  is  often  still  mentioned  was  Ver- 
gilius,  bishop  of  Salxburg,  who  had  been  an 
Irish  missionary  of  the  name  of  Fergal  or 
Fer^il.  He  was  received  with  great  favor  by 
Pepin,  then  mayor  of  the  palace,  and  his 
talents  and  learning  led  to  his  being  made 
abbotl  of  Saint  Peter's  at  Saliburg.  He  was 
deeply  interested  in  mathematics  and  astronomy 
and  nis  teachings  that  there  were  antipodes  led 
to  his  being  tried  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts, 
not,  however,  because  of  the  scientific  doctrine. 


but  bccanse  it  was  said  that  this  involved  the 
denial  that  men  had  all  come  from  a  single 
origin.  Vergilius  succeeded  in  showing  that 
his  teaching  was  not  contrary  to  Scripture  and 
it  was  after  this  that  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Salaburg.  He  was  canonized  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury l^  Gregory  IX.  There  seems  no  doubt 
that  hi9  belief  in  the  existence  of  people  on 
the  other  side  of  the  earth  and  that  the  earth 
itself  was  a  sphere  was  due  to  his  knowledge 
of  the  acebuhts  of  s6me  of  the  Iridi  expeditions 
ftat  had  probably  found  iheir  way  in  times  of 
storm  if  not  voluntarily  across  die  Atlantic 

The  century  closed  with  a  woman,  Irene,  the 
only  woman  who  ever  occupied  the  position  ol 
empress,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word, 
Basileus,  in  the  Eastern  EJnpire.  While  ^e 
had  takm  a  determined  stand  a^nst  the  Icono- 
clastic party  which  was  disturbing  both  Cfaurdt 
and  State,  she  is  distinctly  one  of  the  least  worthy 
rulers  of  history.  French  historians  have  not 
hesitated  to  declare  that  she  was  as  given  to 
mtrigue  as  Cadterine  de  Medici,  and  spared  not 
even  her  own  son  in  her  ambition.    She  schemed 

Tinst  bis  marriage  to  Rolrud,  a  dan^ter 
Charlemagne,  and  forced  bun  to  marry 
an  Armenian  totally  unsuitable  to  become  hit 
consort  She  sanctioned  his  bigamy  with  a 
woman  of  the  court  in  the  hope  of  ruining 
Ins  career,  and  is  even  said  to  have  blinded 
him  before  confining  him  to  prison  where  he 
died.  She  did  not  long  enjoy  the  fruit  of  her 
ambition  (797-.S02),  bnt  was  denosed  by  Nice- 
f^orns  and  passed  the  end  of  her  life  on  the 
island  of  Lesbos  in  poverty  and  contempt. 

The  Pope  and  the  people  of  Rome  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  aAession  of  Irene  as  the  formal 
empress  to  repudiate  the  Eastern  Empire  and 
to  make  a  formal  break  with  Constantinople.' 
They  declared  that  a  woman  could  not  ht 
Cfesar  and  Augustus,  and  thus  the  path  was 
laid  open  for  a  new  era  and  a  Western  Empire. 
Pepin,  as  king  of  France,  had  come  at  ttie 
request  of  Pope  Stephen  III  to  save  Italy 
from  the  Lombards,  and  was  bailed  as  rukr 
thoufih  he  received  only  the  riame  ofpatrician 
which  Charles  inherited  from  him.  This  office 
was  changed  to  that  of  «nperor,  and  Pope  Leo 
crowned  Charlemagne  a*  emperor  in  the  last' 
daya  of  the  Sth  century. 

Jaheb  J.  Walsh, 
Author  of  *The  Thirteenlh  the  Greatest  of  Cen- 


714.  Cbiirla  MarUl  nmt\u 


of  Pepin tha"  major  domo," 


yt  eh\M  <A  the  Fi^tn,  tuccnda  hu 
719.  BomfacB  of  BoglAiul  begini  fais  ( 

Germwir. 
721.  The  Sani«n«  invoile  Print*. 
^^f,.  Leo  the  Ii 

731.  Bedetht  i... 
■  HiiUirU  Eccl ., 

732.  Cbarlei  Msrtel  defeat*  the  Susceni  _. 

Toon,  end  (vmp*h  llwir  ntnmt  to  Spuo,  which  they    . 
■ImaR  eutiretr  occupy,  dnrinath*  GotlHto  the  Aitiuiu, 

737-741.  Ouirln  Uartel,  having  aln  tabJ«Md  MVtnUGer- 
niBD  tribn.  beeonm  dnkc  and  prince  of  the  Prnito. 

7B1.  Pepin  the  Short.  Kin  o(  Charles  Mutel.aaccevdiUniand 
u  made  Kiog  of  the  Pranka. 

75*.  Constanline  V  rf  the  Eaatero  Empire  •upproees  mim. 

755.  Archbialiop  Boniface.  apoMla  of  Qsnnany.  B  muideiaj 
by  puan  Pritiana  «  Doldnun. 

756.  The  LoTTitiardE  of  Baltic  origin,  occupying  the  liorth  of 
Italy,  are  defeawd  by  Pepin,  sun  of  Olarlea  Martel  and 


Google 


EIGHTH  NERVE  — BINHORN 


77*.  Chu-lemagnt  oooaiwn  the 
B  rulad  br  tha  PnoJa:  1 
Lower  Italy  b^  tbe_  Greek*. 


LdUpfwIt 
br  ttie  Pm 


_^  L«)  III  ii  luiknowledaed  first  bkhop  of  the  Wait. 

797.  lirac  begini  hn  than  leign  ai  Ernpreia  of  the  But. 

EIGHTH  NERVE.    See  Auditohy  Nervb. 

EIKON  BASILIKE,  iTion  b^-rfl'i-kc  (Gr. 
•the  royal  image'),  a  work. the  full  title  of 
which  ia  Einuv  iJaciXuc^;  <The  Pourlraicture  of 
His  Sacred  Majestic  in  His  Solitudes  and  Suf- 
ferings.' It  was  pubhshed  9  Feb.  1649,  10  days 
after  the  execution  of  Charles  1,  and  within  12 
months  ran  through  50  editions  in  various  lan- 
guages. It  professes  to  be  Charles' 
position  in  the  form  of  a  diary.  It 
ID  an  affectedly  dignified  strain,  an< 
numerous  assertions  of  love  for  his  _._  „ 
and  ungrateful  people.  At  the  ResioratiotL 
Gauden,  afterward  bishop  of  Worcester,  laid 
claim  to  the  authorship,  and  a  memorandum  in 
the  copy  of  the  Earl  of  Anglesea,  lord  privy- 
»eal  under  Charles  II,  affirms  that  claim  with 
the  authority  oE  Charles  II  and  the  Duke  of 
York.  Milton's  answer  to  it,  'Eikonoldastes' 
(that  is,  'imagebreaker" )  appeared  the  same 
year  by  order  of  Parliament.  Gauden  professed 
to  have  begun  the  work  in  or  about  the  year 
1647,  and  to  have  submitted  a  MS.  copy  of  it 
to  the  king.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who 
maintain  that  the  work  was  by  Charles,  assert 
that  he  had  written  the  first  six  of  its  28  chap- 
ters before  the  battle  of  Nasehy  (1645),  The 
question  is  one  of  much  complexity.  His- 
torians generally,  from  Lir^iard  to  Green,  have 
pronounced  against  Charles;  while  some  of 
those  who  have  sifted  his  claims  are  in  his 
favor.  (See  Gauden,  Johw).  Consult  Almack, 
•Bibliography  of  the  King's  Book'  (1896); 
Dohle,  in  the  'Academy'  (1883);  ScoH,  E.  J. 
L.,  'Comments  in  Edition  of  the  Work'  (1880)  ; 
Wordsworth,  Christopher,  'Who  Wrote  Icon 
Basilike?"  (1824-^5);  Tucker,  'On  the  Author 
of  Icon  Basilike'    (Berlin  1874). 

BILDON,  eVdim.  HILLS,  three  peaks  be- 
longii^  to  a  single  mass,  south  of  Melrose,  in 
Roxburghshire,  Scotland.  The  highest  attains  an 
elevation  of  1,385  feet  above  sea-level,  and  all 
command  a  splendid  prospect  and  are  rich  in 
historic  and  legendary  associations. 

BILENBURG,  i'len-boorg,  (krmany,  town 
of  Prussian  Saxony,  in  the  government  of 
Merseburg,  mainly  situated  on  an  island  of  the 
Mulde,  H  mites  northwest  of  Leipzig,  It  has 
manufactures  of  calico,  woolen  cloth,  yam,  dye- 
stuffs,  vehicles,  basketwork,  tobacco,  chemicals, 
celluloid,  beer  and  agricultural  implements. 
Fnnz  Abt,  the  song  writer,  and  M,  Rinckart. 
the  poet,  were  bom  here.  Pop.  17,401,  Consult 
Gundermann,  'Chronik  der  Stadt  Etlenburg' 
(Eiknburg  1879). 

EILKTHYIA  (hieroglyph,  Ntkheb;  city  of 
Lucina,  now  called  Ei^Kab),  a  city  of  ancient 
Erart,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  a 
little  below  Edfu.  The  present  ruins  conMSt  of 
the  remains  of  small  temples  dedicated  by  Ram- 
eses  II  to  Ra;  a  Ptolemaic  temple  dedicated  to 
the  eponymous  goddess  Lucina  by  Physcon  or 
Euergetcs  II,  with  additions  by  Ptolemy  Alex- 
atider  I  and  the  elder  Cleopatra;  and  an  ancient 


deiti 

found  in  the  ruins ;  but  the  most  interesting  and 
important  remains  are  the  rock-tombs,  some  as 
early  as  the  13th  dynasty,  excavated  in  the  hills. 
That  of  Aahmes,  tne  *captain  of  the  sailors,* 
records  his  services  in  the  wars  of  the  early 
monarch s  of  the  18th  dynasty  against  the 
Hyksoa  or  Shepherds,  and  other  Asiatic  and 
Nigritic  i^ces.  Another,  that  of  Pahir,  is 
decorated  with  rich  and  elaborate  paintings, 
representing  the  pursuits  of  agriculture, 
fowling,  fishing,  etc.  The  city  was  an 
outpost  against  the  southern  tribes,  and  its 
fort,  a  large  enclosure  of  crude  brick,  was  of 
importance  as  earl^  as  the  Shepherd  War.  The 
goddess  Suben  (Ellethyia  or  Lucina)  was  a 
special  protectress  o£    Upper   E^pt    Consult 


'  Reiseberichte' 
'Egypt  Under  the  Pharaohs' ■  'Wilkinson,  'An- 
cient EOTptians':  Mariettc,  'Andent  EKypdan 
History^:  Quibell,  <E1  Kab>  (London  1§^). 

EIMBKCK.  ImTrfW,  Willianj,  American 
geodesist ;  b.  Brunswick,  Germany,  29  Jan,  1S41. 
He  was  for  two  years  professor  of  mechanics 
and  engineering,  Washington  University,  and  a 
member  of  the  government  solar  eclipse  expedi- 
tions to  Illinois  1869  and  to  Italy  1870.  After 
1871  he  was  an  assistant  on  the  United  States 
Coast  and  Geodetic  STirvey.  He  has  been  a 
Fellow  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  since  1879,  and  is  the 
inventor  of  the  invariable  reversible  pendulum 
and  the  duplex  base  apparatus  of  coast  and 
geodetic  survey.  His  chief  work  has  been  it) 
connection  with  the  western  divisions  of  the 
39th  parallel  triangulation  across  the  continent 

EINBECK,  !nl>ek,  or  EIMBECK.  Ger- 
many, town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Han- 
over, on  the  lime,  near  its  junction  with  the 
Leine,  40  miles  south  of  Hanover,  In  the 
Alexander-kirche  are  remarkable  old  choir  stalls, 
a  bronze  baptismal  font  of  exquisite  design  and 
the  tombs  of  the  Prinzen-Grubenhagen.  The 
town  has  vocational  departments  attached  to  its 
school  system  and  maintains  a  school  for  police. 
Bells,  linen,  carpets,  felt,  sugar  and  tobacco  are 
the  principal  articles  of  manufacture.  The 
forfaierly  celebrated  Eimbecker  bier  ("bock* 
beer)  is  still  made  here.  Einbeck  was  a  place 
of  importance  in  the  ISth  century.  It  was  a 
member  of  the  Smalkaldic  League  and  it  figured 
prominently  in  the  Thirty  Years'  and  the  Seven 
Years'  wars.  There  are  still  remains  of  its  old 
Walls  and  towers.     Pop.  9,431. 

EINHARD.    See  Eginharr 

EINHORN,  in'hom,  David,  American 
rabbi:  b.  Dispeck,  Bavaria,  10  Nov.  1809;  d. 
New  York,  2  Nov.  1879.  His  first  rabbinical 
position  was  at  Hopstadten,  Bavaria,  and  shortly 
afterward  he  became  chief  rabU  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  In  18ol  be 
was  called  to  Pesth,  but.  his  progressive  tend- 
encies aroused  sharp  opposition  ^nd  bis  templa 
was  closed  by  order  of  the  government.  Id 
18SS  he  was  invited  to  become  rabbi  of  the  Har 
Sinai  Congregation,  of  Baltimore,  Md.  His 
activity  was  now  to  be  rapidly  developed,  for 
he  issued  his  prayerbook,  which  was  warmly 
received  by  many  reformed  Jewish  congrega- 
tions, and  nc  began  the  publication  of  a  schol- 
arly monthly  magazine  in  GermaiL  entitled 
.S'inoi,   in    the   interests   of   advanced   reform. 


IIN81KDSLI9  —  EISKNHBNGER 


41 


Hii  vigorous  ««slatif^ts  cm  slavery  in  1861  kd 
to  Ilia  removal  from  Baltimore  to  Philadelphia, 
where  he  became  rabbi  o£  the  KcoeK&eth  Israel 
Temple  and  published  his  catechism.  In  1866 
he  was  elected  rabbi  of  the  Adalh  Teshurun 
Temple  in  New  York,  whsre  he  conliniied  a 
zealous,  impassioned  and  scholarly  advocate  oE 
reform  and  the  leader  of  the  then  radical  school, 
until  his  retirement  in  July  1879. 

BINSIEDBLN,  in'ze  deln,  Switzerland, 
(place  of  the  solitaries  or  hermits),  a  small 
town  in  the  canton  of  Schwyz,  2^i  feet  above 
sea-level  and  26  miles  southeast  of  Zurich,  seat 
of  a  renowned  abbey  of  Benedictine  monks 
since  the  middle  of  the  9th  century.  It  is  a 
famous  resort  of  pilgrims  who  visit  the  place 
in  thousands  to  venerate  an  ancient  miraculoui 
imaee  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  For  the  accom- 
modation of  the  pilgrims  the  little  town  has 
more  than  50  inns  or  houses  of  entertainment 
Those  pilgrimages  are  made  throughout  the 
year,  but  the  great  annual  pilgrima^  culmi- 
nates on  the  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of 
the  abbey's  church,  14  September.  The  pres- 
ent abbey  is  the  successor  of  four  previous  edi- 
fices which  were  destroyed  by  fire;  it  was 
erected  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  18ih  century 
and  is  an  imposing  pile  in  the  Italian  style.  The 
place  was  visited  by  Edward  Gibbon,  the  histo- 
rian, 1755,  who  writes  that  he  was  "astonished 
t^  the  profane  ostentation  of  riches  in  the 
poorest  corner  of  Europe ;  amidst  a  savage 
acene  of  woods  and  mountains  a  palace  appears 
to  have  been  erected  by  magic  and  it  was 
erected  bj:  the  potent  magic  of  religion.^  The 
abbey  which  Gibbon  then  saw  is  still  in  exist- 
ence and  is  annually  visited  by  more  than  150,- 
000  pilgrims.  It  was  plundered  of  its  vast  treas- 
ure of  silver  and  gold  and  precious  stones  by 
the  French  (1798),  but  it  is  still  very  rich,  es- 

Eecially  in  literary  monuments,  possessing  a  li- 
rary  of  61,000  volumes,  1,190  manuscripts  and 
more  than  1,000  productions  oli  the  printing 
press  in  its  early  period.  The  leading  mdustry 
IS  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  religious  objects, 
statues,  crucilixes,  aJtar  vessels,  etc.  The  mon- 
astery has  many  historical  and  religious  associa- 
tions; a  great  chandelier  was  donated  by  Na- 
Sleon  111.  The  monastery  was  founded  by 
einrad,  who  built  a  lad^  chaiiel  here  lo  house 
the  statue  of  the  Virgin  given  him  by  Hildejjard. 
Pop.  ^436.  Consult  Rin^Itz,  O.,  'Geschichte 
des  fui-Ellichcn  Benediklinerstiftes  E^nsiedeln' 
(Einsiedeln  1904). 

BI8SLEN,  tziAtn,  Wilfaelm  Bernard, 
German  gymnast:  b.  Berlin,  27  Sept.  1792;  d. 
Uisdroy,  22  Aug.  1846.  His  earl/  studies  be- 
gan in  Berlin  and  he  was  the  pupil  of  the  emi- 
nent gymnast  Jabns.  He  soon  became  promi- 
aent  among  the  young  gymnasts  of  Bcrbn  and 
in  1819  began  (o  leach  gymnastics  at  a  school  in 
Berljtt.  He  opened  a  fencing  school  in  1825  in 
Berlin  and  a  gymnasium  in  1B28,  and  had  a  vast 
number  of  pupils.  The  first  gymnasium  for 
TOung  girit  was  instituted  by  him  in  1832.  He 
pubhuked  many  works  on  imnnastics  and  fenc- 
mg.  including  'Deutsche  Turnkunat'  (in  col- 
laboration with  Jahn,  1816) :  ^Abriss  des 
deutschen  Stossfcchtens'    (1826). 

EISENACH,  Tze-nsH.  Germany,  town  in 
the  grand  duchy  of  Saxe-Wetmar,  at  the  north- 
west end  of  the  Thwringian  Forest,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Nesse  with  the  Horsel,  17  miles 


west  of  Gotha.  The  neighborhood  is  remark- 
ably picturesque,  bein^  ornamented  with  splen- 
did gardens  and  residences.  In  the  market- 
place there  is  a  monument  lo  the  memory  of 
those  from  the  neighborhood  who  fell  in  the 
war  of  1870-71,  and  in  the  Karlsplatz  stands 
the  Luther  memorial,  unveiled  in  1895.  It  con- 
tains man_y  old  buildings  of  historical  and  archi- 
tectural importance.  Among  the  educational 
institutions  of  Eisenach,  the  most  prominent  is 
the  gymnasium  formerly  a  Latin  school,  whidi 
Luther  and  Bach  once  attended,  a  school  of 
forestry,  a  school  of  design  and  a  teachers' 
seminary-  It  has  some  well-developed  manu- 
facturing interests  which  comprise  coloring 
materials,  white- lead,  woolens,  beer,  leather, 
pottery,  tobacco,  cigars,  cement  pipe,  alabaster 
ware,  cabinet-work,  lumber,  oil,  machinery,  etc 
The  town  has  many  interesting  historical  as- 
sociations. Luther  was  at  school  here,  and  Se- 
bastian Bach,  to  whom  there  is  a  statue,  was 
bom  here.  Near  it  is  the  Wartburg,  where 
Luther  resided  for  a  time  for  safety.  Eisen- 
ach was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  princJpalitv 
of  the  same  name.  Consult  Scheller,  'Eisenach 
und  Umgebung,*  ed.  by  Kiihner  (Eisenach 
1898).    Pop.  3^362. 

EISENACH  CHURCH  CONPERBNCE. 
See  Evangelical  Church  Contehence. 

EISENBBRG,  i'^in-berg  Germany,  town 
in  the  province  of  Saxe-Allenfeurg,  of  great  an- 
tiouily,  birthplace  of  the  philosopher  Krause, 
whose  statue  is  set  up  there.  It  is  near  the 
jtmction  of  the  Saale  and  Elster,  35  miles  south- 
west of  Leipzig.  It  possesses  a  famous  castle, 
Christiansburg,  and  is  the  seat  of  many  manu- 
factures, including  woolens,  velvet,  pollery, 
furniture,  pianos,  porcelain  and  agricultural 
machines.  Statues  have  been  erected  to  Bis- 
marck and  to  Duke  Christian  of  Saxe-Eisen- 
berg,  in  addition  to  that  of  the  philosopher  Karl 
Friedrich  Krriuse.  Pop.  10,749.  Consult  *Chro- 
nik  der  Stadt  und  des  Amtes  Eisenberg' 
(Eisenberg  1843). 

EISENERZ,  rz£D-ert2,  Austria,  mining 
town  in  the  north  Of  Styria,  20  miles  northwest 
of  Brudc.  It  stands  in  a  narrow  mountain 
valley  at  die  foot  of  the  Errberg  (5,000  feet), 
a  mountain  so  rich  in  iron  ore  that  the  miners, 
instead  of  cutting  mines  into  it  and  following 
the  metal  in  veins,  quarry  the  rock  from  the 
outside.  About  5.000  miners  arc  employed  in' 
the  quarries  on  tne  mountain  in  summer  and 
2,800  in  winter,,  the  annual  output  being  about 
1.00aOOO  tons,  of  which  about  40  per  cent  is 
metal.  The  (TOthic  church  of  Saint  Oswald, 
founded  in  1279.  is  an  exellent  example  of  the 
fortified  type  of  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
Aragonite  of  the  purest  white,  and  resembling 
coral  brviches  in  form,  and  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful white  is  found  in  caves  in  the  mountain. 
Pop.  6,494 

BISENHENGER,  rz^n-meng-er,  August, 
Austrian  fresco  painter:  b.  Vienna,  11  Feb, 
1830.  He  studied  in  the  Vienna  Academy  and 
early  gained  the  first  prize  in  drawing  (1845). 
In  1863  he  was  appointed  teacher  of  drawing 
in  the  Protestant  Real-schule  of  Vienna.  His 
first  work  of  importance  was  the  fresco  which 
he  executed  in  the  hall  of  the  Society  of  Musi- 
cal Amateurs  {Munk  Preunde),  'Apollo  with 
the  Muses';  but  he  has  painted  many  notable 
frescoes  in   other   public  hnildings.     He  was 


.Google 


BISBNSTADT--- B^ECTHKin'   AND   ZTICTIOH 


aMointcd  [irofeuor  «f  tbe  Vienm  Academy  ia 
18/2,  reniaining  until  1901,  and  at  the  same 
tiiDC  opened  a  private  school  of  fresco  painting. 
His  more  important  works  incloded  the  frieze 
medallions  in  the  Museumof  Art  and  Industry, 
Vienna ;  a  series  of  hisMncal  pictures  illustra- 
tive of  the  reign  of  Emperor  Maximilian  I,  in 
Castle  Homstein,  near  Vienna  (1872-79),  and 
the  decorative  painting  in  the  session  room  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  the  Reichsrat 
building  at  Vienna  (I8S5). 

EISBNSTADT,  fs^n-stiit.  or  KISMAK- 
TON,  HXmgaiy,  town  in  the  County  of  Oden- 
burg,  at  the  foot  of  the  Leitha  Mountains, 
and  25  miles  southeast  of  Vienna.  It  contains 
the  magnificent  palace  of  Prince  Esterhiay, 
erected  in  1683  and  restored  in  1805.  Fine 
grounds  surround  the  palace,  in  the  library  of 
which  is  housed  a  fine  collection  of  musical 
manuscnpts.  Nearby  is  the  pilgrim  shrine  of 
Maria-Ejnsiedel,  also  the  burial  place  of  the 
composer  Joseph  Haydn.    Fop.  3,073. 

EISLBBBN,  b1i-b£n,  Germany,  town  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  18  miles  to  the  west  oE  Halle, 
famous  as  the  place  where  Martin  Lnther  was 
bom  and  died.  The  royal  gymnasium,  origin- 
ally founded  by  Luther,  was  rebuilt  in  1883. 
The  house  in  which  Luther  died  has  been  re- 
cently restored.  In  1883,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  celebration  of  the  400lh  anniversary  of 
Luther's  birth,  a  statue  of  him  was  unveiled 
in  tl\c  tnarket-place.  In  the  church  of  Saint 
Andrew  are  busts  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon, 
the  tombs  of  the  counts  of  Mansfeld,  and 
Luther's  pulpit.  Other  Lutheran  relics  are  b 
the  church  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul.  Copper 
and  silver  are  mined  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Etslcben,  which  has  several  smelters.  A  con- 
siderable trade  in  flower  and  vegetable  seeds 
is  carried  oa  In  the  lOth  century  the  place 
was  called  Islebio.  Soon  after  the  year  1100 
it  fell  to  the  counts  of  Mansfeld,  in  whose 
possession  it  remained  until  178(^  when  it  was 

S'ven  to  Saxony.    In  1815  it  was  transferred  to 
mssia.    Pop.  24,629. 

EISTEDDFOD.  l-stet'vOd,  the  name  of  an 
assembly  of  Welsh  bards  for  the  purpose  of 
musical  and  poetical  contests.  Tbey  were  held 
at  different  places  for  the  minstrels  of  thnir 
respective  neighborhoods;  two  noted  ones  were 
held  at  Caerwys,  at  Aberftaw  in  Anglesea  and 
■t  Mathravel  in  Powys.  The  judges  were  ap- 
pointed     by     commissions     from     the    native 

(irinces,  and,  after  the  conquest,  from  the  Eng- 
ish  Icings.  The  last  was  issued  in  1568  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  but  the  ancient  custom  has 
been  again  revived  by  the  Gwynedigion  and 
Cambrian  societies,  and  annual  meetings  for 
the  recitation  of  prize  poems  and  performances 
on  die  harp  are  now  held  under  the  name  of 
EisteddfodT  The  Eisteddfod  proper  was  an- 
nounced a  year  and  a  day  beforehand  at  an 
assembly  called  a  gorsedd,  at  which  prizes 
for  the  previous  competition  were  awarded.  At 
the  present  time  yearly  eisteddfods  are  held 
alternately  in  the  north  and  south  of  Wales, 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  es- 
pecially throughout  Pennsylvania,  and  other 
sections  seiiled  by  the  Welsh  people.  Annual 
meetings  take  place,  in  every  waj;  similar  to 
the  rite  in  their  native  land.  During  the  Co- 
lumbian   Exposition  at  Chicago  probably   the 


EJECTMENT  AND  EVICTION.  Eject- 
ment in  law  is  a  mixed  action,  as  it  is 
resorted  to  in  order  to  recover  the  possession 
of  land  and  damages  for  the  wrongful  with- 
holding of  it,  though  the  damages  are  nominal 
Originally,  it  was  a  possessory  action  —  that  is, 
adapted  to  the  recovery  of  the  possession  of 
land.  It  ultimately  became  a  convenient  means 
of  testing  the  title  by  a  series  of  fictions.  The 
supposition  was  (and  this  was  the  substance 
of  the  fiction)  that  a  lease  for  a  certain  num- 
ber of  years  had  been  made  to  a  tenant,  •John 
Doe,*  who  had  entered  into  possession  and  had 
been  ejected  by  a  person  supposed  to  represent 
the  party  to  be  finally  made  defendant.  This 
person  was  called  'a  casual  ejector,"  and  was 
usually  represented  as  "Richard  Roe."  An 
action  was  then  brought,  substantially  under 
the  following  title:  ■Doe,  as  tenant  of  Ed- 
wards (claiming  the  land),  against  Roe."  A 
written  notice  was  thereupon  sent  in  the  name 
of  Roe  by  Edwards'  attorney  to  the  opposing 
claimant  (Jones),  who  is  the  person  in  pos- 
session. By  this  notice  Jones  was  advised  to 
defend  the  action,  otherwise  Roe  would  permit 
judgment  to  be  taken  against  him,  and  the 
possession  would  be  lost.  Jones,  on  making 
application  to  be  made  defendant,  was  allowed 
to  defend  on  condition  that  he  would  admit  the 
validity  of  the  fictitious  portion  of  these  pro- 
ceedings, so  that  the  matter  was  narrowed 
down  to  a  trial  of  the  merits  of  the  case.  The 
action  was  now  deemed  to  be  between  Ed- 
wards and  Jones,  although  Doc  still  remained 
plaintiff  on  the  records  of  the  court.  It  was 
a  rule  in  this  action  that  the  plaintiff  can  only 
recover  upon  a  legal  title,  as  distinguished 
from  a  title  in  a  court  of  equity.  He  can  suc- 
ceed upon  the  strength  of  his  own  title,  and  of 
its  validity,  and  not  upon  the  weakness  of  that 
of  his  adversary.  He  must  also  have  a  right 
of  entry.  Where  that  does  not  exist  another 
form  ■  of  action  must  be  resorted  to.  This 
method  of  procedure  was  defective  in  one  par- 
ticular. Any  number  of  successive  actions  of 
ejectment  could  be  brought  by  the  plaintifl, 
although  he  had  been  defeated.  The  only 
check  upon  actions  of  this  kind  was  a  resort 
to  a  court  of  equity  for  an  injunction  to  pre- 
vent harassing  litigation.  In  England  the  fic- 
titious portion  of  tne  proceeding  was  abolished 
by  the  Common  Law  Procedure  Act  of  1852, 
and     the     action     placed     upon     satisfactory 

Sounds.  In  New  York  and  some  other  States 
e  same  result  had  been  accomplished  as  early 
as  1830.  In  1875  the  law  in  England  was  modi- 
fied to  the  extent  of  making  an  action  for  the 
recovery  of  land  similar  to  other  actions,  all 
of  wiiich  were  simjiliAed  to  conform  to  a  unified 
plan.  This  legislation  was  copied  1^  many  States 
of  the  Union,  but  in  many  jurisdictions  the 
ancient  forms  survive.  In  general,  it  may  be 
staled  that  an  ejectment  action  may  be  brought 
by  any  person  having  a  legal  right  to  possession, 
whatever  'tc  the  character  of  ris  interest  in  it 
against  any  person  or  persons  who  wrongfully 
hold  il  against  one  having  an  estate  therein. 
Title  must  be  proven  by  the  plaintiff.  Substan- 
tial damages  to  the  plaintiff  are  now  allowed  in 
most  iurisdictions.  Consult  BlackstonCi;^  'Com- 
the  Laws  of  England' ;  Stephen, 


>y  Google 


EKATBBBIBURO  —  BX. .  O^N  OALBOTO 


__  ..  ._  .  ._  Technically,  the  dispossesiion 
most  be  by  ind^ment  of  law;  if  otherwise  it  is 
an  ouster.  EvictioD  may  be  total  or  partial. 
Total  eviction  takes  place  vrfaen  the  MUseuor 
i%  entirely  deprived  of  his  rights  in  the  prem- 
ises. Partial  eviction  takes  place  when  the' 
possessor  is  deprived  of  only  a  portion  of  thnn, 
as  if  3  third  person  cotncs  in  and  ejects  him 
from  a  portion  of  his  land,  or  establishes  a 
right  to  some  easement  over  it,  by  an  older 
title    than    that    under   which   he  holds.     Su 


BKATBRINBURG,  Mc&'te-ren-booig',  or 
IBKATERINBURG,  Russia,  town,  in  the 
government  and  1?0  miles  southeast  of  Perm, 
on  the  east  side,  and  in  the  mining  district  oi 
the  Uial  Mountains.  It  was  founded  in  1723 
by  Peter  the  Great  and  was  named  after  Em- 
press Catharine  1.  It  has  a  mint,  arsenal,  cus- 
tom-bouse, mining-school,  hospital,  meteoro- 
logical observatory  and  botanic  garden.  The 
art  of  cutting,  polishing  and  etigraving  gems, 
which  are  found  in  the  neighboring  mountains, 
is  here  carried  to  great  perfection,  and,  to- 
gether with  mining  and  metallurgy,  and  ti 
commerce  in  cattle  and  cutlery  forms  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood are  several  platinum  mines  and  also  the 
famous  gold  mines  of  Beresov  and  Niviansk. 
Pop.  52,230. 

EL  BRACITO  (N.  M.),  Batde  of  (Doni- 
phan's name  Bkazito,  Mexican  Tbmascalitos), 
24  Dec  1846,  in  the  Mexican  War.  Colonel 
Doniphan,  marching  from  Califorifia  to  Chi- 
huahua, was  assailed  at  a  bend  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  some  25  miles  from  EI  Paso,  by  a  bat- 
talion of  Mexicans  under  Antonio  Ponce.  The 
Mexicans  fired  at  long  range  as  they  charged; 
the  Americans  waited  till  the^  came  close,  then 
broke  them  with  a  destructive  volley,  and  a 
company  of  20  horse  scattered  their  cavalry, 
which  ned  to  the  mountains.  American  loss,  / 
wounded ;  Mexicans,  43  killed  and  150 
wounded. 

EL  BURLADOR  DE  SEVILLA.  Tirso 
de  Molina's  drama,  '£1  Burlador  de  Sevilla 
y  Convidado  de  Piedra'  ('The  Gty  Scoffer  of 
Seville  and  Feast  of  the  Statue')*  ^  ^^  parent 
source  in  literature  of  the  famous  legend  of 
Don  Juan  Tenorio,  the  unscrupulous  gallant 
and  Uasphemer,  subsequently  presented  vari- 
ously by  Uoliere  and  Byron  as  Don  Juan,  by 
Uoiart  as  Don  Giovanni,  and,  in  Spain  itself 
at  a  more  recent  date,  by  Jose  Zorilla  as  Don 
Juan  Tenorio  in  the  most  popular  of  all  Sp 


have  attracted  the  attention  of  so  many  writr 
ers  of  genius,  or  have  been  reproduced  so 
universally  and  in  such  multiplicity  of  styles. 
In  itsdf,  however,  Tirso'a  play  is  a  structure- 
kas  aggreptioa  of  amorous  adventures,  in  the 
ooun«  of  which  the  hero  seduces  a  Neapolitan 


fadiec  he  slays.  The  blasphemous  feast  which 
follows,  at  which  the  statue  of  the  Commander 
Don  (jonzalo  de  Ulloa  dines  with  Don  Joan, 
dragging  him  down  afterward  with  the  tomb 
from  which  it  has  descended  and  the  chapel 
'-"*~~=-~    ■'    to  perdition,   is   wholly  distinct 


from  tbe  other  episodes,  which  Tino  oonceivea 
after  the  maimer  of  the  chronicle  play  is  a 
Buccession  of  loosely  related  incidents,  without 
regard  either  to  consistency  of  character  or  to 
dramatic  action.  His  Don  Juan  is  a  mere  vitl> 
gar  seducer,  by  after- thought  a  blasi^esner, 
whose  overthrow  does  not  rise  above  tlM 
sphere  of  melodrama.  Although  Tirso  must 
be  .held  to  rank  with  Lope  de  Vega  and  Cal- 
deron  at  the  head  of  the  Spanish  romantic 
theatre,  even  the  pastoral  elements  in  this  play 
are  devoid  of  picturesguenest  and  lack  the 
author's  customary  mellowness  and  sober  im- 
aginative charm.  The  story  had  been  utilized 
previously  by  Juan  de  Cueva.     While  of  i 


is  said  to  have  died  at  the  foot  of  the  statu* 
of  the  Commander,  whom  he  had  killed,  as  in 
the  play.  The  Feast  of  the  Statue  is  derived 
from  independent  sources.  The  play  was  first 
printed  in  1630,  but  has  never  been  translated 
into  English.  Consult  Cotarelo  y  Mori^  £.,  in 
his  introduction  to  the  'Obras  de  Tirso  de 
Molina*  (in  the  Nutva  Biblioteta  it  Attlom 
EtpaHoUt.  Vols.  IV  and  IX,  Madrid  1906~07>j 
Uen^ndei  Pidal  R.,  'Sobre  los  origenes  de  £1 
Convidado  de  media'  (in  Cullura  EtbaHola, 
Madrid,  May  1906). 

John  Gauett  UmiEiHitL. 

BL  CAHBY,  ei  ka'nl,  Cuba,  town,  on  the 
main  road,  four  miles  northeast  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba.  During  the  Spanish- American  War  it 
was  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  525  Spaniards 
wider  General  Vara  del  Rey,  and  4,400  Ameri- 
cans under  General  l.awton.  The  Spaniards 
made  a  desperate  resistance,  but  were  finally 
overcome  by  the  American  infantry.  The 
Spaniards  lost  320,  and  100  were  taken  pris- 
oners; the  Americans  lost  440.  This  battle  oc- 
curred 1  July  18%.  In  1901  the  United  States 
government  purchased  the  battlefield  and  up- 
proachei  for  a  public  reservation.  Sec  Unitzd 
States  —  Sfamish- American  Wam. 

BL  DORADO.    See  ELooRAna 

EL  DORADO,  Ark.,  city  and  cotmty^Mat 
of  Union  County  30  miles  southeast  of  Camden, 
on  the  Chicago.  Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  the  El 
Dorado  and  Wesson,  and  the  Saint  Louis,  Iron 
Mountain-  atid  Southern  railroads.  It  has  cot- 
Ion  <nl  and  planing  mills,  railroad  repair  sbc^ 
an  iron  foundry  and  bottling  worics.  It  contains 
also  a  courthouse  and  a  county  jail.  In  1908  it 
was  chartered  as  a  dty.  The  surrounding  dis- 
trict is  devoted  to  cotton  and  peach  growing. 
Pop.  4,202. 

EL  DORADO,  Kan,  city,  countv-seat  of 
Butler  County ;  on  die  Walnut  River ;  the  Atchi- 
son, Topefca  and  Santa  F6,  the  Missouri  Pa- 
cific, and  other  railroads ,-  about  25  miles  east  of 
Widiita.  The  aVy^  is  situated  in  a  rich  agricul- 
tural region,  and  its  principal  trsde  is  in  grain, 
livestock  and  farm  and  luiiy  products.  Tlie 
city  has  machine  shops,  wagon  works  and 
quarries  of  limestone.  It  was  settled  in  1858 
and  was  first  incorporated  in  1870.  The  city 
has  a  Carnegie  library,  and  the  water  supply 

Bitem    is   the    property   of    the   municipality, 
op.  3,129. 
EL  GRAN  GALEOTO.  Josi  Echegaray'i 
'The  Great  Galeoto,'  certainly  the  most  famous 
Danish  play  of  the  19th  century  beyond  the 


8l^ 


SI^KHAKQBR  — BL   PA60 


timits  of  Spain,  and  the  work  i«wn  which  the 
internatiouaj  reputation  of  its  antnor  is  founded, 
is  an  exceedingly  effective  example  of  the  tra- 
ditional Calderonian  drama  of  jealousy,  in 
\riiich  the  honor  of  the  husband  is  attacked  bjr 
a  peculiarly  insidious  enemy.  Gossip  here  be- 
comes the  Galeoto,  or  go-between,  which  unites 
the  lovers,  the  use  of  ttie  title  having  been 
suggested  by  iis  appearance  in  the  episode  of 
Francesca  in  the  fifth  canto  of  Dante's  'In- 
ferno,' where  it  has  reference  to  the  relations 
of  Galahad  (Galeoto)  with  Lancelot  and  Guine- 
vere. Elcfaegaray  is  an  adept  in  stage  effect,  yet 
his  drama  is  never  deficient  in  A  certain  weight 
and  dignity  which,  when  tempered  with  re- 
straint as  in  this  l^ay,  impart  to  his  fervid 
etnotionalism  a  distinction  uncommon  in  the 
theatre  of  his  time.  These  qualities,  together 
with  a  faculty  for  realistic  detail,  have  led 
foreign  critics  to  regard  him  as  a  psychologist, 
and  the  play  as  a  study  of  the  effects  of  gossip 
On  the  lives  of  innocent  persons,  who  are  in- 
fluenced by  its  sugi^stions  to  their  ultimate 
ruin.  Prom  this  point  of  view,  however,  the 
work  is  curiously  mcompkte  and  unsatisfying; 
in  Spain  it  has  been  recognized  since  its  appear- 
ance in  1881,  as  an  excellent  stage  play,  which 
conforms  only  superficially  to  the  canons  of 
Ibsenism.  The  mediocre  verse  of  the  original 
has  diminished  its  populari^  and  important; 
of  late  years  upon  the  Spanish-sptsJdng  stage. 
The  best  English  translation  is  5iat  by 
Eleanor  Bontecou,  included  in  'Masterpieces  of 
Modem  SiKtnish  Drama'  (New  York  1917). 
Other  versions  are  by  Hannah  Lynch    (Lon- 


ton  1914).  'The  World  and  His  Wi^ 
adaptation  made  throu^  the  German,  has  been 
played  widely  throughout  England  and  the 
United  States.  For  criticism  of  Echegaray, 
consult  Bueno,  Manuel,  'Teatro  Espafiol  con^ 
temporaneo'  (Madrid  1909). 

JOHK  Gabutt  Uhdebbill. 

BL-KHARGBH.    See  Khadger. 

EL  PASO,  81  pa'sS,  Texas,  city,  port  of 
entry  and  county-seat  of  EI  Pako  County;  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fi.  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  the  Rock 
island.  Southern  Pacific  and  other  railways;  on 
the  Rio  Grande  River  in  the  extreme  western 
part  of  the  State.  It  is  opposite  Ciudad 
Juarez,  Mexico,  the  north  terminus  of  the  Mcx> 
lean  Central  Railway.  El  Paso  is  about  mid- 
way between  the  tide  water  of  the  Atlantic 
(Gulf  of  Mexico)  and  the  Pacific  oceans,  about 
3,800  feet  above  sea-leVel  and  is  central  to  the 
rich  tributary  regions  of  western  Texas,  New 
Mexico,  Arizona  and  the  northern  section  of 
old  Mexico ;  it  is  600  miles  from  any  railroad 
centre  that  may  compete  with  it.  It  is  the  cen- 
tre of  a  rich  fruit  and  vegetable  growing  region, 
the  great  Elephant  Butte  Dam  (q.v.),  costing 
Itearly  $10,000,000,  furnishing  ample  water  for 
irrigation.  By  it  200,000  acres  are  reclaimed. 
EI  Paso's  unequaled  railway  facilities,  the 
proximity  in  New  Mexico  of  inexhaustible  sup- 
plies of  fuel  coal  and  the  demand  for  supplies 
and  machinery  from  the  mines,  ranches  and 
growing  towns  of  its  neighborhood  make  it  one 
of  the  most  important  manufacturing  cities  of 
the  Southwest.  lis  most  important  industry,  is 
smelting  the  valuable  ores  of  the  neighboring 
region.    The  El  Paso  smelters  have  a  capacity 


of  about  40,000  tons  -  of  ore  a  month.  The 
monthly  payment  to  miners  for  ores  brought 
in  averages  nearly  $2,000,000;  a  large  part  of 
which  finds  its  way  into  the  stores'  and  fac- 
tories of  the  city;  the  monthljr  pay-roll  of  the 
smelters  and  other  manufactories  and  the  rail- 
ways centering  in  the  city  is  nearly  $300,000; 
and  these  together  ^ve  lo  the  financial  inter- 
ests a  stability  that  is  little  affected  by  condi- 
tions in  other  parts  of  the  country.  It  has  one 
of   the  largest   custom   smelters   m   the   world, 

Sving  employment  to  from  2,500  to  3,000. 
ther  industrial  establishments  are  a  wood- 
finishing  and  box  factory,  foundries  and  ma- 
chine shops,  cement  plant,  railroad  repair  ^ops, 
brick  and  tile  works,  sash  and  door,  macaroni 
and  cigar  factories,  brass  works  and  flour  mills. 
The  United  States  Census  of  Manufactures  for 
1914  showed  within  the  city  limits  117  indus- 
trial eslabiishments  of  factory  grade,  employ- 
ing 2,815  persons,  2,347  being  wage-earners,  re- 
ceivi:^  annually  $1,663,000  in  wages.  The  capi- 
tal invested  aggregated  $8,66li000  and  the  year's 
output  was  valued  at  $6,135,000;  of  this,  $j,262.- 
000  was  the  value  added  by  manufacture.  Many 
eastern  manufacturers,  especially  of  machinery, 
have  large  warehouses  here.  The  cily  carries 
on  an  extensive  trade  in  copper,  silver  and  lead, 
machinery,  livestock,  wool  and  bides  and  has 
important  wholesale  and  jobbing  interests.  El 
Paso  has  10  national  banks,  with  resources 
amounting  to  over  $27,660,719,  and  deposits 
over  $22,660,485,  as  contrasted  with  $1  503,000 
and  $750,000  respectively  30  years  ago.  El  Paso 
is  pre-eminently  a  city  of  homes.  The  streets 
are  lighted  bj;  gas  and  electricity,  and  a  well- 
planned  elfctric  street-railway  system  places  all 
parts  of  the  city  within  easy  reach  of  the  busi- 
ness section.  The  more  notable  buildings  are 
the  Federal  building,  county  courthouse,  city 
hall,  post-office,  high  school,  the  Slate  School 
of  Mines,  Fort  Bliss,  Carnegie  library,  Knights 
of  Columbus  Home,  Masonic  Temple.  There 
are  13  public  parks.  The  city  has  several  pub- 
lic schools  and  parochial  (Roman  Catholic) 
schools,  a  business  college,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  Saint  Joseph's  Academj;  and  of  the  Rio 
Grande  Congregational  Training  School  and 
Theological  Seminary.  There  are  several 
handsome  churches  and  two  well-equipped  hos- 
pitals. El  Paso  is  a  noted  health  resort,  hav- 
ing many  excellent  hotels,  some  of  which  are 
open  during  the  entire  year.  The  assessed  valu- 
ation in  1916  amounted  to  $48,736,645.  There 
are  within  the  city  limits  nearly  60  miles  of 
asphalt  streets,  82  miles  of  concrete  sidewalks 
and  97  mites  of  sewers.  The  city  adopted  the 
commission  form  of  government  in  1907.  Its 
receipts  amount  annually  to  about  $2,000,000, 
while  its  payments  reach  about  $1,800,000,  The 
waterworks  system,  'costinft  $1,500,000,  is 
owned  by  the  cily.  The  Spanish  explorers  vis- 
ited the  site  at  an  early  time.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1827,  and  the  town  incorpo- 
rated in  1869.  During  the  Civil  War  if  was 
occupied  alternately  by  Federal  and  Confederate 
troops  and  for  a  time  was  the  base  for  opera- 
tions against  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  The 
present  charter  dates  from  1889  with  revisions 
of  1891  and  1907.  El  Paso  has  grown  more 
rapidly  than  any  other  city  in  Texas  or  the 
Southwest.  The  city  has  had  no  boom,  its  in- 
crease bein^  healthy  and  substantial,  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  demands  of  commerce  and 


Bl,  RBNO  — BL  SASIO 


the  developmeiit  of  the  natml  ruowoes  oi  the 
cwunliy  tnbnUry  to  dM  city.  The  total  importi 
in  1915  had  an  appraiaed  value  oi  $9,149,414  of 
which  cotton,  cattle,  cop^,  ailyer,  zinc  and 
lumber  formed  the  prinapal  items  imponed 
Exports  were  valued  in  1915  at  ib.lA(tfiS5,  of 
which  coal  and  coke,  shoe*,  bleached  cotton  and 
cotton  prints  composed  the  bulk.  Pop.  70,700. 
EL  RBNO,  Okla.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Canadian  County;  on  the  Rock  Island  Lines, 
junction  main  lines  north  and  south,  and  i 


reputation  of  succcsus  gamed  in  several  c»n> 


noUea,  financial  troubles  and  warlika  move- 
mentft  ou  the  |>art  of  the  Uohammedaua.  On 
the  death  of  William  of  Holland,  emperor  of 
Gennany,  Alfonso  laid  claim  to  toe  throne  aa 
the  diiect  heir.  He  was  opposed  in  this  fay 
of  the  nobles  of  Germany  and  by  the  Pop^ 


Saint  Louis,  El  Reno  and  Western  Railway, 
and  also  for  Oldahoma  Railway  Company— 
Interurban.  Near  the  geographical  centre  of 
State,  it  exploits  a  rich  agricultural  district  pro- 
ducing alfalfa,  com,  kaffir,  wheat,  oats,  broom 
com,  fruits  and  vegetables.  The  industries  of 
the  city  are  varied  and  growing  rapidly.  Thn 
include  &ve  lumber  yards,  two  flour  milh 
^daily  capacity  3,000  bbls.),  vitrified  brick  and 
tile  factory,  two  ice  plants,  incubator  factory, 
washing  machine  factory,  broom  factory,  cigar 
factories,  foundries,  machine  shops,  tent  and 
awning  factory,  granite  and  slone  works,  plan- 
ing mill,  gas  and  electric  plants,  ice  cream  fac- 
tory, steam  laundry,  wholesale  groceries,  etc 
El  Reno  has  15  churches  and  7  public  schools. 


The  Sacred  Heart  Institute  (CathoHcl  has  _.. 
enrolment  of  200,  with  graded,  hign  school 
and  music  courses.  There  is  also  a  business  col- 
lege, Came^e  Library  and  two  hospitals.  Ttie 
Masons  and  Elks  possess  fine  buildings  and  the 
El  Reno  theatre  has  a  seating  capacity  of  1.400. 
The  new  ofiice  buildjng  of  the  Rock  Island 
s>'stem  cost  JISO.OOO,  and  the  city  hall  cost 
K0,000.  New  Federal  building  cost  $120,000. 
The  El  Reno  Country  Club  has  a  fine  club- 
house and  maintains  one  of  the  finest  golf 
courses  in  the  State.  The  Grand  Lodge 
Uasons  maintain  the  State  Masonic  Home  at 
this  point,  owning  640  acres  which  the  United 
Slates  povemment  sold  to  that  body  recently; 
fine  buildings  already  built  and  plans  for  one 
of  the  finest  homes  in  the  country  are  being 
laid  Old  Fort  Reno,  nearby,  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  remount  station,  where  horses  are 
gentled  and  trained  for  cavalry  purposes  for 
use  in  United  States  Amiy.  In  1911  El  Reno 
adopted  the  commission  fom  of  government, 
the  executives  being  commissioner  of  public 
affairs  —  ex-officio  mayor,  commissioner  of 
finance  and  commissioner  of  highways.  _The 
city  owns  its  own  water  plant  and  extensions, 
with  a  capacity  of  1,500,000  gallons  daily,  has 
10  miles  of  paved  streets  and  15  miles  of 
sewers.  The  taxable  valuation  is  about  $7,000,- 
OOa  The  city  has  four  banks,  with  a  capital 
and  surplus  of  {175,000  and  average  deposits  of 
$1,500,000.  It  was  first  settled  in  1890.  made  a 
boTougfa  the  same  year  and  a  dty  of  the  first 
class  in  1892.  The  peculation  has  increased  very 
fist,  being  now  over  10,000. 

BL  8ABIO,  Alfonso  X,  king  of  Leon  and 
&srina :  b.  23  Nov.  1221 ;  d.  21  April  1284.  He 
was  the  son  of  FertTinand  III  and  Beatriz, 
daughter  of  Philip  of  Snabia  and  sister  of  Pred- 
eriu  II  of  Gennany.  Most  carefullr  educated, 
he  succeeded  bis  father  to  the  throne  in  1252. 
bringing  with  hint  to  his  administntive  tasks  the 


__. .^ title  of 

long  of  the  Romans;  and  signing  his  official 
documents  with  the  great  sealhelon^ng  to  that 
dignity.  He  made  ready  several  tunes  to  in- 
vade Italy  and  Gennany,  but  trouble  at  home 
witUield  his  arm  when  U  was  ready  to  striken 
Finally  the  united  effort*  of  his  powerful  ene- 
mies and  the  threat  of  the  Pope  to  excommu- 
nicate him,  combined  with  ever-increasing 
trouble  at  home,  forced  Alfonso,  in  1275,  to  r»-  . 
nounce  hit  claims  upon  the  ancient  throne  of 
the  Komans.  The  opposition  of  the  successive 
popes  to  the  claims  of  Alfonso  on  the  crown  of 
Germany  was  due  to  the  fact  that  he  was  the 
representative  of  the  Stiabian  princes,  long  the 
bitter  and  uncompromising  enemies  of  the 
papacy.  Alfonso  was  the  more  inclined  to 
make  peace  with  his  enenties  abroad  in  1275  be- 
cause  of  the  increased  trouble  which  the  Mo- 
hammedans were  givin^^  him  at  home.  In  Gra- 
nada, Murcift,  Andalucia,  Algarve  and  all  the 
populous  centres  from  Uitrcia  to  Jerei  the 
Moors  rose  up  Kainst  the  Christian  king  in  an 
effort  to  drive  QiristianiQ'  out  of  Spain.  Al- 
tooaa  besieged  and  captured  ^erei,  Uedina- 
Sidonia,  Rota,  Santucar,  Lebiija  and  Arcoi: 
and  the  Castile  fleet,  under  the  command  of 
Don  Juan  Garcia  de  Villamayor.  took  Cidic. 
In  1264  Jainie  of  Arag6n  came  to  the  aid  of  Al- 
fonso. The  former  captured  the  province  of 
Unrcia  while  Alfonso  carried  on  the  war 
Eigainst  Andalucia.  These  constant  wars  and 
the  struggle  against  Italy  and  Germany  forced 
the  king  to  increase  the  taxes.  This  estranged 
many  of  the  nobles  upon  whom  fell  tlus  burden 
of  increased  taxation;  and  Alfonso  was  forced 
to  make  concessions  to  his  underlords  w4ucb 

Sve  them  great  facilities  for  the  oppression  of 
cir  tenants.  Thus  the  long  ultimately  lost  the 
foodwill  of  nobles  and  peasants  alike.  The 
ontier,  deserting  the  Castilian  king,  joined 
hands  with  the  Moorish  sovereigns  of  GranadjL 


Mahomed  1  and  Mahomed  II.  The  ueaty  < 
peace  with  the  Pope  and  with  Germany  in  1275, 
however,  strengthened  Alfonso  and  enabled  him 


.- temporary  terms  with  his  insurgent 

nobles.  Alfonso  departed  for  Rome  (1275)  for 
an  interview  with  Uie  Pope,  leaving  the  cares 
of  Ids  kingdom  in  charge  of  his  eldest  son. 
Prince  Fernando  de  la  Cerda.  The  latter  sent 
an  army  unter  Nufio  Gonzilez  de  Lara  into 
Cdrdoba.  There  the  invading  forc^  met  with 
considerable  success  at  first;  but  in  a  shoR 
while  they  were  surrounded  by  a  greatly  supe- 
rior Moorish  force  and  defeated  with  heavy 
loss,  among  the  dead  being  Nufio  and  over 
400  of  his  bodj^nurd.  The  survivors  took 
refuge  in  the  town  of  Ecipa  (May  1275). 
The  f^ent  died  in  July  .while  on  his 
way    to    the  relief  of  uie  besiege^  C^asiilian 


8l^ 


El.  BOMBRSRO    DB  TKSS  PIC08 


forces;  and  Saticno,  lecond  son  of  Kiag  Al- 
fonso, a  boy  of  18,  at  once  look  charge  of  the 
expeditionary  force  which  he  managed  wttk 
considerable  sldlL  Alfonso,  oa  his  return  from 
Italy,  made  a  two  yean'  peace  with  the  Uoort, 
on  the  conclusion  of  wucb  the  latter  again 
made  an  attempt  to  conquer  the  Christian  pos- 
aessions  in  Spain.  Don  Sancho  led  an  arm 
into  Granada  where  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade 
and  suffered  defeat,  losing  over  3,000  of  his  fin- 
est knights.  Sancho  conttnued  with  the  rcmaiih' 
der  of  his  forces  on  into  the  heart  of  Granada, 
burnii^  villages  and  towns  and  laving  waste  the 
coimtry  he  traversed.  But  the  Q^stilians  were 
forced  to  retreat  to  Cordoba  (1281).  The  fol- 
lowing year  Alfonso  and  Sancho  quarreled  over 
the  succession  to  the  throne  and  the  son  de- 
clared himself  in  open  insurrection  against  the 
father.  Sandio  stirred  up  the  towns  of  the 
country  against  the  king  and'  even  sought  the 
aid  of  the  enemies  of  Christian  Spain.  But  the 
Pope  threw  his  influence  in  favor  of  Alfonso 
and  most  of  the  nobles,  obeying  the  spiritual 
'  head  of  the  Qturch,  returned  to  their  alle^ 
giance  (1^).  Alfonso  disinherited  his  son  and 
carried  the  war  on  with  the  aid  of  Yacub,  ruler 
of  Morocco.  The  insurrection  hxt  grotind 
rapidly,  but  just  as  everything  was  turning  in 
his  favor  Alfonso  died. 

Alfonso  the  Wise  occupies  a  prominent  place 
In  Spanish  history  as  a  legislator.  He  gave 
uniformity  to  the  laws  of  tus  united  kingdom, 
i^ch  were,  on  his  coming  to  the  throne,  a  con- 
fused mass  of  privileges  and  local  observances, 
often  at  variance  with  one  another,  and  frn- 
cuently  subversive  of  the  order  of  the  nation. 
Out  of  this  confused  mass  of  privileges  and 
local  laws  he  succeeded  in  creating  a  cenain 
uniformity  of  legal  observances  wnose  influ- 
ences were  felt  in  Spain  for  centuries.  He 
wrote  the  'Septenario,'  a  work  wonderful  in 
its  day  and  for  the  political  conditions  tuider 
which  it  appeared.  This  is  a  sort  of  ^titical, 
moral  and  religious  compilation  wh:cfa  has 
served  as  the  basis  of  numerous  Iml  wotks 
which  have  developed  the  law  of  Spain.  In 
this  and  other  works  of  a  like  nature  Alfonso 
shows  an  intuition  of  the  spirit  of  law  arid  a 
knowle<k:e  far  ahead  of  his  lime.  His  *Libto 
del  Esneculo  6  Espejo  de  todos  los  derechos* 
and  'Fuero  Real'  are  works  scarcely  less  not- 
able than  the  *Septenario.*  They  were  the  re- 
sult of  much  thought  and  investigation.  They 
both  appeared  together  in  1255.  The  'Libro 
del  Especulo*  {Book  of  Laws)  is  a  summing 
up  of  what  appeared  to  Alfonso  to  be  the  most 
just  statutes  or  custom  laws  of  Leon  and  Castile, 
and  they  were  compiled  to  be  used  in  adjuthdtig 
all  cases  brought  before  the  king's  court.  The 
'Fuero  Real'    (royal  law,  iii  conlradistincticin 


tention  In  writing  the  'Fuero  Real* 
do  away  with  the  anarchy  in  local  law  which 
reigned  everywhere  throughout  his  dominions. 
As  these  laws  prohibited  coontless  abuses, 
their  enforcement  was  bitterly  Mposed  by  the 
nobles  and  others  in  high  office  throughout  the 
land.  These  works  were  followed  by  the 
'Libro  de  los  I.«yes'  (Book  of  Laws),  also 
known  as  *Las  Siete  Partidas*  (Seven  Parts) 
on  account  of  its  being  divided  into  seven  sec- 


tions. It  was  the  first  great  legal  code  of  ike 
Middle  Ages.  In  this  and  bis  other  worics  Al- 
fonso shows  exact  knowledge  and  appreciation 
of  the  laws  of  the  Romans,  of  the  Jintiniaa 
Code  and  of  Spanish  and  foreign  laws  of  his 


sidered  as  literary  modds  in  their  field.  They 
form  a  wonderfully  interestii^  and  useful  expo- 
sitioa  of  the  laws,  morality  and  religious  uses^ 
observances  and  practices  of  the  age  in  which 
they  were  written.  The  ability,  industiy, 
powers  of  assimilation  and  excellent  judgmcm 
of  the  king  are  evidently  shown  in  his  wntinss 
which  called  for  a  mastery  of  three  great  fields 
of  knowledge,  common  and  royal  law,  canoiucal 
law  and  theology.  In  his  work  he  had,  no 
doubt,  helpers  and  investigators,  but  he  was 
himself  the  heart  and  souT  of  it  all-  and  his 
was  the  master  mind  that  brought  order  out  of 
confusion  and  conceived  plans  whose  broad- 
ness were  a  centuiy  ahead  of  their  time.  Al- 
fonso was  a  great  lover,  not  only  of  everything 
relating  to  law,  but  also  of  literature  and  sci- 
ence ;  and  the  extent  of  bis  knowledge  is  often 
surprising.  He  was  a  poet  of  no  mean  talent 
and  he  encouraged  the  troubadours  of  Provence 
and  Catalonia.  His  knowledge  of  history  was 
very  broad  and  exact^  and  he  had  mastered  the 
extensive  mathematical  knowledge  of  the 
Arabs,  so  that,  even  among  the  Moors,  he  had 
acquired  a  reputation  as  a  mathematician.  It  is 
not  strange,  therefore,  that  he  should  have  done 
much,  by  his  example  and  his  influence,  to  ad- 
vance (he  general  culture  of  his  kingdom.  Of 
the  many  debts  that  Spain  owes  to  him,  one  of 
the  greatest  and  of  most  far-reaching  conse- 
quence, is  the  fact  that,  for  years,  he  labored 
to  make  the  tongue  of  Castile  the  language  of 
the  whole  country.  This  tended  to  create  the 
national  unit^  for  which  he  strove.  Though  he 
was  disappointed  in  the  result  of  his  work  in 
his  lifetime,  it  bore  abundant  fruit  in  after 
days.  He  encouraged  education  and  estab- 
lished schools  of  higher  learning  in  Toledo, 
C6rdoba  and  Sevilla,  and  he  welcomed  to  his 
court  the  troubadours.  He  ordered  the  Bible 
and  various  other  works  translated  into  Span- 
ish, among  them  books  on  sdentilic  subjects 
wnlten  in  Hebrew  or  Arabic.  In  addition  to 
his  'Cantigas'  numerous  other  works  of  a  non- 
legal  nature  have  been  attributed  to  bim,  in 
some,  cases  apparently  with  considerable  rea- 
son, among  these  being  'Estoria  de  Espanna  6 
CrOnica  General'  and  'Grande  y  General  Esto- 
ria.' Consult  Ticknor  'History  of  Spanish 
Literature'  (New  York,  1854);  any  good  his- 
tory of  Spain,  or  history  of  Spanish  literature. 
John  Hubert  Cobnyn, 
Editorial  Stag  of  The  Amervana. 
EL  SOMBRERO  DE  TRES  PIC08 
(The  Cocked  Hat).  The  journalist  and  novd- 
ist  Pedro  Antonio  de  Alarc6n  {1833-51)  rnet 
with  little  acclaim  for  his  more  amintious  liter- 
ary performances ;  in  fact,  he  attained  to  no 
measure  of  success  in  his  novels.  With  his 
short  stories,  however,^  he  ^ned  a  well- 
deserved  repute,  and  with  two  of  them,  die 
'Sombrero  de  Trcs  Picos'  and  the  'Capit&n 
Veneno,*  which  are  really  long  enou^  to  be 
termed  novelettes,  he  won  his  permanent  place 
in  the  annals  of  Spanish  prose  fiction  Tbe 
'(3a|dtin  Veneno*  is  entirety  of  bis  ovra  de- 


KLSAONUS — BLAIHS 


viung;  the  'Sombrero  de  Tres  Picos,'  on  the 
other  hand,  is  die  result  of  bit  refashioning 
an  old  narrative  previonsly  decked  out  in  prose 
form  by  the  Italian  Boccaccio  in  bis  'De- 
cameron' (VIll,  8)  and  refurbished  for  French 
readers  in  the  *Cent  nouvelles  nouvelles.'  Alar- 
c6n  may  have  known  these  versions  of  the 
story,  but  he  certainly  derived  his  direct  in- 
spiration from  the  treatment  accorded  to  it  in 
two  popular  Spanish  ballads  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  '  Romancoro  general, '  and  he  drew 
upon  hia  own  powers  of  invention  for  factors 
and  embellishments  which  are  not  present  in 
fhese  verse  sources.  The  subject  of  the  '■SotOr 
brero  de  Tres  Picos'  is  one  which  required 
delicate  handling  if  the  unduly  scabrous  was  to 
be  avoided  in  the  telling.    It  would  have  been 


1  the 


shoals  of  what  the  literary 
naturalism  in  the  treatment  of  a  theme  which, 
like  this,  involves  attempted  adultery  as  a  neoes> 
sary  element  But  there  is  no  indulgence  diowa 
here  for  the  vicious;  and  whatsoever  elements 
of  the  nnbecomii^  are  inherent  in  the  popular 
tradition  and  are  perforce  adopted  in  AlarcAn's 
story  are  sufficiently  countered  by  the  firm  way 
in  which  the  Corregidora,  safeguarding  her  own 
honor  and  rescuing  that  of  the  peasant  woman 
leiia  Frasquita,  dispenses  poetic  justice  to  her 
own  recreant  husband.  Humor  of  incident  is 
rife  in  the  work.  Il  may  be  noted  that  Alar- 
c^n's  redaction  of  the  old  legend  has  been 
utilized  for  operatic  purposes  m  both  French 
and  German. 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

ELffiAGNUS,  el-§-ag'nu3,  _  a  genus  of 
shrubs  or  small  trees  of  the  family  Elaagnaceir. 
The  spedes,  of  which  there  are  about  40,  are 
natives  of  ihe  northern  temperate  lone,  and  are 
characterized  by  deciduous  or  persistent  entire 
leaves  covered  with  silvery  or  brownish  scales, 
solitary  or  clustered  apetalous  axillaty  flowers 
and  one-seeded  dn^aceons  fruits.  They  are 
valued  in  ornamental  gardening  for  iheir 
foliage,  usually  decorative  fruits,  and  mostly 
fragrant  flowers.  The  deciduous  members  are 
harife  in  the  north ;  the  cver^een  ones,  which 
mostly  come  from  Japan  and  China,  only  in  the 
'  south.  They  are  easily  propagated  by  means 
of  seeds,  cuttings  and  layers,  and  succeed  upon 
almost  any  well-drained  soil  in  a  sunny  situation. 
The  best  known  species  probably  are;  (1)  £ 
tmgitttifolia,  the  oleaster  or  witite  olivft,  which 
attains  a  height  of  about  20  feet.  It  has  been 
introduced  from  southeastern  Europe  or  adja- 
cent Asia,  and  has  proved  hardy  in  the  bleak 
and  cold  prairie  States.  It  a  one  of  the  most 
omamenfal  species,  (2)  E-  argentea,  the  silver- 
berry,  a  native  of  the  colder  parts  of  Canada 
and  the  northern  border  of  the  United  States. 
It  seldom  attains  a  height  exceeding  IS  feet, 
and  is  perhaps  the  roost  popular  native  species. 

i3)  E.  mitltiflora,  the  ^umi,  a  species  intro- 
uced  from  eastern  Asia.  It  is  gaining  in 
{avor.  It  attains  a  height  of  about  six  feet  and 
like  the  preceding,  bears  edible,  slightly  acid 
fruit  of  pleasant  flavor.  This  last  species 
became  of  horticultural  importance  during  the 
tast  25  years  of  the  19tfa  century  because  it 
pcodnces  mod  crops  of  frnit  in  climates  too 
rigorous  for  most  of  the  other  fruit-bearing 
shrubs  and  tfce*. 


BLJSIS,  S-lels,  the  name  given  to  a  genus 
of  palms.  The  seven  species  are  dioecious  or 
monorious,  the  flowers,  especially  the  males, 
in  dense  masses,  padced  verv  closely  tc^ether; 
the  fruit  is  part^  three-sided,  but  somewhat 
Irregular.  E.  gnineensis,  the  maba  or  oil-pahn 
of  the  West  African  coast,  has  heads  of  fai^ 
fruits.  The  outer  or  fleshy  part  of  the  fruit  is 
boiled  in  water,  when  the  oil  rises  to  the  sur- 
face and  may  be  skimmed  off.  In  its  native 
countH'  it  is  used  for  butter.  It  constitutes 
one  of  the  chief  commercial  products  of  west- 
ern Africa.  E.  mtlanococca  also  furnishes  oil. 
Both  species  yield  by  manufacture  palm-wine. 

ELa:OCARPUS,  f-le-o-kar'pQs,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  Etaocarpacca.  The  species  are 
shrubs  and  trees  and  are  found  chiefly  in  New 
Zealand,  Australia  and  southeastern  Asia. 
From  the  seed-stones  of  E,  ganilnts  riie  natives 
of  Australia  make  necklaces.  The  New 
Zealanders  And  a  rich  black  dye  in  E.  Iiaum, 
and  in  India  several  species  furnish  one  of  the 
ingredients  of  curry-powder. 

SLAODENDRON,  i-le-d-dihi'drdn,  a 
genus  of  the  staff-tree  family  (Celastracea). 
The  plants  of  the  genos  are  generally  trees, 
natives  of  sonthem  Asia,  western  and  southeni 
Africa  and  South  America.  The  drupes  of  £. 
knbu  are  eaten  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hojte 
while  the  bark  of  E.  roKbttrghii,  rubbed  with 
water,  is  used  by  the  Hindus  as  an  external 
application  to  swellings  of  all  kinds.  E.  glau- 
rum,  a  native  of  Ceylon,  is  sometimes  called 
the  Ceylon  tea-tree.  Saffron  wood  is  the 
product  of  E.  eroeeum,  and  an  oil  in  com- 
mon use  in  Africa  is  made  from  E.  organ. 

BLAGABALUS,  e-la-g3b'»-lii<L  or  HELI- 
OGABALUS,  he'ir-d-gSbVliis,  Rooian  em- 
peror :  b.  Emesa  204  a.d.  ;  d.  222.  His  real 
name  was  Vnrius  Avitus  Bassianus,  but  when  a 

?Dnth  he  was  appointed  high  priest  of  the  Syro- 
'hcenician  sun-^od  Elagabol  and  assumed  the 
name  of  that  deity.  Soon  after  the  death  of  his 
cousin  Caracalla,  Elagabalus  was  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  soldiers  in  opposition  to  the 
legitimate  sovereign,  Macrinus.  The  rivals  met 
in  battle  at  Antioch  218  a.d.,  Macrinus  was  de- 
feated and  Elagabalus  assumed  the  purple.  His 
reign  of  three  years  and  nine  months  was  in- 
famous for  the  debaucheries  of  every  kind  in 
which  he  indulged.  He  instituted  ceremonies 
in  honor  of  the  ^od  Elagabol  and  it  is  believed 
made  human  sacrifices  to  him.  He  was  murdered 
in  an  insurrection  of  the  Pratorians  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  cousin  and  adopted  son,  Aleic- 
Budcr  Severus,  whose  assassination  he  had  twice 
attempted.  Consult  Butler,  O.  F.,  'Studies  in 
the  Life  of  HeUogabalus'  (New  York  1908). 
BLAINE,  e-l&'in,  or  BLAIK,  the  CH)y  prio- 


crystallize  and  then  evaporating  the  alcoholic 
solution;  or  by  the  simple  process  of  presune 
any  oily  or  fatty  substance  between  folds  of 
blotting  paper,  the  oily_  matter  or  eUine  is 
absorbed,  while  the  stearin  remains.  The  paper 
bang  then  soaked  in  water  and  pressed,  yidds 
up  tnc  eUine.  It  possesses  much  the  appear- 
ance and  properties  of  vegetable  oil,  and  olein 
(q.v.l  is  liquid  at  the  temperature  of  60°  F. 
and  has  an  odor  derived  from  the  solid  fats 
from  which  it  has  been  extracted 


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BLAJi  —  BLASTICITY 


ELAU,  the  andent  name  of  a.  conntiy  or 
region  in  Asia,  east  of  the  Lower  Tigris.  The 
cuneiform  inscriptions  record  that  a  king  o£ 
EJam  conquered  Babylonia  and  Assyria  about 
2300  B.Q.  The  later  ancient  writers  call  this 
country  Susiana,  the  name  being  derived  from 
its  cajutal,  Susa  or  Shushan,  one  of  the  most 
andent  cities  of  the  East.  It  is  now  known  as 
Khoonstan.  Both  the  country  itself,  which 
seems  to  have  been  of  considerable  importance 
at  an  early  period,  and  its  capital,  Shushan,  are 
mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Consult  Sayce^  'In- 
scriptions of  Ual  Amir' ;  Loftus,  ^Travels  and 
Reicardies  in  Quldxa  and  Susiana' ;  Billet^ 
bach,  <Susa' ;  Dieulafoy,  TAcropole  de  Suse' ; 
Meyer,  FA,,  'Geschichte  des  Attertums 
(1913);  Scheil,  De  Morgan,  and  others  in 
<M&noires  de  la  delegation  en  Perse>  (1900- 
13). 

BLAND,  eland,  the  largest  antelope  (Oreas 
canna)  found  in  Africa.  It  is  as  big  as  a  fully 
grown  horse,  weighs  1  000  pounds  or  more  and 
stands  fully  six  feet  high.  The  early  settlers 
in  South  Africa  called  it  *elk.»  The  eland  has 
3  short,  smooth  coat  of  rich  fawn  ccdor;  strong 
straight  horns  about  20  inches  long,  and  a  broad 
fringed  dewlap  falUng  about  to  the  knees.  The 
hide  makes  excellent  harness  leather  and  the 
flesh  is  decisively  palatable.  The  elands  move 
so  slowly  and  are  such  gentle  creatures  as  to 
be  easily  caught,  and  hence  have  been  nearly 
exterminated  id  their  native  haunts.  At  pres- 
ent very  few  are  found  In  the  equatorial 
region  of  western  Africa  is  found  the  still 
latter  spedes  {Oreas  derbiativs). 

ELAPHURE,  name  for  David's  deer  (Cer- 
vtis  davidiantis).  whose  haUtat  is  Northern 
Qiina  and  Mancnuria.    It  is  commonly  kept  in 

Earks  by  wealthy  Chinese  and  even  in  Europe. 
ittle  is  known  of  its  habits  in  the  wild  state. 
It  has  long  slu^^  hair  and  has  no  brow  tine 
to  its  antlers. 

ELAPINiE,  e-lap^-ne,  a  subfamily  of 
Colithrida,  including  venomous  snakes  having 
a  short,  rounded  head  covered  with  plates, 
"rhey  are  more  nearly  related  to  the  harmless 
colubrines  than  to  the  vipers,  but  have  a  poison- 
apparatus  of  the  proleroglvph  type.  The  group 
is  a  large  one  and  is  found  m  most  parts  of  the 
world,  but  is  most  numerous  in  the  tropics. 
Nearly  all  the  snakes  of  Australia  are.elapine, 
the  whole  race  of  cobras  (q.v.),  and  others. 
The  genus  Elaps  is  entirely  American  and  is 
represented  by  a  single  species  in  the  United 
States,  the  coral  or  harlequin  snake  of  Florida. 
See  CoBAL  Snake. 

ELASMOBRANCHII,  *-15s-ma-brangTcI-f, 
a  sub-class  of  fishes,  containing  the  sharks  and 
rays.  The  skull  is  cartilaginous  with  only  su- 
perficial calcifications  and  no  true  dermal 
bones;  the  gills  fixed  and  shaped  like  pouches; 
the  upper  jaw  is  the  pterygo-palBtine  bar,  and 
the  lower  jaw  Meckd's  cartilage,  attached  to 
the  skull  W  a  large  hyo-mandibular  element; 
the  exo-skcleton  consists  of  tooth'like  granular 
tubercles  or  spines ;  and  the  trunk  endoskeleton 
ii  cartilaginous.  The  ventral  fins  are  far  back 
and  bear  claspers  in  the  males;  the  heart  has 
but  one  auricle  and  one  ventricle ;  and  the  in- 
testine is  provided  with  a  spiral  valve.  The 
group  is  nearly  coextensive  with  Cuvter's  Cktm- 


droptery^ia  or  cartilaginous  fishes  and  the 
Placoidei  of  Agassii,  and  has  received  various 
other  names  such  as  Sclachit  and  Plagiostomi. 
Cope  distineuishes  as  orders  the  SrUchii, 
which  inducts  all  living  as  wdl  as  nwny  ex- 
tinct forms;  and  the  Ichthyotomi,  which  are 
exdusively  carboniferous  and  have  simple 
daspcrs  and  extensive  cranial  calcifications. 
See  Dog-fish;  Ray;  Sawfish;  Shabks;  Seate, 

BLASH0SAURIAN8,     t-ias-mft-sS'ri^ni. 

S'gantic  marine  fossil  reptiles  of  the  order 
auropierygia,  found  in  cretacean  beds.  As  a 
living  animal  it  was  contemporaneous  with 
Plestosaunu,  of  the  same  order,  which 
abounded  in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  as  a 
fossil  has  been  found  in  Europe  and  New 
Zealand.  Elasmosaurus  had  a  lizard-like, 
elongated  bodv,  sometimes  45  feet  long,  flat- 
tened limbs  which  served  as  oars,  and  a  long, 
paddle-shaped  tail  which  assisted  its  motion 
through  the  water.  The  head  was  proportion- 
ately small  and  with  the  neck  performed  twist- 
ing motions  much  like  the  corresponding  parts 
of  the  swan.  The  contents  discovered  in  the 
body  indicate  that  this  i^ea-saurian  lived  on 
other  rapacious  fish,  which  it  was  able  to  seiie 
with  its  crocodile- teeth.  The  fossil  has  been 
raised  from  cretaceous  beds  in  New  Jersey 
and  in  Kansas. 

ELASMOTHKRIUM,  eias-mo-the'ri-fim, 
an  extinct  rhinoceros  which  inhabited  Siberia, 
Russia  and  Germany  during  the  Pleistocene 
Epoch  It  exceeded  the  Indian  rhinoceros  in 
size  and  bore  an  enormous  horn  on  the  frontal 
bone  of  the  skull,  but  no  nose-bQin.  The  teeth 
are  very  long-crowned,  with  the  enamel  rid^es 
strongly  crenulaled,  indicating  grazing  habits. 
Some  of  the  native  Siberian  legends  are  sup- 
posed  to  refer  to  this  animal;  it  was  a  con- 
temporary of  early  man  in  that  region.  See 
Rhinoceros. 

ELASTIC  LIMIT.    See  Stsength  or  Ma- 

BLASTIC  TISSUE,  fibrous  tissue  in  most 
cases  mixed  with  the  fibres  of  areolar  tissue. 
It  occurs  in  the  ligaments  of  the  vertebne,  that 
of  the  jaw,  etc.,  also  in  connection  with  ar- 
teries, veins  and  lymphatics.  It  is  found  in  the 
animal  structure  whenever  an  extensible  and 
highly  elastic  material  is  required. 

BLASTICITY.  Every  sond,  no  matter 
how  rigid  we  may  think  it  to  be,  will  have  its 
dimensions  chan^d  upon  the  application  of 
force.  If  the  resulting  distortion  does  not  ex- 
ceed a  certain  amount  it  will  disappear  when 
the  force  is  removed.  Bodies  which  recover 
from  the  distortii^  effect  of  force  and  resume 
their  original  configurations  are  said  to  be 
elastic.  The  relation  between  force  and  the 
deformation  it  produces  is  studied  under  the 
title  elasticity;  the  harmful  effects  of  distor- 
tion and  the  proportioning  of  materials  safely 
to  resist  given  forces  belong  to  the  strength  of 
Materials  (q.v.).  The  behavior  of  gases  comes 
under  thermodynamics,  of  liquids  under  hydro- 
dynamics. In  the  mechanics  of  rigid  bodies 
forces  are  represented  by  arrows  placed  at 
points;  actually,  they  are  dintributed  over  sur- 
faces. We  are  concerned  here  with  the  area 
of  action  as  well  as  with  the  m^^nitnde  of  the 


foire,  «nd  shall  therefore  use  the  word  rtress 
to  denote  force  per  unit  area.  Stress,  con- 
trary to  this  usaKCi  is  generallr  regarded  as 
sjmonjTiKius  with  force,  and  what  we  here  call 
stress  is  coaanonh  called  "intensi^  of  stress* 
or  "unit  stress."    Stress  as  defined  is  ibis  arti- 


cle i 


;  FL-* 


after  displacement;  the  ys  and  sr  diagramfl 
are  omitted  for  brevity.  Let  {x,  y,  i\,  the  cor- 
ner neanst  the  origin,  be  displacea  it. 


imally,  die  function  will  increase  differen- 
tially; thus  if  the  left  end  of  dx,  distant  x 
from  the  origin,  moves  ii  parallel  to  x,  a  point 


ML.-'T-'  and  the  unit  is  the  pound  c 
square  inch  and  the  dyne  and  kilogram  per 
square  centimeter.  A  force  oblique  to  a  sur- 
face can  be  resolved  into  normal  and  tangential 
components.  The  resulting  normal  stress  is  ac' 
companied  by  change  of  length.  The  change  of 
length  per  unit  length  is  called  linear  sirain; 
there  are  likewise  areal  and  volumetric  strains. 
Strain  is  a  pure  number  without  dimensions. 
Tangential  stress  or  Aear  stress  produces  an- 
gular distortion  due  to  the  sliding  of  one  layer 
of  material  with  respect  to  the  adjacent  layers. 
For  instance,  if  the  two  covers  of  a  book  are 
shifted  parallel  to  each  other  there  will  be 
relative  sliding  of  the  leaves.  Anv  straight  tine 
drawn  on  the  top  or  bottom  end  of  the  book 
will  change  its  inclination;  the  change  of  a 
right  angle  ts  called  shear  strain.  It  is  the  prov- 
ince of  the  theory  of  elasticity  to  investigate 
mathematically  the  consequences  which  reaidt 
from  an  experimentally  found  relation  between 
stress  and  strain.  The  first  experiments — on 
the  rupture  of  beams  —  were  made  by  Galileo, 
'Discorsi  e  Dimostraiioni  matematiche^ 
(1638).  His  results  were  of  no  value  beeanse 
he  supposed  the  fibres  of  a  beam  to  be  inexten- 
sible,  ;^et  his  work  was  the  im_pu1se  to  subse- 
quent inquiries.  It  was  not  until  1678  that  any 
relation  between  stress  and  strain  was  put>' 
lished.  In  that  year  Hooke  in  his  'De  polentia 
restitutiva,'  announced  the  law  known  by  his 
name  in  the  fonn  of  an  anagram  ceiiinosssttuit 
containing  the  letters  of  Uf  tetuio  sic  vis,  i.e., 
Ike  force  varies  directly  at  the  extension.  He 
claimed  to  have  discovered  it  in  1660.  Until  the 
end  of  the  18th  century  only  special  problems  on 
beams,  columns,  and  plates  were  attacked;  ttus 
period  was  almost  barren  of  experimental 
work.  The  foundation  of  the  mathematical 
theory  was  laid  by  Navier,  <M£n)oire  sur  les 
lois  des    corps    soUdcs    ^astiques,' 

Mtmoires  de  ritutiiul.  Vol.  VII,  which  was 
read  to  the  Acad&nie  des  Sciences  in  1821.  ■ 
Progress  was  rapid  after  this  in  the  hands  of 
such  masters  as  Cauchy,  Qapyron,  Green, 
Lam£  and  Poisson,  and  culminated  in  the  life- 
long labors  of  Barri  dc  Saint-Venant  (1797- 
1866).  For  the  detailed  histoty  of  the  subject 
through  the  time  of  Saint-Venant  consult  Tod- 
hunter  and  Pearson,  'History  of  the  Theory  of 
Elastici^  and  of  the  Strength  of  Materials' 
(Cambndge  1886);  subsequent  investisntions  are 
noted  in  the  introduction  to  I^ve,  'The  Mathe- 
matical Theory  of  Elasticity'  (2d  ed.,  Cam- 
bridge 1906). 

Strain.  Before  taking  up  the  relations  be- 
tween stress  and  strain,  we  ^kII  study  the  small 
displacements  suffered  by  an  infinitesimal  ele- 
ment dx  dy  ds  within  a  me<£tiin  in  any  state 
of  stress.  Fig.  1  shows  the  projections  of  two 
concurrent  e^es  on  the  xy  plane  before  and 


tnfinitesimaUy    furliier    imm    (he   origin   will 

move  infiniteaimilly  more,  ie.,  «4-r'  dx,  the 

derivative  being  partial  to  indicate  that  the  in- 
crement was  due  only  to  a  change  of  x.  The 
jT-projcction  of  the  elongated  length  of  dx  is 

dx-\- ^dx,   which,    since   x  is  infinitesimal,  is 

itself  die  new  length  of  dx.    Hence  tbe  stretdt 

of  dx  isT-  dx  and  if  the  linear  strain  at  x,  y,  ■ 

dx  ' 

is  denoted  by  «s> 


3w 


«w= 


3y 


(1) 


the  other  two  components  being  derived  by 
cyclic  permutatioas  of  the  letters.  By  defi- 
nition tbe  shear  strains  are  the  decrements  of 
the  ri^t  angles  formed  by  the  concurrent 
edges  at  (*,  y,  s).  If  they  are  denoted  by 
Eivi  e^i  'b  in  the  co-ordinate  planes  it  is  evi- 
dent from  Fig.  1  that  e^  ==  a,  +  n„.  Since 
<i<  b  infinitesimal  by  hypothesis,  it  equals  its 

tangent  ^>Ukewise  ( 


The  six  quantities  esc,  >  'iv o** 

the  components  or  constituents  of  strain  at  the 
point  {x,  y,  a).  The  shear  strain  suffered  by 
an  element  rotates  it  as  a  whole  die  amount 
being  measured  by  the  rotation  of  its  diagonal, 


Consider  the  effect  of  a  partial  strain 
other  displacements  being  *ero.    There  ■ 


3y 


by  Google 


ELASTICITY 


strain  components  are  independeot  of  die  mag- 


1 

,' 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/      ,- ' 

dy 

1 
1 

■{"■■'' 

1      / 

1  .-y 

l-K^' 

1 

and  three  of  the  form 


IPexx  _  ^  /Sgiy  _  fleB_  ,  9ea\ 


{*)> 


the  others  being  written  by  permuting^  x,  y.  t. 
These  are  die  equations  of  compatiQlity  and 
must  be  satisfied  by  every  solution  of  a  prob- 
lem  in  elasticity.  Many  of  ihc  formulas  de- 
rived in  the  strength  of  materials  are  not  com- 
patible with  theory  although  they  may  be  rea- 
sonably in  accord  with  experiment. 


Strtft.— 
tal  letter  to  indicate  its  direction,  '  .  _ 
script  to  show  the  normal  to  plane  on  which  it 
acts.  Thus  Xa  is  parallel  to  X  on  a  plane 
iYZ)  normal  to  X  and  is  a  nonaal  stress; 
Yt  is  a  shear  parallel  to  K  on  the  XK  pUne. 
Fig.  3  shows  an  element  under  coplanar  st^es^ 


^>+#4'  y+^dx 


Pro.  2. 
nitudes  of  dx,  Ay,  dt.    Ftom  Fig.  2 

dy=  {dx  +  ^dy\  tao  (45— <M) 

Now  r-  iJy  is  small  compared  with  dx  because 

M  is  by  assumption  small  compared  with  ^r; 
then  as  dy^di,  the  equation  reduces  to 

ay 

In  the  same  way  )  aii  '^  ^c  counterclockwise 

rotation  of  the  diagonal  due  to  shearing  of  the 
right  side  of  the  element.  The  lesuttant  posi- 
tive (X  toward  y)  rotation  about  the  Z-aiit 
is 

Ui  and  ^  being  obtained  by  cyclic  permuta- 
tion. These  are  the  component  rotations; 
when  they  vanish  the  strain  is  irrolathnol  or 
pure.  There  are  always  at  least  three  orthogo- 
nal lines  whose  directions  remain  unaltered 
by  strain;  they  are  called  the  principal  axes 
and  the  planes  normal  to  them  the"  principal 
planes.  If  u,  v,  w  are  eliminated  from  equa- 
tions (1)  and  (2)  there  will  be  three  equations 
of  the  form 

i_  fl'^w ^1 


aU  stresses  parallel  to  Z  being  rero.  It  will  be 
seen  from  the  theorem  about  to  be  derived 
that  there  can  be  no  shear  on  planes  parallel 
to  the  paper  if  there  is  none  normal  to  the 
paper.  Taking  moments  of  the  forces  about 
the  upper  ri^tt-hand  corner  (edge)  we  find, 
after  rejecting  terms  which  vanish  in  the  limit, 

Xv=  Yz\ 
it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  weight  and  the 
moment  of  inertia  of  the  element  are  vanish- 
ingly  small.  The  diagram  shows  that  the 
shears  on  two  orthogonal  faces  both  point 
away  from,  or  both  toward  the  edge,  hence  the 

Theorem;  Shear  stress  on  any  plane  is 
accompanied  by  equal  shear  stress  on  a  per 
pendicular  plane,  both  acting  away  from  or  to- 
ward the  edge  of  intersection  and  both  beinff 
normal  to  it. 

This  is  due  to  Cauchy.    For  the  other  shears 
Y,-^Z^,Z^Xm 

The  translations  of  the  element  in  Fig.  1 
are  w,  v,  w,  whence  the  axial  accelerations  arc 

a?  '  3?  '  3P '  '^^  derivatives  are  partial  be- 
cause they  must  denote  only  time-changes  and 
not  space- changes.  From  the  general  free 
body  of  which  Pig.  3  is  a  special  case  we  set  by 
tesolving  the  forces  axially 
flX,  ,  dXy  J  sx, 
by 


f  +  9X=d-£ 


(4) 


9y 


9Y, 


dZx   .dZg  ,  dZ, 


dx 


9?^ 


+  sY-^ai 


+  3?=a- 


(S) 


where  d  is  the  density  and  X,  Y,  Z  are  ijie 
components  of  the  applied  forces  (e.g. 
weight)  per  tttnl  uvut. 

At     the     surface     the     intenial     stresses 

Xi,    ...,  Xn    must  be  in    eqailibrtum  irith 

the  external  or  applied  stresses. 

Relations  between  stress  and  strain.  A  ma- 
terial is  plastically  isotropic  when  it  resists 
stress  with  equal  intensity  in  all  directions. 
Crystals,  fibrous  materials,  and  metals    which 


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ELASTICITY 


51 


have  been  heavily  rolled  or  otberwbe  worked 
are  unequsUly  strong  in  diffetent  directions; 
they  are  eolotropk.  It  has  been  found  by  ex- 
penment  diat  for  many  bodies 

stress  *=  C  X  strain ; 
C  is  called  the  modtthis  of  elasticity.  It  is  con- 
stant for  a  Kiven  isotropic  material  but  de- 
pends upon  ue  Idnd  of  stress;  an  eolotropic 
body  has  several  moduli  for  each  type  of  stress. 
The  law  takes  the  following  special  forms. 

il)  For  normal  stress  p  and  linear  strain  e 
e  direction  of  p 

P  =  Ee; 
E  is  called  Young's  modulus  after  Thomas 
Young  who  introduced  it  in  1807.  For  granu- 
lar materials  like  cast  iron  and  stone  s  more 
accurate  form  is  p=£e"  where  n  lies  between 
1  and  IJ;  we  shall  assume  that  fr-I.  (See 
Stsength  Of  Matouals). 

The  longitudinal  strain  t  is  always  accom- 
panied by  a  strain  e'  of  the  transverse  dimen- 
sions;  for  a  given  material 

iriiere  »  is  constant  for  isotropy.  Thus  if  a 
rod  receives  a  longitudinal  strain  e  the  strain 
of  any  straight  line  in  a  cross-section  is  "e: 
M  is  not  an  areal  strain.  In  engineering*  1/m 
is  used  for  o.  v  is  called  Poisson's  ratio  after 
Foisson,  who  in  1828  calculated  it  to  be  ^  for 
all  materials ;  experiment  has  not  verified  his 

(2)  For  shear  stress  q  and  strain  f 

f  is  the  modulus  of  shear  or  of  rigidity. 
Young  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  resistance 
to  *detrusion,*  as  he  called  shear,  was  different 
from  resistance  to  stretching.  But  he  did  not 
introduce  the  shear  modulus ;  this  was  done 
by  Navier  in  1833.  The  symbol  p  was  first 
used  by  Lam£  in  1852;  in  books  on  the 
strength  of  materials  N  and  G  are  used  for  fi. 

(3)  A  constant  normal  stress  p  over  the 
entire  surface  of  a  body  produces  a  volumetric 
strain  A,   called  the  dilatation,  where 

P=k\ 
k  being  the  bulk  modulus  or  modulus  of  com- 
pression. 

For  isotr\)pic  bodies  there  are  thus  four 
constants  of  elasticity:  E,  f,  ',  k.  It  will  be 
shown  later  that  only  two  of  them  are  inde- 
pendent. Stokes  in  1845  ('Mathematical  and 
Physical  Papers,'  Vol.  I,  y.  75)  pointed  out 
that  II  and  k  are  of  basic  importance  in  theo- 
retical work ;  in  engineering  E  and  ^  are  more 
convenient. 

For  eolotropic  substances  we  may  still  as- 
sume the  stress  to  be  a  linear  function  of  the 
strain,  in  which  case  the  generalized  forms  of 
Kooke's  law  are 
a:.=Cuftr,-|-Ci.ew-)-C,«B-|-Cu^-)-C.<^-t-CMe« 

and  so  on  for  Z,.  X,,,  Y,,  Zx,  the  36  coeffi- 
cients, Cs  to  Cm,  bdng  the  elastic  constants. 
Green  in  1837  proved  that  tor  conservative 
systems  Cm  =  ^nm  whereby  the  constants  re- 
duce to  21  for  eolotropy.  For  isotropy  they 
reduce  to  Z  To  express  Uie  stresses  in  terms  of 
strains  for  isotropy  consider  the  effect  of  a 
single  tension  Xx.  By  Hooke's  law  it  pro- 
duces a  strain  Xx/E  in  its  own  direction,  and 


according  to  Poisson's  ratio,  a  lateral  com- 
presnve  stmin  aXx/E.  Hence  if  a.  parallele- 
I»ped  is  acted  on  by  tensions  Xx,  ¥»,  and  Z„ 
the  resultant  axial  strains  will  be  given  by 

£e„=X,— c(i'„+z,) 

£«w=l'»— '(2.  +-X"J  ...   C6) 

EtK^Z,  —  a{Xx+  Yg); 
txx,   tw   >  *a  are   called    the    equivalent  simple 
strains,  and  when  multiplied  by  E,  the  equiva- 
lent simple  stresses.    By  addition 

E{fx,-\-em  +  e«)^{X^+  Yy+Zt)  (1— 2o); 
the  first  parenthesis  is  the  volumetric  strain 
because  the  change  of  volume  is 
(1  -t-en)  dx  (1  +€m)  dy  (1  -|-  lu)  da~4x  dy  di 

=(•»,-)- «re  +ta)  dxdyi, 
if  the  strains  are  so  small  diat  terms  above  the 
first  order  are  negligible.  The  volumetric 
strain  or  dilatation  A  is  then 

Now  it  is  obvious  from  Fig.  2  that  the  infinites- 

intal  shear    r-    does  not  change  the  area  of 

the  face  dx  dy;  if  one  does  not,  none  will,  so 
that  shear  does  not  chan^  areas.  In  the'  same 
way  it  follows  that  infinitesimal  shear  will  not 
alter  volumes ;  this  t9  why  the  dilatation  contains 

If  the  stresses  in  the  equation  following  <6) 
are  all  equal  to  Xf 

3(1— 2d)  Xx=Eli 
whence,  as  p^k& 

*  3(1 -2a) 
If  ">  Vi,  k  is  negative  whence  volumes  would 
be  increased  W  compression  and  decreased  by 
tension;  as  this  does  not  occur  a  cannot  ex- 
ceed M.  Furthermore  a  negative  a  would 
mean  lateral  expansion  under  tension;  this  is 
not  true  of  isotrofiic  rnaterials.  Therefore  ' 
is  a  positive  fraction  not  larger  than  yii  ex- 
periment verifies  this. 

If  the  first  equation  of  (6)  is  written 
Xx=Eexx  +  <'{Xx+  ¥g+ZM)—<'Xx 
and  the  parenthesis  eliminated  by  means  of  the 
equation  below  (6),  there  results 
Xx=^^  +  2mxx; 

similarly  Vk^AA -t-J/i*™  (7) 

Z,=  U+2fieu 


cE 


(l+o-)(l— 2«) 


2n-) 


It  win  be  proved  Idler  that  /(  is  the  modulus 
of  shear  as  defined  above;  hence 

Xv=iVtv  ,   Yt=ivyx  .  Zi=iieix (8) 

Navier,  Poisson,  and  Cauchy,  the  founders  of 
the  theory  of  elasticity,  derived  their  equations 
from  a  hypothesis  of  intermolecular  actions 
the  consequences  of  which  demanded  that 
A=/i;  then  0=1/4  contrary  to  experiment. 
They  belonged  to  what  Pearson  has  called  the 
rarl-constant,  as  opposed  to  the  malti-constani, 
school  of  clasticians.  The  weight  of  evidence 
is  in  favor  of  the  necessity  of  two  constants 
for  specifying  the  elastic  properties  of  isotro- 
pic materials.  To  interpret  p  in  the  equations 
just  found,  consider  a  cubical  element  under 


Google 


)  on  one  pair  of  faces  and  comprei- 
II  a  perpendicular  pair,  as  on  the  full- 


1  r 

i 

r 

\ 
\ 

\ 

; ^ 

\ 
\ 
\ 

/ 

\    I. 


lions  are  vibratory  since  they  arise  from  snuU 
elastic  displacement i  within  the  medium.  The 
fact  that  they  can  be  verified  experimentally 
furnishes  complete  evidence  of  the  correctncH 
of  Hooke's  law,  of  our  assumptian  that  the 
displacements  are  small,  and  of  the  validity  of 
the  analysis. 

Apflicatioiu.—  V/c  shall  now  solve  a   few 

apical  problems  in  order  to  show  the  use  of 
e  foregoing  equations.  Most  problems  un- 
fortunately give  rise  to  extremely  difficult 
partial  differential  equations-  the  general 
methods  of  integration  are  fully  discussed  in 
the  works  by  Love  and  Riemann-Weber  cited 
at  the  end  of  this  article. 

(1)  A  cylinder  of  density  p  and  Ungtk  I 
is  suspended  from  one  end  and  hangs  verti- 
cally. 

Take  the  Y-axis  vertical  with  the  ori^n 
/  below  the  upper  end.  Since  Yy,  the  tensile 
stress  at  any  point,  is  due  to  the  weight  of  the 
material  below  that  point,  Yv  =  SPy:  the  five 
remaining  stresses  are  zero.  There  are  no 
surface  forces  except  at  the  upper  end  where 
the  entire  weight  of  the  cylinder  is  uniformly 
distributed  over  the  supporting  surface;  there 
the  internal  and   external   stresses  balance. 

fi«»  =  tpy,  <»  =«"  >=  "^wi  «•-=  «»i  =-«««  =  0 


that  a  stress  «=^p  on  the  oblique  face  is  neces- 
sary and  sufficient  for  equilibrium.  That  is, 
orthogonal,  equal,  unlike  normal  stresses  pro- 
duce pure  shear  of  equal  magnitude  on  any 
plane  at  45  degrees.  Take  now  the  dash-tine 
square  as  a  free-body :  it  is  in  pure  shear  of 
magnitude  q=p.  Since  the  change  of  a  right- 
angle  is  the  shear  strain  t,  the  change  of  0(^=45°} 
is  t/2.  As  the  aides  of  the  inner  square  are  not 
altered  in  length,  D  is  constant  in 


D=(a 


whence 


dBctnB 


*— 4S"      and      ifl=  J 


But 


•^  2(1 -K') 
For  the  purposes  of  integration  it  is  con- 
venient to  diminate  the  internal  stresses  from 
equations  (5).  Substituting  equations  (7)  and 
(8)  in  (5),  replacing  the  strains  by  their  values 
in  (1)  and  (2)  and  using  the  symbolic  abbrevia- 
tion—  the  Lapacian  operator  — 

^      ai^  +  dz  +  a?" 

we  find 

(x-^^)^-^,.T'w-l-pz  =  ffT 

The  internal  motions  specified  by  these  equa- 


^g+.         ....     w 

where  Vt  is  a  function  of  x  and  t  because 
the  derivative  is  partial.  Since  there  is  no 
shear,  v  roust  satisfy 


ay 

By  differentiation. 


'  bx'  dy 


^        dydt 

"gpy 


The  value 


^  (y*  +  »*• -t- «•) -1- OK  +  «  +  * 
At  the  upper  end 

,  when  x=0  ,  y=l  ,  «^0  . 


_^» 


2E 


The  solution  r 
rigid;  in  this 


■ect  when  the  rod  is 
and    v=0  so  that 


Hence       v=  |L  (j,i_  (,+„,. +„^)      ....     (,) 
The  formula  obtained  in  books  on  (he  ntrength 


.lOOg  Ic 


KLASTICITV 


v=^(y~P) 


of  materials  is 

which  is  therefore  correct  only  along  the  axis; 
it  is,  however,  approximately  true  at  any  point 
when  the  cylinder  is  very  long  compared  with 
the  radius. 

Integrating  (b^,  substitutii^  (rf),  and  su^ 
posing  as  above  tliat  £•=  «>,  we  get 

if  the  upper  end  is  free  to  contract. 

(2)  A  straight  uniform  rod  is  twisted  by 
couples  applitd  at  the  ends. 

Saint-Venant  was  the  first  to  solve  the  g^- 
eral  problem  in  his  great  memoir  on  torsion, 
1855,  although  Coulomb  had  previously,  1784, 
succeeded  in  finding  the  twisting  moment 
offered  by  a  circular  cylinder.  The  followii^ 
is  a  brief  sketch  of  Saint-Vmant's  method. 

Let  the  cylinder,  of  any  cross- section,  have 
its  axis  along  Z.  Since  tnere  is  no  shear  on 
die  mantle,  A|3=o  and  ^iy»0 


M'=i{xy*—yX.)  dxdy 


-/(■ 


»'+j'+i 


^2)' 


w 


The  angle  of  twist,  found  \s>r  differentiating  (/) 
and  eliminating  ^- .  is 

^  ./'/ay.  '  dX,\ 
2^3*  tty) 
The  differentia!  equation  of  a  circle  is  xdx^^ 
— y^y;  equation  (g)  reduces  to  this  when  #  is 
constant.  As  there  is  no  lengthening  of  dte 
cylinder  there  is  no  translation  of  a  cross^sec- 
tion  and  ^  =  0.  Now  if  #  ^=ax+  by  {g)  is  the 
equation  of  a  circle,  but  as  the  centre  of 
the  circle  is  at  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  it  will 
be  found  that  a  and  b  must  vanish.  Hence 
for  a  circular  section^^O  and  cross-sections 
remain  plane.  In  this  case  equation  (A)  gives 
the  well-known  engineers'  formula. 

Equation   (ff)   will  represent  the  ellipse 


3y 


(a) 


t+t  = 


provided 


Equations   (S)  ■<ir'ViiX,f=Y,/=Zt=Xy^^\>econu 


'"-^■='(lr+S)'"^'='(|+S)--<* 

By  equation    (_b)   w  does  not  contain  a  and  by 

(c)  and  (rf)  ti  and  v  are  linear  functions  of  e. 

All  the  above  equations  will  be  satisfied  only  by 

it=—Tyt  .  »=r«  ,  u.=T#       ...    (e) 

where  ^  is  a  function  of  x,  y.  The  values  of  u 
andeshow  that  rince  •^  +  b'='I*  (ii  +  y^i'  and 
u/v= — y/x,  the  displacement  in  the   plane    of  ■ 

the  cross-section  is   (1)  normal  to  the  radius      Likewise 
vector;   (2)  proportional  to  the  radius  vector;  gi„ 

(3)   proportional  to  the  distance  of  the  cross-  ^*'' ^^"aS  ■ 

section    from    the    origin.      Therefore    radial  ,     '^ 

straight  lines  remain  straight  and  of  constant      ""*  equations  of 
lengtti  and  the  boundary  of  any  section  is  not  gtf, 

distorted    in    transverse    planes.      If    *    is    not  P^a 

zero  these  lines  will  be  warped  in  the  direction  iL 

of  the  C3rlinder  axis;  ?  is  therefore  the  warp-  P  an  = 

ing  function,     r  is  the  angle  of  twist.  ^ 

Equations  (?)  substituted  in  (d)  give 


Since  TO  ^  1^,  the  contour  lines  found  bv  giv- 
ing f  a  series  of  constant  values  are  eauilateral 
hyperbolas;  in  the  first  and  third  quadrants  of 
the  ellipse  the  displacements  will  be  negative 
and  in  the  other  quadrants  positive.  Equation 
(A)  gives 


if=^nr 


a'b* 


(3)  Vibrations  in  an  infinite  elastic  mediian. 

If  there  are  no  external  forces,  X'^Y'^Z'^. 
Let  all  quantities  in  the  X¥  plane  be  constant  so 
that  the  same  state  exists  throughout  that 
Iilane:  then  the  x  and  y  derivatives  in  equa- 
tions (91  are  zero,  irtience 

.     do-    dA  _  a^ 


.S-(i  +  2,)5 


^■"'"(5""')'  '■"''  fe+  ')     •     ■    <"      BiUMion!  (a)  are  uliiScii,  a.  sutatitution  wiU 


vorify,  bjr    any   function 


:V^■ 


.'.fromCfl 

(%+■)"-{&-'>    ■ '" 

This  is  the  differential  eqttation  of  the  boundary 
curve  of  any_  section. 

The  twisting  moment  equals  the  sum  of  the 
''.s  of  the  shear  forces  on  any  section,  le.. 


ifinite  in  course  of 

tunc  or  would  remain  as  a  permanent  set. 
Experiment  contradicts  both  of  these  supposi- 
tions^ hence  the  motion  is  vibratory.  Equation 
(6)  IS  satisfied  by  a  similar  function.  If  at 
a  point  »  -^-  df  at  a  time  <  +  <b  the  displace- 
ment is  in  the  same  i^ase  and  of  the  same 
magnitude  as  it  was  at  1  at  a  time  ( 


*+da  +  elt  +  di)^,+ei 


Google 


ELASTIN  — ELBA 


which  is  the  velocity  of  ^propagation  of  the  dis- 
turbance :  not  the  veloaty  of  a  material  point 
but  of  a  state  of  motion.  Equation  {b)  defines 
the  longitudinal,  and  (a)  the  transverse  waves 
in   an   infinite   elastic  medium. 


V)  ;  Webster,  <The  Dynamics  of  Particles  and 
of  Rigid,  Elastic  and  Fluid  Bodies*  (Leipzig 
1904J ;  Reimann-Weber,  'Die  Partiellen  IMffer- 
cntial  Gleicfaifligen'  (VoL  II,  Braunschweig 
1901). 

R.  F.  Deimel, 
Attislant  Pfofessor  of  Mtchatact,  Stevens  In- 
Stilute  of  Technology, 

BLASTIN,  an  insoluble  proteid  substance, 
of  which  the  elastic  fibres  of  connective  tissue 
are  composed  It  may  be  conveniently  prepared 
from  the  ligametttitm  nucha,  by  boiling  with 
ether  and  alcohol  (to  remove  the  fats)  ,and 
afterward  by  proloneed  boiling,  successively, 
with  water,  strong  acetic  acid  and  concentrated 
caustic  soda  and  subsequent  successive  treat- 
ment with  weak  acetic  acid,  water,  hydrochloric 
acid  and  water.  When  so  prepared,  elasiin  is 
not  soluble  (without  decomposition)  in  any 
known  solvent  It  dissolves  with  decomposition 
in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  however,  yield- 
ing leucin,  but  not  tyrosin.  Elaitin  is  digested 
both  by  pepsin  and  by  trypsin  and  it  contains 
no  sulphur.  Its  percentage  composition,  accord- 
ing to  MuUer,  is  C  — 55.45;  H  =  7.41;  N  — 
16.19;  O— aoi9. 

ELATEA.    See  Cithxkoh. 

KLATER,  51'a-ier,  a  gentis  of  beetles  in  die 
pentamerous  sub-order.  ^^  of  the  family 
Elaleridtt.  They  are  familiarly  known  as  "click- 
beetles"  or  •skip-jacks,*  from  their  habit  of 
jerking  themselves  with  a  slight  noise  into  tiie 
air  when  they  land  or  arc  placed  on  their  t^cks. 
The  body  is  arched  upward  and  suddenly 
straightened  with  a  violent  muscular  exertion, 
which  lifts  the  animal  from  the  ground.  The 
legs  are  too  short  tor  the  ordinary  method  of 
righting  the  body.  The  larvr  are  only  too 
familiar  as  "wire worms,"  Some  tropical  forms 
are  phosphorescent.       See  Feke-FUES. 

BLATERIDfi;,  5l-9-tfr^-d«,  a  family  of 
CoUopiera  (click-beetles),  tribe  Pentamero, 
sub-tribe  Slfrnoxia.  It  contains  the  insects 
placed  by  Linnseus  in  his  great  genus  Etater, 
now  broken  up  into  many  genera.  See  FllE- 
FIJES  ;   Elater. 

ELATERIN,  a  neutral  chemical  substance 
having  the  formula  CicH»0,  and  obtained  by 
alcoholic  extraction  of  the  greenish  precipitate 
thrown  down  by  the  juice  of  the  slightly  tm- 
ripe  squirting  cucumber,  Ecbaltiutn  elalerium. 
It  crystallizes  in  hexagonal  tablets  which  melt 
at  400'  F.  and  are  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  chloroform  and  in  hot  alcohol. 
Elaterin  has  a  bitter  taste  and  is  a  powerful 
purgative,  the  dose  being  from  the  40ih  to  the 


10th  of  a  ^rain.  A  crimson  color,'  dunging  to 
a  scarlet,  is  produced  when  sulphuric  add  is 
added  to  a  solution  of  elaterin  in  carbolic  acid; 
this  reaction  serving  as  a  test  for  its  presence. 
BLATBRITE,  an  elastic,  asphalt-tike  min- 
eral, known  as  "elastic  bitumen.*  In  color  it  is 
dark  brown,  with  a  specific  eravi^  ranging 
from  0.9  to  12.  It  occurs  abundantly  in  Derl^- 
shire,  England,  and  a  mineral  closely  alUed  to 
it  has  been  found  at  Woodbury,  Conn. 

BLATBRIUH,  ei-^-te'ii-um,  a  mixture  of 
principles  formed  as  a  precipitate,  occurring 
spontaneously  in  the  juice  of  the  fruit  of  the 
wild  or  squirting  cucumber,  Bcbatliutn  elate- 
riutn,  the  active  principle  of  which  is  elaterin. 
The  squirting  cucimiber  is  a  small  perennial,  of 
the  cuctunber  family,  indigenous  in  Persi^ 
India  and  the  warmer  Oriental  countries,  and 
has  been  extensively  cultivated  even  as  far 
north  as  England.  The  fruit  itself  is  VA  to 
3  inches  long  by  1-3  to  3-4  of  an  indi,  oblong 
or  oval  in  shape,  covered  with  soft  bristles 
and  yellowish  gre«n  in  color.  It  is  firm  exter- 
nally. As  the  fruit  ripens  fermentation  takes 
?lace  in  the  interior  with  the  formation  of  gas. 
This  accumulates  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
exert  considerable  {rressure,  bursting  the  fniit 
at  its  base  and  squirtins  the  seeds  some  dis- 
tance. In  this  manner  tlie  fruit  is  distributed. 
Elate rium  has  been  used  for  centuries  as  a 
cathartic,  the  phenomena  of  the  squirting  seeds 
having  suggested  its  function.  Elaterin  itself 
I  neutral  priiiciple  of  the  formula  C^HbOl 


bitter  taste.  Elaterin  is  one  of  the  most  active 
of  all  the  hydrago^e  cathartics.  It  operates 
with  violence  even  in  minute  doses.  It  is  par- 
ticularly of  service  in  conditions  in  which  there 
is  general  dropsy  and  no  inflammatory  condi- 
tion of  the  intestinal  tract.  Elaterin  is  given  in 
doses  of  from  1-40  to  1-10  of  a  grain. 

ELBA,  Italy  (Lat.  Uv;  Gr.  JEtalia),  small 
island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  off  the  coast 
of  Tuscany,  and  with  several  much  smaller 
isles,  lying  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Piom- 
bino.  The  island  of  Elba  is  18  miles  from  east 
to  west,  with  a  width  varying  from  2;^  to  12 
miles  in  its  widest  part.  The  mountainous  dis- 
tricts of  the  island  yield  large  quantities  of 
superior  iron,  copper,  tin,  lead,  marble,  lode- 
stones  and  alum,  besides  wtnes  and  fruits. 
Tunny  and  sardine  fishing  and  the  extraction 
of  sea  salt  are  other  important  industries.  On 
the  first  abdication  of  Napoleon  in  1814,  Elba 
was  assigned  to  him  as  a  residence  and  empire. 
Here  he  accordingly  took  up  his  residence,  in 
the  month  of  May;  and  on  26  Feb.  1815,  he 
secretly  left  the  island,  and,  landing  in  France, 
began  that  brief  and  final  career,  known  in  his- 
tory as  the  "Hundred  Days."  During  his 
sojourn  here  Napoleon  lived  at  the  Villa  San 
Martino  in  the  town  of  Porto  Ferrajo.  It  still 
Stands.  He  caused  a  road  to  be  constructed 
between  Porto  Longone  and  Porto  Ferrajo. 
Elba  has  had  a  chequered  history;  it  belonged 
successively  to  Pisa,  Genoa,  Sora  and  Piom- 
bino.  After  18lS  it  was  given  back  to  Tuscany, 
and  in  1860.  with  the  latter  it  became  part  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Italv.  Consult  Fatichi,  <Isola 
d'Elba>  (Florence  1885).  Elba  was  a  place  of 
celebrity  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  and  famed 


BLBA8SAN  —  BLBBUP 


then,  u  now,  for  its  jield  of  iron.  It  has  a 
mild  and  bralthful  diroate  and  the  soil  is  fertile. 
Mining,  however,  occupies  the  attention  of  the 
infakbitants  to  the  exclusion  of  agrictdture.  Two 
good  ports  are  Pono  Ferrajo  and  Porto  Lcm- 
gone,  both  well  fortified.    Pop.  25,480. 

SLBASSAN,  el-bas'san.  Albania,  town  on 
the  Scumbi,  35  miles  east  of  its  mouth.  It 
•Unds  in  the  centre  of  a  fertile  plain  and 
nearby  are  a  number  of  hot  snlphur  springs. 
There  are  small  manufactories  of  iron  and 
copper.   Pof.  about  15,000. 

ELBE,  i\'hi  (ancient  Albis;  Bohemian, 
Labe),  a  river  of  Germany,  one  of  the  largest 
in  Europe.  It  rises  on  the  southwest  slopes  of 
the  Schneekoppe  or  Snowcap,  one  of  the 
Riesengebirge,  between  Bohemia  and  Silesia. 
From  this  point  it  flows  nearly  dut  sonth  into 
Bohemia  for  about  50  miles,  when  it  turns  to 
the  west,   and   after  about   40   miles  takes  a 

Ceral  north-northwest  direction  till  it  empties 
I  the  North  Sea,  intersecting  Saxony,  a 
considerable  portion  of  Prussia,  and  in  the 
hitter  part  of  its  course  separating  Holsteia 
on  its  r^ht  from  Hanover  on  the  left.  The 
length,  including  windings,  is  upward  of  780 
miles.  The  prindpat  affluents  are  on  the  right, 
die  Iser,  Schwarz-Elster  and  Havel ;  on  die 
left,  the  Alder,  Moldau,  Eger,  Mulda  and 
Saale.  In  the  lower  part  of  its  course  the 
river  is  divided  by  five  large  and  seven  small 
islands  into  several  arms,  which  unite  again 
about  five  miles  below  Hamburg.  The  mean 
depth  is  10  feet,  average  breadth  90O  feet.  It 
is  more  or  less  navigable  tor  about  470  miles, 
but  its  estuary  at  Cuxhaven  is  much  encum- 
bered with  sandbanks.  It  is  well  stocked  with 
fish.  On  1  July  1870,  the  navigation  of  the 
Hbe  was  declared  free  from  Hamburg  to 
Melnik  in  Bohemia.  There  is  an  important 
system  of  canal  navigation  in  connection  with 
the  Elbe,  Hamburg,  for  instance,  being  in  this 
way  connected  wim  Beriin. 

ELBERPBLD,  il'bfr-ffld,  Germany,  town 
in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province,  IS  miles  east 
of  Dusseldorf,  in  the  beautiful  valley,  and  on 
both  sides  of  the  Wujjper,  enclosed  b^  lofty 
hills.  It  has  no  historical  or  antiquarian  im- 
portance. Its  prosperity  has  been  acquired 
mostly  witWn  the  last  century  and  is  due  to  the 
cotton  manufacture,  of  which  it  is  the  central 
locality  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  The  old  town  xvas 
irregularly  built  with  a  maze  of  narrow  streets, 
but  the  new  portion  has  fine  modern  streets 
with  building  of  the  latest  stvle  bordering 
them;  the  principal  of  these  are  l]ic  courthouse 
and  the  Rathaus.  The  city  has  some  fine  public 
tnonumenis.  It  is  an  important  industrial  cen- 
tre, especially  dealing  in  textiles,  their  manu- 
facture and  djfdng.  Iii  addition  to  cotton,  silks, 
woolens,  etc.,  it  manufactures  diemicals,  leather, 
furniture  and  carpets,  fireanns,  rubber  goods, 
paper,  machinerr  and  glass.  It  is  also  a  great 
'  commercial  centre  and  has  many  foreign  con- 
sulates. It  cont^s  a  gymnasium,  polytechnic 
school,  school  of  industrial  drawinjc,  an  institute 
of  music  and  a  school  for  mechanics.  Seven 
railroads  serve  the  city  and  in  addition  there 
sre  electric  roads  to  nearby  centres.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  the  town  grew  around  Elher- 
feld  Caade  and  became  a  city  In  1610.  Silk 
manufacturing  and  dye-works  were  introduced 
toward  the  close  of  the  18th  century  and  there- 


after Elberfeld  grew  rapidly.  It  was  early 
part  of  die  Duchy  of  Berg  and  in  1815  vras 
united  to  Prussia.  It  has  a  unique  poor-relief 
system,  which  has  been  copied  in  many  parts 
of  the  world  Pop.  170.195.  Consult  Schneil, 
'Geschicfale  der  Stadi  Elberfeld'  (Elberfeld 
1900) :  A.  Shadwell,  'Industrial  Efficiency* 
(London  1906)  ;  Jorde,  <Fuhrer  durch  Elberfeld 
und  seine  Umgebung>  (Elberfeld  19Q2). 

ELBERFELD  SYSTEM,  a  system  of 
poor-relief  which  originated  in  the  appoint- 
ment of  six  visitors  in  ISOO,  to  investigate  appK- 
cations  for  aid,  in  the  manufacturing  town  of 
Elberfeld,  Prussia.  The  ci^  was  subsequendy 
divided  into  districts,  the  nimiber  of  visitors 
was  increased  and  the  operations  developed, 
until  by  1852  what  has  become  known  univer- 
sally as  the  Elberfeld  System  was  adopted.  Its 
mam  features  are  the  division  of  the  city  into 
26  districts  subdivided  into  364-  precincts,  each 
precinct  being  administered  by  an  almoner  who 
investigates  each  application,  in  case  of  emer- 
gency provides  immediate  assistance  and  as  long 
as  aid  is  aSorded.  visits  the  applicant  twice  a 
month.  Money  relief  is  graated  fortnightly  ac- 
cording to  a  fixed  schedule,  any  earnings  in  the 
meantime  being  deducted-  when  needed,  work- 
ing implements  are  provided.  A  meeting  of  tbe 
almoners  under  the  presidency  of  an  overseer 
takes  place  every  fortnight  to  discuss  cases  and 
to  vote  necessary  relief,  a  report  of  the  meetii^ 
being,  laid  tbe  next  day  before  the  directors  who 
arc  chosen  from  four  counctlmen  and  four 
odzens  with  the  mayor  as  chairman  ex  (^cio. 
The  directors  superintend  and  advise  on  the 
whole  city's  work.  The  positions  of  almoners, 
overseers  and  directors  are  of  a  purely  honor- 
ary character.  The  advantages  of  the  ^stem 
in  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the 
poor  have  been  strongly  apparent,  the  ratio  of 
persons  assisted  in  18®  being  7  per  1,000  as 
against  17  per  1,000  in  18SS.  See  also 
CH\anas. 

BLBERON,  N.  J.,  sea-coast  summer  resort 
in  Monmouth  County,  on  the  Pennsylvania  and 
tbe  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey,  Pop. 
about  250.  Here  President  James  A.  (^rfield 
(q.v.)  was  taken  after  he  was  shot  by  (^itean, 
6  Sept  I88I,  and  died  here  19  Sept 

ELBBRTOH,  Ga-,  ci^  and  county-seat  of 
Elberton  County;  on  the  Southern  and  the  Sea- 
board Air  Line  railroads ;  90  miles  northeast 
of  Atlanta.  It  is  in  a  cotton-growing  section 
and  the  chief  industries  are  connected  with  the 
cultivadng,  shipping  and  manufacturing  of  cot- 
ton. It  contains  manufactories  for  cottonseed- 
oil,  cotton  goods,  compressing  cotton,  fertilizers, 
hamcM,  carriage  and  wagon  shops,  ironworks, 
etc.  The  quarrie.i  nearby  ^ve  emploj'ment  to 
a  number.  The  city  contains  a  public  library 
and  owns  the  waterworks  and  electric-lighting 
plant.    Pop.  6,483. 

BLBBUF,  i]'bit.  France,  tovni  In  die  de- 
partment of  Seine-Inffrieure,  11  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Rouen,  situated  in  a  beautiful 
valley  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine.  It  con- 
tains two  great  churches.  Saint  Stephen's  and 
Saint  John  the  Baptist's  both  of  which  have 
fine  ornamental  glass.  In  the  town  and  also 
in  the  neathy  commnnes  there  are  several  doth 
manufactories,  mosdy  flannels,  double-twilled 
cloth  and  waterproofed  doth  and  li^t  woolens. 
There  are   scbools   for  instruction  in  all   the 


K.BUIO— Bumt 


branches  of  the  load  indtutry.  Until  the  revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Naiues  there  were  up- 
ward of  60  doth  nunu  facto  Ties  here,  bat  the 
dMlocatiun  caused  at  that  time  was  not  remedied 
until  1790i  and  the  industry  did  not  recover 
fully  until  about  1840.    Fop.  16^290. 

BLBINC,  Germany,  seaport  town,  in  West 
Prussia,  on  the  Elbing,  near  its  entrance  imo 
the  Frisches-Haff,  32  miles  east-southeasr  of 
Pant  lie.  It  is  divided  into  the  old  and  new 
towns,  the  former  of  which  was  once  sur- 
rounded by  turreted  walls  and  gates,  but  these 
for  the  most  part  have  been  removed.  It  has 
shipbuilding  yards,  which  do  a  considerable 
trade  in  building'  and  repairing  vessels.  Its 
manufactures  indude  machinery,  chicory,  lum- 
ber. Sax  and  hemp  yarn,  woolen  and  cotton  doth, 
leather,  soap,  tobacco  and  beer  as  well  as  trade 
in  agricultural  products.  There  are  also  oil 
manufactories,  iron  foundries,  dye  and  print 
works  and  the  famous  Schicnau  shipbuilding 
works  for  the  construction  of  war  vessels.  Elb- 
ing has  excellent  railway  fadlittes  and  is  in 
steamboat  communication  with  Dantzic  and 
Konigsbers-  By  means  of  a  canal  it  has  connec- 
tion with  the  Vistula,  and  the  harbor  was  im- 
proved by  the  opening  in  1884  of  a  mole  3,500 
yards  long.  The  town  was  founded  in  the  early 
13th  century  by  colonists  who  were  natives  of 
Bremen  and  Lubeck.  The  town  gr«w  up 
around  the  fortress  of  the  Teutonic  Knights. 
It  became  a  Hanse  town  but  Poland  took  it  in 
1454.  During  the  religious  wars  the  place  was 
in  turmoil  and  also  suffered  much  during  the 
wars  betvi'een  Poland,  Russia  and  Sweden.  In 
1772  it  was  annexed  to  Prussia.  For  many 
decades  it  declined  but  within  the  present  gen- 
eration has  once  more  become  a  thriving  centre. 
Pop.  58,636. 

ELBOW.    See  Ash. 

ELBOW  JOINT.  See  Axu. 

ELBOW  PIECES,  a  mediKval  armor,  the 
plates  used  to  cover  the  junction  of  the  pieces 
which  covered  the  upper  and  lower  half  of  the 
arm.  These  plates  were  mostly  disc-formed, 
cup-formed,  or  articulated.  Consutl  Ashdown, 
'Arms  and  Armor'    (New  York   1909). 

ELBRUZ,  cllrooz,  or  ELBURZ,  (1)  A 
mountain  range  of  Persia,  nitrijng  for  450 
miles  along  the  southern  border  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  It  has  a  number  of  subordinate  parallel 
ridges,  enclosing  extensive  and  fertile  valleys; 
ana  unlike  most  Persian  ranges,  it  has  numeroMS 
prominent  spurs,  the  hiji^est  peak  being  Mount 
Demavend  (q.v.).  The  prindpal  traversing 
river  is  the  Kizil  Uzeo,  which  flows  into  the 
Caspian  Sea.  The  average  altitude  is  S,O00 
feet.  (2)  Elbruz  is  also  the  name  of  the  loft- 
iest summit  of  the  Caucasus. 

ELCESAITES,  il-se'sa-its,  or  ELKE- 
SAITES,  a  sect  founded  in  the  2d  century,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Trajan.  They  derivad  their 
belief  from  the  teachings  of  the  Book  of  Elkesai, 
supi>osed  to  have  been  inspired  by  an  aneet. 
Their  system  seems  to  have  been  a  commingling 
of  Oriental  philosophy  with  Sudaism  and  early 
Christianity,  probably  put  into  practice  with 
the  idea  of  satisfying  the  want  of  those  persons 
seriously  troubled  by  the  religious  chaos  of  the 
day  caused  by  the  mighty  cwiflict  of  greater 
creeds.  The  followers  of  Elkesai  or  Elxai  are 
often  confounded  with  Ebionites   (q.v.).     The 


best  account  we  have  of  die  Elcesaites  is  given 
by  Hippolytus  in  his  chief  work,  'Pbilosophn 

ELCHE,  ifthi.  Spam,  town  of  the  prornice 
of  Alicante,  13  miles  southwest  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  on  the  railway  joining  Alicante  and 
Uurda.  The  surrotmdin^  grovei  of  pdm  trees 
supplies  all  Spain  with  paJro  leaves  for  Palm 
Sundaj;,  and  the  dates  are  exported  in  large 
quantities.  There  is  also  a  trade  in  pomegran- 
ates. Brandy,  oil,  woolens,  shoes  and  sandals 
of  esparto  grass,  mats  of  the  same  material, 
soap  and  leather  are  the  prindpal  manufactures. 
The  town  has  a  fine,  lofty-domed  church,  a 
bishop's  palace  and  a  hospital.  Elche  is  of 
Roman  origin  and  was  early  a  place  of  import- 
ance. In  the  middle  of  August  every  year 
Elche  is  the  scene  of  a  medixvat  religious 
drama — 'La  FesCa  6  Misierio  de  Elche.'  In 
some  respects  it  resembles  the  'Passion  Play,* 
at  Oberammergau  and  deals  with  the  Assimip- 
lion  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  For  the  festival  con- 
sult Paris,  Pierre,  'Les  Fetes  de  I'Assomption 
i  Elche,  I'Espagnc'  (in  Le  Corretpondanl,  Vol. 
CXCII,  p.  156,  1898).  Elche  has  a  population 
of  about  30,000. 

BLCHINGEN,  el'Hlng-ihi,  Bavaria,  village 
on  the  Danube,  nine  miles  northeast  of  Ulm, 
which  SHve  the  title  of  Duke  of  Elchingen  to 
Marshal  Ney  who  here  defeated  the  Austriaas 
14  Oct.  180S.  In  the  neighborhood  are  the 
ruins  of  a  Benedictine  Abbey  of  the  same  name, 
founded  in  1128.  There  are  two  villages,  Ober 
and  Unter  Elchingen,  the  former  on  the  same 
bill  with  the  abbey,  the  latter  to  the  northeast 
The  hill  on  which  the  abbey  stood  was 


occupied  by  Mack,  who  had  his  headquarters 

■     "■        wliili    "  • 

.     .paired  the  bridge  of  Elchingen, 
the  passage  of  the  river,  and  took  Elchingen  by 


I  Ulm; 


,  repaired  the  bridge  of  Elchingen,  forced 


ELDER.  John,  Scottish  engineer :  b.  Glas- 
gow 1824;  d.  1869.  Educated  m  Glasgow,  he 
was  first  employed  as  director  of  the  drawing 
office  of  Napier's  establishment,  becoming  later 
a  member  of  the  great  ship-building  firm  which 
was  known  after  1860  as  Randolph,  Elder  & 
Company,  employing  more  than  4,000  men.  His 
fame  rests  upon  his  invention  of  the  com- 
pound or  combined  high  and  low  pressure  en- 
gines, saving  nearly  40  per  cent  of  fuel. 

ELDER,  William  Henry,  American  Roman 
Catholic  prelate:  b.  Baltimore,  Md.,  22  March 
1819;  d.  31  Oct.  1904.  When  12  years  old 
he  entered  Mount  Saint  Mary's  QJlege,  Mary- 
land, and  at  18  was  graduated  and  sent  to  Rnme, 
where  he  was  ordained  priest  29  March  164& 
lietuming  to  America,  he  accepted  the  profess- 
orship of  theology  at  Mount  Saint  Mary's,  be- 
came its  president,  and  remained  here  until 
consecrated  bishop  of  Natchez,  3  May  1857. 
On  one  occasion,  when  the  Federal  authorities, 
who  had  taken  possession  of  the  dty,  bade 
Bishop  Elder  offer  certain  public  prayers  and 
command  his  dergy  to  do  likewise,  he  stoutly 
refused,  declaring  that  in  thus  ordering  him 
they  were  usurpmg  the  right  of  religious  lib- 
erty,  and   rather  than  comply  he  accepted  i  ' 


/ashington  he  was  promptly  rdeased. 
1878  Natchez  was  visited  by  an  epidemic  of 
yellow  fever  and  the  bishop  fell  a  victim  to  the 
plague,  which  carried  him  to  the  pmnt  of  death. 


BLDEH^BLDON 


In  1880  be  left  Natcba  to  usume  the  duties 
of  coadjutor  to  Archbithop  Purcell,  of  Cincin- 
nati, Onio,  who  at  once  retired,  leaving  Bishop 
Elder  to  settle  the  perplexing  difficulties  that 
disturbed  the  diocese.  Upon  the  death  of  Arch- 
bishop Purcell,  in  1883,  Bishop  Elder  lucceeded 
to  the  archbishopric  of  Ctncumati. 

ELDBK,  Sambucut,  m  genus  of  shrubs  or 
small  trees  and  a  few  perennial  herbs  of  the 
natural  order  Capriioliocev.  There  are  about 
20  widely  tUstributed  species  diaracteriied  by 
opposite,  pinnate  leaves,  small  white  flowers 
usually  in  compound  cymes,  and  black,  red, 
white  or  green,  juicy  frmts  (berries  or  drupes). 
Many  of  the  species  are  used  in  ornamental 
planting,  since  they  are  readily  propagated  by 
root  and  stem  cuttings,  succeed  well  upon  nearly 
all  soils,  are  of  rapid  growth,  graceful  form, 
and  are  attractive  both  in  flower  and  fruit.  The 
best-known  species  in  America  is  S.  canadeniis, 
the  common  or  sweet  elder,  which  is  frequently 
seen  in  fence^rows,  along  roadsides,  and  on  the 
margins  of  woods  throughout  southern  Canada 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States.  It 
attains  a  height  of  10  feet  or  more,  bears  abund- 
ant fragrant  flowers  in  midsummer  and  black 
berries  in  early  autumn.  These  fruits  are  used 
where  they  can  be  obtained  plentifully  for  mak- 
mg  pies  and  elderberry  wine.  Several  horti- 
cultural varieties  have  been  introduced  for  th«r 
golden  or  variegated  foliage,  and  one  variety 
with  large  fruits  was  introduced  in  1890.  The 
flowers  are  used  for  making  a  wine,  a  perfume, 
and  a  "water^  used  in  confectioneiy.  Eco- 
nomically this  species  ranks  as  a  muior  fruit. 
Like  some  other  members  of  its  genus,  it  has 
also  been  used  in  medicine,  but  is  rapidly  giving 
place  to  other  drugs.  Probably  5".  nigra,  the 
common    European   elder,   ranln    next   in    im- 

Ertance.  It  is  much  larger,  often  attaining  a 
ight  of  more  than  20  feet.  The  yellow,  hard, 
tous^  wood  is  readily  polished  and  is  used  fof 
malang  skewers,  hshing-rods,  needles  for  mak- 
ing fiffi-nets,  and  as  a  substitute  for  boxwood. 
It  is  also  employed  for  the  same  horticnlturU 
and  economic  purposes  as  the  preceding  species, 
and  has  numerous  fancy-leaved  varieties.  Other 
well-known  species  are  the  scarlet  elder  (S. 
nKtmosa).  an  Old-World  spedcs,  and  the  red- 
berried  elder  {S.  pvbens),  a  native  of  North 
America,  considered  by  some  botanists  to  be 
identical.  There  are  also  sever^  unrelated 
plants  which  are  popularly  known  as  elder,  as 
box  elder  (Negtmdo  aceroides),  wild  elder 
(Aralia  kisfida),  also  known  as  bristly  sarsapa* 
rilla,  and  marsh-elder  (/wo  fntUtceiu). 

ELDBSS,  in  certain  churches,  a  body  of 
men  elected  by  the  communicants  from  among 
Aeir  nimiber  to  aid  the  minister  in  portions 
of  his  work.  With  the  minister,  they  consti- 
tute the  executive  body  of  the  congregation. 
Among  die  Jews  the  elders  were  the  rulers  or 
magistrates  of  the  people.  The  instinct  of 
mankind  considers  the  old  fitter  than  the  young 
to  rule,  and  at  first  probably  every  'eldei*  was 
realty  pretty  well  advanced  in  life;  but  the 
designation  ultimately  came  to  be  nsed  more 
of  office  than  of  age.  •The  elders  of  the  con- 
gregation,' or  simply  'the  elders,*  are  men- 
tioned as  early  as  Lev.  iv,  IS.  Seventy  of  them 
were  appointed  as  associates  of  Moses  (Num. 
*i.  16).  They  are  combined  with  the  officers 
(Dent  xix,  12),  with  the  princes  (Ezra  x,  8), 


widi  the  priests  (Lam.  i,  19).  In  the  New  Tea- 
tament  they  are  described  as  having  given  cur- 
rency to  traditions  (Uatt.  zv,  2\,  and  taken  a 
chief  part  in  compassing  the  death  of  Jesus 
(Matt  xxvi,  59;  xxvii,  20),  etc.  There  were 
elders,  also,  of  siiwle  towns,  as  of  Succoth 
(judges  viii,  14),  andot  Jeireel  (2  Kings  x,  1). 
The  churches  of  the  Reformation  found  this 
form  of  lay  assistant  well  adapted  to  their  sys- 
tems of  church  government.  Where  the  Church 
and  State  have  some  interrelation,  the  election 
of  such  officers  is  regulated  by  civil  law.  In 
the  Baptist  churches,  the  pastors  were  called 
elders,  but  the  name  came  to  be  applied  exchi- 
sively  to  the  missionaries  later  on.  In  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  the  ruling  elders  have  the 
function  of  assisting  in  the  government  of  the 
Church,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Presby- 
tery. In  the  Dutch  and  German  Reformed 
churches,  the  elders  and  deacons  assist  the 
dei^yman  and  there  is  also  a  ruling  elder.  The 
Uemodist  Episcopal  Church  has  a  similar  of- 
fice, but  the  ruling  elder  is  an  ordained  clergy- 
man appointed  t^  the  bishop.  The  Shakers 
have  four  elders,  two  male  and  two  female. 
The  elders  in  the  Mormon  Church  are  the 
Melchizedek  iiriesthood.  The  apostte%  the  sev- 
eaty,  the  patriarchs  and  the  hi^  priest  are  in- 
cluded in  their  nimiher,  and  it  is  their  duty  to 
iireach,  ordain  other  priests  and  deacons,  to 
ead  meetings,  baptize  and  bless. 


June  1751;  d.  London,  13  Jan.  183S.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  at  University  College,  re- 
ceiving his  M.A.  in  1773.  In  1771  he  won  an 
Englisn  prize  1^  his  essay  on  'The  Advantages 
and  Disadvantages  of  Travelling  into  Foreign 
Countries.^  He  had  intended  taking  clerical 
orders,  but  gave  up  the  idea  in  order  to  marry 
Elizabeth  Surtees,  the  daughter  of  a  wealthy 
banker  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  (1772).  Scott 
was  readmitted  to  the  universi^  and  entered 
the  Middle  Temple  in  1773,  where  he  began  the 
study  of  law  and  supported  himself  by  tutox- 
ing.  His  success  in  the  law  was  rapid.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  bar  in  1776,  a  bencher  in 
1783.  and  in  the  same  year  was  made  one  of  the 
Idng^s  counsels.  His  sound  knowledge  of  the 
law  atoned  for  his  ineffective  oratory  and  he 
entered  Parliament  in  1783,  where  he  soon 
made  his  mark  as  an  independent  and  serious 
thinker.  He  supported  the  Pitt  ministry  and 
in  1788  was  knighted.  In  the  same  year,  he  was 
made  solicitor- general.  On  Thurlow's  dis- 
missal from  the  new  Parliament  he  offered  his 
resignation  to  Pitt,  but  was  induced  to  return, 
and  in  1793  succeeded  Sir  Archibald  MacDon- 
ald  as  Attorney-General.  His  association  with 
the  rigorous  administration  made  him  exceed- 
inplv  unpopular.  His  measures  in  the  state 
trials,  his  strict  interpretations  of  the  treason 
laws  and  the  vigorous  laws  he  assisted  in  pro- 
mulcting  heightened  the  effect  of  his  severity. 
In  1799  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Sir  James 
Eyre  as  lord  chief  justice  of  the  Common 
Pleas,  and  also  became  sergeant-at-law  and  a 
member  of  the  privy  council  and  board  of  trade. 
He  was  also  raised  to  die  peerage  as  Baron 
Eldon  of  Eldon,  in  the  county  of  Durham, 
where  he  had  bou^t  an  estate.  He  became 
Chief  Justice  in  1801,  and  Lord  Chancellor 
of  Ent^and.    Throughout  die  king's  illness  be 


8l^ 


BLDORA— ELDORADO 


jslercd  aSairs  with  great  surety  and  force. 

After  the  death  of  Pitt,  he  was  forced  to  with- 
draw, but  was  returned  in  1807  in  the  Port- 
land administration,  where  he  soon  became  the 
foremost  member  of  the  Cabinet.  He  bent  all 
his  able  energies  to  the  subjugation  of 
Napoleon.  He  was  the  king's  strongest  ad- 
herent and  served  him  with  all  his  powers.  In 
1811,  when  the  king's  lunacy  became  dironic, 
Eldon  immediately  undertook  to  gain  the 
confidence  of  the  prince.  In  spite  of  attacks  by 
bis  enemies,  he  succeeded  and  by  assisting  in 
the  formation  of  the  Liverpool  cabinet,  re- 
entrenched  the  Torv  policies.  He  arranged  for 
the  marriage  of  the  Princess  CbarloRe  with 
Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg.  His  resist- 
ance to  the  queen's  plans  rendered  him  a^in 
unpopular  with  the  mass  of  people,  but  gained 
him  the  loyalty  of  the  Prince,  wno  just  before 
his  coronation  as  George  IV  bestowed  on  him 
the  titles  of  Viscount  Encombc  and  Earl  of 
Eldon.  However,  this  marked  the  highest  point 
of  his  career.  After  the  death  of  the  queen, 
Canning's  party  came  into  power  and  Eldon 
resigned  from  the  Cabinet.  He  continued  to 
take  an  interest  in  politics  and  his  opinions 
were  highly  esteemed  by  his  fellow  Tories. 
He  survived  to  take  oaths  of  fealty  to  Queen 
Victoria. 

Eldon  was  an  able  jurist  and  administrator, 
of  fascinating  Dcrsonalit]^  and  an  agreeable  com' 
panion.  His  faults  lay  in  his  adherence  to  the 
strict  letters  of  the  law,  his  sojfhistry  and  his 
insistence  on  hair-splitting  definitions  and  dis- 
tinctions. His  decisions  were  never  hasty  nor 
ill-founded.  Consult  Townsend,  'Lives  of 
Twelve  Eminent  Judges'  (London  1846) ; 
Twiss,  'Life  of  Lord-Chancellor  Eldon'  (ib. 
1844)  ;  Surtees,  'Sketch  of  the  Lives  of  Lords 
Stowell  and  Eldon'  (1846)  ;  Campbell,  'Lives 
of  the  Chancellors'    (1874). 

ELDORA,  Iowa,  city,  county-seat  of  Har- 
din County,  near  the  Iowa  River,  on  the  Iowa 
Central,  and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
railroads ;  122  miles  west  of  Dubuque.  The  city 
is  the  seat  of  the  Stale  Industrial  School  for 
Boys,  has  a  Carnegie  library  and  a  public  park. 
Agriculture  and  stock-raising  are  its  chief  in- 
terests, but  fire  and  brick  clay  and  coal  are 
found  nearby.  It  has  manufactures  of  brick, 
tiles,  flour,  foundry  products  and  lumber.  The 
waterworks  are  the  property  of  the  municipal- 
ity.   Pop.  1,995. 

ELDORADO,  III.,  city  in  Saline  County, 
dght  miles  northeast  of  Harrisburg^  on  the 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis, 
the  Illinois  Central,  and  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  railroads.  It  has  coal  mines,  flour 
mills,  bottling  works,  a  machine  shop  and 
foundry,  lumBer  yards  and  manufactories  of 
medicines,  candy,  cigars  and  brick  and  tile. 
Pop.  3.366. 

ELDORADO  (from  the  Spanish  El  Do- 
rado, the  Gilded  Man),  the  region  of  undis- 
covered treasure  in  South  America.  In  the 
article  Dabatba  we  have  traced  the  famous 
Eldorado  myth  back  to  those  stories  which, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  were  cuf^ 
rent  among  the  Indians  of  Darien  about  'a 
temple  lined  with  gold,'  and  have  shown  why 
the  Spanish  explorers  failed  to  recognize  in 
distant  Cuzco,  with  its  temple  of  the  sun-i^od, 
the  real  basis  of  such  accounts.   The  tiamt  Eldo- 


rado, however,  with  wfaid)  the  ever-receding  or 
shifting  territory,  the  subject  of  all  those  stories, 
has  been  stamped,  was  at  first  not  the  name  of 
a  place  but  of  a  person;  and  the  name-giving 
addition  to  the  myth  is  localized  very  precisely 
in  the  table-land  of  Bogota,  as  follows:  Lake 
Guatavita  (north  of  the.  present  capital  of  Co- 
lombia and  nearly  two  miles  above  sea-level) 
was  regarded  by  Indian  tribes  dwelling  in  that 
neighborhood  in  the  15th  century  as  a  holy  place, 
and  (ulgrims  who  resorted  to  it  often  cast  their 
offerings  of  gold  and  emeralds  into  its  waters. 
Whenever  a  new  chief  of  Guatavita  was  choaen, 
nobles  and  priests  of  his  tribe  bcve  him  to  the 
lake,  as  Mr.  Bandelier  (in  work  mentioned  be- 
low) has  written  'upon  a  barrow  hung  with 
discs  of  gold.  His  naked  body  was  anointed 
with  resinous  gums  and  covered  all  over  with 
gold-dust.'  The  chief  plunged  into  the  lake: 
spectators  made  the  usual  oSerings  of  gold  and 
jewels;  and,  on  the  conclusion  of  this  ceremcMiy 
of  consecration,  the  new  ruler  and  his  subjects 
went  down  to  dance  and  feast  in  Gnatavita 
village.  The  Chibchas  (q.v.)  conquered  Guata- 
vita  about  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  and 
under  their  general  government  this  extraordi- 
nary local  custom  had  been  discontinued  for  a 
number  of  years  before  the  first  Spanish  settle- 
ments were  made  on  the  C^ibbcan  coast  — 
there  was  no  longer  an  independent  Guatavita 
chief  to  signify  his  acceptance  of  the  local 
religious  bdiefs  in  a  fashion  so  dramatic;  bnt 
folk-lore   continued    for    a   century,    at 


governor  of  the  German  colony  in  Venezuela, 
set  out  from  his  little  capital  of  Coro,  and 
probably  reached  the  edge  of  the  hi^h  plain  of 
Bogota  by  way  of  the  Ma^dalena  jRiver;  there 
the  resistance  of  the  Indians  obliged  him  to 
turn  baclt  Four  years  later  the  report  of  the 
vast  treasure  secured  by  the  conquerors  of 
Peru  (Atahualpa's  'ransom'  alone  was  offidally 
valued  at  3,933,000  ducats  of  gold  and  672fi7b 
ducats  of  silver)  appeared  to  justify  ventures 
undertaken  in  reliance  upon  the  wildest  Eldo- 
rado tales.  It  is  also  true  that  a  fresh  outbreak 
of  the  gold-fever  affected  the  Spanish  colonists 
everywhere  in  America,  more  or  less,  but 
especially  thoie  in  the  agricultural  settlements; 
and  that  leaders  of  those  colonies,  in  order  to 
retain  their  men,  were  obliged  to  make  fresh 
efforts  to  find  treasure.  In  Santa  Uarta,  an 
expedition  was  organized  to  ascend  the  Mag- 
dalena  River  to  the  hi^lands;  at  Coro,  Georg 
von  Speyer  organized  a  campaign  for  the  ex- 
ploration of  the  Meta  plain,  far  inland.  The 
former  expedition  under  command  of  Quesada 
in  1537  reached  the  old  home  of  the  gilded 
chief ;  and  although  Guataviti  either  hid  its 
gold  or  was  actually  poor  <40  years  having 
passed  since  it  had  ceased  to  be  a  place  of  pil- 
grimage), the  treasure  collected  in  this  neigb- 
Dorhood,  principally  at  the  villages  of  iWja 
and  Iraca,  was  officially  valued  at  246.676  pesos 
in  gold,  or  about  $1,200,000,  besides  1,815  em- 
eralds. Von  Speyer  went  astray  amon^  the  trib- 
utaries of  the  upper  Orinoco,  but  his  hcutenant, 
the  German,  Nicolaus  Federmann,  leading  a 
company  from  Coro,  reached  the  Bogota  high- 
lands in  time  to  meet  there  not  only  Quesada 
but  the  conqueror  of  Ecuador  Benatcarar,  who 
came  up  from  the  south,  having  also  heard  the 


jOOgIc 


ELDORADO   SPRIMQS  —  ELKANOR   OF  AQUITAINS 


■loi:^  of  the  Gilded  Maa  Each  of  these  leaders 
considered  binuelf  the  discoverer  of  the  country, 
aod  they  proceeded  together  to  Spain,  to  submit 
their  clainu  to  the  Spanish  ccurt,  leaving  their 
forces  to  liold  the  Eldorado  which  bad  been 
despoiled  by  the  Chibchas,  ransacked  by  thctn- 
sdves. 

We  arcL  therefore,  unable  to  agree  with  the 
distinguished  American  archaeologist  when  he 
says  Oiat,  after  this  time,  "Transplanted  by  the 
over -excited  imagination  of  the  white  men,  the 
vision  of  the  dorado  appeared,  like  a  mirage, 
enticiug,  deceiving,  and  leading  men  to  destruc- 
tion on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Ama- 
zon.* His  "Gilded  Man*  had  been  located,  and 
•hat  part  of  the  myth  was  buried.  Subsequent 
exploTations  were  planned  to  discover  rich 
countries  whitJi  were  Eldorados  only  in  the 
modem  sense  of  the  word;  and  we  find  that  the 
word  was  used  with  nearly  its  present  significa- 
tion at  the  time  when  the  Amazon  River  re- 
ceived its  name.  The  legend  is  especially  note- 
worthy in  connection  with  the  history  of  the 
Venezuelan  settlement  under  the  direction  of 
the  German  Welsers.  Having  received  the  prov- 
ince from  the  Spanish  crown  practically  as  a 
mortgage  security  for  money  loaned,  Welser 
and  his  associates  tried  to  recover  the  advances 
they  had  made  from  the  revenues  of  the  dis- 
trict ;  and  since  the  coast  Jands  were  found  to 
be  less  profitable  than  they  had  expected,  they 
engaged  in'  one  Eldorado  expedition  after 
another.  Dalfioger,  Fedennann,  and  Von  Speyer 
have  been  mentioned;  before  the  utter  ruin  and 
failure  of  the  colony  at  Corn,  Von  Hutten's 
expedition  penetrated  to  Omagua,  a  region  near 
the  Amazon,  west  of  Rio  Negro  and  the  Cassi- 
qmare.  The  Spanish  conquerors  of  Peru  and 
Ectiador  were  led  by  the  search  for  further 
stores  of  wealth  to  make  the  most  important 
(wogiaphical  discoveries  east  of  the  Andes. 
Gonzalo  Pizarro  set  out  from  Quito  to  explore 
the  forests  (1S39<42),  hoping  to  find  spices 
there,  and  also  'wealthy  regions  in  which  the 
people  went  around  adorned  with  (fold.*  His 
lieutenant,  Francisco  de  Oreliana,  with  53  men 
in  a  bark,  becoming  separated  from  the  main 
body  of  the  expedition,  went  on  down  the 
Amazon  to  its  mouth.  The  Dominican  Car- 
vajal,  Orellana's  chronicler,  relates  that  women 
took  part  in  the  fighting  against  the  Spaniards, 
and  mat  a  ca[)tive  Indian  spoke  of  a  tribe  of 
Amazons  rich  in  gold  living  north  of  the  river. 
(Compare  Prescott's  'Conquest  of  Peru,'  II, 
164-65,  note).  Wandering  Indians  brought  to 
Peru  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century 
rMiorts  of  countries  rich  in  gold  and  silver, 
which  lav  far  eastward;  and  the  viceroy  made 
use  of  toe  Eldorado  fever  thus  excitea  to  rid 
Peru  of  a  large  number  of  disorderly  persons. 
In  1560  a  company  of  criminals  and  desperadoes, 
with  women,  set  out  from  Santa  Cruz  de  Capa- 
coba,  proceeding  in  boats,  caroes  and  even  upon 
rafts,  down  a  tributary  of  the  Amazon,  under 
the  leadership  of  Pedro  de  Ursua.  In  January 
1561,  Ursua  was  murdered  by  conspirators  and 
eventuaUy  Aguirr^  chief  conspirator,  trans- 
formed the  remnant  of  the  expedition  into  a 
^ratical    band;    captured    the    island   of    Mar- 

grita  and  invaded  Venezuela.  At  least  four 
dorado  expeditions  proceeded  from  the  north 
coast  toward  the  interior  before  the  end  of  the 
century,  in  addition  to  that  one  which  Sir  Wal- 


ter Ralei^   led  in   1595.     Couult  BaadcUer, 
A.    F.    A.,    'The    Gilded    Man'    (New    York 
1893) ;  and  Brinton,  D.  G.,  'The  Myths  of  the 
New  World>   (New  York  1868  and  1896). 
Makrion  WUjOOX. 

ELDORADO  SPRINGS,  Mo.,  city  in 
Cedar  County,  100  miles  southeast  of  Kansas 
Gty,  on  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  Rail- 
road. The  princii^I  industry  is  the  bottling  of 
water  from  the  mineral  spruigs.  Fanning  and 
stock  raising  are  carried  on  also.  The  water- 
works are  owned  by  the  municipality.  Pop, 
2,503. 

BLDRIDQB,  Shaler  W.,  American  aboli- 
tionist: b.  West  Springfield,  Mass.,  1817;  d 
Lawrence,  Kan.,  17  Jan.  1899.  He  removed  to 
Kansas  in  1855,  and  became  proprietor  of  the 
American  House  in  Kansas  Ci^,  soon  recog- 
nized as  the  headquarters  of  Freesoiler^.  In 
1856  Eldridge  opened  the  Free-State  Hotel  in 
Lawrence;  but  soon  afterward  a  pro-slavery 
court  issued  a  writ  of  indictment,  declaring  the 
place  a  nuisance,  and  it  was  destroyed  by  a 
posse  led  by  Sherifi  Jones.  This  occurrence 
earned  great  excitement  among  the  Freesoil 
men,  who  commissioned  Eldridge  lo  vish  Wash- 
ington with  a  petition  in  their  bdtalf  and  also 
to  sit  in  the  convention  that  nominated  Fre- 
mont Later  he  became  a  member  of  the 
National  Republican  Committee  and  agent  M 
promote  immigration  into  Kansas.  Under  the 
last  authority  he  led  a  large  number  of  settlers 
to  Kansas.  During  one  of  these  trips,  with  a 
party  of  350  men,  he  was  taken  prisoner  bf 
United  States  troops.  Subsequently  he  re- 
cniited  a  party  of  Frecsoilers,  who  retook  the 
arms  from  the  United  States  officers  at  Lecom|»> 
ton.  He  was  instrumental  in  giving  much  aid 
to  the  Free-State  cause  by  smuggling  large 
amounts  of  ammunition  and  provisions  into 
Kansas  Tcrritoiy;.  During  the  Civil  War  be 
served  in  the  Union  Army. 

ELD'S  DEER,  a  deer  (.Cermu  tldi)  native 
to  the  Malayan  region.  It  is  about  four  feet  tall, 
lives  m  swampy  places  and  is  often  found  in 
large  herds.  Its  habits  are  like  those  of  tiie 
ln£an  swamp-deer.  The  antlers  are  peculiar  tn 
that  the  brow-tine  sweeps  down  over  the  fore* 
head  and  that  the  upriglit  part  has  numerous 

ELEANOR  OP  AQUITAINB,  queen  of 

Prance  and  afterward  of  England:  b.  1122;  d. 
Fontevrault,  France,  1  A^ril  1204.  She  was  the 
eldest  daughter  and  heiress  of  William  IX, 
Duke  of  Guienne  or  Aanitaine,  and  was  mar- 
ried 2  Aug.  1137,  to  Pnnce  Louis,  who  in  the 
same  y;ear  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  France 
as  Louis  VII.  She  was  gay,  frivolous,  a  lover 
of  poetry  and  art,  and  could  not  sympathize 
with  the  ascetic  spirit  of  her  husband.  She 
accompanied  him  on  the  second  crusade  to 
file  Holy  Land  tn  1147.  At  that  time  he  com- 
plained of  ber  preference  for  other  men,  atid 
on  dieir  return  from  Asia  they  were  divorced 
18  March  1152.  A  short  lime  afterward  she 
bestowed  her  hand  upon  Henry  Planta^net; 
the  future  Henry  II  of  England.  This  alliance, 
which  made  Henry  master  of  Eleanor's  vast 
possessions  in  France,  produced  pernicious  and 
protracted  wars  between  France  and  Ei^land. 
She  bore  him  many  children,  but  his  infidelities 
and  neglect  changed  her  love  mto  hatred.    She 


.gk 


00 


BLEANOR  CROSSES  — ELECTION 


incited  her  sons  GeoSf^  and  Richard  Qzur 
de  Lion  to  rebel  against  their  father,  was  im- 
prisoned in  1174,  and  remained  in  confinement 
until  after  Heniy's  death  in  1169,  when  she 
was  released  by  his  successor,  Ridiard  I,  who 
placed  hei  at  the  head  of  the  government  on 
his  departure  for  the  Holy  Laod.  She  aeg^ 
tiated  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Navarre,  and  went  to  Germany  with 


Richard,  lived  to  see  him  succeeded  by  one  of 
her  other  sons,  John  Lackland,  the  signer  of 
Magna  Cbarta.  She  was  a  favorite  personage 
with  the  troubadour  poets  of  the  day  and  ap- 

Kars  in  a  very  different  light  in  their  works 
om  that  in  which  she  is  represented  by  French 
and  Norman  chroniclers.  Consult  Adams, 
'History  of  England,  1066-1216'  (London 
1905). 

BLEANOR  CROSSES,  memorials  of 
El^uior  of  Castile.  She  was  the  wife  of  Ed- 
ward I  of  England,  and  d.  Lincolnshire  1290. 
Her  body  was  taken  to  London  by  her  sorrow- 
ing hustrand  who  subsequently  erected  a  monu- 
ment terminating  in  a  cross,  at  every  spot 
where  her  funeral  train  bad  rested.  TlKse 
places  were  Lincoln,  Grantham,  Stamford,  Ged- 
dington,  Northampton,  Stony  Stratford,  Wo- 
bum,  Dunstable,  Saint  Albans,  Waltham,  East 
Cheap  and  Charing  Cross,  but  the  list  varies 
■lightiy  as  given  by  diSerent  authorities.  The 
crosses  at  Geddington  and  Waltham  remain, 
although  considerably  altered  by^  restoration  in 
the  latter  case.  That  at  Charing  Cross,  de- 
stroyed in  1647,  was  replaced  in  1863  by  a  new 
one   reproducing   the  ori^aL 

KLKATICS,  e-lS-atlks,  a  Greek  sect,  so 
called  because  founded  at  Elea,  in  Sidly,  by 
Xenophanes  of  Colophon,  about  538  B.C.  Zeno, 
who  nourished  464  b.c.  ;  Empedocles,  435  B.C. ; 
and  Melissus  428  b.c,  were  leading  philosophers 
of  this  school.  That  which  from  the  commence- 
ment distinguished  the  Eleatic  school  from  the 
Ionic  was  ts  method,  whii.h  in  the  one  case  was 
dialectic,  in  the  other  empirical.  Starting  from 
the  observation  of  external  nature,  the  lonians 
endeavored  to  discover  some  elementary  pnn- 
dpte,  as  water,  air,  fire  or  a  combination  of 
elements,  by  the  action  of  which  the  phenomena 
they  observed  might  be  accounted  for.  The 
Eleans  made  the  abstract  idea  of  Being  or  God, 
deduced  from  the  contemplation  of  the  umverse 
as  a  whole,  their  starting-point;  and  thdr 
reasonings  sometimes  led  them  to  deny  the 
reality  ol  external  phenomena  altogether.  This 
was  the  result  of  the  development  which  the 

Erinciples  of  Xenophanes  received  from  his  fol- 
iwers  Parmenides  and  Zeno,  the  latter  of  whom 
denied  the  existence  of  variety  in  any  form. 
See  also  Ionian  Philosophv;  Iomiam  School; 
Xenophanes  ;  Zf.no.  Consult  Windelband, 
*History  of  Philosophy,* 

BLECAHPANB,  «I-«-k3m-pin'  (fnufa 
htlenium},  a  plant  of  the  simflower  family 
(Composila).  The  stem  is  three  or  four  feel 
high,  thick;  pubescent  and  branching  above;  the 
radical  leaves  are  often  two  feet  or  more  in 
length ;  the  flowers  are  large  and  yellow.  The 
plant  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  naturalised 
m  the  United  States.  It  grows  abundantly  along 
roads  and  in  waste  places.    The  root  is  perenniiu 


and  has  a  tntter  aromatic  laste.  Elecampane  ii 
cultivated  occasionally  as  an  ornamental  plant 
and  the  flowers  are  sometimes  used  to  adulterate 
aruKa.  The  root  was  formerly  much  employed 
in  medidne,  but  has  fallen  into  disuse.  It  con- 
tains a  number  of  active  prindples,  die  most  im- 
portant being  a  volatile  oil,  a  camphor,  inulin 
and  hdenin.  By  reason  of  the  camphor  and 
the  oil  the  action  of  the  drug  is  somewhat 
stimulant  and  stomachic.  Elecampane  was  once 
vetv  much  used  in  the  treatment  of  bronchitis 
and  amenorrhea.  As  a  hot  infusion  it  sub- 
serves practically  the  same  purpose  as  camomile 
tea,  being  a  good  dia^oretic. 

ELECTION,  in  law,  the  voluntary  choice 
between  two  or  more  permissible  lines  of  con- 
duct In  equity  the  choice  is  between  two  or 
alternative  rights  or  claims  which  were 


it  is  the  choice  incumbent  on  the  prosecution  to 
proceed  on  one  of  a  number  of  independent 
felonies  of  the  same  decree.  In  the  law  of 
wills  the  widow's  election  is  her  choice  whether 
she  will  make  her  claim  under  her  husband's 
wilt  or  under  the  Statute,  which  gives  her  a 
right  to  a  spediied  part  of  her  husband's  estate. 
An  election  may  be  explicit  and  announced, 
or  if  may  be  implidt  in  the  conduct  of  the 
person  bound  or  entitled  to  elect.  In  neitlier 
case  is  the  election  binding  unless  .made  with  a 
knowledge  of  all  the  relevant  and  material  facts ; 
but  if  uiese  facts  are  known,  the  election  is 
final. 

ELECTION,  (R  politics,  the  mode  of  deter- 
mining the  person  who  is  to  fill  an  office  by 
the  votes  of  the  qualified  dectors.  Alternative 
methods  are  selection  by  someone  already  in 
authority  or  by  lot.  The  electors  may  be  the 
entire  body  of  those  of  the  citizens  of  the 
region  concerned  who  fulfil  certain  very  general 
requirements,  as  is  the  case  in  the  various  State 
elections  for  governor  or  the  election  of  sena- 
tors and  representatives,  or  may  be  some  rela- 
tively small  body  of  officials,  as  in  the  'in- 
direct* election  of  senators  by  the  State  legisla- 
tures, which  was  alone  legal  until  1913,  when 
the  Seventeenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution 
was  ratified.  In  the  case  of  the  elected  kings 
of  Poland  and  Hungary  and  of  the  Holy  Ro- 
man emperor,  the  election  was  in  the  hands  of 
a  greater  or  smaller  group.  The  election  of 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  though 
nominally  entrusted  to  a  representative  body  of 
men  —  the  electoral  college  is  now  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  of  the  direct  type,  as 
by  custom  the  electors  are  mere  mouthpieces 
of  the  popular  vote.  The  honesty  and  fairness 
of  elections  is  secured  by  stringent  laws  and 
by  various  devices  to  secure  secrecy  of  the 
ballot.  Tliese  are  discussed  under  the  head  of 
Ballot.  See  also  ELEcnoNS;  Corrupt  Prac- 
■na-A  Acts  ;  Electoral  Frauds  and  Safgguabds 
Against;  Von;  Votebs,  Voting, 

Election  is  a  very  old  political  device.  While 
election  by  acclamation  has  always  been  a  recog- 
nized means  of  determining  the  chief  in  certain 
savage  communities,  it  was  in  the  dty-states 
of  Greece  and  in  republican  Rome  that  the 
ballot  first  became  the  basis  of  the  government 
of  a  highly  or^nized  civilized  community. 
This  rij^t  was  limited  to  some  more  or  less 
restricted  dass  of  free  dtizens,  and  was  gener- 


^S 


c 


ELECTION  —  BLBCTI0N8 


ally  exercised  in  an  op«n  assembly  not  unKke 
the  Neir  England  town  meetinif — the  Ecclesia 
of  Athens  or  the  Roman  Comitia,  From  the 
period  when  the  empire  firit  made  the  comitia 
a  mere  form  and  then  alxdished  it  altogether 
to  Ae  reappearance  of  the  assembly  of  the 
people  as  a  custom  of  the  northern  tnrbariaiis, 
election  ceased  to  t^y  ai^  important  part  in 
pditics.  It  stirvivcd  in  a  measure  in  (be  Cburch 
and  it  reappeared  in  a  Tery  limited  form  as 
the  method  of  selecting  the  H^  Roman  em- 
peror. The  first  renascence  of  a  Bemiinelv 
popular  election  after  the  races  of  ine  north 
nad  lost  almost  all  memory  of  their  orijnnal 
custom  of  settling  disputes  and  electing  dieir 
chiefs  in  the  council  of  the  warriors,  was  in 
the  fonn  of  the  election  of  the  officers  of  the 
guilds  and  of  the  free  towns,  (See  artide, 
Elections  and  cross-references  thereunder) . 
Consult  Aristotle,  'PtJidcs';  Freeman,  "Com- 
parative Politics*  (London  1873)  \  Jones,  *Read- 
mgs  on  Parties  and  Elections  in  the  United 
States'  (New  York  1912);  Stanwood  <Hi»tory 
of  the  Presidency'  (Boston  1912);  Woolsey, 
•Political  Science>  (New  Yoric  ISh). 

ELECTION,  in  theology,  die  word  (sin^- 
lar)  is  applied  to  the  act  of  God  tn  selecting 
some  persons  from  the  race  of  man  to  be  re- 
generated by  his  spirit,  to  be  justified,  to  be 
sanctified,  and  to  receive  other  spiritual  gifts 
in  this  world,  with  eternal  life  in  the  next. 
The  Calvinistic  doctrine  makes  this  election 
take  place  by  God's  mere  good  pleasure,  with- 
out any  foreseen  merit  in  the  individuals  chosen. 
The  Arminian  one  considers  that  God  chooses 
those  whom  he  foresees  will  accept  the  offer  of 
the  Gospel  and  act  as  true  Christians  till'death. 
The  third  chapter  of  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion, entitled  'Of  God's  Eternal  Decree,'  uses 
more  decided  language.  The  strongest  adher- 
ents of  this  view  are  in  the  Presbyterian 
churches,  though  there  is  a  tendency  to  soften 
the  harsher  features  of  the  system.  Uanr 
Baptists  hold  the  same  doctrine,  as  do  the  Caf- 
vinistic  Methodists. 

ELECTION  DISTRICT.  See  Distwct. 

BLBCTIOHS.  M  defined  by  the  conrts 
ao  election  is  the  act  of  choosing  a  person  to 
fill  an  ofiice  by  any  manifestation  of  preference 
but  usually  by  the  vote  of  those  entitled  to 
exercise  the  elective  franchise,  as  distingttiahed 
from  appointment  to  office  by  a  single  person 
or  ^cer,  as  a  king,  president,  goventor  or 
mayor.    See  ApronrrxaNTS. 

ClAisification  of  ElectlonL — If  the  great 
body  of  the  voting  population  dedde  between 
candidates,  the  election  is  said  to  be  popular 
or  direcL  If  limited  to  a  small  number  who 
themfielves  have  been  chosen  by  the  mass  of 
voters,  the  election  is  said  to  be  indirect  or 
rcpreEcntative.  The  choice  of  United  States 
senators  by  the  State  legisbtures  until  the  17th 
Amendment  became  law  is  an  example  of 
uidirect  elections.  Theoretically  the  President 
is  elected  by  the  Presidential  electors  chosen  in 
the  various  Slates  but  in  practice  these  electors 
vote  for  the  party  candidate.  (See  £i.bctor3, 
Ukfied  States  Pusidbntial}.  Elections  are 
also  classified  as  national.  State  and  numidp^ 
according  to  the  status  of  the  ofiice  to  be  occu- 
pied by  the  successful  candidate. 

Bulr  Colonial  Election^.—  From  the  earli- 
est coloaial  days,  local  officials  in  New  " 


were  chosen  in  a  meeting  of  the  «frcemeiL» 
much  as  they  are  to-day  in  town  meeting  Prob- 
ably the  first  elections  held  in  America  wete 
of  the  delegates  who  attended  the  Virginia 
l^slativc  assembly  in  1619.    The  earliest  date 

Secified  i£  that  of  the  election  of  lohn  Win* 
rop  as  governor  of  Massachusetts  "by  tha 
general  consent  of  the  Court,*  18  May  1631. 
The  next  in  order  is  the  election  at  Plymouth, 
1632-33,  although  elections  were  authorized  in 
this  colony  in  1620  and  in  the  colony  of  Massa- 
chusetts m  16iO,  and  undoubtedly  they  were 
held  from  that  time  onward  A  few  years  later 
the  records  show  that  elections  were  conducted 
by  proxy,  chosen  deputies  casting  the  votes  of 
the  freemen  at  the  •court  of  elections.*  Ac- 
cordiuK  to  some  authorities  proxies  moant  us- 
ually the  carriage  of  the  votes,  at  first  the  bal- 
lots themselves  (slips  of  paper  or  grains  of 
com,  etc.),  and  later  the  records.  The  history, 
of  the  process  is  hard  to  interpret  In  New 
Hampshire  elections  were  held  from  1633  on- 
ward, and  b  Rhode  Island  after  1636-38.  In 
Connecticnt  the  earliest  election  was  in  1639; 
in  Maryland  1638.  AH  the  southern  colonies 
except  Geor^  elected  assemblies  ahaost  from 
the  start,  and  summonses  for  one  session  were 
issued  in  Georgia.  In  New  Amsterdam  (now 
New  York)  the  riefat  to  elect  its  own  magis- 
trates was  long  withheld  by  Director  Stuy- 
vesant.  'If,'  he  said  (1653),  *the  nominatioa 
and  election  of  magistrates  were  to  be  left  to- 
the  populace  who  were  the  most  interested, 
then  each  one  would  vote  for  some  one  of  his 
own  stamp,  the  thief  for  a  diief,  the  roftne,  the 
tippler,  the  smi^^er,  for  a  brother  of  iniquity. 


begin  till  1668,  although  authorieed  in  1665. 
The  first  election  in  Pennsylvania  was  in  1683. 
In  the  Carolinas  the  first  recorded  dectioos 
were  in  1691,  but  minor  elections  probably  were  ' 
held  aa  early  as  1663.  In  Georgia  all  officials 
were  appokited  up  to  1754. 

AtHliority  to  Hold  Elections, — To  be 
valid  an  eledion  must  have  some  lawful  author- 
ity behind  it;  imless  the  power  be  cxprsssty 
granted  by  the  constitntion  or  by  the  Icftislature ' 
actiag  under  constitutional  authority,  the  right 
to  hold  an  dection  cannot  exist  or  be  lawfully 
exerdsed  The  legislature  may  prescribe  the 
forms  to  be  observed  in  the  conduct  of  deo- 
tione.  Laws  enacted  to  ascertain  the  will  of 
the  people  at  free  popular  elections  tnav  be 
mandatory  (such  as  those  setting  the  day  of 
election,  requiring  the  vote  to  be  by  ballot,  or 
establishing  [daces  within  the  designated  pre- 
cincts where  the  election  shall  be  held),  or 
directory  (such  as  provisions  prescrifaii^f  the 
conduct  and  return  of  an  dection).  Minor 
irregularities  in  observing  tiie  directory  laws 
winch  do  not  prevent  electors  from  fredy  and 
fairiy  exerdsing  thdr  right  of  suffrage  or  from 
haying  their  votes  properly  counted  do  not 
vitiate  an  election,  providing  such  irregularities 
do  not  constitute  infractions  which  die  law  de- 
dares  shall  nullify  an  dection.  Statutes  pro- 
viding for  the  holding  of  a  local  dectton  us- 
ually require  the  presentation  to .  some  local 
authority  of  a  petition  signed  by  the  prescribed 
number  of  qualified  persons;  when  properly 
presented,  the  authorities  appointed  to  call  the 
election  have  no  discretion  and  after  the  order 
is  issued  it  is  not  open  to  ooHatcral  attack; 


,  Google 


ELBCTIOHS 


The  time  and  place  of  holding  r^ular  elections 
are  generally  appointed  in  the  public  laws,  and 
therefore,  as  electors  are  supposed  to  know  the 
law  and  accordingly  would  receive  notice  from 
the  statutes  themselves,  no  proclamation  or 
notice  is  mandatory,  but  proclamations  for 
special  elections  must  be  issued  by  the  authority 
named  in  the  statutes  and  in  strict  accordance 
with  those  statutes.  This  notice  is  particularly 
important  in  cases  of  special  elections  to  ml 
vacancies  caused  by  death,  resignation  or  re- 
moval,  where  the  statutes  do  not  require  that 
the  vacancy  be  filled  at  the  next  general  elec- 
tion. Usually  the  statutes  require  that,  for  a 
certain  time  before  election  (uy,  notices  of  a 
coming  election  shall  be  published  in  one  or 
more  newspapers  or  posted  in  the  form  of  hand- 
bills either  at  the  polling  places  or  at  a  number 
□f  public  places.  In  elections  to  detennine 
specific  questions,  the  notices  must  fully  inform 
the  voters  of  the  questions  to  be  decided  and 
sudi  notices  must  not  only  clearly  show  the 
authority  for  the  order  but  also  that  they 
themselves  have  been  signed  by  the  proper 
officers. 

Time  and  Place  of  Holding  Blecdoiia^— 
To  be  legal  the  time  and  place  of  holding  an 
election  must  be  fixed  in  advance,  either  by  law 
or  by  legally  authorized  officials;  and  votes 
cast  differently  will  avail  nothing  regardless  of 
the  eligibility  of  the  candidates  voted  for.  If 
the  time  be  fixed  by  general  law  no  other  time 
will  be  l^al,  save  where  the  statutes  provide 
for  spedaTelections ;  if  the  statutes  fix  the  time, 
no  power  may  adjourn  the  election  to  a  subse- 
quent day,  unless  the  constitution  or  statutes 
permit  such  adjoumment,  though  legislatures 
are  within  their  province  in  postponing  elections 
in  order  lo  do  away  with  frequent  and  unneces- 
sary elections.  A  slight  change  in  the  voting 
place  should  not  invalidate  Otherwise  properly 
conducted  elections,  provided  no  voter  is  mis- 
led or  deprived  of  his  vote  by  reason  of  the 
change.     Under  some  circumstances  the  voting 

Elacc  may  even  be  outside  the  election  lUstrict, 
Ut  the  electors  of  the  district  who  vote  thereat 
would  not  be  disfranchised  on  that  account 
Congress  has  power  lo  determine  the  time  of 
choosing  the  Presidential  electors  and  on  1 
March  1792  enacted  that  the  choice  should  be 
made  within  34  days  preceding  the  first  Wednes- 
day in  December.  On  23  Jan.  1845  Congress  en- 
acted that  Presidential  electors  be  chosen  on  the 
Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in  Novem- 
ber in  each  quadrennial  year,  and  later  (2  Feb. 
1872)  provided  that,  beginning  with  1876  mem- 
bers or  the  House  should  be  elected  on  the  same 
day  in  bietuiial  years  ("even"  years),  though 
some  exceptions  were  allowed  under  the  amend- 
ing act  of  3  March  1875,  whereby  certain  States 
were  permitted  to  continue  holding  their  elec- 
tMMis  at  an  earlier  date.  Amendment  XVII  to 
the  Constitution  (effective  31  May  1913)  pro- 
vides for  the  election  of  senators  by  the  direct 
vote  of  the  people  but  makes  no  stipulation 
as  to  the  time  of  election,  merely  providing  that 
■when  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation 
of  any  State  in  the  Senate,  the  executive  author- 
ity of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  election 
lo  fill  such  vacancies :  Provided,  That  the  Leg- 
islature of  any  State  may  empower  the  execu- 
tive thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments 
imtil  the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as 
the  legislature  may  direct.*    Presumably,  there- 


fore, elections  of  senators  are  hdd  the  year 
preceding  the  expiration  of  the  incumbent's 
term  of  office,  the  time  being  designated  by  the 
State  legislature.  Most  of  the  State  elections, 
and  in  many  caaes  local  and  mnnidpal  dections, 
are  held  on  the  same  day  as  the  national  elec- 
tion, but  in  many  States  minor  officials  are  not 
elected  in  the  same  year  as  the  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor.  All  the  States  hold  their 
elections  in  November  with  the  exception  of 
Louisiana,  Maine  and  Vermont,  the  election  of 
the  first  named  occurring  in  April  and  of  the 
latter  two  in  September.  If  a  vacancy  occur  in 
an  dective  office,  the  governor  of  a  State  may 
call  a  special  election  or  hold  the  choice  over 
until  the  next  regular  election. 

Cluaification  of  Votes  and  Voting— In- 
dependent, Popular,  Preferential,  Compnl- 
aory. —  See  Vote,  Voters,  Voting. 

Electoral  QualiScationa,  Colonial  and 
Modem. —  Etetails  respecting  the  franchise 
ri^ts  and  privileges  of  the  various  States  will 
be  found  in  the  artides  Aliens;  Citizensbip 
IN  THE  UNmo  States;  Electobai.  Quaufi- 
CATiONS ;  NATtJRALizATioN ;  United  States  — 
SuFTxAGE  IN  the;  Votes,  Voteis,  Voting; 
Woman  Sufeeace 

Terms  of  Office,  Age  Limita  and  Quali- 
ficationa  for  Office.— See  Electoral  Quali- 
fications, Terms  of  and  Qualifications  roa 
Office. 

Part^  Nominations,  Primaries,  Etc. — The 
four  pnncipal  methods  of  choosing  candidates 
are  by  the  delegate  convention  system,  the  direct 
primary,  the  non-partisan  primary,  which  is  used 
in  many  municipalities,  and  nomination  by  peti- 
tion only.  The  term  "primary*  is  usually  ap- 
plied to  the  preliminary  elections  held  by  the 
political  parties  to  nominate  candidates  or  to 
choose  delegates  whose  duty  is  to  nominate 
candidates  to  compete  in  the  following  regular 
election.  In  either  case  party  members  only 
are  allowed  to  vote  in  the  primaries.  Originally 
candidates  for  local  offices  announced  their  own 
candidacy  or  perhaps  were  nominated  by  an 
informal  caucus;  the  legislative  caucus  nomi- 
nated candidates  for  State  oflrces;  and  aspirants 
for  the  Presidency  were  nominated  by  the  Con- 
gressional caucus  (see  Caucus)  ;  but  the  latter 
two  caucuses  were  soon  discarded  and  by  IS32 
the  convention  system  had  been  generally 
adopted.  (See  Convention,  PoimcAL).  This 
system  was  so  indirect  and  complicated  and  so 
flagrantly  abused  that  regulation  of  nominations 
became  imperative  and  by  1900  party  elections 
had  been  placed  under  the  same  legal  restric- 
tions as  the  regular  elections.  Beginning  with 
1900,  however,  the  convention  plan  has  been 
rapidly  supplanted  by  the  direct  primary,  under 
which  candidates  are  selected  by  the  direct  vote 
of  the  parly.  Some  States  also  allow  eat^ 
party  a  direct  vole  on  choice  for  Presidential 
nominees.  (See  Primary,  Direct;  Primabt, 
Pbesidential  Preference;  and  in  this  connec- 
tion see  also  ImriATivE;  Referendum  ;  Recaix). 
Under  the  non-partisan  primary  (which  really 
is  not  a  primary  at  all)  the  whole  electorate 
participates  in  the  selection  of  candidates  later 
to  be  voted  upon  at  the  regular  elections.  This 
system  has  been  developed  in  connection  widi 
the  commission  form  of  government  (q.v.  See 
also  City  Manager)  as  worked  out  tn  Des 
Moines,  Iowa,  and  other  places.  The  two  can- 
didates for  m^or  and  the  dght  candidates  for 


>y  Google 


ELECTIONS 


the  four  coimnissioiiershqis  recetvingthe  hixb- 
esl  numbeT  of  votes  may  participate  in  Use 
second  and  final  election.  In  all  elections,  party 
emblems,  circles,  or  other  designations  are  pro- 
hibited in  connection  with  candidates'  names. 
In  some  cities  (as  Berkeley,  Cal),  if  any  candi- 
date receive  a  majority  of  ail  the  votes  cast,  a 
second  election  is  unnecessary  so  far  as  tbat 
[larticular  office  is  concerned.  In  some  locali- 
ties prefereotial  voting  has  been  adopted  so  that 
national  political  parties  will  be  elimmated  from 
local  elections.  If  any  number  of  persons  not 
constituting  a  politick  party  be  entitled  to  make 
nominations  in  the  ustial  way  and  to  have  the 
names  of  their  candidates  placed  upon  the  official 
ballot,  they  may  present  to  the  proper  officials 
a  petition  containing  the  required  number  of 
signatures  of  qualified  electors  and  their  nomi- 
nees may  enjoy  the  same  privileges  on  the 
official  ballot  as  accorded  to  those  regularly 
nominated  by  an  existing  party.  Nominations 
by  petition  are  used  chiefly  in  local  elections, 
and,  unless  required  by  statute,  no  party  em- 
blems or  designations  are  used  in  connection 
with  the  names  of  candidates.  Under  a  law 
passed  in  1907  Wisconsin  permits  nominations 
Id  be  made  by  petition  only;  but  after  nomina- 
tions are  filed  upon  petition  of  5  per  cent  of 
the  electors  a  preliminary  election  may  be 
called  to  select  the  two  candidates  for  each 
office  and  those  two  only  are  voted  upon  at 
the  final  election.  In  many  States  a  declaration 
of  party  affiliation  is  necessary  under  the  pri~ 
mary  law.  Illinois  further  prohibits  the  panici- 
palion  in  a  primary  of  anyone  who  has  voted 
in  the  primary  of  another  party  within  the  pre- 
ceding two  years.  Some  Stales  {as  New  York) 
use  a  system  of  party  registration  similar  to 
that  used  for  general  elections.  When  the 
voter  registers  at  that  time  an  opportunity  is 
presentea  to  him  to  declare  his  party  affiliation, 
if  any,  and  from  these  declarations  a  list  of 
parly  voters  is  compiled  which  is  used  as  the 
registration  for  the  ensuing  primary  election. 
The  California  law  of  1899  and  the  Oregon 
law  of  1901,  which  allowed  electors  to  vote  for 
either  party  without  divulging  party  preferences, 
were  declared  unconstitutional.  Under  the 
Wisconsin  law  of  1903  the  ballot  is  absolutely 
secret  and  the  voter  may  vote  for  the  candi- 
date of  whichever  party  he  may  choose,  but 
he  may  not  vote  with  more  than  one  party  at 
any  election.  The  *open  primary'  eliminates 
the  party  test  which  is  applied  in  the  'dosed 
primary.'  In  the  non-partisan  primary  no  party 
test  can  be  applied  since  the  elector  voles  for 
any  candidate  be  may  choose  regardless  of 
party  ties. 

Campaign  Expenses  and  Contribntiona. — 
See  CoHHUPT  Practices  Acts  ;  Electoral 
Frauds;  Ballot;  Bribe;  Lobby;  Congress,  Etc 

Voting  Diatricta.—  So  that  participation  in 
elections  may  be  easy,  counties,  cities  and  towns 
arc  divided  into  small  precincts  or  election  dis- 
tricts, each  conlainine  a  few  hundred  voters 
and  operating  under  uie  supervision  of  an  elec- 
tion board.  Whether  composed,  as  at  different 
periods  and  in  different  States  they  have  been, 
of  cotmties,  cities,  townships,  borou^s.  wards 
of  cities,  or  of  precincts,  election  districts  al- 
ways indicate  subdivisions  of  the  State's  terri- 
tory marked  out  by  known  boundaries  prear- 
ranged and  declared  by  public  authority.  As 
nesily   as   possible,    ci^  precincts   contain   ftn 


equal  number  of  voters;  they  musi  be  entire 
wards  or  contained  wholly  within  one  ward  or 
one  town  and  cannot  be  composed  of  parts  of 
adjacent  wards  or  districts.  The  election  dis- 
trict, however,  is  never  used  as  a  unit  of  repre- 
sentation in  local  government  nor  as  an  adiiiin- 
istrative  division  m  the  conduct  of  municipal 
business.    See  District. 

Polling  Places.— The  law  designates  the 
manner  of  the  internal  arrangemeots  of  polling 
places  so  that  the  voter  will  have  perfect  free- 
dom in  marking  and  depositing  his  ballot. 
Where  the  Australian  ballot  is  used,  the 
statutes  require  that  polling  places  contain 
booths  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  one 
voter  and  so  constructed  that  the  voter  will  be 
screened  while  preparing  his  ballot  Booths 
should  be  shut  oS  W  guard  rails  and  no  un- 
authorized person  allowed  to  go  within  these 
confines.  In  most  States  no  official  ballot  may 
be  taken  outside  the  polling  place.  Official  bal- 
lot boxes  are  re<iuired  at  all  elections,  and 
prior  to  the  opening  of  the  polls  these  boxes 
must  be  opened  for  public  inspection.  During 
primaries  and  elections  the  polls  are  policed  in 
accordance  with  the  law  C  though  the  presence 
of  a  police  officer  at  each  polling  place  is  not 
authorised  by  express  statutory  provision),  and 
in  some  cases  election  officers  may  exercise 
the    authority    of    justices    of    the    peace    and 

Cish  election  offenders.  Stringent  laws  have 
t  passed  in  many  States  to  protect  the  voter 
from  undue  influence  while  in  me  act  of  voting. 
In  most  States  electioneering  is  prohibited 
within  a  certain  distance  from  the  pollmg  place; 
in  some  States  polling  places  must  be  a  certain 
distance  from  saloons;  and  in  the  advanced 
Stales  saloons  are  closed  on  election  days. 
Oregon  requires  that  no  "political  badge,  button, 
or  other  insignia  shall  be  worn  at  or  about  die 
polls  on  any  election  day.* 

Registration  of  Voters.— All  persons  possess- 
ing the  constitutional  qualifications  of  electors 
may  be  and  in  nearly  all  the  States  must  be 
officially  rejpstered  on  the  voting  lists  in  dte 
districts  wherein  ihev  reside  in  advance  of  each 
electi(»i,  the  perioo  varying  in  the  several 
States,  If  a  State  constitution  or  statute  make 
re^stration  a  specified  time  before  election  day 
an  imperative  prerequisite  to  the  right  to  vot<L 
those  not  so  registered  caimot  vote  even  it 
their  other  quahficalions  comply  with  con- 
stitutional requirements.  Nevertheless  the 
courts  have  held  several  times  that  even  if  a 
person  be  not  a  qualified  voter  under  the  con- 
stitution OD  the  day  the  registration  bocdcs  are 
closed,  yet  if  he  acquire  the  necessary  quali- 
fications before  election  day  his  vote  cannot 
lawfully  be  rejected  merely  because  he  has 
not  registered.  While  the  constitutional  (luali- 
fications  must  be  left  intact,  witliout  excisions 
or  adtlitions,  the  legislature  may  prescribe  reg- 
ulations to  determine  if  the  prospective  voter 
possess  the  required  qualifications;  hence  the 
passage  of  a  ref^stry  law  requiring  registrztioD 
as  a  condition  precedent  to  tne  ri{^t  to  vote  is 
not  unconstitutional;  where  such  a  law  exists 
an  election  held  without  such  registration  is 
void,  but  if  the  State  constitution  provide  that 
the  legislature  shall  enact  a  registnation  law  and 
the  legislature  fails  to  do  so,  an  election  without 
registration  is  valid.  Arkaiisas  and  Texas  do 
not  require  registration;  in  Oklahoma  registra- 
tion is  required  in  all  cities  of  the  first  class; 


,  Google 


ELECTIONS 


in  'Kansas  and  Ohio  in  cities  of  the  first  and 
second  classes ;  in  Kentucky  in  cities  of  the  first, 
second,  third  and  fourth  classes ;  in  Washington 
in  all  cities  and  towns  and  in  voting  precincts 
with  a  voting  population  of  2S0  or  more;  in 
North  Dakota  m  cities  and  villa^s  of  800  or 
more  inhabitants;  in  Maine  in  cities  and  towns 
of  over  2,000  inhabitants;  in  Iowa  and  Ne- 
braska in  cities  of  3,500  and  7,000  or  more  in- 
habitants, respectivelvj  in  Missouri  in  cities  of 
100,000  or  more  inhabitants ;  and  in  all  dties  of 
Pennsylvania.  In  all  incorporated  cities,  vil- 
l^es  and  towns  of  Illinois  which  have  adopted 
the  election  commissioner  act  of  the  State,  un- 
registered persons  may  not  vote,  but  elsewhere 
they  mav  swear  in  their  votes  if  they  produce  a 
creditable  witness  to  prove  their  electoral  quali- 
fications. In  Rhode  Island  non-taxpayen  are 
required  to  re^ster  each  year  before  30  June. 
In  the  larger  cities  voters  must  appear  in  per- 
son before  the  registering  officers,  but  in  rural 
districts  the  voter  often  is  registered  by  official 
declaration  and  ihe  registration  list  is  compiled 
by  local  authorities,  subject  to  revision  on  de- 
mand of  interested  parties.  In  order  to  prevent 
false  registration  some  of  the  large  cities  have 
nersonal  identification  laws.  The  old  suffrage 
laws  of  the  Southern  States  and  the  compli- 
cated registration  taws  practically  eliminated  the 
negro  vote,  and  even  under  the  recent  suffrage 
amendments  to.  the  constitutions,  voting  by 
negroes  is  a  difficult  task  since  registrars  must 
determine  whether  an  applicant  possesses  the 
required  suffrage  qualifications,  can  'read  the 
constitution,  or  understand  it  wtien  read  to  him, 
or  sive  a  reasonable  interpretation  thereof,'  or 
imoerstands  'the  duties  and  obligations  of 
citliens  under  a  republican  form-  of  govem- 

ReglatiT  Boards.^  The  election  process  is 
controlled  by  official  (and  usually  compensated) 
boards  of  registrars,  who  must  be  qualified 
voters  in  the  election  districts  wherein  their 
duties  are  to  be  performed;  their  duty  on  the 
days  designated  as  registration  days  is  to  pre- 
pare lists  of  oualifieo  electors  to  be  usetf  as 
check  hsts  at  the  polls.  If  registration  officers 
wrongfully  and  wilfully  refuse  to  enter  the 
name  of  «  qualified  elector  on  the  voting  list 
they  are  liable  in  a  civil  action  for  damagei. 
The  boards  are  usually  bi-partisan  and  are  gen- 
erally supplemented  by  watchers  from  the 
various  parties  which  have  nominated  candi- 
dates.    At  election  time  each  party  usually  has 


E  challengers  who  endeavor  to  pre- 
vent election  frauds  by  diallenging-  those  ill 
gaily  attempting-  to  vote  or  those  who: 


vote  is  considered  doubtful.  Generally,  any 
citizen  who  believes  an  elector  is  attempting 
illegally  to  cast  a  ballot  has  the  right  to  chal- 
lenge him  and  to  state  his  objections.  In 
Massachusetts  cities  and  towns,  at  specified 
times  precedins  elections,  the  registry  boards 
are  in  session  lor  the  purpose  of  allowing  ap- 
idicantB  to  prove  their  possession  of  the  re- 
quired suffrage  qualifications^  but  in  Boston  the 
police,  trader  the  supervision  of  a  special 
listing  board,  make  a  house-to-house  can- 
vass to  enroll  voters.  Under  the  New  York 
law  of  1508  the  registry  boards  in  cities  of 
over  1,000.000  inhabitants  must  very  carefully 
examine  the  voter,  not  only  as  to  name,  age, 
birthplace,  address,  occupation,  years  of  resi- 
dence in  State  and  at  address,  and  where  and 


when' he  last  voted,  but  also  if  he  be  married, 
if  he  occupy  the  entire  house,  or  only  a  floor 
or  room  and  which  one;  and  tiiey  must  obtain 
the  name  of  lessee  of  the  building,  etc.  Mence, 
if  challenged  when  voting,  a  comparison  of  the 
voter's  answers  with  the  data  previously  su^ 
plied  will  quickly  and  quite  dependably  prove  his 
identit>[,  which  can  also  be  more  accurately 
determined  by  a  comparison  of  signatures, 
since  those  who  can  write  must  sign  the  registry 
book.  All  lists  of  registered  voters  are  public 
records  and  are  open  to  reasonable  inspection 
by  the  public. 

The  Voting  Proceaa> —  The  names  and  resi- 
dences of  voters  are  recorded  in  the  pollbook 
in  numerical  order  as  they  enter  the  polling 
places,  after  which  the  election  official  ^ftves  the 
voter  a  ballot  usually  corresponding  m  num- 
ber with  his  number  in  the  pollbook,  though 
the  courts  have  decided  that  where  a  State 
constitution  requires  that  popular  elections  shall 
be  by  secret  ballot,  any  statute  requiring  the 
numbering  of  ballots  with  figures  correspond- 
ing with  the  figures  placed  opposite  the  voter's 
name  on  the  poll  list  is  unconstitutional  and 
void,  since  it  utterly  destroys  the  secrecy  of  the 
ballot.  The  voter  then  retires  to  the  booths 
provided  so  that  the  ballot  may  be  marked 
secretly,  but  should  he  be  unable  to  read  or 
write  or  be  physically  incapacitated  he  ma^ 
request  assistance  from  one  of  the  election  offi- 
daJs.  All  members  of  the  election  board  (but 
no  one  else)  may  witness  the  preparation  of 
the  ballot  of  such  voter,  but  must  not  reveal 
the  name  of  the  person  for  whom  the  elector 
has  voted.  After  marking  the  ballot  the  voter 
folds  it  so  that  the  contents  may  not  be  seen 
and  hands  it  to  the  designated  election  officer. 


chaittnan  of  the  board;  this  completes  the  proc- 
ess and  a  clerk  records  in  the  pollbook  the 
fact  that  the  elector  has  duly  voted.  Should 
a  ballot  be  mutilated,  the  elector  may  obtain  a 
perfect  one  from  the  election  officers  on  sur- 
rendering the"  defective  one.  Le^slatures  may 
prescribe  official  ballots  and  prohibit  the  use  of 
any  other-  they  may  also  provide  for  printing 
on  the  ballots  die  names  of  regularly  nominated 
candidates  or  of  independent  candidates,  pro- 
vided in  so  doing  tney  do  not  violate  the 
voter's  constitutional  right  to  vote  for  the  per- 
son of  his  choice.  No  legislature  is  empowered 
to  restrict  electors  in  their  choice  of  candidates 
or  to  prohibit  them  from  voting  for  others 
than  those  whose  names  are  on  the  ballots. 
Nominations  entitle  nominees  to  places  on  the 
facial  ballot,  printed  at  public  expense  but 
the  voter  may  write  or  paste  on  his  bal- 
lot the  names  of  eligible  candidates  (whether 


thereon,  and  £is  right  is  generally  recog^ 
nized  since  blank  spaces  next  to  the  printed 
names  are  left  for  such  writing  or  pasting. 
The  right  of  an  elector  to  vote  may  be  chal- 
lenged if  his  qualifiotions  appear  to  be  de- 
fective or  if  he  be  suspected  of  some  fraudulent 
practice.  An  oath  or  affirmation  is  then  admin- 
istered to  the  challenged  elector  under  which 
he  swears  truthfully  to  answer  all  questiona 
respecting  his  qualifications,  but  if  the  elector 
refuse  to  be  sworn  and  examined  he  loses  dw 
right  to  vote.    If  the  answers  to  tlicte  qiHt>' 


.lOogle 


BLKCTlOMS 


tiQiis  seem  to  cstaublish  the  elector's  ri^t  to 
vote  and  the  challenge  be  withdrawn,  the 
elector,  again  under  oath,  must  declare  that  he 
possesses  all  the  legal  requirements.  He  may 
then  vote  but  the  act  of  voting,  after  tatdag 
the  oath,  renders  him  liable  to  cnminal  prosecu' 
tion  if  his  declarations  be  proven  false. 

The  BtlloL— See  Bauot. 

Votins  Machinea. —  See  Voting  Machines. 

Counting  the  Vote.— Usually  the  polls  are 
open  from  ^aity  in  the  morning  until^  a  desig' 
nated  hour  at  night,  after  which  no  more  voters 
are  admitted,  finmediately  after  the  last  bal- 
lot has  been  deposited  the  counting  begins 
(sometimes  publicly,  sometimes  in  a  private 
room),  the  details  being  recorded  OD  the  official 
and  standard  tally  sheets  with  which  each  poll- 
ing place  has  been  furnished.  The  chairman 
unlocks  the  box,  extracC£  the  ballots,  one  by 
one,  opens  each  and  announces  the  candidate 
for  whom  the  elector  has  voted.  If  mutilated 
or  illegally  marked  by  the  voter  the  ballot  may 
be  rejected;  though  ballots  should  not  be  re- 
jected because  of  tearing  or  of  slight  irre^lari- 
ties  in  marking  unless  such  mark  or  mutilation 
appear  to  have  been  made  for  corrupt  purposes: 
all  rejected  ballots  are  set  aside  and  returned 
with  die  valid  ballots  so  that,  in  caee  of  a  con- 
test, the  proper  judicial  authorities  may  eX' 
amine  them.  All  valid  ballots  are  recorded  by 
the  clerks  as  announced  by  the  chairman  and 
are  then  tiled  in  the  form  required  by  law. 
The  clerks  keep  two  or  more  independent  tally 
sheets  which  are  totalled  at  the  end  of  the 
counting  and  the  results  ofEclally  announced. 
The  poTlbooks  and  the  tally  sheets  (properly 
authenticated  by  the  election  ofhciaU  of  the  dis- 
trict) are  then  sealed  and  turned  over  to  some 
designated  ol^cial,  such  as  the  counw  clerk  or 
in  larger  cities  to  a  si)ecial  board.  The  ballots 
are  locked  and  sealed  in  the  ballot  boxes  which 
are  then  delivered  to  the  proper  authorities,  in 
some  cities,  as  New  York,  to  the  ^lice  who 
preserve  tbem  for  a  stipulated  penod  so  that 
a  recount  may  be  made  in  case  of  a  contested 
election.  After  the  tally  sheets  have  reached 
the  election  board  or  other  designated  ofhcial, 
such  as  the  county  clerk,  they  are  reviewed  to 
ensure  absolute  correctness  and  the  results  are 
officialljt  published.  In  State  elections,  county 
or  municipal  results  are  usually  dispatched  to 
the  secretary  of  state  who  reviews  them  with 
the  aid  of  a  State  board  of  canvassers.  In 
some  States  the  individual  voting  districts  send 
their  returns  direct  to  the  secretary  of  slate; 
in  other  States  these  returns  are  sent  to  the  pre- 
siding officers  of  .the  two  branches  of  the  legis- 
lature  and  are  opened  and  canvassed  in  their 
presence.  In  other  States  the  returning  boards 
consist  of  certain  specially  designated  ofGcers. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  canvassers  to  issue  a  cer- 
tificate of  election  to  the  person  whom  the  face 
of  the  returns  indicates  to  have  been  elected. 
Should  a  candidate  (who  may  or  may  not  have 
been  present  at  the  count  of  the  ballots)  bei 
Iteve  ne  has  been  defeated  by  fraud,  illegdl 
voting  or  incorrect  counting,  he  maj;  file  a  con- 
test notice  with  the  court  having  jurisdiction, 
which  not  only  may  order  a  recount  but  may 
also  enforce  its  judgment  as  against  the  con- 
clusion of  the  election  ofhcial.  Unless  a  specific 
^ant  of  power  be  made  in  the  State  constitur 
tion  or  Jq'  the  te^'slature  in  conformity  with 
constitutional  provisions,  the  duties  of  county 


anij  State  canvassing  boards  are  wholly  minis- 
terial; they  are  not  empowered  to. go  behind 
the  returns,  to  decide  upon  the  legality  of  the 
votes  cast  nor  to  throw  out  tlie  votes  of  a  pre- 
cinct or  district  in  which  fraud  is  alleged. 

Duty  to  Accept  Office.— Under  the  coitt- 
mon  law  every  citizen,  in  peace  as  well  as  in 
war,  owes  his  services  to  the  State  when  re- 
quired; hence,  after  having  been  regularly 
elected  and  duly  appointed,  persons  may  be 
compelled  to  take  the  oath  and  q^ualify  uiem- 
sclves  as  public  officers  under  pain  of  indict- 
ment or  anv  pecuniary  penally ;  the  only  de- 
fenses are  illegal  election  or  appointment,  legal 
disqualification  to  hold  the  ofhce  or  proof  that 
the  office  is  incompatible. 

CoDteated  SlectionB.—  See  EXicnoits,  Con- 
tested. 

Federal  Control  of  Blectiont.—  See  Elec- 
tions, Federal  Control  of. 

Electoral  Fnuda  and  Safeguards  Against 
—See  that  title. 

Minority  and  Proportional  Representa- 
tion.— See  that  title. 

Majorities  and  Pluralities. —  There   i 


election.  In  compulation  it  may  mean  the 
amount  by  which  the  greater  number  exceeds 
the  lesser,  if  but  two  numbers  are  compared ;  or 
the  amount  by  which  the  greatest  number  ex- 
ceeds the  total  of  the  lesser  numbers ;  or  the 
amount  by  which  the  greatest  number  exceeds 
the  next  to  the  greatest.  For  the  last  caSe  we 
the   word   'plurality;*    but   in 

..    .    _..  ^^Kf' 

onl^  thereto  from  time  _  immemorial.  The 
weight  of  American  usage  restricts  •majority* 
to  excess  of  the  greatest  number  of  votes  over 
the  total  of  the  rest,  and  we  say  that  for  % 
majority  a  total  of  one  more  than  halt  is  neces- 
sary. This  practice  dates  from  colonial  times. 
In  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
South  Carolna  and  Georgia,  a  majority  seems 
to  have  been  required;  in  other  colonies  as  a 
rule  a  simple  plurality  suiHced.  New  York  put 
the  plurahty  rule  into  her  constitution  of  1/77 
and  most  of  the  other  Slates  followed  her  ex- 
ample, but  the  belief  In  the  virtues  of  an  abso- 
lute majority  lingered  in  the  New  England 
States  till  the  middle  of  the  following  century. 
Propositions  to  go  back  to  the  absolute  majority 
plan  are  now  very  rarely  heard,  and  in  the  mat- 
ter of  popular  elections  the  subject  still  has 
importance  only  because  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  requires  an  absolute  majority 


of  electoral  i 


s  for  the  choice  of  President. 


In  conventions  the  majority  rule  yet  prevails, 
occasionally  entailing  hundreds  of  ballots,  and 
in  the  Democratic  national  conventions  a  two- 
thirds  vote  is  required  10  nominate.  In  pri- 
maries and  caucuses  the  plurality  plan  prevails 
by  almost  invariable  custom,  voters  everywhere 
being  imwilUng  to  give  the  time  required  for 
repeated  ballots. 

Under  the  Constitution  a  majority  vote  in 
the  electoral  college  may  elect  a  President  who 
did  not  receive  either  a  majority  or  a  plurality 
of  the  popular  votes  cast,  though  probably  die 
framers  of  the  Constitution  intended  that  no 
President  should  be  elected  without  substantial 
support  in  a  considerable  number  of  States. 
Often  delegations  are  divided  under  the  system 


,^le 


of  Statewide  popular  vote.  This  is  possible 
it  a  -  State  legislature  should  decide  that  the 
electors  of  that  State  be  chosen  by  districts. 
This  system  was  followed  by  Maryland  up  to 
1832  and  in  1893  the  Michigan  ledslature 
changed  the  districts  and  thus  divided  the 
State  electoral  delegation.  But  as  a  rule  all 
electors,  save  those  chosen  by  legislatures,  have 
been  chosen  by  general  ticket  since  1836,  for 
which  reason  the  ticket  that  obtains  a  plurality , 
of  the  popular  votes  elects  all  the  electors  of,' 
that  State.  Sometimes,  however,  when  the 
vote  is  close,  the  electors  with  the  highest  vole 
on  one  ticket  may  defeat  the  electors  with  the 
lowest  vote  on  another  ticket.  This  happened 
in  California  in  1880  when,  of  the  161,000  votes  ' 
cast,  the  difference  on  the  head  of  the  ticket 
was  only  78,  with  the  result  that  one  Republi-, 
can  and  five  Democratic  electors  were  chosen. 
In  the  same  State  in  1912  two  of  the  Demo- 
cratic electors  overran  the  lowest  two  on  the 
ProEfcssive .  ticket,  so  that  the  State  sent  a 
divided  delegation  to  the  electoral  college  of 
11  Progressives  and  two  Democrats.  Often 
the  electors  represent  a  minoritjr  of  the  State 
votes,  and  sometimes  the  majority  of  the  elec- 
toral vote  may  represent  a  minority  of  the 
popular  vote.  In  1824  Jackson  received  50,550 
votes  more  than  Adams,  but  received  40,300 
votes  less  than  his  three  opponents  combined. 
In  1844  Polk  received  38.001)  votes  more  than 
Clay  but  the  combined  vote  for  Oay  and  Bir- 
ney  put  him  in  a  minority  of  24,100.  In  1848 
Taylor  had  a  plurality  of  139,000  but  a 
minority  of   151,500.     In  1856  Buchanan  had  a 

tlurality  of  497,000  but  a  minority  of  377,000. 
incoln  received  nearly  500,000  more  votes  than 
Douglas  but  nearly  050,000  votes  .less  than  all 
his  opponents  combined.  In  1876  Hayes,  though 
chosen  President  by  one  electoral  vote,  not  only 
had  a  minus  plurahty  of  251,000  hut  was  in  the 
minori^  by  about  345,000.  In  1880  Garfield 
had  a  plurality  of  7,000  over  Hancock  but  was 
in  the  minority  by  over  310,000.  In  1884  Oeve- 
iand  received  about  62,000  votes  more  than 
Blaine  but  was  in  the  minority '  by  about 
230,000.  In  1888  Cleveland  received  nearly 
100,000  more  popular  votes  than  Harrison  but 
the  latter  was  elected  even  though  he  was  in 
a  minority  of  500,000.  In  1892,  however,  Oevc- 
land  received  a  plurality  of  380,000  over  Har- 
rison but  was  in_a  mmority  of  950,000.  In 
1912  a  striking  discrepancy  occurred  between 
the  electoral  and  popular  votes,  Wilson  carry- 
ing 43  of  the  48  States  and  having  a  clear 
majority  of  339  in  the  electoral  college,  white 
he  had  a  plurality  of  2,150,000  over  his  nearest 
opponent,  but  was  in  the  minority  by  2,500,000. 
Hence,  with  the  exception  of  Hayes  and  Har- 
rison, alt  the  Presidents  would  have  been 
elected  by  at  least  a  plurality  if  the  election 
had  been  directly  pofiular.  On  the  other  hand 
a  small  popular  majority  for  the  electors  in 
one  State  may  swing  the  election,  as  was  the 
case  in  New  York  in  1884  and  1888;  in  the 
former  year  Cleveland  carried  the  State  by 
1,047  which  gave  him  the  36  electoral  votes  of 
that  State  and  decided  the  election  in  his 
favor ;  in  1888  these  votes  were  turned  over  to 
Harrison  by  a  plurality  of  about  15,000,  thus 
electing  him  President.  In  1916  v^as  cast  the 
largest  vote  in  the  history  of  American  politics. 
Wilson  had  a  plurality  of  nearly  570,000  over 
Hughes    but    an    electoral    vote    of    only  276 


against  255  for  Hughes,  this  being  the  nar- 
rowest margin  of  electoral  votes  determining 
an  election  since  1876.  So  even  was  the  voting 
in  some  of  the  States  that  Wilson  won  N^w 
Hampshire  by  only  56  votes.  New  Mexico  by 
2,400,  North  DakoU  by  2,600,  California  by 
3,700,  and  Nevada  by  5,600,  whereas  Hughes 
gained  the  electoral  votes  of  Minnesota  by  3 


Island  by  about  5,000  each.  In  spite  of  the 
closeness  of  the  election  no  Eslil  delegations 
of  electors  were  sent  to  the  electoral  college. 
See  Unttzd  States- DispuTEO  Pbesidential 
Elections;  Electoral  Comuission. 

Bibliography.— Ashley,  R.  L.,  "The  Ameri- 
can Federal  State'  (New  York  1908) ;  Beard, 
C.  A.,  'American  Government  and  Politics' 
fib.  1914),  and  'The  Ballot's  Burden'  (Boston 
1909)  ;  Bacon,  E.  M..  and  Wyman,  M.,  'Direct 
Elections  and  Law-Makjng  by  Popular  Vote' 
(ib.  1912) ;  Bryce,  James,  'American  Common- 
wealth' (rev.  ed.,  New  York  1914):  Burch, 
H.  R.,  '  Conditions  Affecting  Suffrage  in 
Colonies'  (Philadelphia  1902)  ;  Bullock.  E.  D., 
'Short  Ballot'  (New  York  1915);  Becker,  Carl, 
'Nominations  in  Colonial  New  York'  (in 
American  Historical  Review,  Vol,  VL  pp. 
260-275,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1901) ;  Brooks,  R.  C, 
'Corruption  in  American  Politics  and  Life' 
(New  York  1910);  Bishop.  C.  F.,  <History  of 
Elections  in  American  (Colonies'  (ib.  1893) ; 
Commons,  J.  R.,  'Proportional  Representation' 
(ib.  1907) ;  Childs.  R.  S.,  'Short  Ballot  Princi- 
ples' (Boston  1911);  Qarfce,  J.  H.,  'The  Pith 
of  the  Short  Ballot'  (Cleveland  1912) ;  CooIct, 
T.  M.,  'Constitutional  Limitations'  (7th  ed., 
Boston  1903)  ;  Dougherty,  J.  H..  'The  Elec- 
toral System  of  the  United  States'  (New  York 
1906);  Daltinger,  F.  W,  'Nominations  for 
Elective  Offices'  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1914) ; 
Dickey,  F.  W.,  'The  Presidential  Preference 
Primary'  (in  American  PoUlicat  Science  Re- 
view. Vol.  IX,  pp.  467-487,  Baltimore  1915)  ; 
Fanning,  C.  E.,  'Selected  Articles  on  Direct 
Primaries'  (Minneapolis  1911):  Ford,  H.  J., 
'Rise  and  Growth  of  American  Politics'  (New 
York  1898) ;  Glasson,  W.  H..  'The  Australian 
Voting  System'  (Durham,  N.  C,  19091 ;  Gar- 
ner, J.  W.,  'Introduction  to  Political  Science' 
(New  York  1910)  ;  Griffith,  E  C,  'Rise  and 
Development  of  the  Gerrymander'  ((Chicago 
1907)  ;  Hart,  A.  B..  "Exercise  of  the  Suffrage' 
(in  Political  Science  Quarterly,  Vol.  VII,  pp. 
307-329,  1892)  and  "Actual  Government'  (New 
York  1908);  Haworth,  P.  L.,  'The  Hayes- 
Titden  Disputed  Presidential  Election  of  1876' 
(Qeveland  1906) ;  Haynes,  F.  £.,  'Third  Party 
Movements  since  the  Civil  War'  (in  The 
Nation,  Vol,  CIII,  pp.  511-512,  New  York  1916)  ; 
Haynes,  H.  G,,  'The  Election  of  Senators'  (New 
York  1906) ;  Humphrey,  J.  H.,   'Proportwnal 


United  States'  (New  York  1912)  ;  Uprade. 
W.  T.,  'The  Nominating  Primary'  (in  North 
American  Review,  Vol.  CC,  pp,  235-243,  New 
York  1914);  Lowell,  A.  L.,  'Public  Opinion 
and  Popular  Government'  (ib.  1913)  ;  Lowrfe, 
S.  G,  'Corrupt  Practices  at  ElectJMls'  (Madi- 
son. Wis  1911);  Luetscher,  G,  D.,  'Early 
Political    Machinery    in    the    United    States' 


ELECTIONS 


Mecbon,  F.  R.,  <Law  of  Public  Offices  and 
Officers)  (Cbicaffo  1890) ;  McCraty,  G.  W., 
'American  Law  of  Elections'  (ib.  1897) ; 
McKinley,  A.  E.,  'Suffrage  Frandiise  in  the 
Thirteen  English  Colonies'  (Philadelphia 
1905);  MacauTey,  Ward,  'RecUimmg  the  Bal- 
lot' (New  York  1916)  :  MacMillan,  D,  C, 
'Elective  Franchise  in  the  United  Slates'  (ib. 
1898);  Macy,  Jesse,  'Party  Organiiation  and 
Machinery'  (ib.  1912) ;  Uacy,  Jesse,  and  G<ui- 
naway,  J.  W.,  'Comparative  Free  Government' 
(ib,  1915)  ;  Meyer,  E.  C.  'Nominating  S^- 
tems'  (Madison,  Wis.,  1902)  ;  Merriam,  C.  E., 
'History  of  American  Political  Theories' 
(New  York  1910)  and  'Primary  Elections' 
^Chicago  1909);  Michael,  W.  H.,  'Elections' 
(in  'Cyclopedia  of  Law  and  Procedure,^  Vol. 
XV.  pp.  268-465.  New  York  1905) ;  and  also 
the  arucles  'Vole'  (in  id,.  Vol.  XL.  pp.  224-228. 
New  York  1912)  and  'BalloC  (m  .'Corpus 
Juris.'  Vol.  VI,  pp.  1173-75,  ib.  I9I6) ;  Ostro- 
gorslii.  M..  'Democracy  and  the  Party  System 
in  the  United  States'  (New  York  1910)  ;  Potts. 
C.  S.,  'The  Convention  System  and  the  Presi- 
dential Primary'  (in  Anuricaw  Review  of 
Revitwt,  Vol.  XLV.  No.  5,  M>.  561-566^  New 


York    1^12);    Rhodes,  J.   F./'Hisfory  of  the 

"  ited  States.'  Vol.  VII  (ib  1906);  Ray,  P. 

^Introduction  to  Political  Parties  and  Prac- 


tical Polities'  (ib.  1913);  Reinsch,  P.  S., 
'American  Leeislatures  and  Legislative  Meth- 
ods' (ib  1907)  ;  Shaw,  A.,  '>Jational  Lesson 
froDi  Adams  County'  (in  Rroiew  of  Reviews, 
Vol.  XLIII,  pjj.  171-180,  New  Yorfc  1911) ; 
Shepard,  E.  F.,  'Compulsory  Voting'  (ib. 
1891)  i  Schaffner.  M.  A..  'Corrupt  Practices  at 
Elections'  (Madison,  Wis.,  1906)  and  'The 
Recall'  (ib.  1907);  Stanwood,  Edward.  'His- 
tory of  the  Presidency'  (Boston  1912) ;  Sloane^ 
W.  M..  'Party  Government  in  the  United 
Sutes'  (New  York  1914);  Taft,  G,  S..  'Senate 
Dection  Cases'  (Washmgton,  D.  C,  19031; 
Throop,  M.  H.,  'Law  Relating  to  Public  Offi- 
cers' (Chicago  1892)  ;  Tyson,  R.,  'Various 
Voting  Systems'  (in  The  Arena,  Vol.  XXXIX, 
pp.  S9-(A.   1908) ;  Woodbum.  J.  A.,  'PoIiUcal 


and     Party    Problems'     (Nen 


York 


Party  _       , 

1914)  ;  West,  V,  j  'Nominations  and  Elec- 
tions' (,in  Nalionai  idwticipal  Review.VoX.  Ill, 

.p.  577-581,  Philadelphia  1914) ;  Wilcox,  D.  P.. 

Government  by  all   the  People'    (ib.    19X2) ; 


'Government  by  all  the  People'  (ib.  19X2) ; 
Wigmore,  J.  H.,  'The  Australian  Ballot  Sys- 
tem' (Boston  1889);  Woodruff,  C.  R.,  'Elec- 
tion Reforms'  (in  National  Municipal  Review, 
Vol.  V,  pp.  611-619,  Philadelphia  1916)  ;  'Recent 
Experiments  with  the  Primary'  (in  World's 
Work,  Vol.  XXIII,  November  1916). 

IcviNc  £.  Rimes. 
Editor  of   'History  of  the  United  Sialet.^ 

ELECTIONS,  ContcMted.  Under  the 
Constitution,  when  the  electoral  college  fails 
to  cast  a  majority  vote,  the  election  of  Presi- 
dent was  referred  to  the  House  and  of  Vice- 
President  to  the  Senate.  The  former  decided 
the  election  of  Jefferson  in  1801  and  of  J.  Q. 
Adams  in  1829,  and  the  latter  elected  R.  M. 
Johnson  Vice-President  in  1837.  But  in  1876 
a  dispute  arose  over  the  validity  of  the  elec- 
tion of  rival  groups  of  electors  in  four  States 
(see  Ei,ECTORAL  Commission)  and  in  1887 
Congress  enacted  a  law  providing  that  each 
State  under  its  own  laws  should  designate  a 
tribunal  to  determine  the  legality  of  its  elec- 


toral votes;  but  should  no  such  tribunal  have 

been  appointed  in  case  of  double  returns,  the 
vote  of  the  Slate  is  lost  unless  the  two  houses 
agree  as  to  which  electoral  voles  from  the  State 
are  the  legal  votes.  Under  Art.  1.  Sec.  5,  fl  1 
of  the  Constitution,  each  branch  of  Congress 
is  the  judge  of  the  election,  returns  and  quali- 
fications of  its  own  members.  Although  the 
law  may  be  disregarded,  the  House  usually 
conducts  its  investigations  of  contested  elec- 
tions under  sections  lOS  to  130  of  the  'Revised 
Slatutes.*  If  an  election  is  to  be  contested, 
notice  must  be  given  within  30  days  after  the 
result  of  the  election  has  been  determined ;  the 
same  period  is  allowed  for  an  answer;  and  the 
testimony  must  be  taken  within  90  days.  In 
the  ifouse  the  task  of  investigating  these  con- 
tests is  assigned  to  three  committees,  but  in 
the  Senate  this  work  isperformed  by  the  com- 
mittee on  elections.  The  investigating  com- 
mittee is  always  controlled  by  the  party  which 
has  a  majority  in  that  branch  of  Congress  and 
its  report  is  seldom  rejected.  In  most  of  the 
States  each  branch  of  the  legislature  judges 
the  elections  and  qualifications  of  its  own  mem- 
bers, and  this  power  is  granted  also  to  the 
councils  of  many  cities.  As  these  bodies  are 
supreme  within  their  respective  spheres  of  ac- 
tion, courts  are  without  jurisdiction  to  hear 
and  determine  contested  elections  of  their 
members.  In  half  the  States,  the  legislature 
is  empowered  to  decide  gubernatorial  contests 
and  contests  over  one  or  more  of  the  other  " 
State  offices,  but  in  California.  Delaware  and 
Pennsylvania  these  contests  are  tried  by  a  joint 
committee  of  both  houses.  In  some  States  all 
elections  are  virtually  decided  by  the  legisla- 
ture sitting  as  the  supreme  canvassing;  board 
If  a  specific  mode  of  contesting  elections  has 
been  provided  by  statute,  that  method  alone  can 
be  employed.  In  the  absence  of  any  statutory 
proceeding  the  only  common-law  remedy  is  quo 
warranto  proceedmgs,  under  which  the  court 
demands  proof  of  the  authority  by  which  a 
person  excrdses  the  functions  of  an  office  and 
ousts  him  if  he  cannot  show  proper  and  legal 
authori^.  Strictly  speaking  a  quo  warranto 
proceeding  is  not  a  contest  between  two  per- 
sons for  the  same  office  but  merely  determines 
if  the  person  holding  the  office  be  or  be  not  a 
usurper.  If  the  incumbent  be  proved  a  usurper, 
die  judgment  is  that  he  be  ousted,  whereupon 
the  proper  officials  will  execiite  the  supposed 
will  of  the  people  by  placing  the  candidate  actu- 
ally elected  in  possession  of  the  vacated  office. 
Consult  Michael,  W.  H..  'Elections'  (in  'Cy- 
clopedia of  Law  and  Procedure,'  Vol.  XV,  pp. 
2W^6S,  New  York  1905) ;  Mechem,  F.  R., 
'Law  of  Public  Offices  and  Officers'  (Chicago 
McCrary,    G.    W.,    'American   Law   of 


442,   Boston   1  ...._... 

Legislatures  and  Legislative  Methods'  (Nev 
York  1907);  Rowell,  C.  H.,  'Historical  ana 
Legal  Ingest  of  Contested  Election  Cases  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  1789-1901'  (Wash- 
ington 190!) ;  Taft.  G.  S,,  'Senate  Election 
Cases'  (Washington  1903)  ;  'Compilation  of 
Senate  Election  Cases,  1789-1913>  ('Senate 
Document'  1036.  62d  Congress,  3d  session, 
1913);  and  authorities  cited  in  article  EuK- 


.700g[e 


BLBCTIONS— ELSCTIVE  COURSES 


ELECTIONS,  Federal  Cootrcd  oL  Under 
die  Gmstitution  the  Federal  government  pos- 
sesses a  large  measure  of  control  over  elections 
at  which  seoaiors  and  representatives  are 
chosen.    Each   State   legislature  possesses   the 


sress  is  authorised  to  make  entirely  new  regu- 
lations or  to  add  to,  modify  or  alter  such  regu- 
lations, save  those  relating  to  the  choosing  of 
senators  (Art.  I,  Sec  IV,  fl  1).  In  1842  Con- 
gress provided  that  members  of  the  House 
should  be  chosen  by  districts  and  this  proce- 
dure is  still  in  vc^fue ;  an  act  passed  in  1866  pre- 
scribed the  manner  of  choosing  senators  by  the 
Sute  legislatures.  On  31  May  1870  Congress 
enacted  a  law  providing  that  all  persons  other- 
wise qualified  should  Be  granted  the  right  to 
vote  at  alt  elections,  irrespective  of  race,  color 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude,  this  act 
being  supplemented  by  another  (28  Feb.  1871) 
relating  particularly  to  the  election  of  repre- 
sentatives. This  act  stipulated  that  voting 
should  be  by  ballot  and  also  provided  for  the 
appointment  by  circuit  jut^es  on  application  of 
election  inspectors  in  cities,  the  main  object 
being  to  break  up  the  prevailing  corrupt  prac- 
tices. Federal  courts  subsequently  declared  un- 
constitudona)  some  parts  of  this  law  and  in 
1894  the  sections  providing  for  Federal  super- 
vision were  repealed.  On  2  Feb.  1872  Congress 
definitely  established  the  Tuesday  following  the 
-first  Monday  in  November  (starting  in  1876) 
as  the  date  for  Congressional  elections  but 
SMue  exceptians  to  this  rule  were  allowed  under 
the  amending  act  of  3  March  1875.  Since  that 
time  (apart  from  the  direct  election  of  senxtors 
by  constitutional  amendment)  the  Federal  gor- 
enunent  has  concerned  itself  chiefly  with  legis- 
lation pertaining  to  party  activities,  and  pass- 
ing  acts  relating'  to  corporation  contributions 
to  campaign  funds,  publicity  of  campaign  funds, 
corrupt  practices  acts,  etc  See  QnauPT  Prac- 
tices Acts;  Elecims;  Elections,  Contested. 

ELECTIVE  AFFINITIES,  The.  Goethe's 
•Wahlverwandtschaften'  (Elective  Affinities), 
first  intended  for  insertion  among  the  numerous 
short  stories  in  the  second  part  of  'Wilhelm 
Meister,'  grew  beyond  the  hmits  of  availabil- 
ity for  such  use,  and  was  published  independ- 
ently in  1809.  Its  composition  is  in  die  lei- 
surely and  somewhat  oracular  style  which  makes 
many  of  the  episodes  in  'Wlhelm  Mcister' 
seera  more  like  the  deliverance  of  a  seer  than 
a  mirror  of  actual  life;  but  here  as  elsewhere 
Goethe  develops  a  significant  moiif  in  terms  of 
ttuman  experience,  and  the  symbolical  title, 
befits  the  manner  in  which  his  narrative  of 
what  happens  to  a  particular  group  of  persons 
invites  the  mind  to  ponder  the  inscrutable  laws 
governing  human  behavior  in  general.  The  an- 
alogy between  chemical  reactions  and  the  solu- 
tion of  personal  bonds  in  the  moral  sphere  has 
for  us  less  of  mystical  fatality  than  it  had  for 
Goethe's  romantic  contemporaries;  for  us,  how- 
ever, as  for  them  the  issue  raised  is  momen- 
tous, and  the  treatment  —  in  many  respects 
romantic  — leads  us  to  examine  the  sanctions 
of  the  first  of  all  social  institutions. 

The  story  deals  primarily  vjith  a  wedded 
couple  into  whose  domestic  circle  two  other 
persons  are  introduced;  bot  of  diese  four,  die 
young  girl  Ottilie  is  the  one  upon  whom  out 


_    focused     The    others,    even    the 

wife,  persons  of  experience  In  the  world,  may 
be  left  to  accommodate  themselves  to  changed 
conditions;  with  Ottilie  we  profoundly  sympa- 
thize; for  she,  a  being  of  celestial  purity  and 
devotedness,  becomes  unwittingly  involved  in 
the  toils  of  earthly  life  to  which  she  is  a  stran- 
ger, and  must  by  renunciation  and  death  atone 
Tor  an  involuntary  fault.  Conceived  in  dra- 
matic terms,  the  theme  might  be  said  to  be  the 
confitct  of  individual  right  with  social  conven- 
tion. But  Goethe's  concern  is  not  with  any 
moral  question  or  any  dramatic  demonstra- 
tion ;  it  is  with  the  martyrdom  of  a  hap- 
less maiden,  considered  in  its  psycho- 
logical aspect.  The  work,  loo  restricted  in 
scope  to  be  called  a  novel,  loo  diffuse  to  be  a 
Noveiie,  is  a  study  of  singular  penetration  and 
ccnnpleteness  in  the  inner  life  of  a  beautiful 
soul.  Translated  by  J.  A.  Frotide  and  R.  D. 
Boylan,  London  1854.  Consult  <The  German 
Classics>  (New  York  1913.  Vol.  11). 

WiLUAK  G.  Howard. 
BLSCTIVE  AFFINITY,  a  term  formeriy 
used  in  chemistry,  in  connection  with  the  sup- 
posed fact  that  when  a  given  chemical  substance 
IS  mixed  with  two  or  more  others  with  which 
it  is  capable  of  combining,  it  will  exhibit  a 

E referential  affinity  for  one  of  them,  and  com- 
ine  with  that  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others. 
TIus  view  of  chemical  action  is  now  Imown  to 
be  incorrect    See  EouiLmcDM,  Cheuicai. 

ELECTIVE  COURSES  and  ELECTIVE 
STUDIES,  as  applied  to  colleges  and  univer- 
sities in  particular,  and  to  all  schools  in  gen- 
eral, may  be  defined  broadly  as  that  principle 
in  education  which  permits  the  student  to 
choose  his  own  subjects  of  study  during  the 
time  of  attendance  at  school. 

The  'clecttve*  or  'optional*  feature  of  edu- 
catimial  systems  is  not  new:  it  was  in  exist- 
ence in  many  of  the  leading  schools  of  the  He- 
diseval  Ages,  and  even  earlier.  In  the  United 
States  the  prindpte  first  appeared  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  University  of  Virginia  in  1819. 
Harvard  introduced  it  in  1826,  and  from  that 
time  on  it  received  more  or  less  recognition 
thron^out  the  country.  However,  so  few 
availed  themselves  of  the  privilege  of  making 
the  elective  choice  that  more  and  more  it  came 
to  be  required  that  students  should  pursue 
certain  studies  in  order  to  obtain  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts ;  and  such  restriction  eventually 
led  to  the  exclusion  of  all  studies  that  did  not 
contribute  to  the  obtaining  of  the  desired  de- 
gree. Gradually  the  secondary  schools  adopted 
compulsory  courses  of  study  preparatory  for 
colleges,  and  crowded  out  many  of  the  studies 
that  might  fit  the  student  for  business  life 
without  ^ing  the  college  road.  The  special 
commercial,  scientific  and  art  schools  came  into 
existence  to  meet  the  wants  and  needs  of  a 
large  number  of  students.  In  the  meantime, 
the  addition  of  many  new  branches  of  study 
so  enlarged  the  educational  resources  of  the 
larger  institutions  that  a  selection  of  studies 
became  a  necessity,  and  it  seemed  wise  to  al- 
low the  student  to  elect  a  course  which  should 
definitely  aid  him  in  preparing  for  a  chosen 
occupation  after  leaving  college.  The  difficulty 
experienced  in  the  extension  of  the  elective 
course  has  been  found  in  the  fact  that  the  choice 
made  by  the  untutored  mind  of  the  average 


BLSCTIVS  HONAKCHY  — BLBC70RAL  COUUISftiON,  1877 


student  was  likely  to  be  ilt-balanced.  This  de- 
fect is  overcome  where  able  instructors,  those 
who  tinderstand  human  nature  and  its  needs, 
guide  the  immature  student ;  or,  to  use  the  mod- 
ern term,  where  there  are  wise  "advisers.* 
Present  practice  shows  a  wide  variation  from 
adminisirations  where  the  entire  course  is 
rigidly  prescribed  lo  those  where  every  study 
is  elective.  In  most  colleges  a  part  of  the 
TOurse  is  prescribed  and  ule  remainder  elec- 
tive. The  tendency,  however,  is  toward  a 
system  in  which,  while  there  are  prescribed 
courses,  the  student  is  encouraged  or  perhaps 
required  to  concentrate  his  energies  on  some 
special  line  of  study,  and  to  round  out  his 
course  wifh  studies  wholly  dective,  with  the 
advice  of  the  professors.  Id  order  to  ascer- 
tain what  colleges  and  universities  sanction  elec- 
tive courses  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  the  lat- 
est changes  direct  from  the  college  authorities. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  pohcy  of  the  edu- 
cational institutions  in  the  United  States  the 
following  summary  gathered  from  29  State  uni- 
versities and  55  other  colleges  and  universities 
is  of  interest.  English  is  required  in  78  of 
these  institutions :  it  is  elective  in  6.  One  (at 
leastj  foreign  language  is  required  in  68; 
elective  in  14.  Mauiematics  is  required  in  61 : 
elective  in  23,  Natural  science  is  required  in 
52:  elective  in  32.  History  is  retjuired  in  41: 
elective  in  43.  Physical  education  is  required  in 
38:  elective  in  46.  Philosophy  is  required  in 
32:  elective  in  52.  Psychology  is  required  in 
21 :  elective  in  63. 

Consult  Adams,  'Evolution  of  Educational 
Theory'  (1912) ;  Baker,  'American  Problems' 
(1907);  Burns.  'Elective  System  of  Studies  in 
CoUegcs'  (Calholic  World,  Vol.  LXXl,  366)  ; 
Eliot.  'EducaUonal  Reform'  (1905);  and  *Es- 
says  and  Addresses'  (1909) ;  Foster,  "Adminis- 
tration of  the  College  Curriculum'  (1911); 
Hanus,  'Problem  of  Electives'  (^Popular  Sci- 
ence Monthly,  Vol.  LVIII,  58);  Phillips, 
'Electives  in  American  Education'  (Pedagogi- 
cal Seminary,  Vol.  VIII,  206)  ;  Shaler,  Thur- 
ber  and  others.  'Dective  Studies  in  Second- 
ary Schools'  (Educatiotuit  Review,  Vol,  XV, 
417);  Thurber,  'Some  Problems  of  the  Elec- 
tive System'  (School  Review,  Vol.  IX,  79). 

BLBCTIVB    MONARCHY.     Sec    Uon- 

AICBV. 

ELECTORAL  COLLEGB.    See  Electobs. 

ELECTORAL  COMMISSION,  1877.  The 
electoral  vote  in  the  presidential  election  of  1876 
showed  184  undisputed  votes  for  Tilden-   163 

for  Hayes  ■  four  States  with  23  votes  —  South 
Carolina,  7;  Florida,  4;  Louisiana,  8;  Oregon, 
3  —  sent  in  conflicting-  returns.  If  the  Republi- 
cans won  all  the  contests,  Hayes  was  elected  by 
one  vote.  Of  these  States,  the  first  three  re- 
turned popular  majorities  for  Tilden  electora: 
but  the  'carpet-bag'  Kovcmments  in  each  had 
constituted  "retuming  boards,*  whose  function 
was  to  throw  out  enougf)  Democratic  votes,  on 
the  ground  of  intimidation  of  negro  voters,  to 
leave  a  Republican  majority.  Neither  the 
reality  of  the  intimidation,  nor  the  arbitrariness 
of  the  assumption  that  but  for  it  the  negroes 
would  all  have  voted  and  all  voted  Republican, 
is  now  disputed  by  either  party.  Oregon  chose 
Hayes  electors;  hut  as  the  retuming  boards 
would  give  the  Republicans  the  other  three 
States,  and  thercivilh  the  election  if  u^eld,  the 


Democrats  ousted  a  Hayes  elector  on  a  techni- 
cality and  replaced  him  by  a  Tilden  one,  as  a 
basis  of  compromise  or  a  menace.  Obviously, 
the  Republicans  could  not  compromise  anything 
and  win;  an^  as  they  held  the  administration 
and  the  army,  they  could  defy  threats.  The 
Senate  was  Republican,  the  House  Democratic; 
die  re  was  therefore  a  deadlock  on  the  admis- 
sion of  returns,  as  die  22d  Joint  Rule,  throwii^ 
out  disputed  States^  had  been  repealed  by  the 
Senate  20  January  for  this  very  emergency. 
Finally,  as  an  alternative  lo  a  most  dangerous 
anarchy,  both  sides  agreed  on  a  joint  commift- 
sion  to  pass  on  all  tbe  contests ;  tbe  Democrats 
being  confident  that  it  could  establish  no  guid- 
ing principle  whatever,  of  going  behind  the 
returns  or  not,  acce{)ting  or  rejecting  State  cer- 
tificates as  conclusive,  which  would  not  give 
them  at  least  one  of  the  disputed  States.  Tney 
underestimated  the  intellectual  resources  of  their 
opponents.  Tbe  act  creating  the  commission 
was  approved  29  Jan.  1877;  its  decisions  could 
only  be  reversed  by  concurrent  action  of  both 
Houses.  The  body  was  to  be  composed  of  &ve 
members  of  each  House  and  five  associate  jus- 
tices of  the  Supreme  Court;  the  latter  as  indi- 
cated were  two  Republicans  and  two  Demo- 
crats, and  were  to  select  a  fifth.  The  Senate 
appointed  three  Republicans,— G.  F,  Edmunds 
of  Vermont,  O.  P.  Morton  of  Indiana  and  F. 
T.  Frclinghuysen  of  New  Jersey ;  and  two 
Democrats,— T.  F.  Bayard  of  Delaware  and  A. 
G.  Thurman  of  Ohio,  the  latter  taken  sick  and 
replaced  by  Francis  Kernan  of  New  York. 
The  House  appointed  three  Democrats,— H.  B. 
Payne  of  Ohio,  Epiia  Hunlon  of  Virginia  and 
J.  G.  Abbott  of  Massachusetts;  and  two  Re- 
publicans,—J.  A.  Garfield  of  Ohio  and  G.  F. 
Hoar  of  Massachusetts.  Obviously^  therefore, 
the  odd  justice  would  have  the  deciding  voice. 
The  Republican  judges  were  William  Strong 
and  Samuel  F,  Miller;  the  Democratic,  Nathan 


.  .._  Democratic,  Charles  O'Connor  of  Net. 
York,  Jeremiah  S.  Black  of  Pennsylvania,  Ly- 
man Trumbull  of  Illinois,  R,  T.  Merrick  of  the 
District  of  Columbia,  Ashbel  Green  of  New 
Jersey,  Matthew  H.  Carpenter  of  WisconsiiL 
George  Hoadley  of  Ohio,  W.  C.  Whitney  of 
New  York;  Republicans,  W.  M.  Evarts  and 
E  W.  Stoughlon  of  New  York,  Stanley  Mat- 
thews and  Samuel  Shellafaarger  of  Ohio.  Other 
lawyers  appeared  on  special  points.  The  Stales 
were  taken  up  in  alphabetical  order, —  Florida, 
Louisiana,  Oregon,  South  Carolina, —  and  the 
vote  upon  each  was  eight  lo  seven  for  the  Re- 
publicans, on  every  contested  point,  Mr,  Justice 
Bradley  sustaining  all  the  contentions  of  that 
side  and  the  Republican  candidate  was  de- 
clared elected.  The  broad  decision  was,  that 
Congress  cannot,  as  it  had  done  repeatedly  be- 
fore, go  behind  the  returns  and  take  evidence 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  State  majorities  for 
electors  have  been  obtained.  On  other  points 
the  derisions  varied  with  the  cases.  In  partic- 
ular, the  Democrats  contended  ttiat  the  question 
as  to  the  eligibility  of  an  elector  who  is  also  a 
government  official  —  a  combination  forbidden 
by  the  Constitution  —  was  decided  in  two  dif- 
ferent ways  within  two  days,  on  the  Florida 
and  Louisiana  cases^  in  both  to  the  profit  of  the 


adjoumod 


8l^ 


ELECTORAL  FRAUDS  AND  SAPBGUARDS  AGAINST 


of  the  decision  was  much  helped  by  the  Demo- 
cratic speaker,  Randall  of  Pennsylvania,  who 
firmly  checked  all  Democratic  attempts  to 
■filibuster."  The  proceedings  of  the  Commis- 
sion may  be  found  in  the  'Congressional 
Record'  (Vol.  V.  Part  IV.  1877).  Consult 
Haworih,  'The  Hayes-Tilden  Diluted  Presi- 
dential Election  of  1S76'  (Qeveland  1906). 

ELECTORAL  FRAUDS  AND  SAFE- 
GUARDS AGAINST.  The  most  common 
electoral  fraud  is  bribery  (q.v.),  consisting  of 
the  gift  of  money  or  the  promise  of  some  re- 
ward either  to  vote  •right"  or  to  remain  away 
from  the  polls.  Employers  of  labor  have  been 
accused  of  attemp^ting  lo  influence  the  votes  of 
their  employees  by  threats  of  loss  of  work,  re- 
duced wages,  etc.;  physical  violence  has  been 
used  many  times;  and  sometimes  the  threatened 
loss  of  social  caste  has  operated  to  sway  the 
voter.  Priests  have  no  right,  either  in  or  out 
of  the  pulpit,  to  influence  electors  to  vote  a 
particular  way,  by  threats  of  excommunication, 
refusal  of  the  sacrament  and  the  like,  and  If 
thcy  do  SO,  it  is,  according  to  court  decisions, 
an  undue  influence  which  may  vitiate  the  elec- 
tion. The  insertion  of  fictitious  names  on  the 
roll,  the  registration  of  non-residenta  or  non- 
citiiens,  etc,  is  almost  impossible  under  present 
methods  of  re^stration.  One  source  of  election 
evil  is  found  m  faulty  methods  of  identifying 
voters.  The  fraud  that  results  takes  the  form 
of  'impersonation*  (voting  on  another  man's 
name),  or  •repeating"  (voting  more  than  once). 
Sometimes  forged  naturalization  papers  are 
issued  to  prevent  the  discovery  of  fraudulent 
voting.  Floaters  are  employed  in  many  casej, 
especially  in  the  crowded  districts  where  elec- 
tion officials  do  not  know  the  individual  voters. 
Where  a  party  has  too  many  votes  in  one 
precinct  and  too  few  in  another,  colonization  is 
sometimes  practised  (sec  Blocks  of  Five;  and 
in  this  connection  see  also  Goryiiander)  : 
groups  of  actual  voters  mav  be  transferred 
from  a  'safe'  precinct  to  a  'ooubtful*  one  and 
still  fulfil  the  letter  of  the  law  if  only  a  brief 
residence  be  required.  To  lessen  the  likelihood 
of  these  crimes,  some  Slates  require^  every 
voter  to  establish  anew  each  year  his  ri^t  to 
vote;  others  allow  a  name  once  on  the  lists  to 
stay  there  till  death  or  removal  causes  it  to  be 
dropped.  Uith  our  dread  of  red  tape  and 
formalities,  we  hesitate  to  adopt  the  ultimate 
remedy  prevailing  in  France,  where  every  man, 
as  he  steps  \xp  lo  the  ballot-box,  must  produce 
his  'electoral  card*  on  which  are  inscribed  his 
full  name,  profession  and  residence.  This  card 
is  issued  by  the  mayor  of  the  tovm  where  the 
voter  lives,,  after  the  latter  has  established  his 
identity  and  majority  by  the  production  of  a 
properly  attested  'act  of  birth.*  Each  electoral 
card  is  numbered,  and  when  it  is  presented  at 
the  polls,  the  judge  of  elections  takes  it,  and 
calls  oS  the  number  and  nan>c,  while  two  other 
judges,  with  the  ofEdal  poll-list  before  them, 
repeat  aloud  the  number  and  name  and  check 
off  on  the  register.  Then,  and  not  till  then,  the 
first  judge  accepts  the  ballot  from  the  voter 
fUkd  drops  it  bto  the  box;  and  before  handingf 
back  the  card,  he  tears  off  a  corner  of  il,  which 
renders  it  useless  for  further  voting  that  day. 
These  bits  of  card  are  strung  on  a  wire  and 
•Tc  coontetl  at  the  close  of  the  polls,  to  see  if 


they  tally  with  the  number  of  ballots  in  the  box. 
Various  methods  are  employed  to  destroy  the 
efficacy  of  a  ballot  after  it  has  been  marked 
by  the  voter.  False  counting  of  ballots  has 
been  an  easy  and  common  way  to  vitiate  elec- 
tion results.  Knavish  counters  may  nullify  bal- 
lots by  adding  marks  or  altering  them;  ballots 
may  be  rejected  on  trivial  grounds;  and  some- 
times ballot  boxes  may  be  stuffed  before  the 
polls  open.  Defective  ballots  may  be  printed 
by  omitting  or  shifting  the  position  of  candi- 

Election  frauds  developed  early,  and  an  es- 
pecial abuse  was  the  temporary  conveyancing 
of  lands,  so  as  to  enable  the  grantees  to  vote 
for  a  certain  candidate.  The  election  laws  of 
Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey  and  Virginia  for 
the  decade  1760-70  declared  penalties  for  these 
frauds.  The  illicit  use  of  money  in  elections 
began  almost  at  the  beginning  of  political  his- 
tory in  America.  Rhode  Isuind,  for  instance, 
found  it  necessary  to  pass  a  general  act  against 
bribery   and   corruption   in   1737.   and   10   years 


ludgi 
been 


..._     _eneral    Court   of    Massachusetts   ordered 
•that  if  any  freeman  shall  put  in  more  than  one 

Saper  or  beane  for  the  choyce  of  any  officer, 
e  shall  forfeit  10s  Id  for  every  offence;  and 
any  man  that  is  not  free,  putting  in  any  vote, 
shall  forfett  the  like  swnme  of  10s  Id."  The 
other  New  England  colonies  found  no  such  laws 
necessary,  but  all  the  others  had  them  save 
New  York  and  Maryland.  In  England  the  pur- 
chase of  votes  was  for  centuries  as  natural  a 
thing  as  the  sale  of  boroughs,  and.no  serious 
attempt  to  prevent  it  was  made  until  1854,  when 
the  Corrupt  Practices  Prevention  Act  defined 
bribery,  forbade  certain  petty  expenditures  and 
required  publicity  of  election  expenses  of  a 
certain  character.  Despite  this  and  other  legis- 
lation, the  evil  did  not  greatly  diminish  and  in 
1883  a  more  drastic  measure  was  adopted, 
which  has  served  as  a  model  for  legislation  else- 
where. In  England  and  Scotland  if  the  number 
of  electors  does  not  excee*  2,000,  the  Parlia- 
mentary candidate's  maximum  allowance  for 
expenses  is  £380.  with  an  additional  £30  for 
every  1,000  electors  above  2,000.  In  Ireland 
(which  contains  many  small  borough  elec- 
torates), where  the  number  does  not  exceed  SOO, 
£200;  exceeds  500  but  does  not  exceed  l.OOd 
£250;  exceeds  IJXXi  but  does  not  exceed  l,50a 
£275.  After  this  number  has  been  reached,  the 
rate  is  the  same  as  in  England.  In  the  coun- 
ties where  the  number  of  electors  does  not 
exceed  2,000  (in  England  and  Scotland),  the 
maximum  allowance  is  £650,  with  an  additional 
£60  for  every  complete  1,000  above  2,000.  la 
Ireland,  for  the  same  number  of  electors,  the 
maximum  allowance  is  £500  and  £540  respect- 
ively, with  an  additional  £40  for  every  com- 
plete 1,000  above  2.000.  These  items  do  not 
include  reluming  officers'  fees  or  the  personal 
expenses  of  candidates.  In  the  United  Slal« 
.  all  the  States  have  enacted  laws  penalizing  tnoSJ 
who  commit  offenses  against  the  suffrage.  Mo^ 
of  the  Slates  have  provided  means  to  control 
the  use  of  monev  in  elections,  some  limiting  tM 
amount  that  may  be  expended  by  each  can«- 
date  and  compelling  a  sworn  statement  of  fjf 
ceipts  and  expenditures ;  some  defining  the  oo- 
jects  for  which  money  may  be  spent;  some  «- 


;H.)(CTOiiAi-  QVALincATiow 


If 


quiring  campftigi)  financial  comroittees  to  render 
a  deUiTed  statement  of  sources  of  receipts  and 
objects  of  expenditures;  and  many  prohibiting 
absolutely  the  gift  of  money  or  property  lo  any 
political  par^,  committee  or  organization  I^ 
any  corporation  or  joint-stock  company.  The 
more  recent  enactment  of  direct  primary,  initia- 
tive, referendum  and  recall  measures  (qq.v.l 
has  also  done  much  to  rid  politics  of  corrupt 
inSuence.  Moreover,  if  at  all  possible,  tne 
courts  prefer  to  give  eflect  to  elections,  particu- 
larly if  they  give  evidence  of  having  been  con- 
ducted fairly  and  honestly;  and  even  the  most 
staring  irregularities  not  actually  constituting 
fraud  have  been  held  not  to  invalidate  an  elec- 
tion. See  Corrupt  Pbactices  Acts  ;  BalIot, 
etc  Consult  Brooks,  R.  C,  'Corruption  in 
American  Politics  and  Life'  (New  York  1910) ; 
Ford,  H,  J.,  'Rise  and  Growth  of  American 
Politics'  (it.  1898)  ;  Griffith.  E.  C„  'Rise  and 
Development  of  the  Gerrymander'  (Chicago 
1907) ;  Lowrie,  S.  G.,  "Corrupt  Practices  at 
EIections>  (Madison,  Wis.,  1911)  ■  Shaw,  A., 
'National  Lesson  from  Adams  County'  (in 
Review  of  Reviews  Vol.  XLIII,  pp.  l7l-iaD, 
New  York  1911):  SchafFner,  M.  A.,  'Cornipt 
Practices  at  Elections'  (Madison,  Wis..  1906); 
and  authorities  dted  under  article  Couuft 
Pkactices  Acts. 

ELECTORAL  QUALIFICATIONS; 
TERH8  OF  AND  QUALIFICATIONS 
FOR  OFFICE—  The  iheorv  that  suffrage  is 
ft  natural,  inhereDt  ngiu,  beion^ing  to  every 
man.  is  now  Kcnerdly  discredited.  Political 
r^ts  are  not  essential  to  citizenship,  and  in  a 
dJBsentiDg  opinion  in  the  caae  ot  Amy  vs. 
Smith  (1  Utt  {Ky.),  326^  333,  342),  one  judge 

"A  Sn>ts  tnif  deny  all  her  p^iUsI  rialltt ' 
■ndjKt  IwimrWadtinn.    Thaiiahnr'  -' 
an  politLca]  poieljr,  and  are  dmied  ojjtc 
to  pan  ol  their  popiiiatioD,  who  art  >titt 
tkMh  ia  en*  urbo  oirek  to  t<na         -    ' 

maairy  by  way  of  tktMioa,  u ... 

i&  tunL  gnnti  and  punnteca  liberty 

Kience.  Bte  right  of  aoinirini  and  p ..^  ,. 

BUniaBB  aad  •ocial  nlitian*.  nl  niit  and  defcBOt.  m 
in,  pmnn,  otate  and  reriuUtiaB.  Ilaa,  with  ■ 
Such  might  be  enim     -■   ■    -  ■   -       ------ 

Ag»n  the  Supreme  Court  has  held  that  — 

"Tb*  (act  that  ona  a  a  rabjoct  or  chiten  dntBtmina 
□othmg  M  to  hia  rights  ai  luch.  They  vary  in  different 
localities  and  according  to  circumstaiicea.  Citian^ip  haa 
00  ijecewarr  connKtioq  with  tbe  fnnchiia  of  votinSj  eligi- 
Ubc^  to  office,  at  indeed  with  any  other  riabta.  civil  v 

oF  their  diuMitii 


That  suffrage  cannot  be  termed  a  •right*  it 
obvious  since  no  communi^  can  ever  enfran- 
chise all  its  citizens,  two-fifths  of  whom  are  ex- 
cluded from  participation,  in  governmental 
affairs  because  legally  they  are  infants  and,  as 
such,  unfitted  to  cope  with  government  prob- 
lems to  the  benefit  of  the  State.  Hence  there  is 
no  necessary  relation  between  citizenship  and 
(he  right  to  vote.  Minors  and  women  (the  lat- 
ter save  in  those  States  having  woman  suffrage) 
do  not  usually  possess  the  right  to  vote,  ai- 
tfioughfliey  are  citizens;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
some  States  and  many  municipalities  permit 
persons  to'  vote  who  have  no  claim  to  eitiienship 
merely  because  they  are  residents  and  possess 
the  other  qualifications.  Such  a  thinK  as  the 
■poptilar  vote"  does  not  exist  since  millions  of 


women  have  not  yet  been  vested  with  full  suf- 
frage; in  many  States  bigamists,  bribers,  idiots, 
hisane  ijersons,  etc.,  cannot  vote ;  certain  classes 
of  foreigners  may  never  exercise  the  elective 
franchise;  paupers,  as  dependents,  do  nci^ 
participate  in  shaping  the  government  on  which 
they  are  a  burden  and  to  which  they  contribute 
nothing;  and  the  criminal,  by  his  very  acts,  has 
exhibited  his  total  incapacity  to  understand  his 
citizenship  privileges.  Nevertheless,  and  in 
spite  of  the  above  restrictions,  the  suffrage  is 
gradually  widening  and  broadening,  partly  due 
to  the  progress  of  woman  suffrage. 

The  Right  to  Vote  and  the  Power  to  Con- 
fer It.— As  previously  slated,  the  elective  fran- 
chise is  a  privilege  rather  than  a  natural  ri^t; 
its  extension  to  any  excluded  class  is  a  ques- 
tion of  political  expediency;  it  may  be  taken 
away  by  the  power  which  conferred  it  and  if 
this  be  done  no  vested  right  is  violated  nor  bill 
of  attainder  passed.  Subject  to  the  restric- 
tions of  the  national  Constitution  as  to  race, 
color  and  previous  condition  of  servitude,  each 
State  possesses  the  supreme  and  exclusive 
power  to  regulate  the  ri^t  of  suffrage  and  to 
define  tbe  qualifications  of  its  voters,  however 
unwise,  unjust  or  even  tyrannical  its  regula- 
tions may  be  or  seem  to  be  in  this  regard. 
Hence  the  clauses  in  some  State  constitutions 
requiring  of  voters  the  ability  to  read,  under- 
stand or  interpret  reasonably  any  section  of 
such  constitutions  are  not  in  contravention  of 
file  United  States  Constitution.  Once  granted 
by  a  State  constitution,  the  right  to  vole  can- 
not be  abridged  by  the  legislature;  if  they  be 
fixed  by  the  constitution  that  body  cannot  add 
to  the  qualifications  of  voters  nor  create  othet 
classes  of  voters,  nor  dispense  with  any  of  the 
constitutional  qualifications  nor  enact  provisions 
imposing  upon  a  jiarticular  class  of  citirens 
conditions  and  requirements  not  imposed  upon 
all  others.  On  the  other  hand,  the  legislature 
may  enact  laws  to  regulate  the  exercise  of  the 
elective  franchise,  if  those  laws  do  not  deny 
the  right  of  the  franchise  itself.  Under  the 
national  Constitution  Congress  cannot  prescribe 
the  qualifications  of  electors  in  the  States,  but 
Congress  raw  penaliie  a  criminal  by  forfeiting 
his  United  States  citlwrnship,  and  if  under  the 
State  constitution  only  United  States  chizens 
are  allowed  to  vote.  Congress  may  thus  deprive 
a  person  of  the  opportunity  to  enjoy  a  ri^t 
wUch  belongs  to  hira  as  a  citizen  of  the  State, 
even  the  right  of  votine,  but  cannot  deprive  him 
of  the  right  itself.  The  Constitution  does  not 
confer  the  fight  of  suffrage  upon  anyone  indi- 
vidually nor  upon  any  class  of  persons  —  the 
United  Stales  has  no  voters  of  its  own  creation 
in  the  States.  It  is  true  that  the  Fifteenth 
Amendment  is  usually  interpreted  as  giving  the 
negro  the  right  to  vote,  but  it  merely  exempts 
from  discrimination  in  the  exercise  of  the 
elective  franchise  and  no  negn>  possesses  the 
right  to  vote  unless  he  conform  to  all  the 
qualifications  and  restrictions  imposed  by  the 
State  constitutions  upon  white  voters.  But 
Congress  may  punish  any  State  official  who  re- 
fuses to  perform  the  duties  necessary  to  qualify 
all  colored  citizens.  Thus  the  right  to  vote  in 
the  States  is  conferred  by  the  States  but  the 
ri^t  of  exemption  from  the  prohibited  dis- 
crimination comes  from  the  national  govern- 

The    Constitution    says    that    Congressmen 


.gk 


Tfl 


BLECTOSAL  QUALIFICATIONS 


shall  be  chosen  by  the  people  of  the  several 
States  and  that  'the  electors  in  each  State  shall 
have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of 
the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  legis- 
lature* <Art  1,  I  2,  II  1).  The  States  do  not 
define  who  shall  vote  for  Congressmen  but 
merely  prescribe  the  quatificatiomi  of  those  who 
vote  for  the  popular  branch  of  their  own  legis- 
lattires  and  the  Gmstitution  says  that  the  same 
persons  vote  for  Congressmen.  Hence  Con- 
gressional electors  do  not  owe  Iheir  right  to 
vote  to  the  State  law  in  any  sense  which  makes 
the  -exercise  of  the  right  exclusively  dependent 
on  the  law  of  the  Slate.  Since  the  right  to 
vote  is  not  natural,  the  State,  unless  exprtssly 
prohibited  by  its  constitution,  may  confer  the 
right  only  on  those  who  pay  taxes  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  government:  and  even  though  the 
constitution  hx  the  qualifications  of  voters  at 
fCeneral  elections,  yet  the  legislature,  in  grant- 
ing municijial  charters  and  providing  for  special 
local  elections,  may  make  the  payment  of  taxes 
a  condition  precedent  to  the  right  to  vote  at 
such  elections.  If  United  States  citizenship  be 
a  requisite  qualification  of  an  elector, '  a  for- 
feiture of  that  citizenship  will  disqualify  him, 
provided  a  regular  legal  trial  and  conviction  be 
shown.  Many  of  the  State  constitutions  pio- 
vide  that  persons  convicted  of  infamous  crimes 
or  crimes  of  a  high  degree  lose  the  privilege  of 
voting  and  it  has  been  held  also  that  a  convic- 
tion of  crime  of  a  disqualifying  nature  in  a 
Federal  court  has  the  effect  to  exclude  the  per- 
son convicted  from  oflice  and  suffrage  the  same 
as  if  he  had  beeq  convicted  in  a  State  court. 
A  general  absolute  pardon  of  the  executive  re- 
stores the  convicted  person  to  the  full  enjoy- 
ment of  his  civil  rights,  including  the  ri^t  to 
vote,  and  a  Presidential  pardon  likewise  re- 
stores the  riehi  to  those  convicted  in  Federal 
courts,  but  while  a  Presidential  pardon  restores 
the  criminal  to  the  rights*  and  privileges  of  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  it  does  not,  without 
the  assent  of  the  State,  restore  him  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  that  right  if  the  sovereign  power  of 
the  State  has  excluded  him  from  the  right  of 
■uflragc.  Unless  pardoned  by  the  executive, 
ex-convicts  continue  to  be  disfranchised.  In 
this  connection  the  existence  of  a  double 
citizenship  in  the  United  States  should  be  men- 
tioned.   One  authority  says: 

*'71>en  u  a  clear  diathiction  betfften  m 


■tinnd. 
■nd  not  B 
declHred  hi 


□f  the  United  Stata  and  a  rt»id«it 
mcewarily  a  ditlien  of  that  Sute.  ijn  im 
penoa  ma;  be  ■  citizen  of  the  United  Statea  i 
of  uny  particnlar  Slata.  Thii  n  the  oordi 
leaidins  in  the  Diitrict  of  Columbia,  and  ii 
-*  "--  "nited  Sules.  or  who  have  Uken  up  a  raiPence 
So  a  penon  may  be  ■  ritiien  of  K  turtieular  Stato 

-  -" '  'be  United  States  as  an  atiea  tAb  hM 

Co  become  a  dtixen  and  who  ia  by  local 
n  ihe  State  of  hia  realdenc*  and  thete 
to  nerciH  all  other  local  funetioni  n(  lonl  dtiitrihip.  Rich 
ai  holdiof!  offii:a,  the  nsht  to  poor  relief,  etc..  but  ii4u>  i>  not 
a  dtiion  q(  the  UniteJ  States.  Nothing  which  a  State  can 
do  win  invest  a  foreianET  with  the  righti  and  privilege*  of  a 
eMmsa  of  On  Bnitad  SUtea."     fOcinms  Jurif  VoL  XI,  p. 

Colonial    Electoral    Qualificationfl.—  The 

principal  qualification  required  of  the  early 
colonial  electors  was  that  they  shoiJd  be  'fret- 
men,"  a  term  of  various  interpretations  even 
in  the  colonies  themselves,  hut  held  generally 
to  mean  persons  of  recognized  responsibility. 
In  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  Indians  and 
negroes  were  not  allowed  to  vote.     In  South 


Carolina  and  Georgia  the  privilege  was  re- 
stricted to  white  men,  but  the  law  was  not 
rigidly  enforced,  for  free  negroes  were  re- 
corded as  voting  in  South  Carolina  in  1701. 
In  Pennsylvania  only  natural-bom  subjects  of 
England  could  vote;  in  Massachusetts,  after 
1664,  only  Englishmen  could  vote..  In  South 
Carolina,  however,  the  French  Huguenots  bad 
equal  franchise  with  the  English  "freemen.' 
In  general  the  voter  was  required  to  be  of 
good  moral  character  and  obedient  to  the  laws; 
immoral  behavior  might  result  either  ia  tem- 
porary or  permanent  disfranchisement.  In  Ply- 
mouth voters  were  to  be  'orthodox  in  the 
fundamentals  of  religion.*  Massachusetts  in 
1631  demanded  also,  *to  the  end  that  the  body 
of  the  freemen  may  be  preserved  of  honest 
and  Eood  men,*  that  *henceforth  no  man 
shall  be  admitted  to  the  freedom  of  the  com- 
monwealth but  such  as  are  members  of  some 
of  the  churches  within  the  limits  of  this  juris- 
diction.* This  provision,  however,  lasted  only 
until  1664  or  1665.  Massachusetts  excluded 
Quakers,  but  they  were  permitted  to  vote  la 
Rhode  Island  and  Connecticut,  which  colonics 
did  not  specif]^  church  membership;  while  in 
the  other  colonies  their  reluctance  to  take  oaths 
usually  operated  to  debar  them  from  the  fran- 
chise. In  most  of  the  colonies  Roman  Cath- 
olics were  not  allowed  to  vote,  New  Haven 
and,  for  a  time,  Maryland  being  notable  ex- 
oeptiDns.  New  York  excluded  Catholics  in 
1701  and  Jews  in  1737.  Virginia  was  the  onljr 
colony  specifically  debarring  women  from  the 
franchise,  thouah  they  were  effectually  ex- 
cluded in  South  Carolina,  Georgia  and  Dela- 
ware; but  the  others  incidentally  excluded  them 
by  according  the  vote  only  to  'freemen,*  or  by 
con&ning  the  suffrage  to  males  of  at  least  21 
years  of  age.  However,  the  laws  often  read 
■freeholders,*  rather  than  'freemen,*  and  it  is 
impossible  to  tell  how  far  under  this  the  women 
voted,  though  at  least  a  few  voted  in  New 
Jersey.  In  Vitg:inia  a  property  qualification 
was  required ;  a  voter  must  be  a  ^ousekeuer,* 
either  as  owner  or  tenant.  Massachilsetts,  Dela- 
ware and  Maryland  required  an  estate  of  at 
least  $200;  after  1699  New  York  required  that 
voters  for  members  of  the  lower  branch  of  the 
l^slature  be  "freeholders*  of  an  estate  valued 
at  not  less  than  £40,  but  in  Albany  and  New 
York  city  all  'freemen*  ■  were  allowed  to  vote. 
Rhode  Island  stipulated  that  voters  must  pos- 
sess 'competent  estates,*  which,  later,  were  de- 
fined as  the  possession  of  $500,  or  a  rental  list 
of  at  least  $10  (afterward  $50,  and  still  later, 
JlOO)  per  annum.  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  Ma^land,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia  required  the  possession 
of  50  acres  of  land,  of  which  a  certain  (vary- 
ing^ portion  should  be  under  cultivation.  Vir- 
g'nia  required  the  possession  of  100  acres  of 
nd  if  untenanted,  and  25  acres  if  a  residence 
not  less  than  12  feel  square  were  built  upon 
the  land  and  occupied  The  same  size  of  house 
on  a  small  lot  in  a  town  fulfilled  the  colony's 
requirement  in  this  respect.  At  Wilmington, 
only  those  could  vote  who  had  occupied  brick 
houses  at  least  16  feet  wide  and  20  feet  long, 
and  for  at  least  three  months  preceding  the 
election.  The  residence  qualification  in  other 
colonies  varied  from  six  months  in  Georgia  to 
two  years  in  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware.  See 
also  UNrren  States  —  Suffrage  ih  the. 


BLECTORAL  QUALIFICATIONS 


m 


_■  of  the  Buff  Me,— When  the 

Constitution  was  framed  in  178' suffrage  quali- 
iications  were  so  divergent  in  the  various  States 
that  no  attempt  was  made  to  impose  restric- 
tions and  the  States  were  allowed  to  modify 
dieir  electoral  qualifications  as  they  deemed 
wise,  the  only  restriction  being  that  contained 
in  Article  I,  g  Z,  f  1  which  provides  that  Con- 
gressmen  snail  be  elected  by  people  in  the  vari- 
ous States  'who  have  the  qualifications  requi- 
site for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch 
of  the  State  legislature.*  At  that  time  this 
distinction  was  of  great  Importance  since  all 
the  States  required  the  payment  of  taxes  or 
ownership  of  real  or  personal  property  varying 
in  value  from  $33  to  $200.  Moreover,  North 
Carolina  distinguished  between  electors  for 
members  of  ber  legislature;  to  vote  for  a  mem- 
ber of  the  lower  house  the  elector  need  only 
to  have  paid  taxes,  but  to  vote  for  a  member 
of  the  senate  he  must  own  a  freehold  of  50 
acres.  New  York  required  that  all  voters  for 
members  of  the  assembly  own  a  freehold  valued 
at  £20  or  pay  rent  of  4Cts.  and  that  taxes  must 
have  been  paid  to  the  State  during  the  previous 
year;  while  the  person  who  voted  for  senator 
must  be  possessed  of  an  unencumbered  free- 
hold valued  at  not  less  than  ilOO.  Gradually 
these  requirements  were  eliminated,  the  prop- 
er^ test  being  abolished  by  Maryland  in  1801 
and  1809,  New  York  and  Massachusetts  in 
1821,  Tennessee  in  1834.  New  Jersey  in  1844, 
Connecticut  in  1845,  Virginia  in  1850,  South 
Carohna  in  1865,  North  Carolina  in  1854  and 
1866;  and  the  tax-paying  test  being  abolished 
by  New  York  in  1828,  Louisiana  in  1845,  Ohio 
in  1851  and  Virginia  and  Mississippi  in  1882. 
Nevertheless,  many  States  continued  to  insist 
upon  the  poll  tax  and  Rhode  Island  still  has  a 
law  that  prohibits  a  person  who  has  not  paid 
daring  the  previous  year  a  tax  upon  his  prop- 
erty in  the  State  valued  at  $134  at  least  from 
voting  for  cit^  councilmen  or  upon  any  meas- 
ure of  muniapal  finance.  Some  of  the  other 
States  now  have  tax  or  property  tests  as  will 
appear  in  the  subjoined  table.  The  next  great 
extension  of  the  suffrage  was  an  outcome  of 
the  Gvil  War,  when  during  the  Reconstruction 
period  (see  United  States — Recokstiuction  in 
the)  tne  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Amend- 
ments to  the  Constitution  were  adopted,  for- 
bidding the  States  to  discriminate  agpinst  the 
negro.  Finally  women  have  won  voting  privi- 
leges on  an  equality  with  men  —  in  Wyoming 
(1869J,  Colorado  (1893),  Utah  (1896),  Idaho 
0896),  Washington  (1910),  CaJitornia  (1911), 
Kansas  (1912),  Arizona  (]912),  Oregon 
(1912),  Alaska  (1913),  Montana  (1914),  Ne- 
vada (1914),  New  York  (1917,  effective  1918). 
In  omer  States  they  possess  a  restricted 
suffrage,  for  details  of  which  see  Won  an 
Suffrage.  See  also  Ballot;  Vote,  Voters, 
Voting. 

.  Uodcm  Slectoral  Qiullficationi.—  Most 
of  the  States  have  uniform  laws  for  electors 
of  every  officer  to  be  elected  in  the  State, 
though  this  statement  must  be  qualified  as  to 
those  States  which  permit  women  to  vote  in 
the  election  of  school  boards  or  committees,  or 
which  allow  women  who  are  taxpayers  to  vote 
upon  financial  measures.  Unlike  some  Euro- 
pean countries,  such  as  Germany,  the  vote  of 
the  lodging-house  dweller,  the  loafer,  etc.,  hi 


the  United  States  carries  as  much  weight  in 
the  election  as  the  vote  of  the  wealthiest  or 
most  distinguished  citizen.  Most  of  the  Slates 
require  that  their  voters  be  full-fledged  United  ' 
States  citizens.  As  a  rule  the  Slate  constilu- 
:  a  male,  at  least  21 


1  of  the  United 
'   naturalized,   and   can 

:  both.  The  "raale* 
.   inoperative  in   those 

enjoy    the     suffrage. 


Slates,    either   native   < 
read_  or   write   EngUsh_  ( 
provision,    of    course, 
States    wherein     wome 

Some  States,  particularly  those  that  a 

to  obtain  immip-ants  as  ^ricultural  laborers, 
extend  the  privilege  of  voring  to  an  alien  who 
has  declared  his  intention  of  becoming  a  citi- 
zen and  has  resided  in  the  State  a  certain 
period  of  time  before  election  —  usuallv  six 
months  to  a  year.  Such  a  voter  is  not  Dound 
by  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States 
nor  has  he  foresworn  allegiance  to  his  native 
land;  henca  a  situation  might  arise  under 
which  this  voter  would  help  elect  the  officers 
of  the  United  States  government  and  the  next 
day  the  United  States  might  become  involved 
in  a  dispute  with  the  government  of  his  native 
country  over  some  question  respectinjr  his  citi- 
zenship. Courts  have  ruled  that  if  a  father 
become  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United 
States  before  his  son  shall  have  attained  his 
majority,  the  latter,  though  alien-bom,  jpso- 
faclo  becomes  a  citizen  and  need  not  undergo 
the  formality  of  naturalization  if  dwelling 
within  the  United  States  ('Revised  Statutes," 
Title  XXX,  S  2172)  ;  but  the  son  of  an  alien 
cannot  be  vested  with  citizenship  by  imiHica- 
tion  merely  because  the  father  declared  his  in- 
tention of  becoming  a  citizen  prior  to  the  time 
the  son  attained  his  majority.  Basing  his  state- 
ments on  court  decisions,  one  authority  says: 

''While  it  hu  bean  held  that  nttzesduii  win  not  ha  pr*. 


■f  having  owned  real  e 


■mned  aatSy  from  the  fact  oL  ^  _    

bft-vbif  Tuted.  or  hAviog  held  u  dcctive  office,  it 

havins  pvtia«u*d  in  Bl«ti«iB  snd  h*viiis  held  (lecliv* 
office*  lire  facti  itroDsly  tendios  to  eitabtiih  At  teait  a  prims 
facie  cue  of  citicenihip;  and  it  h«  bem  Iwld  that,  irtum 


have  dadared  tlusr  iatcctjon  ti 

United  Suta.  the  act  of  voting 

of  awA  8tatfl  dtiaeoahip  hr  them. 

XI.  p.  iir). 


induMve  jnoof 

Some  States  enfranchise  men  of  Indian  de- 
scent, native  of  the  United  Stales  while  others 
grant  the  privilege  to  Indians  who  have  been 
declared  citizens  of  the  United  States  by  act 
of  Congress,  and  to  civilized  Indians,  not  mem- 
bers of  any  tribe.  As  a  rule,  idiots,  insane  per- 
sons and  felons  are  not  allowed  to  vote  and 
sometimes  vagrants,  paupers,  persons  convicted 
of  treason,  bribers,  embezzlers,  bigamists,  Chi- 
nese, etc.,  are  excluded.  Some  constitutions 
state  that  United  States  soldiers  and  seamen 
gain  no  voting  residence  by  being  stationed  in 
the  Slate,  while  the  residents -of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  when  it  became  the  seat  of  the 
general  government,  lost  the  right  to  vote 
therein  for  national  officers  or  on  matters  of 
national  concern. 

Educational  tnd  Other  TMts.— The  edu- 
cational, property,  tax,  and  good  character 
tests,  grandfather  clauses,  etc.,  have  operated 
to  exclude  many  thousands  of  voters  — particu- 
larly the  negro  voters  of  the  Sonth,  Connecti- 
cut in  1854  and  Massachusetts  in  I8S6  led  the 
other  Slates  in  requiring  of  voters  the  ability 
to    read   the  constitution   and    (in   Massachu- 


„8le 


ELBCTORAL  QUALIFICATION^ 


setts)    to  write  their  own   nam__ 

extent  the  national  naturalization  laws  have 
offset  the  effects  of  these  tests  since  an  ap])li' 
'  cant  for  citizenship  must  sign  the  application 
in  his  own  handwriting  ani  when  tating  out 
his  final  papers  must  be  able  to  speak  the  Eng- 
lish language.  (See  Aliens  ;  Citizenship 
IN  THE  United  States  ;  Naturalization)  . 
The  exclusion  of  the  negro  in  the  South 
was  undertaken  to  assure  permanence  of 
white  rule,  since  the  negro,  durine  the  Re- 
construction period,  had  display ea  a  tola] 
unfitness  to  govern.  Constitutional  amend- 
ments were  adopted  to  attain  this  end  bv  law 
rather  than  by  force,  intimidation  or  fraud. 
In  addition  to  a  new  registration  law,  alrea^ 
in  vogue,  the  Mississippi  constitution  of  1890 
required  that  a  prospective  voter  be  registered, 
a.  payer  of  a  poll  tax,  ancL  after  1  Jan.  189% 
able  to  read  any  portion  of  the  constitution  or 
to  understand  it  when  read  to  him.  or  to  render 
a  reasonably  accurate  interpretation  of  it.  The 
South  Carolina  constitution  of  1895  permitted 
the  registration  of  an  otherwise  qualified  per- 
son, 'provided  that  he  can  both  read  and  write 
any  section  of  this  constitution  submitted  to 
him  by  the  registration  officer,  or  can  show 
that  he  owns  and  has  paid  all  taxes  collectible 
during  the  previous  year  on  property  in  this 
State  assessed  at  $300  or  more.»  The 
jLouisiana  constitution  of  1898  contained  similar 
clauses,  but  for  would-be  voters,  who  might  be 
excluded  by  these  tests,  the  constitution  pro- 
vided that  any  male  person  'who  was  on  Jan- 
uary 1,  1867,  or  at  any  date  prior  theneto, 
entitled  to  vote  under  the  constitution  or  stat- 
utes of  any  State  of  the  United  States,  wherein 
he  then  resided,  and  any  son  or  grandson  of 
any  such  person  not  less  than  tweniy-one  years 
of  a^e  at  the  date  of  the  adoption  of  this 
Constitution'  should  be  allowed  to  register 
and  vote  at  all  elections  without  possessing  the 
educational  or  property  quahfications.  In  1901 
Alabama  incorporated  a  provision  requiting 
that  voters  be  of  "good  character*  and  "under- 
stand the  duties  and  obligations  of  citizenship 
under  a  republican  form  of  government.*  Vir- 
ginia has  imitated  this  qualification.  (See  also 
United  States— Suffeacb  in  the).  The  consti- 
tutionality of  these  provisions  has  not  been 
definitely  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court, 
though  several  cases  have  been  considered.  Re- 
garding the  Mississippi  constitution  (Williams 
vs.  Mississippi,  170  U.  S.  213),  the  Court  de- 
clared that  the  qualifications  did  not  'on  their 
face  discriminate  between  the  white  and  negro 
races,  nor  amount  to  a  denial  of  the  equal  pro- 
tection of  the  law  secured  b^  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution ;  and  it  has 
not  been  shown  that  their  actual  administration 
was  eviU  but  only  that  evil  was  possible  under 
them."  The  Court  further  sUted  (Giles  vj. 
Harris,  189  U.  S.  474)  —  "Relief  from  a  great 
political  wrong,  jf  done  as  alleged,  by  the  peo- 
ple of  a  State,  or  by  the  State  itself,  must  be 
Siven  by  them,  or  by  the  legislative  and  political 
eparlments  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States.' 


Maryland     and     Oklahoma     _. 

Maryland  the  clause  was  inserted  in  lawsR 
eming  elections   in   various   cities.     In   19C 


some     was  inserted  i 

elections  in  tht  ,._^  ... 
ized  the  regpstration  as  voters' of  all  taxpayers 
of  the  city  assessed  for  at  least  $500;  all  duly 
naturalized  citizens,  all  male  children  of  nat- 
uralized citizens  21  years  qf  age,  and  'all  citi- 
zens who  prior  to  Jan.  1,  1868,  were  entitled 
to  vote  in  the  Stale  of  Maryland  or  any  other 
State  of  the  United  States  at  a  State  election, 
and  the  lawful  male  descendants  of  any  person 
who  prior  to  Jan.  1,  1868,  were  entitled  to  vote 
in  the  State  of  Maryland  or  in  any  other  State 
of  the  United  States  at  a  State  election.'  The 
constitution  of  Oklahoma,  upon  which  that  Ter- 
ritory was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  State, 
gave  something  very  like  manhood  suffrage. 
Prior  to  the  election  of  1910,  however,  an 
amendment  was  adopted  restricting  the  fran- 
chise. The  amendment  in  part  was  as  follows: 
"No  penoD  Bball  be  r?siatemi  as  &xi  elector  at  tiuM  State 

be  kbie  tn  lad  uid  write  any  lection  of  the  ConBtUutkn 
d  the  Etate  of  Oklabomaj  but  na  peTKn  vlui  wu  on  jwi.  1, 


le  nairled  io  ■□ 


_  of  the  election  officers  as 

,  really  setting  forth  the  posi- 

n  of  the  State,  are  thus  outlined  by  the  chief 


'It  aUd  the  St«ta  have  the  powei  t_  . 

■iilbBBe  modtbitpowerirHDatukaaavBrbf  the 

AmendmeDt.  but  only  Umited  te  theeitentot  theiKohibitioiiii 
whicb  the  BRieodineat  eMsbliilwd.    ThU  bi '   ~  "   ~    ~    "" 


menu,  enjoy  the  crnvilege  of  yo^ic.  then  u  no  EitMind  npOD 
which  to  net  the  contentiOR  tbut  tbt  pnviKin  violatca  the 
Fifteenth  Anendnuat.  Ttaih  it  ii  iniiMed,  ini«t  b*  the 
COM  unlea  it  it  intended  to  Bxpnady  deny  tha  State'*  right 
to  provide  ■  atandard  (or  nft^ge.  or  whut  h  equivalent 
thereto,  to BssBit:  (s)  ThMtbeiudsniemof  theBtateexerdaed 
in  the  execution  of  that  power  ie  subject  to  Padmvl  jodiRkl 
review  or  to  euijerviuoD.  or  (b)  that  it  may  be  Qoeetkiised 
or  be  brought  within  the  prohibitiona  of  Che  amendment  br 
■ttribming  to  the  legialstive  authority  an  occult  rootfv*  to 

.;.,...  .u i .  ._  v..  — ^^ng  (j„(  ,^  BMrdiiiof 

.   be  invalidated  because  ut 

operation  in  practical  eiocotion 

-—Ott  ftruE^  tberefiom.  aJhcit  wA 

__  expreMeJ  id  the  lUndaid  fiud  or 

[airly  to   be  implied,  but  amply  aiois  from  inequalitiet 

—■ — '"-   Tihering   in   tboae   who  muit  lonr-    ---'■      -■-- 

I  ocder  (o  enjay  tho  tigbt  to  vote.' 


etandard 


a  inequalit 


The  government  insisted,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  'real  question  involved  is  the  repug- 
nancy of  the  standard  which  the  amendment 
makes,  based  upon  the  conditions  existing  on 
Jan.  1,  1866,  because  on  its  face  and  inherently 
considering  the  substance  of  things,  that  stanct- 
ard  is  a  mere  denial  of  the  restrictions  imposed 
by  the  prohibitions  of  the  Fifteenth  Ametid- 
■   and  by  necessary^  result  creates  and  per- 


pcluales  the  \ 


ided^ 


nditions  which  the  amende 
to  destroy." 
summed  up  the  opinion  of 


Kfromthai 
Diild'  lie  hDt~to  dedafe  ^hM  th*  Fitteciitb 


that  there  was  e 


only  bad  llie  eelf-eMCatiiiKpDwcr  iriuch  it  haa  been  racncntied 
to  have  from  the  besiiuima.  but  that  iti  piovislotM  w«n* 
wbally  inoperative  twcsose  auBceiitible  al  beinc  Tendefed 
inapplicable  by  mere  forma  c4  enpieiiion  Mnbodying  no 
I  of  iudsment  and  i«Mi>)B  upon  no  diacenuble  n 


joogle 


BLSCTOSAL   QUALIFICATIONS 


rs 


I.  of  loj  ptnon  on  «t«<mt 

w  praviaM  cone"" ' '■'-' t-it^-J 

h  Amaidmant. „ 

-~  -BHiH  to  omUbbi,  tinea  it  it  bMod  nndv 
le  bdore  tbe  enutment  of  tba,  Pifteantb 
'  H  that  pBiad  tha  contnlliDa  and  <* 


d  which  eogoidend  utribuMa  aAectini  tha 

QQalificatkm  to  vote  which  would  not  Bjuat  mt  anothar  and 
dilbivM  psriod  imkn  tba  PiftMutb   Amendmeat  waa  in 

The  Court  took  the  view  that  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances  the  State  should  decide  the 
question  whether  tbe  nullification  of  tbe  excep- 
tions of  the  grandfather  clause  would  at  the 
same  time  midce  void  the  general  literacy  test 
to  which  it  was  appended.  In  the  absence  of 
a  decision  by  a  State  court  the  Chief  Justice, 
however,  said  that  the  Federal  tribunal  would 
pass  upon  the  question.  Ordinarily  a  provision 
like  the  literary'  test,  which  is  legal  in  itself, 
would  not  be  destroyed  by  the  wiping  out  of  an 
illegal  accompaiwing  provision.  But  the  plain 
meaning  of  the  Oklahoma  constitution  was  that 
the  reading  test  should  not  be  used  to  disqual- 
ify lineal  descendants  of  voters  prior  to  1866. 
As  this  would  tie  accomplished  in  many  cases 
Iqr  continuing  the  reading  test  without  the  of- 
fensive exemptions,  the  whole  provision  w»s 
stricken  out.  Accordingly  in  1916  the  Oklahoma 
legislature  passed  a  proposed  constitutional 
amendment  (approved  by  tiie  governor  21  Feb. 
1916),  which  prohibited  any  property  qualifi- 
cation; it  contained  the  reading  and  writing 
clause  but  this  clause  was  inoperative  if,  prior 
to  the  adoption  of  the  amendment,  a  prospec- 
tive elector  bad  served  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  Stale  or 
foreign  nation,  or  in  the  Revolgtion,  War  of 
1812,  Mexican  War,  or  on  either  side  in  the 
Indian  wars  or  the  Civil  War;  and  all  lawful 
descendants  of  such  persons  were  included. 
But  this  atnendinent  was  rejected  at  the  election 
of  August  1916  and  now  the  only  restriction  on 
suffrage  in  Oklahoma  is  a  universal  registration 
act  passed  by  a  special  sessioh  of  the  legisla- 
ture in  1916. 

Remidence  and  Absentee  Voting. — Gcner- 
■  ally  speaking,  an  elector  must  vole  in  the  pre- 
cinct wherein  he  resides,  if  he  have  a  fixed 
place  of  abode.  As  employed  in  the  statutes 
and  constitutions  in  defining  political  rights,  a 
residence  is  synonymous  with  home  or  domicile, 


absence  for -months  or  even  years,  provided  the 
party  intended  it  merely  as  a  temporary  ar- 
rangement, after  which  he  would  occupy  his 
former  home,  would  not  constitute  an  abandon- 
ment of  such  residence  or  home  or  deprive  the 
party  of  hb  right  to  vote  diereat  But  the 
mere  act  of  abiding  in  a  place  for  a  definite 
time  and  for  a  specific  purpose^  with  no  present 
intention  of  remaining  and  making  it  a  per- 
manent home,  would  not  constitute  a  residence 
entitling  the  party  to  vote.  A  person  who  re- 
moves from  the  jurisdiction,  intending  to  re- 
main, thereby  loses  his  residence,  even  though 
he  may  afterward  change  his  intention  and 
return ;  nor  can  he  vote  until  he  has  re-estab- 


lished his  residetice  by  remaimt^  in  the  juris- 
dictian  the  statutory  period  Courts  have  held, 
|iowaver,  that  where  a  person  is  a  bona-fide 
resident  of  a  cotmty  buthas  no  fixed  residence 
or  domicile  in  any  particular  precinct  therein, 
be  may  vote  in  any  precinct  wherein  he  may 
happen  to  be  on  election  day.  In  1915  Vermont 
enacted  a  law  pcrmittinK  a  voter  who  changed 
bis  residence  within  15  days  prior  to  election  to 
vote  in  the  town  to  which  he  moved;  conversely 
Connecticut  and  California  allowed  the  voter 
to  retain  a  voting  residence  in  the  town  from 
which  he  moved  Colorado,  Iowa,  MichigaiL 
Montana,  Washington  and  Wisconsin  passed 
lawsi  permitting  voters  absent  from  their  home 
precincts  to  vote  elsewhere  in  the  State.  In 
1916.  Virginia  and  Oklahoma  provided  for  ab- 
sentee voting,  the  former  allowing  absent  elec- 
tors to  vote  by  registered  mail  and  the  latter 
permitting  an  elector  absent  from  his  county 
to  vote  ra  another  precinct  Absentee  voting 
occurs  sometimes  when  large  bodies  of  citizens 
are  called  into  some  branch  of  governmental 
service,  such  as  the  army ;  this  happened  in  the 
elecdons  of  1916  and  1917  when  tbe  National 
Guard  troops  were  on  the  Mexican  border,  or 
in  France  or  in  cantonments  preparing  for  serv- 
ice abroad,  special  provisions  being  made  for 
the  balloting  at  the  camps.  In  the  election  of 
November  1917  Massachusetts  adopted  an 
amendment  enabling  the  legislature  to  establish 
arrangements  for  absentee  voting. 

Voting  In  Territories  and  Depcndendea. 
—  As  previously  stated,  residents  of  the  Dis- 
trict oi  Columbia  do  not  vote,  the  government 
being  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of  commission- 
ers appointed  by  the  President.  From  1802  to 
1855  white  taxpayers  were  permitted  to  vote 
for  local  officers;  subsequently  the  taxpaying 
qualification  was  eliminated;  in  1867  all  adult 
male  citizens  white  or  black  were  granted  the 
franchise  if  not  disqualified  by  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment;  but  in  1874  all  suffrage  rights 
were  abrogated  Prior  to  becoming  a  territory 
of  the  United  States,  Hawaii  required  that 
electors  of  members  of  the  senate  be  possessed 
of  a  substantial  amount  of  property,  but  under 
the  organic  act  of  1900  all  persons  mw  vote 
who  are  duly  registered  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  21  years  of  age,  resident  in  the  islands 
one  year  or  more^  and  who  can  speak,  read  and 
write  either  the  English  or  Hawaiian  language; 
hence  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  excluded.  In 
Porto  Rico  all  male  citizens,  21  years  of  age 
or  over,  who  had  resided  in  the  island  one  year 
might  vote  if  they  passed  a  property  or  an  edu- 
cational test  similar  to  that  of  South  Carolina, 
but  in  1904  a  law  was  passed  renewing  the 
property  qualification  and  requiring  that  after 
1906  all  registrants  should  be  able  to  read  and 
writer  but  permitting  those  who  already  were 
voters  to  continue  their  exercise  of  the  voting 
privilege.  In  1907,  in  his  proclamation  for  an 
election  of  delegates  to  the  Philippine  assem- 
bly. President  Roosevelt  denied  the  right  of 
representation  to  the  Morog  and  other  non- 
Christian  tribes,  and  required  that  each  voter 
be  capable  of  reading,  writing  or  speaking  Eng- 
lish or  Spanish,  that  he  be  an  owner  of  prop- 
erty or  a  taxpayer,  and  that  he  take  an  oath  of 
allegiance.  In  Alaska  both  men  and  women 
enjoy  full  suffrage  rights. 


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TEBUS   OP   AVT>   CUAUPICATIONS   TM    OFTICE. 

Federal. —  Presidsnts  are  elected  for  four 
years,  senators  for  six  years  and  representa- 
tives for  two  years.  Article  VI,  U  3  of  the 
Constitution  requires  that  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives, members  of  State  legislatures  and 
all  executive  and  judicial  ofRcers,  Slate  and 
National,  "shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  afGrma- 
tion"  to  sup[K)rt  the  Constitution,  but  "no  reli- 
^ous  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualifica- 
tion to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the 
United  States*  No  senator,  representative 
or  Federal  office  holder  may  be  a  Presidential 
elector  (Art.  II,  j  1,  H  2).  The  Constitution 
states  that  "no  person  except  a  natural  bom 
citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United  3tates  at  the 
time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  office  _of  President;  neither 
shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five 
years  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within 
the  United  States.*  (Art  1!,  |  1,  ^  5).  Hence, 
foreign-born  citiiens  are  excluded  from  this  of- 
fice but  children  bom  of  parents  residing  abroad 
temporarily  are  not  considered  foreign-bom. 
No  restriction  is  placed  by  the  Consiiiution 
upon  the  nnmber  of  terms  a  President  may 
serve  but  Washington's  precedent  ■  of  two 
terms  has  always  been  followed.  A  senator 
must  be  at  least  30  years  old,  nine  years  a  citi- 
zen of  the  United  States  and  at  the  time  of 
election  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  represented. 
A  member  of  the  House  must  be  at  least  25 
years  of  age,  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  and  at  the  time  of  election  an 
inhabitant  of  the  State  represented  (Art.  I,  S  2, 

!' 2,  8  3,  ITS),  This  docs  not  prevent  their estab- 
isbing  homes  in  Washington  while  maintain- 
ing tneir  legal  residences  in  the  States  repre- 
sented. Article  I,  g  6,  II  2,  says :  «No  Senator 
or  Representative  shall,  dunng  the  time  for 
which  ne  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civic 
ofEce  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States 
which  shall  have  been  created  or  the  emolu- 
ments whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during 
such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  United  Stales  shall  be  a  member  of 
either  House  during  his  continuance  in  office.* 
Accordingly,  if  a  senator  or  representative 
accept  any  Federal  office,  his  seat  in  Congress 
thereby  becomes  vacant,  but  if  an  office-holder 
be  elected  to  either  branch  of  Congress  he  may 
retain  his  position  until  his  active  duties  in  the 
legislature  begin,  whereupon  the  olhcr  ol^e 
becomes  vacant.  Regarding  the  judiciary  the 
Constitution  makes  no  stipulations,  the  justices 
being  appointed  by  the  President  with  the  ad- 
vice and  consent  of  the  Senate.  The  same  pro- 
vision holds  true  of  Cabinet  officials,  save  that 
no  one  interested  in  the  import  trade  may  be- 
come Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  though  all 
members  of  the  Cabinet  are  expected  to  sever 
all  business  or  outside  connections.  (See  Cabi- 
NFT  Am>  Cabinet  Government;  Executive). 
All  other  Federal  offices  are  filled  by  appoint- 
ment, which  is  subject  only  to  the  restrictions 
and  limitations  of  custom  or  Congressional  en- 
actments. Appointive  offices  may  be  held  by 
women,  minors  or  aliens.  See  Appointments 
TO  Oppice;  Tenure  of  Ofpicb. 


office-holders  was  that  they  should  *be  bound 
by  oath  or  affirmation*  to  support  the  Consti- 
tution (Art.  VI,  t  3).  The  Fourteenth  and 
Fifteenth  Amen^ents  provided  that  *No  State 
shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States*  and  that  *the  right 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  ^vote  shall 
not  he  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States 
or  by  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color  or 
previous  condition  of  servitude.*  Hence  any 
law  enacted  by  a   State  which  expressly  de- 

E rives  a  negro  citizen  of  the  right  to  vote  or  to 
old  office  would  be  unconstilulional,  but  the 
courts  have  upheld  laws  which  indirectly  dis- 

aualify  certain  classes  of  negroes  and  therefore 
ley  cannot  hold  office.  In  the  early  State  con- 
stitutions are  to  be  found  numerous  religious 
tests  for  office-holders.  The  man  possessing 
moderate  means  might  vote,  but  legislation  was 
restricted  to  well-to-do  Chnstians,  and  in  some 


Jersey  and  South  Carolina,  no  Hebrew,  atheist 
or  Roman  Catholic  could  become  governor  and 
none  but  a  Christian  in  Massachusetts,  Dela- 
ware, Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and  South  Caro- 
lina. Maryland  did  not  open  public  offices  to 
Jews  until  1826.  In  some  New  England  States 
church  members  alone  could  vote,  while  the 
South  Carolina  constitution  of  1778  extended 
the  privilege  to  "every  free  white  man,  and  no 
other  person,  who  acknowledges  the  being  of 
a  tk)d,  and  believes  in  a  future  state  of  re- 
wards and  punishments.*  The  early  constitu- 
tions also  required  in  many  cases  that  office- 
holders be  'Christians,'  or  *of  the  Protestant 
reUgion,*  or  should  believe  *in  the  Trinity  and 
Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures*  (Delaware 
1776),  or  should  declare  themselves  'to  be  of 
the  Christian  religion'  (Massachusetts  1780). 
In  New  York,  Delaware,  Maryland  and  (Geor- 
gia no  priest  nor  minister  of  any  creed  could 
dvil  office,  though  in  (Borgia  the  pro 

y&i 


hibition   is   limited  to  the  assemhlj 


ibly.     (WTley, 
<Tfae  Unii«! 


the  principle 
Nowbrre,  - 
ElKwtien 


-•  ~  ■"  -rmmbk.  ^na  th»t  of  & 
ibood  ubaae 


ua  voUd  wtio  did  n 


ib^dUt 


■  ircoine.    Bi 


titutioiB  guanntecd  liberty  ot 


bslinet  in  the  di 


Protettuit  PT  a  Catbolic.  ■  triniu 

inuoation  ol  the  CHd  tai  N«w  Tem>- 
luflt  give  up  all  hope  of  polilicaJ  pntfenncat-    Evoi 


dNnTeit>- 

__  , niMiit.    Even 

crccdl  uid  dDctriaei.  the  my 

t^  property  qu*1]6catioci>,  which 

ignity  of  the  offin  until  it  hccanw  mbv^ 

the  ffOvemDr^p."     (McMuter.  J.  B., 

■-  -'---'■-— 1  Sun*' VoLV, p.  J7T). 


to  public  office  wtt  bamd 
increAjed  with  the 
lutelv  impnBible  ft 

'  Hiitory  ot  the  Pecile  of 

Most  of  these  requirements  have  been  elim- 
inated, though  eight  States  still  retain  rem- 
nants, among  them  being  South  CaroUna,  whose 
constitution  of  1895  (Art  IV,  S  3)  provides 
that  no  one  may  be  governor  *who  denies  the 
existence  of  the  Supreme  Being.'  Property 
qualifications  also  have  been  eliminated  gradu- 
ally from  the  State  constitutions.  In  our  early 
history  religious  qualifications  were  not  deemed 


governor  must  not  only  be  pious  but  rich;  the 


SLECTORAJ.  QUIkLmCATIOHa 


imporMnce  of  the  oAioe  determined  6te  amount 
of  property.  According  to  die  South  Carolina^ 
constitution  of  1775  governors  and  hentenant- 
governors  'shall  have  in  this  State  a  settled 
plantation  or  freehold  in  their  and  each  of 
their  own  right  of  the  value  of  at  least  ten 
thousand  pounds  currency,  dear  of  debt,*  while 
the  estate  of  a  senator  must  be  valued  at 
£2,000  currency  and  of  a  representative  £3^500. 
The  Massachusetts  constitution  of  1780provided 
that  senators  must  possess  a  freehold  of  the 
value   of  £300  or  personal  estate  of  at  least 


CtlXotBim. 
Cokind 

D*U«K.- 

Utto. ''.'.'.'.'.'. 

Kantiuky 

Lniuika* . 

UuyUod! '.'.'.'. 

MuMchuMtU. 

Michigiui.  .... 

mST''^    ■■ 

Nevmd*. ,'.'.'.'.'. 
N«r  Tfatrnnhin 
New  ftt^ey  ■  •  ■ 

N™Yorit..'.'. 
NsRh  CanUna 
North  DaknU. 

Otm 

OkUbOBia 

PeiBHYlvaoia. . 
Rluxle  IdUd. . 
SoaCh  Cuotina. 
South  DalcDta. 
TenaaiMe 

0™'-.'.::!:: 

WaahiiiEt'ni . . . 
WmVoidBia.. 


mast  be  possessed  and  continue  to  be  possessed 
in  fee  snnirie  or  for  life  of  a  freehold  of  100 
acres  of  land ;  in  Georffia  he  must  own  250  acres 
of  land  or  property  worth  £25a  Usually  the 
qua1{6cations  for  membership  in  the  upper 
bouse  were  the  same  as  those  for  the  lower 
house,  save  that  values  were  twice  as  great 
Some  of  the  recent  constitutions  of  the  Sonth- 
em  States  contain  provisions  regarding  prop- 
erty or  payment  of  taxes  incorporated  with 
the  object  of  excludiitg  negroes  from  voting 
and  h<H(fing  office. 


•  Not  tuud  in  oc 

!Men]y  a  duly  qu»li&d  elector.    S«e  pncodinc  table. 
No  wpedBtA  time  rsQotnd. 

ifiOO;  representatives  must  have  a  freehold  of 
ilOO  or  "any  ratable  estate*  to  the  value  of  £200; 
and  a  Kovemor  "must  be  seised,  in  his  own 
iMiht,  of  a  freehold,  within  the  commonwealth, 
of  the  value  of  £1,000.»  In  New  Hampshire 
eligibility  to  the  lower  branch  of  the  legisb' 
ture  consisted  of  being  a  Protestant  and  pos* 
sessing  an  estate  worth  £100;  a  freehold  of 
£100  above  all  debts  in  New  York;  a  *personal 
estate*  in  New  Jersey;  a  freehold  of  £500  in 
Uaiylaad;  in  North  Carolna  an  assemblymaa 


Some  of  the  early  constitutions  required  that 
a  governor  should  be  native  born,  bat  Connecti- 
cut (1818)  merely  rojuired  citizenship,  Massa- 
chusetts (1817)  a  citizenship  of  20  years  and 
Illinois  (1818)  a  citizenship  of  30  years.  At 
the  present  time  citiienship  is  almost  univer- 
sally required  of  a  State  office-holder  but  the 
Inrm  of  residence  varies  widely  ~  from  the 
bare  fact  of  residence  to  residence  for  10  years 
next  preceding  the  election.  _  The  same  Vari- 
ance IS  seen  m  the  age  reqniicnients,  ranging 


BLSCTORAL  QUAUnCATIOHS 


from  21  to  35  for  governors,  21  to  30  for  sena- 
tors and  21  to  25  for  representatives  while  in 
some  States  the  only  requirement  for  the  last 
two  offices  is  to  be  a  duly  qualified  elector  and 
some  constitutions  contain  na  limitations  what- 
ever.  The  preceding  table  g^ves  the  terms  of 
office  of  governors  and  State  senators  and  rep- 
resentatives, together  with  their  age  require- 
ments and  the  necessary  period  of  residence  in 
State  or  district 

Few  of  the  State  constitutions  place  any 
limitations  on  the  judiciary,  though  s<nne  con- 
tain exceptional  provisions.  OrM^n  requires 
thai  her  judges  be  citizens,  residents  of  the 
State  for  three  years  and  residents  of  the  dis- 
tricts wherein  thei/  discharge  their  official  du- 
ties. California  stipulates  tbat  members  of  the 
Supreme  Court  shall  be  attorneys  licensed  to 
practice  before  the  court,  while  in  Colorado 
and  New  Mexico  the  attorney-general  must  be 
a  lawyer  licensed  to  practise  before  the  Su- 
preme Court.  In  all  States,  save  those  having 
woman  suffrage,  the  constitutions  restrict  vot- 
1  "male   citizens*   but  many  ■ 


are  silent  regardir^  office-holding  and  therefore 
women  have  gradually  established  their  right 
to  hold  elective  ofRces.    But  this  privilege  ba 


been  denied  them  in  States  the  constitutions  of 
which  expressly  provide  that  elective  office- 
holders must  possess  the  qualifications  of  elec- 
tors. Most  of  the  minor  State  offices  are  not 
subjected  to  constitutional  provisions  but  are 
regulated  by  legislative  enactment,  many  of 
them  coming  under  the  civil  service  laws. 

BibUo|[npt^.— Adams,  M.  J.  'History  of 
Suffrage  in  Michigan*  (in  'Publications'  of 
Michigan  Political  Science  Association,  Vol. 
in,  pp.  1-56.  Ann  Arbor  1898) ;  Ambler,  C.  H., 
'Disfranchisement  in  West  Virginia'  (in  Yale 
Review,  Vol.  XIV,  pp.  38-59,  153-180,  New 
Haven  1905)  ;  Blackmar,  F.  W.,  'History  of 
Suffrage  in  Legislation  in  the  United  States' 
(in  Ckautauquan.  Vol.  XXII  [N.  S.  Vol.  Xll!], 
pp.  28-34,  Kfeadvillc.  Pa..  189S) ;  Baldwin,  S.  E. 
'Early   History  of   the   Ballot  in   Connecticut* 


Bassett,  J.  S.,  'Suffrage  in  the  State  of  North 
Carolina,  1776-1861'  (in  'Annual  Report'  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  for  1895,  pp. 
271^85,  Washington  1896)  ;  Burch^H.  R.,  'Con- 
ditions Affecting  Suffrage  in  Colonies'  (in 
'Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,'  pp.  78-101,  Philadelphia 
1902);  Baker,  F.  E.,  'Brief  History  of  the 
Elective  Franchise  in  Wisconsin*  (in  'Pro- 
ceedings' of  the  Wisconsin  State  Historical  So- 
de^  for  1804,  Vol.  XLI,  pp.  113-130) ;  Bishop, 
C  F.,  'History  of  Elections  in  Amencan  Colo- 
nies* (New  York  1893);  Beard,  C  A,  and 
Beard,  M.  R,,  'Amencan  Citizenship*  (ib. 
1914) ;  Chandler,  J.  A.  C,  'History  of  Suffrage 


York  1912) ;  Dousrherty.  J.  H..  'The  Electoral 
System  of  the  United  States*  (ib.  1906)  ;  Fox, 
D.  R..  'The  Negro  Vote  in  Old  New  York' 
(in  PoKlkal  Scienee  Quarltrty,  Vol.  XXXII, 


Suffrage  and  Congressional  Representation'  ... 
1910) ;  Hemphill,  J.  C,  'The  South  and  the 
Negro  Vole'  (in  North  Amtrican  Revitw, 
VoL  ecu.  pp.  213^19,  New  York  1915) ;  Hart, 
A.  B.,   'Exercise  of  the  Suffrage'    (in  Polilicai 


Pa    1906)  ;  Haynes,  G.  1-,    

Suffrage  in  Massachusetts,  1620-1691'  (in 
'J.  H.  U.  Studies  *  Ser.  XII,  Nos.  8-9.  Balti- 
more 1894),  and  'Educational  Qualifications  for 
the  Suffrage  in  the  United  States*  (in  Political 
Science  Quarterly,  Vol,  XIII,  pp.  495-513.  New 
York  18W)  ;  Jones,  C.  L.,  'Readings  on  ParUes 
and  Elections*  (ib,  1912) ;  McMaster,  J.  B., 
'The  Acquisition  of  Political.  Social  and  In- 
dustrial lUghts  of  Man  in  America'  (Cleveland 
1903)  ;  Mechem.  F.  R,  'I-aw  of  Public  Offices 
and  Officers'  {Chicagp  1890) ;  McCrary,  G.  W., 
'American  Law  of  Elections*  (ib.  1897)  ;  Mo- 
Kinley,  A,  E.,  'Suffrage  Franchise  in  the 
Thirteen  English  Colonies  in  America*  (PhUa- 
delpbia  1905) ;  MacMillan,  D.  C,  'Elective 
Franchise  in  the  United  Sutes'  (New  York 
1898) ;  Michael,  W.  H.,  'Elections*  (in  'Cydo- 
pedia  of  Law  and  Procedure,*  Vol.  X'^  pp. 
i6S-465,  New  York  1905);  Munro,  W.  B., 
'Government  of  American  Cities'  (New  York 
1913) ;  Mellor,  F.  H..  'Legal  Qualifications  for 
Office  in  America,  1619-1899'  (in  'Annual  Re- 
port* of  the  American  Historical  Association, 
1899,  Vol.  I,  pp.  87-154);  UcGovney,  D.  O., 
'American  Citizenship'  (in  Columbia  Law  Re- 
view, Vol.  XI.  pp.  231-250,  336-347.  New  York 
1911);  Mann,  E.  C.  'Rif^ts  and  Duties  of 
Gtizens  of  the  United  States>  (New  Yorfc 
1894);  Phillips,  J.  B.,  'Educational  Qualifica- 
tions of  Voters'  (in  'Universitv  of  Colorado 
Studies,*  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  51-62,  Boulder  1906); 
Remsen.  D.  S.,  'Suffrage  and  the  Ballot*  (New 
York  1892)  r  Rose,  J.  C.  'Negro  Suffrage*  (in 
American  Political  Science  Review,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
17-43.  Baltimore  1906)  ;  Steiner.  B.  C,  'Citizen- 
ship and  Suffrage  in  Maryland'  (Baltimore 
1895) ;  Shepard,  W.  J.,  'Theory  of  the  Nature 
of  Suffrage'  (in  'Proceedings'  of  the  Ameri- 
can Political  Science  Assocation  for  1912,  pp. 
106-136i  Bahimore  1913)  ;  Smith,  W.  R.,  'Nettro 
Suffrage  in  the  South*  (in  'Studies  in  South- 
cm  History  and  Politics,'  New  York  1914); 
Smith,  J.  A.,  'The  Spirit  of  American  Govern- 
ment* (ib.  1907) ;  Tucker,  H.  St  George, 
'Womans  Suffrage  bv  Constitutional  Amend- 
ment* (New  Haven  1916)  ;  Thompson.  R.  H., 
'Suffrage  in  Mississipi>i'  (in  'Publications*  of 
the  Mississippi  Historical  Society,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
25-49,  1898)  ;  Van  Dyne.  F„  'Gtizenship  of  the 
United  States*  (Rochester,  N,  Y„  1904),  anil 
^Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Natursliation'  (Wash- 
ington 1907) ;  Wise,  J.  S„  tTreafise  on  Ameri- 
can Citizenshio'  (Northport,  L.  I,.  1906); 
Wolfman,  N.,  'Status  of  a  Fordgner  Who  Has 
Declared  His  Intention  of  Becoming  a  Citizen 
of  the  United  States*  (in  Anurican  Law  Re- 
view, Vol.  XLI,  pp.  498-514,  Saint  Louis 
1907):  Wolfe,  A.  B..  'Manhood  Suffrage  in 
the  United  States*  (Chicago  1913);  'Just  a 
Few    Ways   in   Which    the   South    Will    Still 


ELECTORAL  RKPOSM  —  ELECTORS 


8? 


1915).  ^e  proviuoiu  of  the  various  State 
constitutiona  admited  up  to  1907  will  be  found 
in  Thorpe,  F.  N.,  'Federal  and  Slate  Con- 
ititudoni,  Colonial  Charters  and  Other  Organic 
Laws  of  the  States,  Territories  and  Colonies'  (7 
vols.,  Washiimton,  O.  C.  190E>;  issued  as  'House 
Document'  3S7,  59th  Congress,  2d  Session). 
Bootes  relating  to  woman  aufirage  will  be 
found  under  that  title.  Various  phases  of  the 
qualifications,  ri^ts,  powers,  duties,  liabilities, 
etc.,  of  public  officials  will  be  found  in  the 
articles  'Officers,'  ''Stales,>  *Tertn.*  •Terri- 
tories,* 'United  States*  and  the  cross-refer- 
ences appended  thereto  in  'Cyclopedia  of  Law 
■  ''rocedure.'  Vols.  XXIX,  j 
VI,  pp.  844-869;  XXXVII 
19&-208;    XXXIX,    pp.   693-72a 


XXXVI,  ; 


between  citizenship  aiM  suffrage  and 

cisions  regardins;  these  points  will  be  found  in 
the  article  «Citiiens»  in  'Corpus  Juris,'  Vol. 
XI,  p.  774  et  jeg.  (New  York  1917)  and  for 
certain  phases  of  alien  citizenship  the  article 
'Aliens*  in  ibid,  Vo).  IL  pp.  1039-1132. 

Ibving  E.  Rines. 

ELECTORAL  REFORM.    See  Electioks. 

ELECTORAL  SYSTEM  of  the  United 
Slates.  All  elections,  whether  for  city,  State  or 
Federal  offices,  are  in  all  States  conducted  by 
ballot.  To  save  the  expense  of  distinct  pollitws, 
it  has  been  long  usual  to  take  the  pollings  for 
a  variety  of  offices  at  the  same  time.  The 
details  of  the  procedure  previous  to,  during  and 
after  election  are  thoroughly  covered  by  posi- 
tive enactments.  These  deal  specifically  with 
registration,  the  election  process,  counting  of 
the  votes  and  the  various  safeguards  instituted 
for  the  purity  of  elections. 

RegiBtratJon.— Official  lists  of  voters  are 
prepared  in  advance  by  re^stering  those  elifd- 
ble  to  vote.  Persona!  re^stration,  usual  in  the 
larger  centres  of  population,  requires  the  per- 
sonal appearance  of  the  prospective  voter  at 
the  registration  office.  Registration  by  official 
declaration  is  common  in  the  less  densely  popu- 
lated regions;  the  local  authorities  maVe  up  the 
list,  but  a  revision  may  be  demanited  by  any 
interested  party,  A  personal  identification  law 
is  in  force  in  some  large  dties  in  order  to  pre- 
vent false  registration.  Counties  and  dties  are 
divided  into  small  parts,  each  with  a  few  hun- 
dred votes.  The  election  is  controlled  by  official 
boards  made  up  of  the  two  parties  standing 
bluest  at  the  previous  election.  The  ballot 
is  printed  at  the  public  expense  and  except  in 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina  the  secret  ballot 
has  been  adopted.  In  general  the  ballot  con- 
tains the  names  of  all  candidates  which  are  iriaced 
in  party  columns,  althon^  the  Massachusetts 
ballot  includes  the  names  of  all  candidates  under 
the  title  of  the  several  offices.  The  voter  on 
entering  the  polling  office  states  his  name  and 
address,  wbiMi  are  entered  in  the  pollbook  by  a 
clerk.  He  is  next  handed  a  ballot  which  is 
often  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  nnmber 
on  (he  pollbook.  the  voter  enters  the  enclosed 
space  provided  in  the  polling  place,  prepares  his 
ballot,  folds  it  as  required  by  law  so  that  the 
maildngx  are  concealed.  He  next  hands  i<  to 
the  election  officer  who  deposits  it  in  the  ballot 
box.  The  rif^  of  an  elector  to  vote  may  be 
dulleoged  for  cause,  in  which  case  he  is  out 
under  oath  to  answer  certain  qucsticMu  regu>d^ 


ing  his  qualifications  as  a  voter.  When  the 
polls  are  dosed  at  the  legal  hour  tally  sheets 
are  taken  up  by  the  dection  officers.  The  ballot 
box  is  opened  and  the  ballots  are  withdrawn 
one  by  one.  The  chairman  announces  the  names 
of  the  candidates  voted  for  and  the  officers 
duly  mark  their  tally  sheets.  At  the  dose  of 
the  count,  the  results  are  offidally  announced 
Tally  sheets  and  poUbooks  are  next  sealed  and 
delivered  to  the  custodian  designated  by  law  to 
guard  them.  The  ballots  are  also  sealed  and 
sent  to  some  central  authority  where  they  are 
kept  for  a  certain  time  in  case  they  may  be 
needed  if  an  dection  be  contested  in  the  courts. 
-  Bribing  or  bestowing  gratuities  to  influmce 
voters  at  elections,  the  acceptance  of  such 
gratuities,  voting  b^  a  person  not  properly 
qualified,  threats,  violence  or  intimidation  or 
voters,  voting  'more  than  once,  'coloniring,* 
inducing  voters  to  remain  away  and  any  other 
attempt  to  influence  the  proper  course  of  an 
election  are  severely  punisliea  by  statute  in  all 
the  States.  Considerable  legislation  has  been 
enacted  in  recent  years  in  an  effort  to  control 
the  use  of  money  at  elections,  many  States  re- 
quiring a  sworn  statement  of  all  campaign  ex- 
penses from  each  and  every  candidate.  See 
Ballot;  Elections;  Elexttoral  Qualifica- 
tions; CoBHUPT  Practices  Acts;  Electoral 
Frauds;  Vote,  Voters,  Voting;  Woman  Suf- 
frage; Alien;  CmzENSHtp;  Cauci;s;  Conven- 
tions, Political;  lumATrvEj  Referendum: 
Recall;  Prikary;  Voting  Machines;  and 
consult  Beard,  C.  A.,  'American  Government 
and  Polities'  (New  York  1914) ;  Bryce,  'Ameri- 
can Commonwealth'  (ib.  1914) ;  McLaughlin 
and  Hart,  'Cyclopedia  of  American  Govern- 
ment' (ib,  1914). 

ELECTORAL  VOTES,  the  votes  cast  by 
the  presidential  electors  or  electoral  college  for 
President  and  Vice- President  Prior  to  1804 
each  elector  voted  for  two  candidates  for  Presi- 
dent. The  one  who  received  the  largest  num- 
ber of  votes  was  dedared  President;  and  the 
one  receiving  the  second  brgest  vote  was 
elected  Vice-President.  The  votes  for  the  first 
President  were;  George  Washington  69;  John 
Adams  (Mass.)  34,  John  Jay  (N.  Y.)  9,  R.  H. 
Harrison  (Md.)  6,  Jno.  Rutledge  (S.  C)  6, 
John  Hancock  (Mass.)  4,  Geo.  Qinton  (N.  Y.) 
3,  and  scattering  7.  In  1912  the  dectoral  votes 
cast  by  the  electoral  college  were  as  follows; 
For  President,  Woodrow  Wilson  435,  Theodore 
Roosevelt  88,  William  H.  Taft  8;  for  Vice- 
President.  Thomas  R.  Marshall  435,  Hiram 
Johnson  88,  Nicholas  M.  Butler  8.  Consult 
fcQure,  'Out  Presidents'  (New  York  1905); 
Stan  wood,  'History  of  the  Presidency  from 
1788  to  1897'  (Boston  1898);  'History  of  the 
Presidency  from  1897  to  1912'  (ib.  1912).  See 
Electors;  Electoral  Commission. 


perors.  The.  number  of  the  electors  was  early 
fixed  at  seven  by  the  Golden  Bull  of  1356,  in- 
cluding the  archbishops  of  Mainz,  Colc^^  and 
Treves,  the  Idn^  of  Bohemia,  the  Count  Pala- 
tine of  the  Rhine,  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  and 
the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg.  An  election  as 
long  of  the  Romans  was  held  by  the  (^man 
princes  to  indude  the  imperial  title  of  Holy 
Roman  emperor,  but  this  was  contested  by  the 
popes,  who  claimed  the  exdusive  privilcBC  of 


8l^ 


mnting  the  title.  In  1648,  b^  the  Treaty  of 
Westphalia  an  electorate  W3S  given  to  Bavaria ; 
and  in  1710  to  Hanover.  In  1802  the  Bavarian 
electorship  had  expired,  the  archbishops  of  Co- 
logne ana  Tr^es  were  excluded,  and  the  num- 
ber of  electors  was  increased  to  10  by  conferring 
the  rank  on  the  rulers  of  Baden,  Wiirtemberg; 
Hesse-Casset  and  Salzburg,  In  1806  the  em- 
peror gave  up  the  imperial  title,  and  the  elec- 
tors gradually  adopted  other  titles.  Consult 
Bo'co,    'The   Holy  Rotnan  &npire'    (London 

ELECTORS,  United  Stxtes  Pretldential 
(as.  a  body,  termed  the"  Electoral  College,  a 
term  informally  used  since  about  1821,  prob- 
ably suggested  by  the  College  of  Cardinals: 
"college  of  electors"  appears  in  the  Act  of 
1845),  the  intermediate  body  for  whom,  and 
-  not  directly  for  President  and  Vice-President, 
votes  are  cast  every  four  years.  As  originally 
ordained  they  were  meant  to  constitute  a  coun- 
cil  of  the  ablest  men  in  the  country,  exercising 
an  independent  choice  of  a  chief  executive.  The 
theory  has  never  been  fact  for  a  moment,  and 
since  the  third  election  not  even  a  pretense; 
the  institution  is  retained  for  very  different 
reasons,  and  perhaps  stronger  ones.  As  a  fact, 
the  electors  are  only  registers  of  the  already 
pronounced  party  choice  in  candidates,  and  ac- 
cept the  office  under  a  tacit  pledge  to  act  only 
as  such.  The  electoral  colleges  are  State 
bodies,  and  their  integrity  as  such  is  scrupu- 
lously guarded.  They  consist  of  as  many  mem- 
bers as  the  State's  representation  in  both 
houses  of  Congress;  therefore  a  State  cannot 
have  less  than  three,  and  New  York  has  45. 
The  method  of  appointment  is  left  absolutely 
to  the  State  lepslatures.  Til]  about  1820-24 
they  were  appomted  direct  by  the  le^slatnre 
in  most  States;  in  1^4  popular  election  had 
superseded  this  method  in  ail  but  six,  and  by 
1828  in  all  but  one  — South  Carolina,  which 
retained  it  till  1868,  The  district  system,  which 
divides  the  State's  electoral  vote,  has  some- 
times been  tried  as  a  party  compromise;  but 
at  present  all  parties  prefer  having  all  the 
State's  electors  on  a  general  ticket.  Each  State 
appoints  the  place  of  meeting  of  its  own  elec- 
toral college.  Congress  has  Jixed  the  time  — 
the  second  Monday  in  Jaotiary  —  to  prevent  a 
failure  of  any  meeting  through  the  refusal  of 
a  minority  house  of  a  legislature  to  join  with 
the  majority  house  in  setting  a  date.  The 
State,  1^  act  of  3  Feb.  1887,  is  made  absolute 
judge  of  all  disputes  over  appointment  or  re- 
turns ;  its  certificate  is  decisive  between  two 
sets  of  returns,  and  Congress  can  only  inter- 
vene if  the  State  itself  is  unable  to  decide. 
Bnt  what  is  the  State?  This  was  precisely 
one  of  the  questions  before  the  Electoral  Com- 
mission (q.v.),  and  even  the  new  act  would 
seem  to  leave  room  for  partif  decision  as 
there;  and  no  Electoral  Commission  v^ould  ever 
be  possible  again.  In  case  of  vacancy  in  the 
electoral  body,  by  death,  resignation,  refusal  to 
serve  or  any  other  cause,  the  State  may  pass 
laws  to  fill  it ;  if  it  has  no  such  law,  that  vote 
is  lost,  as  happened  in    Nevada  in   1864. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  State  electoral  col- 
lege no  organisation  is  required;  but  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  organize  and  elect  a  chairman. 
Separate  ballots  (which  remain  the  property 
of  the  State)  are  cast  for  President  and  Vice- 
PreSidenL-    In  the  first  three  elections,   each 


'  simply  voted  (as  req&ired  by  the  Constitution) 
for  two  persons,  one  a  resident  of  a  differ- 
ent State,  without  designating  the  office;  the 
one  with  the  highest  vole  became  President, 
die  next  bluest  Vice-President.  Obviously, 
as  soon  as  parties  gained  firm  orgatuiation, 
mere  party  loya^  would  invariably  produce 
a  tie;  and  in  1600  Jefferson  and  Burr  were 
so  tied  (see  jErrEnsoN-BiTes  Iubroguo),  ffie 
resulting  scandal  and  danger  leading  to  die 
12th  Amendment,  which  obliges  the  elector!  to 
designate  the  office  voted  for. 

The  constitutional  provision  as  amended 
in  1804  and  in  force  now  is  as  follows : 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  tfidr  respective 
States  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and 
Vice  President,  one  of  whom  at  least  shall 
not  be  an  inhabitant  of  die  same  State  with 
themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  Preddent  and  in  dis- 
tinct ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice 
President ;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of 
all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all 
persons  voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  of 
the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which  list  they 
shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to 
the  seat  of  the  GoTamment  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate; 
the  President  of  the  Senate  shalL  in  Ae  pres- 
ence of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes 
shall  then  be  counted;  the  person  having  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be 
President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed;  and  if 
no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from. the 
persons  having  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceed- 
ing three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as 
President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President 

°^But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes 
^faall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from 
each  Slate  having  one  vote;  a  ouorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority 
of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not 
choose    a    President,    whenever    the    right    of 


President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  death  or  constitutional  disability  of  the 
President.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  as  Vice  President  shall  be  the 
Vice  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majoritv 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed, 
and  if  no  pers<Mi  have  a  majority,  then  from 
the  two  hignest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate 
shall  choose  the  Vice  President;  a  quorum  for 
the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  ineligible 
to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to 
that  of  Vice  President  of  the  United  States.* 
After  voting,  they  make  three  lists  of  the 
persons,  ofBces  and  number  of  votes,  and  the 
names  of  the  State  electors  certified  by  the 
"executive  authority"  of  the  State:  seal  them, 
and  certify  each;  transmit  two  to  the  pFCHdent 
of  the  Senate,  one  by  messen^r  ana  one  by 
mail,  and  deposit  the  third  with  die  Federal 
judge  of  tlie  district.  They  have  thai  ao 
furdier  functions. 


jOOgIc 


On  the  second  Wednesday  in  Febnuuy,  in 
the  RepresenUitives  Hall  end  in  presence  of 
both  Houses  of  Conereas  assembled,  the  presi- 
dent of  ^e  Senate  opens  and  counts  the  State 
returns,  and  announces  the  result.  _  la  case  of  a 
tie  the  House  decides  by  a  maiority  of  States, 
each  havins  one  vole;  on  a  tie  for  Vice- 
President,  the  Senate  decides  in  tlie  same  way. 
If  no  one  candidate  has  a  majoritjr,  the  Houses 
decide  in  the  same  manner,  <±oosiDg  from  the 
three  highest  candidates  on  the  list.  Thus,  in 
1824  John  Quincy  Adams  was  elected  President 

a  I  the  House ;  in  1837  Richard  M.  Johnson  was 
ected  Vice-President  by  the  Senate.  But  sty)- 
pose  the  third  and  fourth  are  ties.  This  quite 
probable  contingency  has  not  been  provided  for, 
and  may  cause  trouble.  There  was  formerly  a 
custom,  when  a  State  sent  in  conflicting  elec- 
toral returns,  of  announcing  the  final  result  *in 
the  altemative' — so  many  votes  with,  bo  many 
without,  the  disputed  returns;  but  the  Act  of 
1687  ends  diis,  and  it  was  always  unwork- 
able where  the  disputed  votes  were  vital  to  the 
election.  By  the  22d  Joint  Rule  of  Congress 
up  to  1875,  in  case  of  dispute  the  returns  from 
that  Stale  were  thrown  out,  but  in  antiripation 
of  the  struggle  over  the  returning  boards,  the 
Republican  Senate  on  20  Jan.  1876  r^iealed  the 

In  order  to  obtain  the  electoral  votes  of  a 


mined  by  the  highest  popular  vote  cast  in  that 
State.  The  popular  vote  for  electors  is 
counted,  but  there  is  no  electoral  vote  to  count 
unless  a  State  is  carried.  Consequently,  the 
smaller  parlies  which  have  not  had  a  large 
enough  popular  vote  to  carry  a  State  have  not 
had  the  Stale  voies  in  the  electoral  college, 
and  must  therefore  be  counted  by  popular  vote 
only,  having  no  representation  in  the  electoral 
college  at  all. 

The  electoral  system,  despite  its  wide  di- 
vergence from  the  intent  of  its  originators,  and 
its  undeniably  undemocratic  character,  is  never 
seriously  menaced,  because  of  iis  practical 
utility  in  settling  the  prfsidenlial  question 
at  once  on  the  counting  of  State  votes.  With 
direct  popular  vote,  where  parties  are  closely 
balanced,  the  result  could  not  be  known  per- 
haps for  months. 

In  accordance  with  the  Reapportionment 
Act  of  1911  the  number  of  electors  in  the  sev- 
eral State  colleges  is  as  follows : 


The  whole  number  of  electors  in  dM  United 
States,  until  another  reapportionment  is  made, 
will  remain  at  531,  and  the  majority  necessary 
to  secure  an  election  to  the  presidency  will  be 
266.    See  Appo«nowMENT. 

Consult  Dougherty,  J.  H.,  'Electoral  System: 
of  the  United  State9>  (1906). 

BLECTRA,  in  Greek  legend,  the  name  of 
several  personages.  (1)  One  of  the  Oceanides, 
wife  of  Atlas,  and  mother  of  Dardanus  by  Zeus, 
(2)  A  daughter  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  who  be- 
came one  of  the  Pleiades,  (3)  A  daughter  of 
Agamemnon,  king  of  Argos,  who  incited  her 
brother  Oresles  to  a^^nge  their  father's  death. 
by  killing  their  mother,  Gytemneslra.  Orestes 
gave  her  in  marriage  lo  his  friend,  Pylades, 
and  she  became  the  mother  of  Strophius  and 
Medon.  She  is  the  subject  of  a  number  of 
dramas,  both  ancient  and  modern, 

BLBCTRA.  Benito  Pirei  Gald6s'  drama 
'£lectra,>  one  of  the  most  consfHcuously  success- 
ful, as  well  as  one  of  the  shortest-lived  of 
modern  Spanish  plays,  was  oerformed  for  the 
first  time  in  the  face  of  violent  protest  at  the 
Teatro  Espafiol,  Madrid,  in  1901.  Constructed 
with  the  author's  customary  skill,  it  is  written 
in  a  spirit  of  broad  tolerance,  the  didactic  touch 
never  being  entirely  absent  from  its  pages. 
Yet  as  a  thesis  drama  the  clay  is  unconvincing. 
In  particular,  the  solution  of  the  conflict  be- 
tween the  scientific  spirit  and  the  Church,  typi- 
fied in  their  struggle  for  Ibe  soul  of  a  young 
woman,  is  precipitated  at  the  d^ouement  l^ 
means  of  an  apparition  which  effects  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  demands  of  science  and 
religion  through  supernatural  aid.  Undoubtedly 
this  evasion  was  not  without  utilitarian  justifi- 
cation, and  made  the  performance  of  the  play 
possible.  Gatd6s  had  been  associated  for  many 
years  with  a  program  of  social,  political  and 
literary  reform,  which  had  brought  to  his  aid 
a  host  of  admirers,  among  whom  the  gnat  body 
of  ihe  more  intelligent  of  the  youtJi  of  his  coun- 
try  was  included.  In  'Electra,'  he  turned  lo 
attack  directly  the  forces  of  conservatism  and 
reaction,  and  in  the  sharpness  of  the  is^ue  then 
joined  lies  the  chief  si^ficance  of  the  play. 
With  its  production  the  influence  of  the  author 
reached  its  zenith,  and  his  victory  assured  the 
succeeding  generation  that  freedom  of  expres- 
sion which  was  essential  to  the  development  of 
modern  Spanish  letters. 


'Lccturas  espanolas'   (Madrid  1812). 

John  Garhett  Underhill. 
BLBCTRA.  Althou^  Hugo  von  Hof- 
mannsthal  possesses  no  original  genius,  he  is 
the  most  musical  of  poets  who  in  recent  times 
have  contributed  to  the  drama  in  German.  His 
power  of  verbal  enpression,  rather  than  his 
dramaturgic  skill  or  his  imderstanding  of  char- 
acter, enttiles  him  to  praise,  A  Viennese,  he 
is  an  atsthetic  cosmopolite.  In  'Venice  Pre- 
served* he  has  reworked  the  Ejiglish  tragedy 
of  Otway  and  in  'Electra'  and  'CEdipiis  and 
the  Sphinjt>  the  Greek  tragedies  of  Sophocles, 
ennbrotdering  his  models  with  fresh  details  and 
intensifying  passion.  His  reversion  to  thp 
Greek  was  inspired  by  the  presentation  at  t 


8l^ 


90 


ELECTRIC   ALTERNATING   CORRBNT   MACHINERY 


Bure  Theatre  in  Vienna  of  £schylus,  trans- 
lated into  German  by  -  Wilamowitz-UolleDdorfl, 
and  by  the  su^estion  of  the  critic  Paul  Scblen- 
dier  that  modern  playwrights  should  render 
classic  themes  in  a  free  fashion.  'Elcctni'  ap- 
peared in  1903;  and  in  1908,  in  the  version  of 
Arthur  Symons,  it  was  played  in  English  with 
Mrs.  Patrick  Campbell  in  the  title  role.  It  has 
also  served  as  the  libretto  for  an  opera  by 
Richard  Strauss. 

The  piece  is  in  one  act  and  dispenses  with 
the  classic  chorus,  partly  because  this  would 
be  counter  to  our  stage  conventions,  and  partly 
because  it  would  detract  ^om  the  lyrical  fervor 
of  the  individual  characters.  The  Sophoclean 
Stoty  of  Electra's  yearning  for  the  return  of 
her  brother  Orestes  lo  whom  she  may  confide 
the  task  of  avenging  her  mother's  murder  of 
her  father  is  repeated,  with  the  weakness  of 
her  sister  Chrysolhemis,  the  appearance  of 
Orestes  as  a  messenger  come  to  announce  his 
own  death,  and  his  slaying  of  his  mother, 
Clyiemnestra,  and  her  paramour,  ^gisthus. 
Von  Hofmannsthal,  however,  has  made  no 
effort  to  achieve  the  noble  diiniity  of  the  Greek. 
Instead,  he  has  sensualized  Electra,  ^vhose  lust 
for  vengeance  on  her  guilty  mother  becomes 
hysterical  and  insane.  Hatred,  she  says,  has 
been  her  bridegroom;  curses  and  despair  have 
been  her  children.  When  Orestes  finally -slays 
his  victims,  Electra  dances  in  very  ecstasy  of 
joy.  As  an  American  critic,  Mr.  W.  P.  Eaton, 
has  remarked;  'Pity  and  fear  are  not  aroused 
by  von  Hofmannsthal's  play,  but  curiosity  and 
horror.  The  emotions  are  not  purged,  but 
scraped,  irritated,  made  to  shiver  and  creep.' 
The  best  account  of  von  Hofmannsthal  is  Dr. 
August  Kollmann's  monograph  in  German 
(ISW) ;  he  is  discussed  in  English  by  Elizabeth 
Walter  In  <Poet  Lore'  (1915),  and  by  Ashley 
Dukes  in  'Modem  Dramatists'  (1912). 

Frank  W.  Chandler. 

ELECTRIC  ALTERNATING  CUR- 
RENT MACHINERY.  A  loop  of  wire  rc- 
■  volving  in  a  magnetic  field  is  the  simplest  form 
of  an  alternating  current  generator.  The  direc- 
tion of  induced  electromotive  force  in  the  two 
halves  of  the  loop,  which  cut  the  magnetic  flux 
in  opposite  directions,  is  such  that  the  combined 
electromotive  force  at  the  terminals  is  double 
that  of  either  revolving  conductor  alone.  This 
induced  electromotive  force  is  proportional  to 
the  rate  of  cutting  the  magnetic  lines,  and  there- 
fore to  the  sine  of  the  angle  by  which  the  plane 
of  the  coi!  differs  from  the  plane  midway  be- 
tween the  poles  and  normal  to  the  magnetic 
flux.  At  its  zero  position,  or  when  the  planes 
coincide,  the  coil  is  cutting  no  lines  of  force 
and  we  have  sine  o=-0.  The  electromotive  force, 
however,  grows  as  we  depart  from  this  zero 
position,  assuming  uniform  speed,  until,  when 
90  degrees  is  reaclied  the  rate  of  cutting  o£  the 
lines  becomes  a  maximum,  sine  90  degrees  "=1. 
Passing  on,  the  electromotive  force  dies  away 
until  180  degrees  is  reached,  when  the  value 
again  is  zero.  From  this  to  270  degrees  we 
have  an  increasing  electromotive  force,  but  of 
opposite  polarity  and  at  the  end  of  the  revolu- 
tion, or  360  degrees,  again  reach  zero.  Thus 
■wc  have  in  one  revolution  in  a  two-pole  field 
two  waves  of  pressure  of  the  same  form 
but  of  opposite  sitrn.  The  one  is  called  the  posi- 
tive wave  and  the  other  the  negative.    One  sudi 


revolution,  or  one  positive  wave  and  one  nega- 
tive wave,  constitute  what  is  called  a  cycle,  or 
period,  which  in  technical  Hterature  is  desig- 
nated by  the  symbol  ' — ,  ""one  sine  wave.    The 


quencies  are  standard  practice  in  this  country, 
and  the  values  between  are  chosen  for  ^>ecial 
cases.  Owing  to  the  high  frequency  of  commer- 
cial systems,  alternators  are  built  with  more 
than  one  pair  of  poles,  in  order  to  keep  tfa«  re- 
volving speed  within  reasonable  limits. 

Average  and  Effective  Values.— If  we  plot 
the  values  of  the  instantaneous  pressures  as 
ordinates,  with  time  as  abscissa,  we  have  a  cor- 
rect representation  of  the  generation  of  alter- 
nating currents,  and  the  shape  of  the  wave. 
When  the  total  number  of  lines  cut  per  revolu- 
tion by  a  coil  revolving  at  constant  speed  re- 
mains the  same,  the  average  induced  electro- 
motive force  remains  constant,  regardless  of  the 
distribution  of  the  magnetic  flux.  The  effective 
value,  however  — the  value  read  by  the  metre 
and  the  value  which  corresponds  in  its  heat- 
ing effect  to  the  direct  current  value  —  is  not 
independent  of  this  distribution. 

The  Place  of  Alternating  Current  Sya- 
tems. —  The  direct  current  for  the  railway  at 
550  volts,  and  for  the  lighting  and  power  systems 
of  the  densely  populated  centres  of  our  large 
dties  in  the  Edison  three-wire  system  110  to  ^0 
volts,  seems  to  have  become  standard  practice. 
Nevertheless  the  low  radius  of  distribution  with- 
out excessive  cost  of  copper,  even  in  the  550- 
volt  railway  system  with  a  grounded  return, 
makes  necessary  a  great  multiplicity  of  moder- 
ate-sized or  small  ^ants,  operating  at  low  effi- 
ciency. It  is  here  that  the  alternating  current 
comes  to  the  front.  While  commutators  (q.v.) 
can  be  built  for  collecting  direct  current  for  1,000 
volts,  alternators  can  be  built  for  12,000  volts 
and  step-up  transformers  of  bgh  economy  arc 
quite  possible  at  75,000  to  100,000  volts.  Re- 
membering that  the  copper  cost  is  inversely  as 
the  square  of  the  voltage,  the  great  possibilities 
of   the  alternating  current  system  are  at  once 

Energy  from  Waterf alia.— Electrical  energy 
from  waterfalls  that  a  few  years  ago  were 
merely  points  of  scenic  interest  is  now  supplied 
to  hundreds  of  cities  in  North  America.  There 
are  numerous  power  plants  of  from  50,000  to 
200,000  horse-power  capacity,  sending  currents 
with  voltage  from  25,000  to  150,000  to  distances 
up  to  250  miles.  See  Hvdro-Elkctric  Develop- 
ment and  Electkic  Transwission  of  ENncY. 

The  Altcniator.— Small  alternators  and 
those  of  moderate  potential  usually  collect  their 
current  from  insulated  rings  mounted  on  the 
shaft  and  connected  to  the  ends  of  the  armahire 
winding.  Through  brushes,  the  current  is  taken 
to  the  external  circait.  In  some  machines  a  rec- 
■  tifier  is  added  for  supplying  sufficient  undimen- 
sional  current  to  produce  the  necessary  addi- 
tional field  to  overcome  the  drop  due  to  increase 
of  load.  All  commercial  alternators  are  sup- 
plied with  an  exciter,  or  direct  current  dynamo, 
whose  function  is  to  supply  current  to  the  field 
windings.  The  field  spools  are  usually  con- 
nected m  series.  The  amount  of  current  thus 
necessary  on  a  full  non-inductive  load  varies 
from  1^  to  3  per  cent  of  the  total  output  of  the 
alternator.    Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  collecting 


,v  Google 


ELECTRIC    ALTERHAllHG  CURRENT  MACHIHKIY 


ETG  H  loop! 


BCD  e7g  H  loopcf 


Fig.  I    Diiinuii  of  *iinpl«  twi>-plute  mHtmar 


Flf.  8  Dinsn'B  Ghawhu  windiai  of  two-pale  two-phun 
lotatiiic  moloi  Held.  A,  ii  tha  return  wbt  ol  phue  A, 
■nd  B,  lbs  [Mnin  wiie  of  phus  B 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


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SLBCTRIC  ALTSRNATIHO   CURRENT  HACHINBRY 


large  currents  by  means  of  brushes  and  of  pre- 
serving good  insulation  between  the  rings  and 
shaft,  the  revolving  field  type  of  machine  is  now 
used  in  almost  all  large  installations,  the  field 
current  from  the  exciter  being  snpplied  throuKh 
cast-iron  rings  mounted  on  the  shaft,  or  in  the 
case  of  the  inductor  tyi>e,  consisting  of  an 
annular  ring  surrounding  the  inductor  or  re- 
volvini^  element,  which  consists  of  laminated 
iron  poles  suitably  spaced  and  keyed  to  the  shaft. 
The  windings  being  stationary,  there  are  no 
moving  connections,  either  for  the  field  current 
or  the  main  current  of  the  machine.  In  either 
type  the  alternating  current  is  taken  from  the 
terminals  of  the  windings,  usually  at  t^e  bottom 
of  the  frame. 

Poljrphase  Machinea.— If  two  armatures  of 
the  same  number  of  turns  each,  be  connected  to 
the  shaft  at  90  degrees  from  each  other,  and  re- 
volved in  a  bi-polar  field,  and  each  terminal  be 
joined  to  a  collector  ring,  we  have  two  separate 
electromotive  forces  differing  in  phase  by  90 
degrees  or  a  two-phase  machine.  With  120 
degrees  phase  difference  and  three  sets  of  arma- 
tures we  have  a  tbree-phase  winding.  By  prop- 
erly interconnecting  the  three  circuits,  we  may 
use  but  three  wires  for  transmission,  or  four, 
in  accordance  with  the  system  used.  The  con- 
struction of  multiphase  machines  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  single-phase  type,  excepting  that  in 
the  former  -we  have  as  many  armatures,  series 
connected,  as  there  are  phases. 

In  the  two-phase  three-wire  system,  the  wire 
from  the  common  junctions  of  the  phases  car- 
ries 1.414  times  the  current  of  the  outer  wires. 
The  electromotive  force  between  the  outer  wires 
is  also  V2  E,  when  £  is  the  electromotive  force 
per  phase,  or  between  either  outer  wire  and  the 
common  return.  When  this  system  is  used  it  is 
important  that  the  load  be  carefully  balanced  on 
the  phases  and  that  the  power  factor  be  kept 
as  high  as  possible  in  order  to  keep  the  volt^e 
on  the  phases  nearly  alike  at  the  receiving  end- 
Single  phase  motors  or  lamps  may  be  connected 
to  either  or  both  phases,  but  it  is  very  import- 
ant that  no  load  be  connected  between  the  outer- 
wires,  as  the  effect  is  to  badly  imbalance  the 
voltages  on  the  different  phases. 

In  the  three-phase  star  coimected  system  the 
line  voltage  is  VJ=  1.732  times  the  voltage  on 
the  coils  of  the  machine,  or  the  machine  volt- 
age, which  is  the  pressure  between  any  one  of 
the  three  line  connections  and  the  common  neu- 
tral._  The  line  current  in  this  system  is  the  cur- 
rent *thai  flows  through  any  one  of  the  machine 
windings.  In  the  delta  connection,  the  line 
voltage  is  the  same  as  the  voltage  across  any 

ehase  of  the  machine,  while  the  line  current, 
eing  the  resultant  of  two  currents,  is 
V3=  1.732  times  the  current  flowing  through 
any  phase  of  the  machine. 

Energy  Polyphase.— In  a  two-phase  cir- 
cuit, whether  three  or  four  wire,  the  energy 
flowing  is  the  sum  of  the  products  of  each  phase 
current  by  the  phase  pressure.  Two  wattmeters 
are  used.  In  the  three-phase  system  when 
£"=  volts  between  lines;  I  =^ amperes  on  lines; 
W  — total  watts  output  of  machine, —  then, 
whether  the  connection  be  star  or  delta,  the  total' 

3E  X  I 
ou^t  is       ,-     ■=  1.732  EI,  always  supposing 

the  system  be  balanced.    Thus  the  ou^nt  of  the 


machine  is  not  changed  by  changing  the  con- 
nections from  star  to  delta.  In  the  balanced 
three-phase  systwn,  one  wattmeter  wdll  register 
the  total  output  if  its  constant  be  multiplied  bf 
1,732.     Two  wattmeters  are  usually  employed. 

Regulation  of  Altematora The  regulation 

of  modem  alternators  varies  from  5  to  6  per 
cent,  which  means  that  in  case  the  full,  non- 
inductive  load  of  an  alternator  be  taken  off,  the 
speed  and  excitation  being  kept  constant,  the 
terminal  pressure  will  rise  by  an  amount  corre- 
sponding to  from  5  per  cent  to  6  per  cent 
of  its  full  load  voltage.  Qose  regulation  means 
a  much  better  volt  age- reflation  on  the  system 


.    - --    —   necessary   to 

avoid  large  cross  currents  on  changing  the  field 
of  one  or  more  machines  operating  in  parallel, 
in  the  attempt  to  preserve  the  same  terminal 
voltage.  The  eSicicncy  of  large  alternators  is 
about  96  per  cent  to  9/ per  cent. 

Frequency. —  In  regard  to  the  frequency  best 
adapted  to  transmission  work,  or  to  local  distri- 
bution, various  factors  enter  into  the  problem. 
At  60  iv/  both  arc  and  incandescent  lamps 
can  be  operated  satisfactorily.  The  transformers 
are  smaller  and  cheaper  than  at  25  f^^  and 
motors  are  very  satisfactory  both  as  to  low  first 
cost,  range  of  speed,  and  good  starting  torque 
(q.v.).  Frequencies  over  60'V  have  been  aban- 
doned. The  line  drop,  due  to  reaction,  increases 
with  the  frequency;  a  change  of  frequency 
from  25  '\/  to  125  rsj  would,  on  the  same 
line,  more  than  double  the  line  drop.  While 
as  a  rule  60  '^^  apparatus  is  cheaper  than 
(hat  for  25  *%•  yet  the  increase  in  polar  speed 
often  becomes  difficult  without  increasing  the 
number  of  poles  to  an  undesirable  extent,  which, 
in  60  '^'  apparatus,  may  be  sufficient  to  make 
ihe  parallel  operation  of  low  speed  direct-con- 
nected alternators  quite  difficult. 

Self-indnctioiL— When  a  current  is  intro- 
duced into  a  circuit  a  magnetic  field  is  produced, 
surrounding  the  conductor,  the  rise  of  which 
causes  a  counter  electromotive  force.  This  elec- 
tromotive force  is  called  the  electromotive  force 
of  self-induction.  The  effect  of  self -induction 
upon  electric  currents  is  directly  comparable  to 
the  effect  of  inertia  on  a  material  body.  It  b 
that  quality  that  tends  to  hinder  the  introduction, 
variation  or  extinction  of  the  current  in  a  cir- 
cuit. As  this  effect  is  ^eatest  at  times  of  most 
rapid  change  of  magnetism  set  up  by  the  current, 
in  alternating  current  circuits,  it  becomes  a  maxi- 
mum when  the  inducing  current  is  passing 
through  *ero,  and,  therefore,  the  counter  elec- 
tromotive force  of  self-induction  lags  90  degrees 
behind  the  current  in  the  circuit.  It  also  follows 
the  sine  curve  provided  the  current  flowing  is 
sinusoidal. 

In  a  circuit  containing  several  impedances  in 
series,  the  joint  impedance  is  not  the  sum  of  the 
individual  impedances,  but  is  obtained  by  taking 
the  square  root  of  the  total  added  reactances 
squared  plus  the  total  added  resistances,  squared. 

That  is.  Impedance  = 

V  fRi  -1-  R,  -1-  Ri)'  4-  {  2T  fli  -I-  Z^r  fl,  -)-  2"  fl.)» 
The  joint  impedance  of  several  impedances 
in  parallel  is  found  as  follows.  Construct 
a  parallel (^rram  from  the  reciprocals  of  .two 
of  the  impedances,  each  expressed  in  its  proper 
phase  relation.  The  direction  of  the  diagonal 
will    give    the    phase    of   the    resultaat  tm- 


BLBCTRIC  ALTBRHATIHO  CURRENT  MACHINERY 


pedance  and  its  reciprocal  amount  will  gire 
me  reciprocal  of  its  length.  For  more  than  two, 
the  meniod  of  the  polygon  of  forces  is  applied. 
The  effect  of  self-induction  varies  with  the  fre- 
quency of  the  current  supplied,  and  as  the 
square  of  the  number  of  turns  b  a  circuit.  The 
self-induction  in  the  armature  of  an  alternator 
has  two  effects.  The  first  is  to  produce  a  lag- 
ging current  and  thus  lower  the  terminal  volt- 
age, and  the  second  is  a  demagnetizing  effect. 
The  current  is  thrown  into  such  a  phase  that  it 
produces  lines  of  force  directly  apposed  to  the' 
■  field  and  thus  lowers  the  voltage  1^  reducing 
the  total  flux.  The  effecl  of  armature  reaction 
depends  upon  whether  the  current  is  leading  or 
lagging  in  phase.  A  lagging  current  lowers  the 
voltage  of  an  alternator  and  a  leading  current 
raises  it. 

Capacity.—  All  insulated  conductors  have 
the_  quality  of  being  able  to  hold,  stored  on 
their  surfaces,  a  certain  quantity  of  static  elec- 
tricity, and  are  thus  condensers.  The  charg- 
ing and  discharging  of  an  alternating  current 
circuit  causes  the  current  to  flow  from  the 
generator  into  the  line  and  then  back  inlo  the 
generator  again,  with  the  fr-equency_  of  the 
alternator,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  static  poten- 
tial on  the  line.  As  this  charging  current  is 
greatest  when  the  rate  of  change  of  electromo- 
tive force  is  greatest,  a  sinusoidal  wave  of 
capacity  electromotive  force  with  90  degrees 
difference  in  phase  from  the  machine  electromo- 
tive force  is  produced.  This  leads  the  active 
electromotive  force  by  90  degrees  and  is  thus 
directly  ofiposite  to  the  electromotive  force  of 
self-induction.  If  we  have  a  circuit  in  which 
the  electromotive '  force  of  self-induction  is 
just  equal  to  the  capacity  electromotive  force, 
and  these  two  parts  of  the  circuit  are  in  series, 
the  effect  of  both  is  neutralized  and  we  have, 
as  in  direct  currents,  W=EXC. 

The  Trana former.— The  one  piece  of  ap- 
paratus that  more  than  all  else  has  made  pos- 
sible the  electrical  transmission  of  energy  to 
long  distances  is  the  transformer.  This  is  the 
apparatus  that  receives  in  one  set  of  coils  the 
(wngerous  potential  of  the  line  and  transforms 
it  into  whatever  potential  is  desired  for  lights 
or  motors,  which  are  supplied  from  an  entirely 
separate  winding.  The  transformer  consists  of 
a  ma^rnetic  circuit  of  laminated  iron  or  mild 
steel  interlinked  with  two  electric  circuits,  one, 
the  primary,  receiving  electrical  energy  and  the 
other,  the  secondary,  delivering  it  to  the  con- 
sumer. The  effect  of  the  iron  is  to  make  as 
many  as  possible  of  the  lines  ot  force  set  up 
by  the  primary  current  cut  the  secondary  wind- 
ing and  there  give  rise  to  an  electromotive 
force  of  the  same  frequency,  but  different  vol- 
tage. 

Not  only  does  the  transformer  make  pos- 
sible the  transformation  of  voltages,  but  it  also 
permits  of  chanpng  from  one  system  to  an- 
other. Thus  a  smgle-phase  primary  may  sup- 
ply a  three-wire  Edison  system,  of  course,  wifli 
alternating  current  A  two-phase  system  can 
be  changed  to  a  three-phase  or  vice  versa ;  a 
four-wire  two-phase  may  make  a  three-wire 
two-phase,  and  many  other  useful  combinations 
may  be  effected.  The  Scott  connection  for 
changing  two-phase  to  three-phase,  or  the  op- 
posite, uses  but  two  transformers.  One  has  a 
rado  of,  say  10  to  1,  with  a  tap  at  the  middle 


of  its  secondary  coil.  The  other  must  then 
have  a  ratio  of  10  to  .866=  10  to  \/|.ODe  ter- 
minal of  the  secondary  of  thii  transformer  is 
connected  to  the  middle  of  the  other  lecondaiy, 
and  the  remaining  free  end»  of  both  seconda- 
ries form  the  three  teminalt  of  a  three-phase 
circuit.  The  value  VI  is  *e  altitude  of  an 
equilateral  triangle  of  which  the  base  b  unity, 
and  thus  we  may  consider  the  current  to  be 
taken  from  the  corners  of  an  equilateral  tri- 
angle, which  represent  in  phase  and  potential 
difference,  a  true  three-phase  system.  The  cur- 
rent m  the  transformer  of  secondary,  ,866  being 
the  resultant  of  the  other  two-phases,  is  greater 
,u.^   .._j„. ,  ......pjjjg^.  conditions;  ani£ 


than  I 


therefore,  the  windings  must  have  about  15  {)er 
cent  more  copper,  if  two  similar  transformers 
are  used  the  secondary  of  each  has  taps  giving 
SO  per  cent  and  86.7  per  cent  of  full  vdltagc. 
In  many  large  installations,  notably  at  Niagara 
Falls,  we  find  two-phase  generators  feeding 
three-phase  lines  through  Scott  connected  step- 
up  transformers.  In  small  systems  standard 
transformers  may  be  used  having  ratios  of  10 
to  1  and  9  to  1  respectively,  and  the  results  will 
be  quite  satisfactory. 

The  Indnctioa  Motor.— Acting  upon  the 
well-known  fact  that  a  copper  disc  could  be 
made  to  revolve  by  rotating  a  horseshoe  magnet 
so  that  the  lines  of  force  cut  the  disc,  Ferraris, 
Tesia,  Dobrowolsky  and  others  have  developed 
the  present  type  of  induction  motor.  The  credit 
for  the  first  commercial  application  of  the  ro- 
tating field  caused  by  currents  of  displaced 
phase  probably  belongs  to  Tesla.  At  the  pres- 
ent day  the  value  of  these  discoveries  in  the 
transmission  and  distribution  of  power  can 
hardly  be  estimated.  The  induction  motor  is 
somewhat  similar  to  the  direct-current  shunt 
motor.  Both  motors  have  field  and  armature 
windings.  In  both  cases,  aho,  Oic  field  is  con- 
nected directly  across  the  mains.  In  the  shunt 
motor  the  armature  current  is  supplied  through 
brushes  and  a  commutator  to  the  windings, 
while  in  the  induction  motor  the  armature  cur- 
rent is  an  indirect  current,  the  field  acting  as 
the  primary  of  a  transformer  of  which  the 
armature  is  the  secondary.  In  both  motors  the 
efficiency  is  inversel;^  proportional  'to  Are  arm- 
ature resistance,  as  is  also  the  speed  regulation 
of  the  motors.  The  less  the  armature  resist- 
ance the  higher  the  efficiency  and  the  closer 
the  regulation  of  speed  between  no  load  ;ind 
full  load.  In  practice,  either  element  may  be 
the  one  to  revolve.  The  rotation  is  produced 
by  the  reaction  of  the  armature,  or  indirect 
current,  on  the  revolving  magnetic  field,  which 
results  in  drawing  the  moving  element  around 
in  order  to  keep  up  with  the  field  flux,  as  it 
passes  around  the  face  of  the  primary  windings. 
This  field,  being  (he  resilltant  of  two  or  more 
alternating  tiem  of  diUFerent  phases,  rotates 
with  the  polar  frequency  of  die  supplied  voltage. 
The  secondary  winding  is  made  up  of  copper 
bars  set  in  slots  in  a  laminated  iron  core  and 
running  across  the  armature  parallel  with  the 
axis  of  rotation.  This  separating  of  the  old 
copper  disc  into  narrow  bars  constrains  the 
current  to  flow  into  the  best  direction  for  pro- 
ducing torque  and  avoids  the  waste  of  the  im- 
constrained  Foucault  currents  in  the  Arago 
disc,  and  thus  malWs  the  motor  muCh  more 


EUDCTfEIC  ALTBRHATING   CUSSSSTT  HACJHtlWRY 


efiidcnt  Sometimes  the  KcondsTy  windingB 
are  joined  to  heavy  Ehort-circuitiTig  rings  at 
boih  ends,  resulting  m  Ike  sqairrel-cage  type  of 
motor;  and  in  other  cases  the  secondary  wind- 
ings ar«  taken  out  throttgh  collector  rugs,  if 
the  secondary  be  the  rotating  element,  and  start- 
ing resistances  arc  inserted  in  series  to  lessen 
the  reaction  due  to  excessive  starting  current 
and  thus  improve  the  starting  torqae.  When 
Up  to  speed  theM  resistances  are  cnt  out  and  the 
lenninals  short-circuited  as  in  the  squirrel-cage 
type. 

The  AsynchroBOoa  Generator. —  If  the 
motor  be  driven  by  power  from  an  oul^de 
source  up  to  true  syndironisra,  no  current  will 
flow  in  me  secondary,  and  the  primary  current 
or  field  current  will  be  wholly  made  up  of  the 
wattless  exciting  current,  just  as  in  a  trans- 
former at  no  load.  The  slip,  or  amount  by 
which  the  motor  speed  at  full  load  differs  from 
synchronous  speed,  may  be  as  little  as  2  to  2J4 
per  cent  of  the  speed  of  synchronism  in  large  , 
motors,  and  in  small  motors  may  be  5  per  cent 
or  more.  If  the  motor  above  mentioned  be 
forced  above  synchronism  the  motor  becomes 
a  generator,  provided  the  connection  to  the 
mams  is  left  closed,  and  when  a  negative  slip  of 
the  same  amount  as  fnll  load  sHp  as  a  motor  is 
reached,  the  generator  wHI  be  giving  out  its  full 
output  at  the  same  frequency  as  the  exciting 
circuit.  The  possibilities  of  tftis  system  are 
interesting. 

The  Synchronoai  Motor. — The  synchro- 
nous motor  is  merely  an  alternating  current 
generator  of  special  design.  Both  motors  and 
attemaiors  have  a  direct  current  field  and  an 
alternating  current  armature.  The  operation  of 
a  synchronous  motor,  when  once  brought  up 
to  spted  and  throiwn  into  circnit,  is  the  same  as 
that  of  an  alternator  in  'parallel  with  one  or 
more  alternators.  When  the  back  pressure  o( 
the  motor  is  equal  and  directly  opposed  to  that 
of  the  line  no  current  can  flow.  The  friction, 
however,  causes  the  revolving  element  to  la^ 
slightly  behind  the  line  pressure,  and  a  cur- 
rent is  driven  through  the  motor  by  the  eener- 
alor.  This  current  increases  directly  witti  the 
lag  behind  the  centrat-phase  position  caused  by 
increased  load.  A  good  synchronevs  motor, 
while  always  revolving  at  the  same  polar  speed 
as  the  alternator  supplying  the  line  current,  will 
carry  a  load  of  fiv«  or  t\x  times  full  bad  be- 
fore it  breaks  out  of  step,  and  becomes  prac- 
tjcally  a  short  circuit  on  the  system.  The  cur- 
rent which  passes  through  such  a  motor  on 
riiort  circuit,  while  held  down  by  the  induct- 
ance of  the  nKndiiigs,  is  yet  sulBdent  to  rapidly 
damage  the  insulation  if  not  cut  off.  The  great 
advantage  of  the  synchronous  over  the  induc- 
tion type  of  motor  ts  duit  the  power  factor  can 
be  raised  or  lowered  at  will.  By  raising  die 
field  strength  of  a  synchronous  motor  the  cur- 
rent taken  by  the  motor  may  be  made  les^ng 
■nd  hence  help  keep  up-die  line  voltace  «n  a 
heavy  inductive  Toad.  This  is  ot  the  giesteet 
importance  in  practice.  It  is  good  practice  to 
set  the  field  streneth  for  a  good  power  factor 
at  full  load.  At  light  loads  die  motor  is  as- 
aistitig  th«  generator  to  maintain  the  required 
pressure.  Another  advantage  of  the  synchro- 
's that  it  can  easily  be  built  for  very 


practice  —  thus  the  use  of  trans  foitncrs  may  be 
disnensed  with. 

The  Kotvy  Converter.— The  rotary  con- 
verter is  a.  specially  designed  direct-current 
generator  provided,  at  proper  points  in  the 
winding  with  taps  to  collector  rings,  from 
whicl^  if  the  machine  is  rim  as  a  motor  from 
the  direct-current  side,  aa  alternating  current 
Boay  be  taken.  Usually  the  alternating  current 
is  taken  from  the  secondaries  of  suitable  trans- 
formers  and  supplied  to  the  rings,  driving  the 
rotaty  as  a  synchronous  motor,  the  direct  cur- 
rent being  taken  from  the  brumes  on  the  con>- 
mutator.  As  the  reaction  of  the  incoming  al- 
ternating current  about  balances  that  caused  by 
the  outgoing  direct  current,  the  armature  reac- 
tion of  such  a  machine  is  very  small  and  the 
brushes  can  be  always  kept  in  one  fixed  posi- 
tion. If  the  taps  from  the  armature  are  taken 
off  at  points  differing  ISO  degrees  from  each 
other,  electrically,  we  have  a  single-phase 
rotary.  If  connections  are  made  90  degrees 
apart  we  have  a  two-phase  rotary,  using  four 
collector  rings.  Taking  120  degrees  around  the 
armature  for  our  taps  we  have  a  three-phase 
rotary,  using  three  collector  rings.  By  adding 
to  the  number  of  taps  and  therefore  to  the  num- 
ber of  rings  we  may  have  a  six-phase  rotary. 
The  outpilt  of  a  rotary  is  greater  than  its  out- 
put as  a  direct-current  generator,  chieBy  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  armature  reaction 
and  because  at  certain  positions  the  current 
flows  straight  from  collector  ring  to  commutator 
and  thus  avoids  the  loss  due  to  heating.  The 
rotary  converter,  with  its  step- down  trans- 
former, is  the  most  efficient  means  we  now  have 
of  transforming  the  high  tension  jwlyphase  cur- 
rents of  our  large  centra!  stations  to  direct 
current  for  the  Eaison  system,  and  for  railway 
purposes.  This  piece  of  apparatus  is  wound 
either  shunt  or  compound,  in  accordance  with 
the  use  for  which  it  is  intended.  As  in.  the  case 
of  the  synchronous  motor,  the  rotary  is  a 
valuable  help  to  the  central  station  by  running 
at  a  very  high  power  factor.  By  overexciting 
the  fields  the  current  taken  by  the  rotary  be- 
comes leading  and  helps  to  hold  up  the  voltage 
of  the  central  station  in  can  of  a  heavy  load 
of  induction  motors  by  means  of  the  armature 
reaction  of  the  generators.  Owing  to  very  high 
commutator  speeds  at  the  higher  fretjuencies, 
rotaries  are  not  much  used  on  frequencies  above 
60  degrees.  At  this  frequency  they  operate 
satisfactorily.  At  lower  frequencies,  however, 
rotaries  are  at  their  best,  and  will  stand  enor- 
mous overloads,  sudden  changes  in  load  and 
other  disturbances,  \vi(h  perfect  satisfaction- 
The  voltage  of  the  direct  current  end  of  a 
rotary  is  thai  of  the  peak  of  the  sine  wave 
of  the  alternating  pressure,  and  thus  a  voltmeter 


E 


where 


across  the  collector  rings  would  read   '  j" 

E  is  the  direct-current  electromotive  force  in 
sin^  and  two-phase  rotaries.  In  the  three- 
phase  system  the  ratio  between  the  alternating 
current  pressure  and  the  direct  current  at  the 

commutator bnishes is  Xi_=.6IZ  Thusinthc 

2V2 
Edison  system  operating  at  250  volts  we  should 
have  to  transform  down  to  250X.612=153  volts 
at  the  secondary  of  the  traasformers.      While 
rotaries  can  be  started  up  without  field,  from 


„8le 


BLSCnaC  ANNXALIMO—  BLICTIUC  BATTORIXS 


the  aheniiiting  current  side,  it  is  not  good  prac- 
tice, excepting  in  certain  special  cases.  Gen- 
erally they  are  started  up  exactly  like  a  shunt 
motor,  synchronized,  and  then  thrown  upon  the 
alternating  current  line.  When  a  rotary  is 
Started  up  from  the  alternating  current  side, 
on  closing  the  field  switch  it  is  impossible  to 
tell  what  the  polarity  will  be.  Rotaries  operate 
in  parallel  with  perfect  satisfaction,  as  a  rule, 
on  both  the  alternating  current  and  the  direct 
sides.  The  storage  battery  is  always  used  in  a 
large  rotary  installation  to  ensure  against  any 
possible  contingencies.  On  compound  rotaries  the 
equalizer  must  be  used,  just  as  in  the  case  of 
direct-current  compound  generators.  See 
Electric  Macuike. 

A.  R.  Cheyney, 
Sfatioit  SuperinUndenI  Philadelphia  Electrical 
Company. 


ELECTRIC  ANNEALING,  a  ; 


annealing  by  the  heat  generated  by  the  passage 
of  an  electric  current  through  the  body  to  he 
annealed,  or  in  which  heat  generated  t^  an 
electric  current  is  used  in  place  of  ordinary 
heat.  The  heat  developed  in  a  conductor  by  an 
electric  current  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the 
square  of  the  current  by  the  resistance  of  the 
conduct  or=^C7R.  An  interesting  experiment 
showing  the  fusing  power,  of  the  electric  cur- 
rent is  made  in  the  following  manner;  Provide 
a  glass  or  porcelain  vessel  containing  a  mixture 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  Introduce  a  lead 
plate  electrode  suitably  connected  with  the 
positive  pole  of  a  continuous-current  generator. 
Connect  by  a  flexible  wire  the  negative  pole  to 
a  stout  pair  of  metal  pliers.  When,  by  means 
of  jhe  pliers,  a  metal  rod  is  immersed  in  the 
acid  solution,  ^e  liquid  is  seen  to  boil  near  the 
rod,  which  is  brought  to  a  daiiling  whiteness 
in  a  few  moments^  and  presently  begins  to 
melt.  The  heating  is  so  quickly  produced  that 
the  liquid  or  the  body  of  the  rod  has  not  time 
to  become  hot.  In  a  short  time  a  temperature 
of  7,000°  F.  may  he  developed,  and  with  a  very 
strong  current  a  temperature  of  14,000°  F.  has 
been  produced 

ELECTRIC  ANNUNCIATOR,  a  form  of 
annunciator  used  in  private  houses,  offices  and 
hotels.  They  are  used  to  call  messengers,  to 
announce  an  alarm  and  to  indicate  the  aotirce 
of  the  atami  in  connection  with  electric  bur- 
glar-alarm apparatus,  and  for  numerous  other 
purposes.  In  some  forms  of  annunciator  the 
source  of  the  call  is  indicated  by  the  movement 
of  a  needle  on  the  face  of  the  case  opposite  a 
given  number;  in  others'  a  shutter  drops,  dis- 
closing the  number  or  name  of  the  room  or 
office.    Sec  Electiuc  Signaling. 

ELECTRIC  ARC,  the  intensely  hot  bright 
flame  that  forms  where  an  electric  current 
jumps  a  ^p  between  two  electrodes:  called 
also  voltaic  arc  It  tends  to  curve  in  an  arc 
following  the  lines  of  force,  hence  the  name. 
This  is  the  source  of  light  in  an  arc  lamp. 
(See  Elfctric  Lighting).  The  lamp  carbons, 
which  constitute  the  electrodes,  are  usually  en- 
closed to  retain  the  carbon  vapors.  The  car- 
bons have  to  be  set  at  a  slight  distance  apart, 
and  as  they  bum  down  require  to  be  moved  so 
as  to  maintain  the  correct  distance  for  permit- 
ting a  good  arc.  In  burning,  the  carbons  create 
carbon  vapor,  which  is  a  conductor,  and  the 


current  flows  along  this  vapor  condoctdr  in  an 
arc  of  visible  flame.  If  the  electrodes  are  im- 
pregnated with  metallic  salts  and  a  powerful 
current  passed  across  the  gap,  the  so-called 
■flaming  arc*  results,  of  varying  color,  accord- 
ing to  the  salts  employed.  Vacuum  tube  li(^- 
it^[  is  also  acirompluhed  in  a  somewhat  similar 
principle.  See  Electbic  Lighting  and  Elbcibic 
FiTBNACES — Arc  Furnace. 

ELECTRIC  AURA,  a  current  or  brceie 
of  electrified  air  employed  as  a  mild  stimulant 
in  electrifying  delicate  parts,  as  the  eye, 

ELECTRIC  AUTOMATIC  PIRE- 
ALARU.    See  Electric  Signaling. 

ELECTRIC  BALANCE,  an  instrument 
ior  measuring  the  attractive  or  repulsive  forces 
of  electrified  bodies;  a  form  of  electronometer, 
consisting^  of  a  graduated  arc  supponed  by 
a  projecting  plate  of  brass  which  is  attached 
to  a  perpendicular  column.  A  wheel,  the  axis 
of  which  is  supported  on  anti-friction  rollers, 
and  is  coucentnc  with  that  of  the  graduated 
arc,  carries  an  index.  Over  this  wheel,  in  a 
groove  on  its  circumference,  passes  a  line,  to 
one  end  of  which  is  attached  a  light  ball  of  ^ll 
wood,  and  to  the  other  a  float,  which  consists 
of  a  glass  tube  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  terminating  in  a  small  bulb,  so 
weighted  that  the  index  may  point  to  the  centre 
of  the  graduated  arc  The  difference  between 
the  weights  of  the  float  when  in  and  out  of 
water  is  knowtL  and  the  diameter  of  the  wheel 
carrying  the  index  is  such  that  a  certain  amount 
of  rise  or  fall  of  the  float  causes  the  index  to 
move  over  a  certain  nymber  of  graduations  on 
the  arc    See  ELECTRaMEiis. 

ELECTRIC  BATH,  a  solution  in  a  vat  or 
tank  containing  a  salt  of  some  metal,  as  copper, 
silver,  gold,  etc.  and  connected  with  the  illa- 
tive pole  of  a  Battery  or  dynamo.  A  current 
being  passed  through,  the  metallic  salt  is  de- 
posited on  the  negative  pole,  or  more  strictly 
spealdng,  on  the  object  to  be  plated,  connected 
with  the  pole.  The  process  is  called  electro- 
deposition.  (See  Electho-Plating ;  Fjxcrm- 
Chbmistsv).  The  name  electric  bath  is  also 
sometimes  applied  to  a  hot  water  bath  throudi 
which  a  weak  electric  current  is  sent,  for  me 
treatment  of  patients.  Its  therapeutic  value  is 
questioned  by  many. 

ELECTRIC  BATTERIES.  The  electric 
battery  is  a  device  by  which  electric  enenry  is 
derived  directly  from  chemical  action.  There 
are  two  types  of  electric  batteries:  (1)  primary, 
and  (2)  secondary.  Secondary  batteries  are 
usaally  called  'storage  batteries*  or  'accumo- 
lators*  and  are  discussed  in  another  article. 

The  battery  unit  i»  called  a  «<rell.»  The 
simple  primary  cell,  or  Voltaic  cell,  as  it  is 
often  called,  from  its  inventor,  Volta,  consists 
of  two  different  metals  immersed  in  a  w«dc 
water  solution  of  some  add  which  will  act 
with  unequal  intensity  upon  the  two  metals. 
The  KTeater  this  inequality  of  action,  the  lararer 
will  be  the  difference  of  electric  potential  be- 
tween the  two  metals ;  and,  as  the  current  ex- 
cited in  the  cell  depends  upon  this  difference 
of  potential,  the  f^reater  will  be  the  strenfcdi 
of  the  current.  The  two  metals  form  the  elec- 
trodes of  the  battery  cell,  and  the  solution  is 
the  electrolyte. 

The  chemistry  of  the  primaiy  cdl  is  thus 


>y  Google 


XLBCmiC  BATTBRXES 


txpkuJti:  When  »  ^ece  of  melaUic  zinc  is 
placed  in  sulphuric  aad  diluted  with  w>ter,  a 
chemical  union  takes  place,  the  add  and  the 
line  Gombiniog  to  fonn  the  new  substance, 
due  tulphate.  In  order  that  this  may  be 
brought  about  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen 
must  be  obtained  to  complete  the  combination, 
and  M  neither  the  acid  nor  the  zinc  can  supply 
it,  it  is  taken  from  the' water  lying  next  to 
the  line,  and  which  is  thm  decwnposed— the 
hydrc^en  formerly  .in  combination  with  the 
oxygen  being  set  free  in  little  bubbles  which 
cling  to  the  zinc  These  bubbles  eventually 
cover  the  line  and  slow  down  the  formation  of 
zinc  sulphate  until  it  nearly  ceases.  If  now  a 
strip  of  copper  be  placed  in  the  same  vessel,  but 
not  in  contact  with  the  zinc,  >the  conditions  re- 
main as  they  werci  but  if  the  ends  of  the  pieces 
of  line  and  copper  above  the  level  of  the  water 
are  leaned  together  so  as  to  touch  above  the 
water,  the  chemical  action  is  vigorously  re- 
newed,  but  the  hydrogen  bubbles  now  appear  on 
the  copper.  The  action  of  the  acid  upon  the 
dnc  so  reduces  its  electric  potential  that  when 
contact  is  made  with  the  copper  an  electric 
current  unmediately  moves  to  restore  the  elec- 
trical equilibrium.  This  being  restored,  the 
chemical  action  —  the  formation  of  line  sul- 
phate —  is  free  to  ^o  on,  and  thus  the  cycle 
continues  until  the  zinc  has  been  entirety  tnns- 
formed  into  sulphate.  And  all  the'^ttme  the 
action  is  proceeding  the  electric  current  is  con- 
tinually flowing  to  preserve  the  et^iulibrium. 
If,  instead  of  tipping  the  two  metals  m  the  cell 
until  they  touch,  a  metallic  conductor  is  placed 
so  that  one  end  touches  the  zinc  and  the  other 
the  copper,  ^e  current  will  traverse. the  whole 
length  of  the  conductor;  and  this  conductor 
may  be  cut  and  a  machine  inserted,  so  that  the 
passing  current  may  be  made  to  expend  part 
□f  its  energy  in  work.    The  current  is  observed 


tery  the  current  flows  through  the  conductor 
from  the  copper  toward  the  zinc.  From  this 
external  movement  the  copper  has  .received  the 
title  of  the  positive  pole  and  the  zinc  of  the 
negative  pole. 

The  force  or  pressure  which  causes  the 
current  to  flow  is  called  the  electromotive  force 
(commonly  abbreviated  to  E.M.F.).  It  should 
be  understood  that  the  words  "current"  and 
'flow*  are  not  used  in  the  same  sense  as  widi 
3  liquid  like  water.  A  better  understanding  is 
obtained  from  the  illustration  of  a  steam  boiler 
carrying  a  high  pressure  of  steam.  When  a 
valve  into  an  empty  pipe  is  opened,  the  pres- 
sure of  steam  in  die  boiler  is  transmitted  to  tlie 
further  end  of  the  pipe.  In  this  case  the  steam 
Gils  the  pipe  carrying  the  pressure  with  it  In 
flie  case  of  the  electric  current  passing  along 
a  conductor  only  the  pressure  {E.M.F.)  is 
transmitted,  there  being  no  flow  of  any  known 
material  substance. 

The  eteetrofflotive  force  of  a  cell  is  depend- 
ent to  a  large  decree  upon  the  kind  of  add  used 
Id  dissolve  the  nnc  when  the  two  plates  arc 
inunersed  in  other  acids  than  sulphuric,  a  con- 
siderable variadon  is  found  in  the  difference 
of  electric  potential  set  up  in  the  cell,  and  it  is 
to  be  bDme  in  mind  that  it  is  npon  this  diffar- 
Mu  that  the  strength  of  the  current  depends. 
The  electric  energy  produced  or  rdcased  by  a 
cell  depend*  on  ue  number  of  pounds  of  lim; 


and  add  consumed  in  die  foimation  of  zinc  stil- 
phate.  The  zinc  is  the  battery  fuel  and  is 
oxidized  just  as  coal  is  oxidized  in  a  furnace. 
The  sulphuric  acid  does  not  dissolve  the  zinc 
itself,  but  dissolves  the  oxide  as  fast  as  it 
forms,    thus    makii^   the    action    of    the    cell 


If  a  simple  cell  is  put  in  circuit  with  a 
galvanometer,  it  is  observed  that  the  current 
gradually  diminishes  in  strength,  due  to  the 
film  of  hydrogen  bubbles  which  adhere  to  the 
copper.  This  condition  is  called  ^polarization.* 
If  the  bubbles  are  brushed  away,  the  current 
resumes  (nearly)  its  former  strength.  It  be- 
comes necessary  then  to  establish  some  mechan- 
ical means  of  removing  the  hydrogen  or  to  use 
some  chemical  substance  in  the  cell  which  will 
combine  with  it  and  so  remove  it  as  fast  as  it 
forms.  Mercuric  chloride  is  sometimes  used 
for  this  purpose  In  the  bichromate  cell  the 
oxygen  of  the  bichromate  .seiies  upon  the  hydro- 
gen and  combines  with  it  to  form  water.  In 
the  Leclancbi  cell  the  depolarizer  is  manganese 
dioxide.  Another  method  of  avoiding  polariza- 
tion is  a  cell  construction  which  admits  of  using 
two  separate  liquids^  the  metal  on  which  the 
hydrogen  collects  being  placed  in  a  solution  of 
some  chemical  which  combines  with  the  hydro- 
gen as  it  forms. 

Another  phenomenon  which  affects  the 
strength  of  current  passing  through  a  cell  and 
thence  through  the  conductor  which  connects 
the  two  dry  poles  of  the  battery  is  what  is 
called  'resistance.*  This  is  of  two  kinds  or 
divisions :  internal  and  external.  The  former 
is  that  within  the  cell  itself  — the  metals  and 
the  liquids ;  the  latter  in  the  outside  conductor. 
If  this  conductor  is  of  some  substance  which 
has  a  low  degree  of  electric  conductivity,  like 
lead ;  or  even  if  of  high  conductivity,  like 
copper,  but  is  very  long,  or  of  very  small  cir- 
cumference, or  both,  die  electric  current  will 
move  along  it  very  sluggishly,  as  If  being  held 
back  by  some  obstacle  — a  resistance.  This 
has  the  effect  of  slowing  down  the  chemical 
action  in  the  cell,  and  the  result  is  what  is 
termed  a  'weak  current.*  With  a  short  and 
comparatively/  large  conductor  of  a  high  degree 
of  conductivilj"  tnc  external  resistance  is  re- 
duced to  a  minimom.  The  internal  resistance 
of  a  cell  is  increased  by  polarization,  as  already 
mentioned,  and  this  is  remedied  by  using  a 
depolarizer.  The  internal  resistance  may  also 
be  further  reduced  by  giving  the  metallic  com- 
ponents large  areas  and  placing  them  quite 
close  together,  making  the  travel  of  the  cnrrent 
through  the  electrolyte  as  short  as  passible. 

Primary  electric  batteries  are  daisified  as 
wet  batteries  and  dry  batteries.  In  the  first 
group  liquids  are  used  as  electTolytes ;  in  the 
second,  chemicals  which  retain  moisture  for  a 
long  time  take  the  place  of  electrolytes. 
WET  BATreares. 

Wet  batteries  are  divided  into  one-liqntd  bat- 
teries and  two-liquid  batteries.  The  former 
■re  those  which  contain  one  homogeneous  elee- 
trolyte;  the  latter  have  two  distinct  electro- 
lytes,  and  the  cell  is  usually  divided  into  two 
parts  by  a  porous  cup  which  contains  one  of 
the  metallic  electrodes  and  one  of  the  electro- 
lytes. 

Oae-Liq^uid  BatteiiM,— Amon^  the  prin- 
cipal   ooM-hquid    batteries    now    —    ■■"    '"- 


use^  for 


oogic 


SLBCmC   BATnUtXXS 


:  purposes  and  in  general  Laboratory 
work  are  the  following; 

Stnee. —  A  cell  consisting  of  a  platinum 
plate  hung  between  two  zinc  plates  in  an  elec- 
trolyte of  dilute  sulphoric  acid.  The  platinum 
plate  is  roughened  by  an  electro-deposit  of 
platinum,  forming  a  surface  to  which  hydrogen 
bubbles  will  not  adhere.  The  platinum  is 
often  substituted  by  silver,  which,  however,  is 
roughened  by  depositing  a  skin  of  platinum. 
A  variation  of  this  cell  has  a  grid  of  carbon 
rods  instead  of  the  platinimi  plate,  the  surface 
of  the  rods  being  made  hydrogen -proof  by 
carbonizing  o.t  them  jackets  of  velveteen. 

Bichromate,  consisting  of  a  zinc  plate  sus- 
pended between  two  carbon  plates,  which  are 
gripped  together  at  the  top  above  the  jar.  The 
electrolyte  used  is  a  mixture  of  separately  pre- 
pared solutions  of  sulphuric  acid  and  of  po- 
tassium bichromate.  With  this  cell  the  zinc 
plates  have  to  be  raised  out  of  the  electrolyte 
when  the  batterv  is  not  in  use,  to  prevent  con- 
tinuous chemical  action,  and  therefore  waste  of 
energy. 

Leclanchl  has  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac 
(ammonium  chloride)  as  the  electrolyte,  and 
into  this  dips  a  linc  bar  in  one  comer  of  the 
square  glass  jar.  The  other  pole  is  a  bar  of 
carbon  within  a  porous  jar,  the  space  within 
being  closely  packed  with  a  mixture  of 
manganese  dioxide  and  powder  coke.  The 
whole  is  immersed  in  the  electrolyte.  The  oxy- 
gen escaping  from  the  dioxide  prevents  polar- 
ization of  the  cell,  and  the  porous  jar  orevents 
the  oxygen  from  reaching  the  zinc,  while  o^ 
posing  no  barrier  to  the  passage  of  the  electric 
current.  This  cell  is  useful  onjy  for  inter- 
mittent work,  such  as  ringing  bells  and  buzzers. 

Harrison. —  The  negative  (internal)  pole  or 
cathode  is  a  rod  of  hard  lead  around  which  is 
compressed  a  jacket  of  lead  peroxide.  The 
other  pole  or  anode  is  of  zinc,  cast  in  the  form 
of  'a  very  thick  tumbler  which  is  supported  by 
an  amalgamated  copper  rod  running  down 
through  it  and  riveted  in  the  centre  of  the 
bottom.  Around  this  rod  the  tumbler  is  partly 
filled  by  pouring  in  melted  zinc  amalgam. 
The  electrolyte  is  dilute,  sulphuric  acid,  or  a 
solution  of  potassium  bisulphate,  or  of  sodium 
bisulphatc.    This  is  a  very  powerful  battery. 

Caustic  Alhali  or  Cofprr  Oxide  Cells. — 
This  type  of  cell  was  introduced  in  1881  by 
Lalande  and  Chaperon,  France.  Their  cell  con- 
sisted of  a  glass  jar,  in  the  bottom  of  which  the 
oxide  of  copper  was  contained  in  an  iron  cup; 
the  zinc  plate  was  supported  in  the  solution  of 
caustic  potash  by  a  wire,  from  the  cover  of  the 
jar.  To  prevent  the  carbonic  acid  gas  of  the 
air  from  combining  wiih  the  caustic  potash,  the 
solution  was  covered  with  a  layer  of  petroleum 
oil.  This  cell  has  undergone  many  modifica- 
tions at  the  hands  of  Edison,  Gordon  and 
Others. 

Editott  Primary  Battery. — An  oxide  of 
copper  battery.  The  elements  employed  in  it 
are  zinc  and  black  oxide  of  copper.  The  solu- 
tion is  oF  high  grade  caustic  soda,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  23  parts  of  caustic  soda  to  100  parts 
of  water.  The  initial  electromotive  foirce  of 
these  cells  is  .98  volt;  on  closed  circuit,  0.7 
volt.  Their  internal  re^stance  varies  with  the 
size  of  the  plates  from  .09  ohm  to  .02  ohm. 
The  capacity  of   these  cells,   as  commercially 


constructed,   ranges   from  50   (o  600  : ^___ 

hours.  The  oxioe  of  copper  cell  has  the  at'- 
vanta^  that  its  internal  resisbnce  falls  with 
use,  masmuch  as  the  continued  reduction  of 
metallic  oxide  from  the  oxide  of  copper  in- 
creases the  ccmdnctivity  of  the  plate;  in  prac- 
tice however,  a  film  of  metallic  copper  is  de- 
posited in  advance  on  the  copper  oxide  plate 
to  ensure  a  low  resistance  at  the  start. 

The  containing  vessd  of  the  Edison  cdl  is 
a  porcelain  jar  having  a  porcelain  cover,  through 
which  the  connecting  wires  or  rods  of  the 
plates  enter  the  cell.  The  copper  oxide  plate  is 
obtained  by  roasting  copper  turnings,  which  are 
then  ground  to  a  fine  powder  and  mixed  with  5 
to  10  per  cent  of  magnesium  chloride.  The 
oxide  is  then  molded  into  plates,  which  are  held 
in  a  copper  frame  in  the  cell,  as  at  cc.  Fig.  1 ; 
this  frame  being  attached  to  the  cover  of  the 
cell  and  forming  one  of  the  terminals,  zz  arc 
the  zinc  plates,  one  on  each  side  of  the  copper 
oxide  plates.    Batteries  of  the  oxide  of  copper 


FiO.  I. —  BdnoD  Oiidc  of  Copper  BMtcry. 

type  are  extensively  cmplo^^ed  in  connection 
with  spark  coils  for  gas-engine  work,  and  for 
numerous  other  purposes  requiring  continuous 
current,  as  these  are  eminently  closed  circuit 
batteries.  They  can  also  be  used  as  open  cir- 
cuit batteries. 

Gordon. — A  copper  oxide  cell  used  exten- 


though  designed  for  closed  circuit  work  it  does 
well  also  on  open  circuits.  The  outer  jar  is  of 
glass,  porcelain  or  enameled  ware,  with  a 
cover  of  the  same  materials,  or  of  tin,  or  com- 
pressed fibre.  A  perforated  cylinder  of  tin- 
plate  is  suspended  in  the  centre  of  the  cell  by 
an  iron  rod.  This  cylinder  is  filled  with  black 
oxide  of  copper.  On  the  outer  circumference 
of  the  cylinder  at  equal  distances  are  attached 
three  L-shaped  lugs  of  porcelain  which  support 
a  heavy  sine  ring,  and  at  the  same  time  insu- 
late it  from  die  tin  irlinder.  The  electrolyte 
is  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  and  the  sui^ace 
of  the  cell  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  heavy 
parafiin  oil,  which  prevents  the  creeping  over 


VLECT^IC  BXI.I. 


JW 


of  the  caustic.    As  commonb'  "s^d  these  cells 
give  six  months'  service  before  renewal  is  nec- 


polariztng,  several  forms  of  two-liquid  cells  re- 
tain a  hold  on  the  market,  and  for  some  of 
them  there  is  a  large  demand. 

Daniel!,  an  annular  vessel  of  copper  in  the 
bottom  of  a  iar  is  piled  with  crystalt  of  copper 
sulphate,  and  within  it  stands  a  jar  of  porous 
earthenware  in  which  is  suspended  a  zinc  bar. 
The  electrolyte  in  the  porous  jar  is  dilute  sul- 
furic acid,  or,  sometimes,  zinc  sulphate. 
The  electrolyte  in  the  outer  jar  is  a  saturated 
solution  of  copper  sulphate.  This  is  a  closed- 
circuit  battery  which  has  been  used  extensively 
for  telegraph  work. 

Crirvtly,  a  cell  with  the  same  components  as 
the  Daniell  cell,  but  without  the  porous  jar. 
The  copper  element  is  a  spider-lilce  form  of 
sheet  copper  spreading  its-  legs  over  the  bot- 
tom of  the  Jar.  This  copper  form  is  completely 
covered  with  crystals  of  copper  sulphate,  or 
sometimes  there  is  a  perforated  copper  disc  laid 
upon  the  spLder  and  die  copper  sulphate  is 
piled  upon  the  disc  In  the  upper  part  of  the 
jar  is  bung  a  thick  seven-loea  crowfoot  of 
line — from  which  this  form  of  cell  is  often 
called  the  crowfoot  battery.  The  electrolyte 
is  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  A  concentrated  so- 
luti«it  of  copper  sulphate  vrill  soon  occupy'  the 
lower  part  of  Ae  jar,  and  above  it  will  float 
the  lighter  zinc  suliAate  sqlution  —  with,  how- 
ever, some  Uttle  dinusion  ^here  the  two  solu- 
tions meet. 

Minolfo,  a  cell  in  all  respects  like  the  Grav- 
ity cell,  but  with  a  flat  mat  of  cloth  stuffed 


separate.  This  battery  is  much  used  for  rail- 
way signal  work,  in  spite  of  die  fact  that  its 
internal  resistance  is  very  high  —  from  four  to 
six  times  that  of  the  Gravity  cell. 

Fuller,  the  approved  cell  for  telephone  work 
consisting  of  a  carbon'  cathode  hung  in  a  depo- 
larizing liquid,  a  combination  of  dilute  sulphuric 
add  and  a  solution  of  potassium  bichromate. 
A  porous  inner  cup  or  jar  has  suspended  in  it 
the  zinc  anode  and  a  little  mercury  is  placed 
in  the  bottom.  The  electrolyte  in  the  porous 
cup  is  usually  pure  water;  occasionally  a  veiy 
httle  snlphuric  acid  is  added. 

Grove,  a  cell  consisting  of  a  hollow  cylinder 
of  zinc,  within  which  is  a  porous  jar  containing 
a  strip  of  platinum.  The  electrolyte  in  the 
porous  cup  IS  strong  nitric  acid,  and  in  the 
outer  jar  is  dilate  sulphuric  acid  This  cell  is 
used  chiefly  in  laboratory  work. 

Btinsfn,  a  cell  very  similar  to  the  Grove 
cell  except  that  it  has  a  bar  of  carbon  in  the 
porous  jar  instead  of  the  strip  of  platinum. 

imy   BATTtRTES. 

The  ordinary  commercial  dry  cell  is  vir- 
tually a  Leclanchi  cell  in  which  the  electrolyte 
is  in  the  form  of  paste  instead  of  a  liquid.  It 
is,  therefore,  not  accurately  a  dry  cell  hut  a 
moist  cell.  It  is  made  inside  of  3  cup  or 
g-linder  of  sheet  zinc  which  forms  the  anoite. 
This  zinc  cylinder  is  lined  generally  with  ab- 
sorbent pulpboard  or  layers  of  blotting  paper 
which  are  saturated  with  the  electrolyte,  a  con- 


centrated solution  of  sal-a __      

the  centre  of  the  cell  runs  a  carbon  bar  consti- 
tuting tbe  cathode,  and  around  this  is  packed 
the  depolarizing  paste.  The  composition  of  this 
paste  is  a  trade  secret,  each  manufacturer  hav- 
ing his  own  formula.  It  is  pretty  well  under- 
stood that  the  absolutely  essential  ingredients 
and  their  usual  proportions  are  as  follows: 
tfianganese  peroxide,  lOO  parts;  powdend  eoke, 
80  parts ;  vitrified  graphite,  20  parts ;  sal-am- 
moniac, 20  parts;  zinc  chloride  (30°  Baum£),  7 
parts.  ^  Other  ingredients  which  are  known 
sometimes  to  enter  the  compo^tion  are  glucose, 
dextrine,  common  salt,  lime,  arsenic,  mercury 
bichloride,  hydrochloric  acid  and  plaster  of 
Paris. 

After  the  paste  is  firmly  packed  in  nearly  to 
the  top,  the  lining  is  folded  down  upon  it,  a 
thin  layer  of  sawdust  is  laid  in,  a  snug  collar 
of  corrugated  pulpboard  is  fitted,  a  layer  of  sand 
is  spread  on;  and  upon  this  is  melted  in  the 
asphalt  cover  or  seal.  Some  makers  of  dry- 
cells  place  next  to  the  zinc,  instead  of  the 
pulpboard  lining,  a  prepared  paste  of  flour, 
dextrine  and  gum  tragacanth,  with  possi^ 
other  ingredients. 

A  strictly  dry  cell  is  made  in  the  same  way 
of  dry  materials  without  ihoisture.  This  cell  is 
inert  until  it  is  wet,  and  provision  is  made  for 
the  wetting  by  making  the  carbon  bar  hollow 
and  perforating  its  sides.  The  end  is  closed 
with  a  rubber  cork.  When  the  battery  is  wanted 
for  use,  the  cork  is  removed  and  water  poured  in. 
These  absolutely  dry  batteries  are  made  par- 
ticularly for  shipping  long  distances  across  the 
ocean,  as  in  the  Egyptian  and  African  trade. 
(See  ELEimric  Storage  Batteries)  .  Consult 
Cooper,  W.  G..  'Primary  Batteries ;  Their 
Theory,  Construction  and  Use'  (London  1916)  ; 
Schneider,  N.  H.,  'Modem  Primary  Batteries' 
(London  1905). 

ELECTRIC  BELL,  any  bell  made  to  ring 
by  the  making  and  breaking  of  an  electric  cir- 
cuit Common  forms  are  here  illustrated.  A 
familiar  desigti  has  two  electro-magnets,  paral- 
lel and  in  series,  having  at  their  extremity  a 
vibrating  armature  in  close  proximity  pivoted 
between  them;  fixed  to  this  armature  is  a  clap- 


HKCneio  iMu. 
DootopHi.  nectrfc  Dow  BdL 

per  vibrating  between  two  gongs.  The  current 
passes  through  the  fields,  magnetizing  the  cores, 
and  in  generating  an  alteniating  current  vi- 
brates the  armature  and  rings  the  bell.  A  bat- 
tery   bel!    employs    a    small    cell   battery    for 


■81^ 


ELECTRIC    BLUE-PRINT   HAKINO— ELECTRIC    CONDENSER 


power,  and  frequently  a  single  coil  of  wire; 
wound  around  an  iron  core;  a  vibratory  anu' 
ature,  pivoted  at  one  end,  is  arranged  to  oper- 
ate the  clapper. 

Two  eoils  are  used  in  the  electric  door-hell 
shown  in  the  illustration.  For  a  more  technical 
description  see  Electric  Sicnaukg. 

ELECTRIC  BLUE-PRINT  MAKING, 
a  modem  process  of   wholesale  photograi^ic 

Srinting  by  the  aid  of  machinery,  the  electric 
ght  and  the  blue-print  (q.v.).  One  of  the 
best  machines  is  continuous  in  its  operation, 
and  is  fed  hy  the  operator  with  great  lengths  of 
tracings  and  blue  paper  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  washerwoman  feeds  the  wet  clothes 
into  a  wrin^ng  machine.  The  large  wooden 
drum,  around  which  the  tracings  and  printing 


■  drum  being  regulated  by  a  device  l 

top  of  the  machine.  A  traveling  apron  of 
transparent  material  takes  the  place  of  the  glass 
in  the  printing  frame  of  the  ordinary  type,  and 
as  it  is  under  tension  at  all  times,  it  ensures  an 
even  and  close  contact  at  all  points.  This  apron 
is  wound  on  a  small  drum  at  the  top  and  after 
passing  along  the  large  drum  where  the  contact 
and  exposure  take  place,  it  is  wound  up  on  the 
drum  below ;  after  the  printing  operation  has 
been  completed  it  is  rewound  by  lund  back  on 
the  upper  drum.  In  the  rear  of  the  machine  are 
three  arc  lamps  with  reflectors,  which  concen- 
trate the  light  on  the  tracings  which,  with 
the  exposed  prints,  drop  out  mto  the  box  in 
front  The  blue  paper  may  be  kept  in  a  roll 
ready  for  use  on  the  upper  front  part  of  the 
machine,  or  may  be  fed  in  small  sheets  with 
the  tracing  where  the  work  being  done  is  of 
ordinary  size. 

The  machines  are  made  in  two  widths.  30 
and  42  inches;  the  apron  supplied  with  tnem 
is  70  feet  lon^,  and  prints  ai  this  size  can  be 
made  as  readily  as  smaller  ones  where  it  is 
desired.    The  ability  to  make  prints  of  this  size 

freatly  enlarges  the  sphere  of  usefulness  of  the 
lue-prinL 

ELECTRIC  BREEZE,  a  breeze  or  stream 
of  particles  of  air  repelled  from  an  electrified 
point. 

ELECTRIC  BURGLAR-ALARM.  See 
Eucntic  Sign  AUNG. 

ELECTRIC  CABLE.  See  Electsic  Um- 
DEBGitauNii  Cables  and  Conduits. 

ELECTRIC  CALL-BOX  SYSTEM.  See 
Electric  Signaling. 

ELECTRIC  CANDLE,  a  modification  of 
the  arc  form  of  electric  li^t,  in  which  the 
carbon  pencils  are  parallel  and  separated  by  a 
Iwrer  of  plaster  of  Paris.  It  was  invented  in 
lw7  \)y  Jablochkoff,  a  Russian  engineer.  This 
invention  is  noteworthy  as  haviiw  revived  an 
interest  in  electric  illumination.  See  EIlectsic 
Lighting. 

ELECTRIC  CLOCKS.    See  Clock. 

ELECTRIC  CONDENSER,  a  construc- 
tion for  accumulating  electricity,  throu^  the 
effect  of  mutual  induction  between  conducting 
plates,  as  of  tinfoil,  separated  by  a  dielectric, 
as  of  oiled  paper;  or  some  similar  device  as  a 
•      •       ■         Wbei 


charged  with  electricity  by  friction,  a  battenr 
or  other  source  of  electromotive  force,  it  will 
excite  or  'induce*  in  any  neighboring  conductor 
a  charge  of  electricity.  If  the  electricity  in  the 
first  body  be  "positive,'  that  induced  in  the 
neighboring  body  will  be  'negative.'  Thus,  in 
Fig.  1,  in  which  a  and  i  are  metal  plates 
separated  by  air,  glass,  mica  or  other  insulating 
material,  if  a  be  char;^d  by  the  positive 
pole  of  battery  h  it  will  induce  a  charge 
of  negative  electricity  on  the  plate  b.  Such 
an  arrangement  of  plates  is  termed  an  elec- 
tric "condenser,*  and  in  various  forms  it 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  instruments  em- 
ployed in  multiplex,  printing,  automatic,  wire- 
less and  other  systems  of  tel^raphy.  It  is  also 
indispensable  In  telephony  antThas  found  a  field 
in  electric  light  and  power  circuits.  The  elec- 
tricity held  or  ■bound'  in  the  plates  is  termed 
static  electricity.  The  quantity  of  electridty 
or  "charge*  accumulated  at  the  plates  is  equal 
to  the  product  of' the  electromotive  force  of 
the  charging  source  by  the  "capacity*  of  the 
condenser.  In  fact,  however,  what  the  con- 
denser holds  is  electrical  energy,  which,  when 
discharged,  is  giycn  up  as  work  and  heat.  The 
total  amount  of  energy  (expressed  in  foot 
pounds)    thus  stored  up  by  the  condenser  is 


k 
I 


n  F 


Pic  2. 


Leyden  jar. 


insulated  conductor  i 


(KXE*) -^2.712;  where  K  is  the  capacity  of, 
the  charged  condenser  in  farads,  and  E  is  the 
charged  'electromotive  force  in  volts.  It  can  be 
shown  that  the  charee  of  a  condenser  rests  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  dielectric,  and  that  in 
charging  the  condenser  as  much  electricity 
leaves  plate  b  as  enters  plate  a.  The  capaci^ 
of  a  condmser  varies  with  the  distance  between 
its  opposite  plates,  being  greater  the  nearer  they 
are  together,  and  increases  with  the  surface  of 
the  plates.  The  capacity  also  varies  with  the 
insulating  material  or  dielectric  used  to  sepa- 
rate or  insulate  the  plates.  The  property  of  di- 
electrics to  which  this  so-called  inductive  effect 
is  due  is  termed  specific  inductive  capacity.  The 
property  which  this  inductive  capacity  seem- 
ingly imparts  to  conductors  is  termed  electro- 
static capacity,  or  "capacity.*  The  inductive 
capacity  of  air  is  taken  as  the  standard.  Air 
being  unity,  the  specific  inductive  ca^iacity  of 
paranin  is  about  2 ;  vulcanized  India-rubber, 
2.94;  gutta-percha.  4.S;  mica,  5;  flint  glass,  6.5 
to  10.  The  Lcydcn  jar  is  a  well-known  type  of 
condenser.  The  most  common  form  of  con- 
denser is  generally  constructed  of  many  sheets 
of  tinfoil,  separated  by  thin  sheets  of  insulating 
material,  sudi  as  paraflin  paper,  mica  or  glass ; 
the  alternate  sheets  of  tinfoil  are  connected  to- 
gether metallically  at  their  ends  as  indicated  in 
Fig.  2. 

In  making  a  condenser  for  radio^aphy,  the 
glass  plate  type  is  recommended  as  inexpenwve 
and  durable,  and  also  much  lighter  than  oil- 


BLECTRIC  CONDUCTIVITY— BLXCTRIC  DIRECT  CURRENT 


innnersed  iyp«9.  Photographer's  negative  glass, 
tinfoil  and  shellac  are  the  materials.  The  foil 
should  be  cut  to  the  required  size  (6X8  inches 
is  convenient),  and  carefully  smoothed  to  take 
out  all  wrinkles.  The  glass  should  b«  cleaned 
with  alcohol  and  coated  with  shellac,  then 
covered  with  the  foil,  and  rolled  or  'squeegeed* 
so  as  to  be  perfectly  smooth.  In  assembling 
the  plates  lugs  should  be  placed  between  them. 
A  unit  may  be  made  of  10  plates  which  are 
bound  together  with  wire  or  suitable  tape,  and 
iroraersea  for  one  hour  in  a  bath  of  equal 
parts  of  hot  melted  rosin  and  beeswax,  men 
allowed  to  drain  and  dry.  This  gives  a  con- 
denser unit  thoroughly  moisture  proof,  with  a 
capacity  of  .01  microfarad,  whi(±  is  suitable 
foi  the  ordinary  half -kilo  watt  wireless  trans- 
former for  the  standard  200-metre  wave-length. 
It  is  good  practice  to  make  four  such  units, 
placing  two  multiple  sets  of  two  in  each  series; 
this  reduces  the  strain  on  the  condensers,  with- 
out altering  the  capacity.  They  may  be  mounted 
in  substantial  open-side  wooden  boxes  to  protect 
the   plates    from   injury. 

ELECTRIC  CONDUCTIVITY,  the 
property  that  a  substance,  as  a  metal,  pos- 
sesses of  conducting  an  electric  current,  that 
is  of  permitting  a  current  to  flow  more  or 
less  r^dily:  called  also  conductance.  It  is 
the  opposite  of  electric  resistance.  All  the 
metals  possess  some  degree  of  condtictivity  and 
some  degree  of  resistance,  iron  being  coaspicu- 
ous  in  presenting  an  almost  equal  degree  of 
these  opposite  qualities.  It  will  be  seen  by 
the  following  taUe  of  comparisons  that  silver 
is  the  best  and  mercury  the  poorest  conductor. 

EtoctriB  rawtUE*  Rahth* 

Uatal.  in  Uierofaiu  Bhetiio  ooodattivitr, 

at  0°  C  Uvaiinr  c=  i. 

savtr l.Sl  M 

Cocpv l.el  62 

b« .';.'.'  a.'si  10 

LMd 19  U  S 

HcreiUT W.T*  I 

BLECTRIC    DIRECT    CURItEHT,    as 

distinguished  from  the  alternating  current,  is 
so^^alTcd  because  of  the  fact  that  it  travels  in 
one  direction  along  a  conductor.  If  this  con- 
ductor joins  the  terminals  of  a  source  of 
energy,  as  a  dynamo,  the  current  is  said  to  flow 
from  the  positive  pole  of  the  machine  along  the 
conductor  to  the  negative  pole. 

Probably  the  first  man  to  detect  current  elec- 
tricity was  Galvani  about  the  year  1786.  To 
Volta  (q.v.),  however,  is  certainly  due  the 
credit  of  first  developing  a  practical  electro- 
chemical cell  In  the  year  1800  Volta  exhib- 
ited a  cell  known  as  the  'Voltaic  Pile,"  consist- 
ing of  a  scries  of  discs,  copper  and  zinc,  alter- 
nately separated  from  each  other  by  a  cloth 
saturated  with  brine;  on  joining  wires  to  the 
end  discs^,  quite  a  perceptible  shock  may  be  felt 
by  touching  with  the  tongue  or  moistened  fin- 
ger the  two  terminals  simultaneously.  This 
simple  device  was  the  starting  point  of  all  the 
electro- chemical  batteries  of  the  present  day. 
With  the  discovery  of  Volta  of  the  laws  of 
difference  of  ^tential  between  different  metals 
when  placed  in  contact  or  joined  by  a  fluid 
electrofsfte  began  the  development  of  very 
many  varieties  of  cells,  all  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple; yet  even  now,  the  two  metals  he  ^se. 


zinc  and  copper,  constitute  the  elements  of  the 
Daniell  cell  very  frequently  used  for  telegraphic 
purposes.  The  changes  which  would  readily 
suggest  themselves  in  Volta's  first  cell  would 
be,  increasing  the  amount  of  corroding  liquid 
and  placing  the  elements,  _zinc  and  copper,  in 
a  vessel  which  would  properly  contain  the 
fluid. 

The  theory  as  given  by  Gore  of  the  electro- 
chemical cell  is  as  follows: 

'The  essential  cause  is  the  stored- up  and 
ceaseless  molecular  energy  of  the  corroded 
metal  and  of  the  corroding  element  or  liquid 
with  which  it  unites,  while  contact  is  only  a 
static  condition ;  and  chemical  action  is  the 
process  or  mode  by  which  the  molecular  motion 
of  these  substances  is  more  or  less  transformed 
into  heat  and  current" 

The  electromotive  force  of  chemical  genera- 
tors is  small,  rarely  exceeding  two  volts  per 
cell.  This  necessitates  a  large  number  of  cells 
connected  in  series;  that  is,  the  positive  ter- 
minal of  one  connected  with  the  negative  ter- 
minal of  the  adjoining  cell,  the  electromotive 
force  thus  produced  being  the  product  of  the 
electromotive  force  of  one  cell  by  the  number 
of  cells.  By  connecting  the  two  positive  and 
the  two  negative  temiinals  of  two  rows  of  cells, 
an  increased  quantity  of  current  can  be  ob- 
tained, at  the  potential  of  one  row.  The  first 
method  is  called  joining  battet;^  cells  for  inten- 
sity, and  the  second  for  Quantity.  It  is  known 
that  the  energy  generated  in  a  chemical  cell  is 
produced  by  the  consumption  of  zinc.  The 
cost  of  this  energy  must  necessarily  be  high,  as 
both  the  zinc  and  the  chemicals  are  expensive, 
so  that  the  use  of  current  electricity  was  quite 
limited  until  the  introduction  of  the  dynamo 
electric  machine,  which  might  be  called  the  me- 
chanical method  of  transforming  energy  from 
some  source^  such  as  a  steam-engine,  into  cur- 
rent electria^,  as  contrasted  with  the  chemical 
method. 

In  the  year  1831  Faraday  discovered  and  an- 
nounced the  principle  of  electro-magnetic  in- 
duction. This  opened  up  the  field  of  what 
might  be  called  the  commercial  generation  of 
current  electricity.  The  principle  discovered  by 
Faraday,  which  forms  the  basis  of  all  dynamo 
electric  machines,  is  that  if  a  wire  is  moved  in 
a  magnetic  field,  so  as  to  cut  the  lines  of  force, 
a  current  will  be  ^nerated  in  the  wire,  and  it 
is  upon  this  principle  that  ^1  dynamo  electric 
machines  depend  for  their  action.  The  eon- 
verse  of  this  law  he  also  announced,  namely, 
that  when  an  electric  current  ts  applied  to  the 
dynamo  by  some  external  source  such  as  a  bat- 
tery or  another  dynamo,  the  machine  will  fur- 
nish mechanical  power.  Hence  a  dynamo  elec- 
tric machine  may  be  considered  either  as  a 
generator  or  as  a  motor. 

All  dynamos  consist  of  two  essential  parts, 
one,  the  field  magnet,  which  is  usually  station- 
ary, and  the  other,  the  armature  on  whidi  the 
copper  conductors  arc  mounted  and  whidi  re- 
volves on  a  shaft  between  the  poles  of  the  field 
magnet.  This  armature  is  so  arranged  as  to 
cut  the  lines  of  force  Sowing  between  the  mag- 
netic poles.  The  lines  of  force  are  imaginatv 
lines  flowing  from  the  north  pole  to  the  soutn 
pole  of  any  ma^et  They  can  easily  be  traced 
by  placing  a  piece  of  paper  above  the  mag- 
net and  sprintding  on  this  paper  iron  filings. 


■8l^ 


100 


ELECTRIC   BIHBCT  CURRENT  . 


If  the  ifafei  be  covered  with  mucilage  the  fil- 
ingE  will  maintain  a  permanent  position  so 
that  they  may  be  studied  at  the  leisure  of  the 
student 

The  field  magnets  may  be  made  of  steel, 
magnetized,  or  preferably  they  may  be  electro- 
inagoets  made  of  soft  iron  over  which  a  coil 
of  wire  is  wound  carrying  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity which  induces  magnetic  lines  in  the  iron. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  if  the  ends  of  the  mag- 
net are  bent  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe,  the 
lines  will  be  intensified  by  the  reduction  of 
the  air  space  between  the  poles,  and  as  the 
amount  of  current  induced  in  the  wire  depends 
on  the  number  of  lines  of  force  cut,  the  current 
induced  will  be  greater,  the  greater  the  strength 
of  the  field  magnets. 

Considering  first  the  ideal  simple  dynamo; 
This  would  consist  of  a  single  loop  of  wire 
mounted  on  centres,  and  rotating  between  the 
poles  of  a  magnet,  placed  horizontally,  each 
end  of  the  loop  being  coimected  to  a  collector 
which  in  direct  current  machines  is  called  a 
.rammutator,  and  is  mounted  on  the  shaft  out- 
«de  of  the  poles,  and  insulated  therefrom.  If 
the  loop  is  placed  at  right  angles  to  lines  of 
magnet  force,  in  a  vertical  position  and  re- 
volved throu^  180  degrees,  each  side  will  pass 
through  the  whole  number  of  lines  of  force 
flowing  between  the  poles  which  will  induce  a 
current  in  one  direction  in  the  loop.  If  the  ro- 
tation is  maintained  in  the  same  direction  dur- 
ing the  neiKt  180  degrees,  the  loop  will  cut  the 
lines  of  force  in  the  opposite  direction,  that  is, 
the  lines  of  force  will  be  passing  through  it  in 
the  opposite  direction  to  that  in  the  first  case. 
This  will  induce  a  current  which  will  be  in  the 
opposite  direction  from  the  current  induced 
through  the  first  half  of  the  revolution;  so  that 
the  current  will  be  pulsating,  first  in  one  direction 
and  then  in  the  other,  during  each  revolution. 
If  the  collector  or  commutator  be  cut  into  two 
halves  parallel  with  the  shaft  and  the  ends  of 
the  loop  be  connected  one  to  each  half,  and  if 
a  pair  of  brushes  be  supplied  to  collect  the 
current,  one  above  and  one  below  the  com- 
mutator, then  when  the  loop  is  vertical  the 
brushes  will  change  contact  from  one  end 
.of  the  loop  to  the  other,  and  as  no  current  is 
then  hdiXl^  generated,  the  change  is  made  with- 
out sparking  and  current  flowmg  in  the  same 
direction  continuously  can  be  obtained  from  the 
brush  terminals.  During  the  moment  of  cban^- 
in^  from  the  one  contact  to  the  other,  the  cir- 
cuit is  momentarily  opened  or  interrupted. 
This  would  cause  sparking  at  the  brush  or  col- 
lector, were  it  not  that  the  brushes  are  placed 
at  a  point  at  which  the  current  is  practically 
lero.  This  is  found  in  practice  to  be  slightly 
in  advance  of  the  theoretical  neutral  point  on 
account  of  lines  of  force  being  draped  in  the 
direction  of  rotation  by  the  conductors. 

To  advance  from  the  ideal  simple  dynamo: 
—  the  next  step  is  to  reduce  the  ajr  gap  between 
the  poles  of  the  field  magnet  and  concentrate 
■the  lines  ot  force  in  the  effective  space.  This 
.is  accomphshed  by  placing  an  iron  core  on  the 
1 — ,  which  in  the  first  place  reduces  the 


mber  of  lines  of  force  tiirough 
the  armature  conductors,  and  also  serves  as  a 
support  for  them.  Other  machines  were 
built  with  shuttle  wound  armatures,  the  arm- 


ature consisting  of  an  iron  shuttle  cut  out 
with  grooves  longitudinally  to  take  the  con- 
ductors. These  were  usually  wound  with'  a 
number  of  turns  of  copper  wire,  the  ends  being 
brought  out  to  a  two-part  commutator.  (Sec 
Electric  Altebkating  Cuh«ent  Mackineky). 
The  next  step  was  to  add  to  the  num- 
her  of  coils  on  the  armature  so  that  during 
each  portion  of  a  revolution  some  part  of  the 
armature  conductors  would  be  doing  maximum 
work.  Should  an  additional  coil  be  added  to 
the  ideal  generator,  at  right  angles  to  the  first 
coil,  the  capacity  of  the  machine  wili  be  doubled. 
This  complicates,  to  some  extent,  the  collector 
rings  and  may  necessitate  the  opening  of  the 
circuit  when  current  is  flowing  so  as  to  cause 
sparking  and  burning  of  the  brush.  A  machine 
built  on  these  lines  would,  therefore,  be  better 
adapted  for  gene  rati  i^  small  nir  rents  as  the 
sparking  at  the  brushes  would  be  otherwise 
very  destructive  to  the  commutator.  Machines 
.of  this  type  are  known  as  open  coil. 

The  next  important  step  was  made  by 
Gramme  and  Pacinotti,  which  was  to  close  the 
coils  with  themselves  so  as  to  form  a  con- 
tinuous circuit  in  the  armature  and  connect 
one  collector  section  to  each  coil  at  its  junction 
with  the  next  one,  the  number  of  sections  being 
the  same  as  the  number  of  coils.  In  the  four- 
coil  armature,  the  current  generated  can  either 
pass  to  the  collecting  bni^  directly,  or  when 
It  moves  out  of  position  so  that  the  contact  is 
broken  and  made  with  the  next  section,  the 
current  can  flow  through  the  armature  coils 
to  the  same  brush  if  necessary,  and  when  that 
coil  passes  from  one  polar  position  to  another 
and  IS  giving  current  of  opposite  polarity  this 
current  can  flow  directly  to  the  other  brush,  and 
so  continuous  current  is  generated.  There  is 
also  no  point  at  whidi  the  circuit  is  opea 
There  may  be  a  slight  sparking  as  the  section 
moves  from  the  brushes,  t)UI  violent  sparking  is 
reduced  as  there  is  always  another  path  for  the 
current  to  flow  to  either  brush. 

The  drum  armature  b  distinct  from  the  ring 
armature  in  that  the  wires  arc  wound  on  the 
outside  of  the  core  and  do  not  pass  through  it. 
This  type  is  frequently  called  the  'Siemen^ 
armature  on  account  of  the  number  of  suc- 
cessful machines  _built  by  Siemens.  Of  the 
whole  number  of  lines  of  force  passing  between 
the  poles  and  through  the  core,  there  are  veiy 
few  lines  passing  in  the  inside,  they  being  di- 
verted by  an  iron  core  so  that  they  pass  through 
the  wires  on  the  outside  of  the  core;  the  con- 
ductors inside  of  the  core  are  thus  of  little  use, 
their  only  function  being  to  complete  the  cir- 
cuit and  carry  current  between  the  successive 
turns  on  the  outside  of  the  core;  so  that  by 
winding  the  wires  on  the  outside  surface  onh-, 
the  amount  of  idle  wire  is  reduced,  the  only 
material  that  is  not  active  being  the  cross-con- 
necting pieces  at  the  ends. 

The  Gramme  ring  was  used  very  largely  on 
early  machines  for  the  reason  that  it  afforded 
means  for  easier  mechanical  construction,  and 
machines  of  this  type  were  generaliy  successful, 
on  account  of  their  simplicitj-.  Pacinotti  de- 
signed a  core  having  teeth  similar  to  a  gear 
wheel.  In  this  way  the  air  gap  between  the 
armature  and  l>ole  pieces  could  be  reduced 
somewhat  resulting  in  an  increased  number  of 
lines  of  force.    It  also  afforded  an  additional 


jOOgIc 


BLBCTKrC   DIRECT  CURRENT 


support  to  the  coils  and  added  to  tfae  mechan- 
ical strength  of  the  machine. 

To  be  considered  next  are  the  field  maKnetsi 
There  are  a  number  of  constructions  which  may 
oe  employed.  (1)  The  so-called  permanent 
iteel  magnet  which  consists  of  a  bar  or  bars  of 
steel  bent  to  the  shape  desired,  tempered  and 
magnetized.  The  method  of  magnetizing  these 
magnets  consisted  of  placing  them  in  contact 
with  other  magnets  or  with  an  electro-magnet. 
The  present  method  would  be  to  insert  the  sleet 
bar  into  a  helix  carrying  a  heavy  current  and 
in  a  short  time  the  bar  would  be  magnetized. 
The  dynamos  built  with  permanent  steel  mag- 
nets of  this  wpe  are  what  is  known  as  magneto 
lynatnos.  Tbc  chief  objection  to  this  form  of 
magnet  is  that  a  steel  magnet  cannot  be  made 
as  powerful  as  an  iron  magnet  which  is  ener- 
gized or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  excited  from 
a  source  of  electricity.  In  the  first  generators 
permanent  magnets  were  used,  but  a  great  step 
m  advance  in  dynamo  design  was  to  arrange 
the  magnet  poles  so  as  to  he  self-excited.  A 
portion  of  the  current  generated  in  the  arma- 
ture is  sent  around  the  coils  wound  around  the 
cores  of  these  field  magnets  so  as  to  excite  them. 
At  first,  however,  magnets  were  substituted 
consisting  of  soft  iron  upon  which  was  wound 
a  coil  of  copper  wire,  the  current  for  energizing 
these  pole  pieces  being  first  supplied  from  a 
small  ni.agneto  generator  or  a  voltaic  battery. 
Sometimes  the  machine  will  not  generate  on 
Starting  up  not  having  sufficient  current  to  ex- 
dte  the  magnets  and  it  is  necessary  to  excite 
them  from  some  external  source  so  as  to 
give  the  initial  strength  to  the  magnets  and 
allow  them  to  build  up  from  the  current  gen- 
erated in  the  armature.  It  is  usually  found 
that  there  is  sufficient  residual  magnetism  left 
in  the  iron  of  the  field  magnets,  after  the 
machine  has  once  been  in  operation,  to  start 
the  current  in  the  machine  and  properly  build 
up  the  fields. 

In  regard  to  field  windings,  two  distinct 
types  are  used:  (1)  the  series  winding,  in  which 
all  the  current  generated  in  the  armature  passes 
around  the  field  poles  and  thence  out  to  the  line 
or  circuit;  and  (2)  the  shunt  winding  in  which 
a  portion  only  oi  the  current  is  used  in  the 
field,  the  connection  being  made  across  the 
main  terminals  of  the  generator.  In  the  first 
case  the  wire  on  the  field  windings  is  necessa- 
rilji  large  so  as  to  carry  all  the  current  for 
which  the  machine  is  designed  and  in  the  sec- 
ond case  it  is  a  small  wire  of  many  turns,  the 
product  of  amperes  and  turns  being  about  the 
same  in  either  case.  In  another  design,  both 
a  shunt  and  a  series  winding  of  a  few  turns  is 
employed,  constituting  a  compound  winding. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  first  case,  that  of 
the  series  winding,^  the  field  strength  will  de- 
pend upon  the  resistance  of  the  total  circuit, 
uicluding  the  resistance  of  the  armature  the 
field  winding  and  the  external  circuit.  In  a 
machine  of  this  type  the  voltage  or  pressure 
Rtnerated  wiH  vary  in  proportion  to  the  de- 
mands. This  is  the  standard  winding^  for  the 
series  arc  machines  used  tor  city  lighting,  such 
as  the  Brush  and  Wood  types.  In  the  case  of 
the  shunt-wound  machine  the.  current  flowing 
in  the  field  coil  depends  upon  the  pressure  be- 
tween the  penerator  terminals,  so  that  wMi 
an  increased  output  and  consequent  loss  in  the 


armature  the  voltage  will  fall  off  slightly,  thuj 
reducing  the  field  strength.  This  necessitates 
some  means  of-  varying  the  field  current  so  M 
to  maintain  a  uniform  pressure  at  the  gener- 
ator terminals.  This  is  usually  accomplished 
bv  means  of  an  external  resistance  in  the  held 
circuit  composed  of  German-silver  or  iron  wire 
which  can  be  varied  by  means  of  a  switch-head 
so  arranged  as  to  cut  out  certain  portions  of 
this  resistance  step-by -step  and  so  increase 
the  current  through  the  fields,  thus  preserving 
a  uniform  voltage. 

In  a  combination  of  series  and  shunt  wind- 
ings commonly  called  the  compound  type,  aS 
the  output  of  the  generator  is  increased,  there 
is  a  greater  flow  of  current  through  the  series 
windings  and  consequent  increase  of  magnetic 
Strength  of  field  so  that  it  is  possible  to  com- 
pensate for  the  loss  due  to  the  resistance  of  the 
annature  windings  and  maintain  a  uniform 
voltage  at  the  generator  terminals.  The  vol- 
tage as  well  as  the  output  of  the  dynamo  de- 
pends upon  the  strength  of  the  field  magnets, 
the  magnetic  itermeability  of  the  material  ana 
the  rate  at  which  the  lines  of  force  are  cMt  by 
the  armature  conductors,  so  that  the  higher  the 
Speed  the  greater  the  voltage  output  of  the 
^namo.  In  the  early  machines  very  high 
speeds  were  common,  armatures  of  small  diam- 
eters being  employed.  These  were  objection- 
able for  mechanical  reasons  so  that  the  design 
was  changed  in  order  to  increase  the  number 
of  pole  pieces.  Instead  of  the  field  being  com- 
posed of  two  poles,  it  was  arranged  so  that  a 
greater  number  of  poles  could  be  used,  this 
type  of  machine  being  known  as  the  m.uItipolar 
dynamo.  As  each  conductor  would  pass  be- 
tween A  number  of  poles  during  each  revolu- 
tion the  speed  could  oe  proportionally  reduced. 

The  dynamo,  as  previously  stated,  is  a  ma- 
chine for  converting  energy  in  the  form  of 
mechanical  power  into  electrical  power,  or  vice- 
versa,  so  that  a  motor  is  a  machine  for  convert- 
ing energy  in  the  form  of  electricity  into  me- 
chanical power.  The  early  types  oi  motors 
were  based  on  the  principle  that  a  rtiagnet 
would  attract  the  opposite  pole  of  another  mag- 
net, and  if  one  set  of  magnets  is  arranged  on  a 
wheel,  and  the  other  stationary,  the  movable 
magnets  will  be  drawn  around.  To  make  this 
effective  it  will  be  necessary  to  interrupt  the 
forces  at  what  might  be  called  the  dead  centres 
so  that  the  wheel  would  have  continuous  mo- 
tion. Tbis  is  accomplished  by  either  introduc- 
ing a  screen,  or,  more  satisfactorily,  by  the  use 
of  electro-magnets  with  a  movable  contact  so 
that  the  magnets  are  energiied  intermittently, 
allowing  the  wheel  to  revolve  in  accordance 
with  impulses  received  from  the  magnetic  poles. 

When  we  consider  the  dynamo  as  a  motor, 
the  current  supplied  to  the  terminals  may  take 
two  paths,  one  through  the  armature  and  the 
other  through  the  field  coils.  TTie  field  current 
energizes  the  pole  pieces,  and  the  current  trav- 
eling in  the  armature  is  similar  to  another  mag- 
coil  carrying  the  current  will 


__  that  the  wire  will  be  forced  around  by  l. 
traction  and  repulsion.  By  considering  the 
effect  of  the  commdtator  (he  motion  is  seen  to 
be  continuous.  When  the  armature  starts  to 
revolve  the  conditions  then  existing  will  be 


,^le 


lOS 


BLBCTRIC    DISCHABGB 


similar  to  the  armature  in  action  as  a  dynamo, 
and  an  electromotive  force  will  be  generated  in 
the  armature  wires,  which  will  J>e  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  to  the  incoming  current.  This  is 
what  is  called  the  counter  electromotive  force 
o£  die  motor,  and  will  tend  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  current  which  will  flow  through  the 
armature  conductors.  It  is,  therefore,  evident 
that  when  a  motor  is  started  there  will  be  a 
rush  of  current  through  the  armature,  as  the 
resistance  is  very  small,  and  as  there  is  no 
counter  electromotive  force  while  the  machine 
is  not  in  motion  to  check  the  flow.  For  this 
reason,  in  the  direct  current  motor  it  is  neces- 
sary to  introduce  an  external  resistance  into  the 
armature  circuit  to  hold  back  the  current  which 
would  flow,  until  the  machine  approaches  full 
speed.  The  resistance  is  then  eradually  re- 
duced until  full  speed  is  obtained.  The  effect 
of  this  counter  electromotive  force  when  the 
resistance  is  cut  out  entirely  is  materially  to 
assist  the  self -regulating  qualities  of  the  ma- 
chine. Any  load  applied  to  the  motor  would 
tend  slightly  to  reduce  ihe  speed,  which  effect, 
by  also  reducing  the  counter  electromotive 
force  and  allowing  more  current  to  flow 
through  the  armature,  tends  to  keep  the  speed 
from  falling  much  below  normal  in  the  stunt 
motor.  Motors  can  be  built  either  with  a  plain 
^unt  field  winding  or  with  a  series  and  snunt 
winding,  depending  on  their  requirements.  The 
direction  of  rotation  depends  on  the  direction 
of  the  current  through  the  armature.  To  re- 
verse the  rotation,  therefore,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  reverse  tne  current  In  the  annature, 
leaving  field  connections  as  they  are.  If  the 
current  is  changed  in  both  field  and  armature, 
the  result  would  naturall^r  be  that  the  machine 
will  continue  to  revolve  in  the  same  direction 
as  before. 

To  reduce  the  speed  of  the  direct  current 
motor  it  is  only  necessary  to  add  resistance  to 
the  armature  circuit  so  as  to  limit  the  current 
flowing  therein,  and  by  so  doing  almost  any  de- 
sired speed  may  be  oDtained,  from  1  per  cent 


up  to  /nil  rate  of  speed.  There  are  a  number 
of  other  methods  by  which  variable  speeds  can 
be  obtained,  one  Of  them  being  by  varying  the 
field  strength.  Any  motor,  however,  operating 
at  a  lower  field  or  armature  current  than  nor- 
mal conditions  would  require  is  naturally  oper- 
ating at  reduced  power.  On  account  of  the 
valuable  features  in  relation  to  speed  control, 
reversibility  and  the  automatic  speed  control 
inherent  in  the  shunt  machine,  together  with 
the  large  torque  of  the  series  machine,  the  di- 
rect current  motor  fulfils  more  nearly  than  any 
other  the  practical  requirements  in  machine- 
shops,  textile  mills  and  general  manufacturing 
estabUsImients. 

For  electric  railway  work,  in  which  the  di- 
rect current  is  employed  (see  Traction,  El£C- 
ivic) ,  the  compound  wound  generator  and 
series  motor  is  the  -  usual  standard  practice. 
Often  this  type  of  generator  is  overcom- 
pounded  so  as  to  more  than  overcome  the  drop 
through  the  armature  resistance  and  allow 
higher  voltage  at  full  load  than  at  no  load,  so 
as  to  overcome,  in  a  way,  the  drop  of  potential 
on  the  feeders  and  preserve  the  uniform  vol- 
tage over  the  system.  In  lighting  and  power 
work  the  shunt  and  compound  dynamos  are 
Imth   used.      (See    Electric  Lightikg).    And 


in  the  business  centres  of  oar  large  cities  where 
the  direct  current  is  generally  used,  the  rotary 
converter  fed  from  a  high  tension  alternating 
central  station  is  very  often  employed,  together 
with  storage  battery. 

Direct  current  was  more  generally  used  in 
the  earlier  installations  of  electric  distribution, 
in  preference  to  alternating  current,  for  die 
reason  that  the  direct  current  motor  was  de- 
veloped before  the  alternating  current  motor ; 
and  the  earlier  motors  possessed  manv  advan- 
tages in  their  ability  to  be  operatea  at  any 
speed  from  slow  speeds  up  to  the  maximum 
speed  for  which  the  motor  was  designed,  and 
also  permitted  the  use  of  storage  batteries  di- 
rectly connected  to  the  system,  thus  ensuring 
contmuity  and  reliability  of  service. 

The  shunt  and  series  motor  each  has  its  own 
field  of  usefulness.  When  a  very  powerful 
Starting  torque  and  rapid  acceleration  are  nec- 
essary the  series  motor  is  used,  as  in  the  case 
of  street  railway,  electric  locomotives,  electric 
cranes;  and  on  steamships  where  the  direct 
current  alone  is  used,  as  on  the  Kenlvcky  and 
Keariarge,  of  the  United  States  navy,  not  only 
is  electricity  used  for  lighting,  but  also  for 
operating  ammunition  hoists,  hoisting  anchors, 
operating  boat  cranes,  and  even  the  steering 
gear  of  the  ship  itself. 

In  machine-shops  and  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments where  a  taoie  or  less  constant  speed 
may  be  required,  and  in  elevator  work,  the  com- 
pound anti  the  shunt  motor  are  commonly  em- 
ployed. The  shunt  motor  is  very  well  adapted 
for  operating  at  any  speed  desired,  and  for  ma- 
chine tools  It  is  at  present  without  a  peer  for 
an  efficient  and  easily  regulated  source  of  power. 
Unlike  the  series  motor,  where  the  speed  varies 
with  ihe  load,  the  shunt  motor  is  practically  a 
constant  speed  machine.  When  thrown  on  the 
lines  it  rapidly  comes  up  to  normal  speed,  and 
then  from  no  load  to  full  load  will  not  greatly 
deviate  therefrom  unless  purposely  thrown  to  a 
slower  point  by  the  controller.  As  a  series 
motor  would  run  away  if  left  in  a  circuit  with  a 
load  suddenlv  removed,  the  shunt  motor,  or 
sometimes  the  compound  (which  is  used  in 
order  to  preserve  an  absolutely  uniform  sjieed 
from  no  load  to  full  load,  and  is  necessary  in  a 
few  places  where  absolutely  constant  speed  is 
required)  is  the  standard  motor  for  driving 
textile  machinery  in  large  mills,  factories  and 
other  establishments. 

Direct  current  generally  meets  all  of  the  r«- 

Juirements  of  the  consumers,  as  it  is  available 
or  motors  of  any  size;  for  lighting;  for  chemi- 
cal action,  such  as  charging  storage  batteries  or 
in  electro- plating;  or  for  electric  neatiny. 

With  the  targe  increase  in  the  requirements 
of  individual  consumers,  the  advantages  of 
direct  current  over  alternating  current  are  not 
as  important  to-day,  for  the  reason  that  trans- 
lating devices  have  been  simplified  so  that 
alternating  current  may  be  converted,  without 
serious  difficulty,  into  direct  current,  for  any 
special  requirements. 

Ww,  C,  L.  EcUN, 
Second  Vicf-Prendent  and  Chief  Enginter, 
The  Philadtlphia  Electric  Company. 
ELECTRIC  DISCHARGE,  the  escape 
of  electricity,  whether  slowly  and  ulently,  or 
mope  quickly  and  violently,  from  any  receptacle 
or  generator. 


joogle 


ELECTRIC   DOOR-BKLL?—  ELECTBIC  FARHING 


ELBCTRIC  DOOR-BELLS.     See  Elec- 

TBic  Bells  ;  Elecibic  Signaling. 

ELECTRIC  DRILL,  a  drill  for  metals  or 
rock  worked  by  an  electromaKnetic  motor. 
For  metals  a  rotary  motion,  for  rodcs  a  redpro- 
cating  or  percussive  action,  is  imparted. 

ELECTRIC  EEL  (EUclro^konu  eUc- 
Irictu),  a  great  eel  inhabiting  the  marstw- 
waters  of  the  llanos  in  South  America.  It 
belongs  to  the  family  Gymnolidir  and  order 
Flectospondyli  (q.v.),  and  with  a  few  allied 
species  is  distinguished  from  all  other  eels  by 
the  partial  coalescence  and  modification  of  the 
anterior  vertebne.  It  is  remarkable  chiefly  for 
the  great  size  of  its  electric  organs,  which  con- 
sist of  two  pairs  of  longitudinal  bodies  between 
the  skin  and  the  muscles  of  the  caudal  region, 
divided  into  about  240  cells  and  supplied  by 
more  than  200  nerves.  The  eel  can  discharge 
sufHcieni  electricity  to  kill  an  animal  of  con- 
siderable size,  and  is  said  to  possess  powe^ 
when  in  full  vigor,  to  knock  down  a  man  and 
benumb  the  limb  affected,  in  (he  most  painful 
manner,  for  several  hours  after  communicat- 
ing the  shock.  By  frequent  use  of  this  faculty 
it  becomes  impaired,  and  a  considerable  interval 
of  rest  is  required  to  recruit  its  electrical  prop- 
erties. According  to  Humboldt  the  natives  of 
South  America  make  use  of  horses  in  taking  the 
electric  eel.  The  animals  are  driven  in  a  body 
into  a  stream  or  pond  where  the  fishes  abound, 
and  the  latter,  having  exhaused  their  stores  of 
electricity  by  repealed  attacks  upon  them,  are 
then  easily  taken.  The  horses  arc  sometimes  so 
severely  stunned  by  the  shocks  that  they  fall 
and  arc  drowned.    Specimens  of  the  Electro- 

thorus  electrictu  are  reported  to  attain  the 
;ngth  of  six  or  seven  feet,  but  ordinarily  they 
are  about  three  and  one-half  or  four  feet  long. 
See  EucTMC  Fishes. 


be  filled  with  a  feeble  violet  light  by 
an  electric  machine  acting  on  it  after 
has  been  made  inside  the  glass. 

ELECTRIC    ELEVATORS.      See    Ele- 


ELBCTRIC  ESCAPEMENT,  a  device 
actuated  by  electric  impulse  which  intermitttngly 
arrests  the  motion  of  the  escape-wheel  and  re- 
strains the  train  to  a  pulsatfve  motion  —  acting, 
in  fact,  in  the  place  of  a  pendulum. 

ELECTRIC  FARMING.  The  greatest 
agent  for  the  advancement  of  agriculture  is 
electricity.  It  is  the  emancipator  ofthe  toiler. 
A  motor  of  even  diminutive  dimensions  accom- 
plishes more  work  than  a  man  —  at  less  ex- 
pense —  since  the  power  developed  by  the 
human  machine  is  the  most  expensive  that  man 
uses.  In  supplanting  manual  labor,  electricity 
has  a  most  appreciable  effect  upon  agriculture, 
diK  to  the  fact  that  agriculture  requires  great 
labor  with  a  minimum  of  skill.  In  reducing 
mannal  labor  by  the  use  of  electricity,  the  farm 
operatives,  witti  the  exercise  of  but  little 
nicchanical  knowledge,  may  direct  the  opera- 
tions of  numerous  lar^  electrical  units  and  ac- 
complish an  aggre^te  of  work  that  would  be 
absolutely  impracticable  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions. 

In  the  installation  of  electricity  on  the  farm, 
it  it  necessary,  however,   that   the   farmer — 


user  of  many  and  infinitely  varied  implements 
and  mechanical  devices  —  should  avail  himself 
of  the  co-operation  of  the  en^neer;  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  skill  and  experience  of  the  latter 
in  adapting  the  new  method  to  his  needs,  in 
order  to  increase  the  production  of  his  land. 
Rural  industry  in  general  must  look  to  the 
engineerinc  profession  more  and  more  for  the 
most  available  utilization  of  our  natural  re- 
sources through  the  medium  of  electrical  energy. 

Industrially  considered,  the  farm  is  a  lar^e 
user  of  power,  but  the  sources  from  which  it  is 
derived  are  at  present  uneconomic  and  inade- 
quate in  comparison  with  industrial  standards 
in  other  lines.  Of  the  33,000,000  persons  en- 
gaged in  gainful  occupations  in  the  United 
States,  not  less  than  10,000,000  devote  their 
energies  to  agriculture.  In  addition,  upward  of 
90  per  cent  of  all  the  horses  and  mules  in  this 
country  are  devoted  to  farm  labor.  The  sub- 
stitution of  electric  power,  therefore,  for  even 
a  small  proportion  of  the  work  of  farm  animals 
will  result  in  great  national  economy. 

There  is  no  form  of  service  that  can  sup- 
plant manual  and  animal  labor  on  the  farm  or 
country  estate  as  expeditiously  from  every 
standpoint,  considering  excuse  and  conven- 
ience, as  eJeciricity,  and  it  will  be  found  superior 
to  steam  or  to  any  internal  combustion  en^ne. 
In  fact,  there  is  no  other  existing  agent  that  is 
able  to  supply  the  three  necessities  —  light,  heat 
and  power — from  one  and  the  same  source. 
Due  to  this  fact,  hours  of  labor  on  the  farm  or 
in  rural  communities  may  be  regulated,  as  are 
those  of  the  manufacturing  and  commercial  in- 
dustries. In  consequence,  life  in  rural  com- 
munities may  be  made  attractive,  as  much  or 
more  so  than  that  of  the  cities,  where  the 
struggle  for  existence  is  incessant,  and  living 
accommodations  —  or  what  corresponds  to 
home  life — fall  short  of  the  pleasant  and 
healthful  surrounding  of  the  countryside. 

The  ^nt  industries  of  the  country  are  of 
recent  ongin  and  were  started  in  a  humble  way, 
but  they  now  surpass  any  branch  of  the  agrarian 
pursuits.  This  is  a  condition  readily  explained, 
due  to  the  employment  of  the  services  of  the 
trained  engineer  to  the  advantageous  upbuilding 
of  the  great  manufacturing  industries.  On  the 
other  hand,  farming  —  the  oldest  of  all  indus- 
tries, and  the  most  basic  —  has  been  neglected, 
even  to  the  point  of  being  abandoned  in  many 
places. 

The  machines  and  implements  of  use  on  a 
farm  are  manifold— -ploughs,  rollers,  reapers, 
threshers,  com  shelters  and  grinders,  shredders, 
fodder  cutters,  wood  saws,  pumps,  horse  ana 
sheep  clippers,  and  apparatus  for  unloading  and 
hoisting  hay,  com'  fodder  and  like  products. 
Another  phase  of  farm  life  in  which  a  great 
saving  of  labor  is  effected  by  the  use  of  electric- 
ity is  in  the  operation  of  washing  machinery, 
carpet  cleaners,  sewing  machines,  fans,  cooking 
and  laundry  appliances,  none  of  which  could 
well  be  served  by  any  other  agent  than  electric- 
ity. Besides  the  preceding  partial  enumeration 
of  the  possible  applications  of  electricity,  for 
power,  the  clectnc  energy  —  supplied  to  its 
motors  either  from  an  outside  source  or  from 
its  own  central  plant  —  may  be  used  for  light 
and  heat. 

Where  connection  cannot  be  made  with  a 
local  electric  distributing  concern,  the  farmer 
should  have  his  own  generating  station,  which 


,^le 


104 


BLB^TRIC  PAKMIHO 


may  be  operated  by  water,  steam,  gas,  gssoline, 
oil  or  windmill  power.  Where  a  stream  runs 
through  a  farm,  or  is  in  the  neighborhood, 
cheap  power,  both  as  regards  first  cost  and 
operating  expenses,  may  be  derived  from  this 
natural  source. 

In  generating  the  current  by  steam  power, 
the  cost  per  kilowatt  hour  is  comparatively  high. 
Somewhat  belter  results  maj;  be  obtained  with 
a  gas-producer  plant,  which,  instead  of  burning 
the  coal  in  a  steam  boiler  and  using  the  steam 
for  driving  the  eng^ne^  burns  the  coal  gradually 
in  a  producer,  generating  gas  for  operating  the 
gas  engine. 

Gasoline;  oil  and  alcohol  en^^nes  work  on 
die  same  principle  as  the  gas  engine,  as  all  are 
of  the  internal  combustion  type.  Great  strides 
have  been  made  during  the  past  decade  in  this 
type  of  engine,  so  that  it  operates  with  an 
economy  and  a  precision  that  requires  but  lit- 
tle attention. 

Another  source  of  energy  for  the  generation 
of  electric  current  for  farm  ajid  country  resi- 
dences is  the  windmill.  The  early  Dutch  wjiid- 
mills  _were  built  with  sweeps  of  from  SO  to  100 
feet  in  diameter,  while  our  modem  American 
windmills  have  a  sweep  of  only  from  12  to  18 
feet,  but  generate  more  power  than  the  earlier 
type,  widi  less  attention. 

All  of  the  above  primary  powers  may  be 
connected  to  the  electric  generators  by  belt, 
glaring  or  couplinp;s,  and  their  control  may  be 
regulated  automatically,  so  that  they  require 
tiit  little  attention.  There  are,  of  course,  cer- 
taiii  matters  in  their  operation  that  experience 
has  shown  to  be  of  advantage.  For  instance, 
the  greatest  quantity  of  energy  being  required 
for  the  daytime,  and  the  loacTfor  illumination 
bein^  small  and  wanted  principally  in  the  even- 
in?,  it  is  therefore  not  profitable  to  operate  the 
pnme  movers  other  than  during  the  day.  The 
use  of  the  storage  battery  is  therefore  of  great 
service  in  supplying  electric  energy  at  periods 
of  small  demand,  when  the  generators  arc  shut 
down.  In  connection  with  Uie  storage  battery, 
and  with  the  development  of  the  low-voltage 
Tungsten  lamps,  the  cost  and  size,  as  well  as 
the  maintenance  expense,  may  be  considerably 
reduced  by  proper  engineering. 

The  great  advantage,  in  which  lies  the  su- 
periority of  a  farm  operated  by  electricity,  is 
in  the  fact  that  the  farmer  has  at  all  times 
under  his  direct  control  the  entire  supply  of 
electric  energj^  available,  whether  obtained  from 
a  public  service  enterprise  or  supplied  by  his 
individual  plant. 

Electric  farming,  while  iu  general  use  in 
Germany  for  the  ^ast  20  ^ears,  has  recently 
made  rapid  strides  in  the  United  States,  particu- 
larly in  the  West  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
where  central  station  enterprises  encourage  the 
use  of  electricity  for  agricuhural  purposes. 
There  are,  however,  to  be  found  in  Uie  State 
o¥  New  York  several  notable  water-power  in- 
stallations on  farms.  For  instance,  there  is  a 
100- acre  farni  near  Oriskany  Falls.  Oneida 
County,  N.  Y..  devoted  lo  hop  raising,  mixed 
farming  and  dairying,  on  which  has  been  in- 
stalled^ a  l7-horse- power  hydro-electric  plant, 
supplying  electricity  for  lighting  the  farm 
buildings  and  for  operating  various  electric 
motors.  The  power-dam,  of  timher-crib  con- 
strnclion,  is  36  feet  long,  raising  the  water  four 
feet,  is  carried  on  heavy  concrete  sills  cast  in  a 


2Xl-5-foot  ditch  dug  across  the  stream  bed.  A 
row  of  12-inch  flash-boards  held  erect  by  chains 
positioned  by  pins  removable  'by  a  capstan, 
dropping  the  boards  in  case  of  high  water,  is 
above  the  crest  of  the  dam.  There  is  also  pro- 
vided a  supplauentary  40-foot  spillway,  its  creM 
bein^  slifhtty  higher  than  Ae  mata  dam,  per- 
mitting the  discharge  during  heavy  floods.  A 
60-foot  canal  and  lorebay  lead  from  the  dam 
downstream  to  ibe  powei-bouse,  where  a 
17-horse-power  turbine  wheel  has  been  installed. 
The  latter,  by  means  of  belt  drive,  operates  a 
12.5  kilowatt  generator  at  1,100  revolutions  per 
minute.    The  power-house  is  12X16  feet  in  size. 

The  drainage  area  of  Oriskany  Creek  at  the 
point  utilized  by  this  plant  is  14  square  miles, 
ensuring  a  supply  of  water  the  year  round  suf- 
ficient to  drive  die  jilant  at  full  load  under  the 
available  head  of  six  feet.  The  distance  from 
the  power  plant  to  the  fann  buildings  is  1,700 
f-eet,  the  current  being  carried  on  an  aluminum 
wire  stretched  on  20-loot  poles,  100  feet  apart 
From  the  power  generated,  practically  every  bit 
of  machinery  on  the  farm  is  operated,  compris- 
ing a  circular  saw,  machine  lathe  and  drill 
press,  vacuum  cleaning  tystem,  adapted  likewise 
for  the  operation  of  the  milUing  machines  in 
the  25-staU  cow-houscv  a  cream  separator, 
churn,  grindstone,  ventilating  and  cooling  fans, 
electric  iroti,_  sewing  machine  and  pump.  In 
addition,  besides  Ugnting  the  premises,  five  elec- 
tric heaters  are  operated,  maintaining  a  constant 
temperature  of  75*  throughout  the  winter.  En- 
gineering estimates  place  the  cost  of  the  entire 
equipment  at  about  $1,800— dam,  power-house, 
line  and  equipment— but  in  its  emciency  it  is 
worth  many  times  this  sum. 

A  system  that  has  been  adopted  much  abroad 
is  the  installation  of  a  rural  central  station  capa- 
ble of  supplying  a  number  of  farm^  local  in- 
dustries and  country  estates  .with  electric 
current.  This  may  be  supplied  with  power 
generated  by  steam,  water,  gasoline,  oil  or  gas, 
the  co-operative  feature  resulting  in  a  great  sav- 
ing in  the  production  of  electric  energy.  An 
example  of  the  service  supplied  hy  a  single 
central  station  in  supplying  a  forming  com- 
munity may  be  seen  in  that  of  Lottin,  Genaan^. 
Here  a  water  power  of  300  h»ne  power  is 
utilized.  However,  during  certain  seasons  of 
the  year,  when  the  water  is  low,  a  stesin  gen- 
erating set  of  180  horse  power  is  put  into.  us« 
to  keep  up  the  service.  It  is  obvious  that  this 
supplemental  power  may  be  pressed  into  use 
at  any  time,  should  the  demand  for  power  ex- 
ceed the  capacity  of  the  hydro-electric  station. 

The  distributing  system  of  the  Lottin  sta- 
tion is  82  miles  lony.  The  electric  energy  is 
used  on  61  farms,  including  rural  industries, 
and  five  villages,  a  total  of  24,700  acres.  Alto- 
gether, 102  consumers  are  served,  these  having 
some  150  motors  with  a  total  of  1,500  horse 


the  consumption  amounted  to  440,000  kilowatt 
hours.  There  are  50  farms,  with  an  acreage 
varying  from  60  to  1,800  acres  per  farm,  under 
cultivation  by  the  plough,  with  a  total  of  275 
horsepower  in  motors,  1,200  incandescent  lamps 
and  20  arc  l&mps.  Of  these  farms,  12  contain 
from  300  to  600  acres  each,  using  12  motors 
with  a  capacity  of  122  horse  power. 

In  order  to  give  in  concrete  form  the  amount 
of  electric  energy  necessary  on  a  farm,  the  fol- 


ELECTRIC  FARMING 


ir  DriTinc  Corn  SbaUet 


oogle 


.yGooi^le 


BLBCTKIC  FARMING 


lOff 


lowing  figures  from  a  10&-acre  farm  are  given. 
It  is  assumed  that  two-thirds  of  the  products 
are  of  a  stalk  nature,  and  that  the  live  stock 
consists  of  3  horses,  10  cows,  15  swine,  etc.  The 
figures  are  an  average,  taken  from  the  actual 
experience  of  a  number  of  (arms.  It  is  also 
assumed  that  electric  energy  (or  power  pur- 
poses is  5  cents  per  kilowatt  hour,  which  is 
a  reasonable  figure  for  current  used  (or  power 
purposes  only,  when  purchased  from  a  public 
service  corporation. 

The  average  amount  of  water  consumed  on 
a  lOO-acre  (ann  is  as  follows:  for  the  house, 
for  each  person  per  day,  5  to  6  gallons;  for 
cattle;  irota  12  to  15  gallons  per  head;  (or 
swine  and  sheep,  1  to  2!^gallons.  For  pumping 
1.000  gallons  to  a  tank  eleraled  35  feet,  the 

Cwer  necessarv  is  about  one-eighth  kilowatt 
ur,  so  that  the  yearly  averse  cnertp*  (or  3 
horses,  10  head  of  cattle  and  IS  swine  is  about 
H 

For  a  threshing  machine  of  the  smaller  sixe, 
capable  in  10  hours  of  threshing,  cleaning  ana 
sackiuK  read/  for  the  market,  80  to  200  bushels. 
3  to  5  electric  horse  power  are  required.  For 
machines  of  from  160  to  240  bushels  capacity, 
5  to  7  horse  power  are  necessary ;  and  from  300 
to  800  bushels,  from  10  to  20  horse  power  are 
required.  The  energy  required  for  the  various 
products  to  be  threshed  and  cleaned,  per  100 
bushels,  is,  for  rye,  23;  wheat,  22:  oats,  19; 
and  barley,  21  kilowatt  hour^  oi  on  the  average, 
22  kilowatt  hours,  costing  $1,  which  is  at  the 
rate  of  $0,011  per  bushel.  If  hay-baling 
machines  are  attached  to  the  thresher,  from 
(our  to  six  additional  horse  power  are  required. 
Fodder  cutters,  varying  from  one  to  two 
horse  power,  consume  1.8  kilowatt  hours  per  100 
pounds  o(  fodder,  costing  1/16  cent  a  cut,  and 
as   10  head  o(  cattle  consume  per  year  60,000 


.     .    .  s  per  head. 

One  of  the  by-products  of  cotton-seed  or 
linseed-oil  mills  is  sold  as  meal  or  as  cake,  and 
to  break  it  up  a  special  machine  b  necessary. 
Such  a  machine  often  has  a  capacity  of  (rom 
2,000  to  3.000  pounds  per  hour.  The  average 
amount  of  food  per  head  of  cattle  is  from  2 
to  3  pounds  per  day,  which  araourts,  for  10 
head,  to  about  9,000  pounds  per  year.  The  cost 
of  electric  ener^"  for  operating  this  machine  is 
25  cents  per  year  (or  each  animal. 

As  the  cattle  are  fed  from  2  to  3  pounds  o( 
crushed  grain  per  day  per  head,  and  as  there 
are  10  aUogether  in  the  lOO-acre  supposition,  a 
mo  tor- driven  grain- crusher  is  required,  capable 
of  crushing  some  9,000  pounds  per  year.  This 
might  be  prepared  at  one  operation  by  a  large 
mil],  but  (or  the  purpose  at  hand  a  motor  vary- 
mg  from  3  to  5  norse  power,  according  to  the 
siie  of  the  mil!  employed,  will  do  the  work 
conveniently.  To  grind  100  pounds  costs  $0.03 
for  the  energy  consumed,  or  (or  the  9,000 
pounds,  (2.70  per  year. 

For  running  the  cream  separator,  a  small 
motor  of   about   one-fourth  horse  power  can 


of  ?0.01}^.  As  the  average  production  for  10 
C0W5  is  amout  30,000  quarts  per  year,  the  yearly 
cost  of  operating  the  separator  is  $1.50. 

A  chum  for  200  quarts  of  milk,  assuming 
awrage  conditions,  requires  from  one-fourth  to 


one-half  horse  power^  as  also  does  the  bulter- 
kneader,  and  the  cost  is  negligible. 

A  washing-machine,  including  wringer,  op- 
erated by  a  one-fourth  horse  pdwer  motor,  cost- 
ing complete  $165,  is  used  260  hours  per  year, 
or  some  S  hours  per  week.  As  other  work 
may  be  done  by  the  woman  operating  it,  her 
time  amounts  to  but  65  hours  during  the  year. 
The  machine  turns  out  three  washes  an  hour, 
and  the  total  expense  of  the  whole  780  washes 
is  $35.41.  This  includes  all  labor,  power  and 
every  expense,  including  overhead  charges,  and . 
the  same  applies  to  the  figures  for  the  following 

A  horse-groomer,  costing  $75,  operated  by  a 
one-horse  power  motor,  cleans  4  horses  in  36 
minutes.  It  is  used  328.5  hours  during  the  year, 
or  2,190  groomings,  and  reqalres  the  services  of 
but  one  man.  The  cost  amounts  to  $72.93,  or 
$0.03J4  pW  horse  per  grooming. 

A  cream-separator  having  a  capacity  of  1,350' 
pounds  per  hour  is  operated  by  a  1'/  horse- 
power  motor,  and  costs  complete  $350.  It  is 
used  183  hours  during  the  year,  separating 
237,900  pounds  of  milk  at  a  cost  of  iSSS,  or 
$0,037  per  100  pounds. 

A  butter  count  having  a  volume  of  300  pi- 
lous and  a  capacity  of  100  gallons  per  churning, 
operated  by  a  2~horse-power  motor,  cost  $118.^. 
It  is  operated  88  hours  per  year,  churning  15,000 
pounds  of  butter  at  a  cost  of  $36.60,  or  J0.002' 
per  pound.  This  includes  churning,  washing 
and  working  the  butter  ready  for  packing. 

A  root-cutter  with  a  capacity  of  6  tons  of 
turnips  an  hour  costs  $26.30,  and  is  operated 
by  a  2-horse-power  moior  costing  $86.  It  is 
used  52  hours  per  jrear,  principally  during  the 
winter  months,  cutting  300  tons  of  beets  and 
turnips  at  a  cost  of  $35.94,  or  $0,119  per  ton. 

A  fodder-cutter,  having  a  capacity  of  3 
tons  per  hour  o(  dry  (odder,  costs  $128.10,  and 
is  operated  by  a  lO-horse-powcr  motor  costing 
$118.50.  The  outfit  is  used  88.70  hours  per 
year,  and  will  cut  180  tons  o(  (odder  at  a  cost 
of  $54.S5,  with  one  operative,  at  a  cost  of  $0.30 
per  ton. 

One  of  the  means  by  which  the  farmer  may 
secure  his  electricity  at  a  low  rate  is  to  make 
his  consumption  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible 
during  the  whole  24  hours.  The  cost  o(  elec- 
tricity is  based  on  the  cost  of  fuel  or  water 
[rower,  attendance  and  the  amount  of  capital 
invested  in  the  installation,  including  generators 
and  transmission  system.  It  will  be  seen  that  if 
all  the  farmers  on  a  line  demand  electricity 
during  the  same  few  hours  of  each  day,  larger 
and  more  expensive  machinery  must  be  installed 
(or  its  generation  than  would  be  necessary  if 
the  requirements  for  the  same  amount  of  elec- 
tricity were  spread  over  a  greater  pan  of  the 
day. 

Consequently,  by  using  power  (or  food-chop-  ■ 
ping,  meat- grin  ding,  dairy  purposes,  wood-saw- 
ing, cooking,  washing  and  general  purposes 
during  certain  hours  o(  the  day,  light  for  morn- 
ing and  eveninp,  and  pumping  wafer  for  irriga- 
tion and  the  household  dunng  the  night,  the 
farmer  may,  under  the  direction  of  a  central 
station,  so  consume  his  electricity  that  it  raiy 
be  generated  at  the  lowest  cost  possible. 

It  is  the  custom  of  the  cent ral'station  concerns 
t6  deliver  electricity  to  the  consumer's  premises, 
where  usually  the  user  installs  his  own  dis- 
tributing system  through  his  house,  bams^^etc.. 


oogle 


IM 


ELECTRIC   FIELD— ELECTRIC   FURNACES 


inasmuch  as  the  majority  of  fanners  can  as 
a  rule  afford  to  buy  their  own  machinery,  par- 
ticularly the  smaller  sizes.  In  the  case  of  large 
installations,  however,  a  number  of  methods 
may  be  availed  of  to  secure  the  benefits  of  such 
machinery  without  its  outright  purchase,  usually 
through  the  co-operation  with  the  central  station 
concern.  Many  such  enterprises  are  only  too 
willing  to  furnish  electric  motors,  and  make 
wire  mstallation  on  the  farm  premises — for 
both  light  and  power  —  at  a  small  yearly  rental 
or  on  low  instalment  payments.  In  consequence, 
the  farmer  may  have  the  cost  of  his  machinery 
spread  out  over  a  number  of  years,  the  saving 
effected  in  both  manual  and  animal  labor  being 
far  more  than  sufhcient  to  pay  for  the  invest- 
ment. He  will  eventually  become  the  owner 
of  the  equipment,  the  while  making  a  handsome 
profit  through  its  use.  It  has  already  been 
demonstrated  that  farm  efficiency  can  be  ac- 
complished in  no  way  more  advantageously  than 
through  the  extension  of  the  use  of  electricity 
on  the  farm. 


ELECTRIC  PISHES,  several  quite  un- 
related fishes  which  possess  the  extraordinary 
property  of  communicaling  an  electric  shock  to 
animals  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  The 
organs  which  are  the  source  of  this  power  have 
been  much  studied  by  both  anatomists  and 
physiologists.  They  are  in  all  cases  —  with  the 
possible  exception  of  Malaplerusus  —  formed  by 
the  modification  of  muscular  tissue,  and  consist 
of  a  mass  of  numerous  closely  packed  prisms, 
each  divided  into  a  scries  of  compartments 
filled  with  a  gelatinous  substance.  One  surface 
of  the  fibrous  discs  thus  farmed  receives  a 
rich  nerve  supply  and  is  electrically  negative, 
the  opposite  surface  being  positive.  The  entire 
organ  may  therefore  be  likened  to  a  group  of 
voltaic  piles.  Among  the  Elasmobranchii 
(q.v.),  many  of  the  skates  possess  rudimentary 
electric  organs,  .which  reach  a  high  degree  of 
development  in  the  torpedo  and  an  allied 
genus  (Hypnos).  In  these  two  genera  the 
organs  occupy  a  large  area  on  each  side  of 
the  head  and  the  prisms  are  arranged  ver- 
tically and  are  supplied  by  large  nerves,  four 
pairs  of  which  arise  from  a  special  electrical 
lobe  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  brain,  while  a 
fifth  is  a  branch  of  the  trigeminal.  In  the  elec- 
trical catfish  (Ma'apttruius  eUctricits)  of  the 
Nile,  and  some  allied  species,  the  entire  body  is 
enveloped  by  an  electric  layer  beneath  the 
sldn  and  the  muscles.  In  the  electric  eel  (q.v.) 
and  all  other  electrical  fishes  the  organ  is  placed 
by  the  side  of  the  tail  and  the  prisms  are  dis- 
posed longitudinally.  Not  alone  in  structure  but 
in  the  phenomena  of  rest  and  activity  these  or- 
gans bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  muscles, 
which    also    normally   exhibit   weak   electrical 


ELECTRIC  FLUID  THEORY.  To  ex- 
plain electrical  phenomena  this  theory  was  ^v- 
pounded  in  1759  by  Du  Fay  and  Symmer.  The 
'theory  of  electric  fluids.'  as  it  is  called,  is  as 
follows :  That  every_  body  contains  an  indefi- 
nite quantity  of  an  imponderable  subtle  fluid. 


that  this  fluid  is  composed  of  two  fhtidi  which 
are  self- repulsive  but  mutually  attractive.  When 
a  body  is  in  its  natural  state,  the  two  fluids  are 
in  combinatioiL,  and  neulraiize  each  other.  The 
act  of  electrification  consists  in  the  forcible 
separation  of  the  two  fluids,  whereby  tme  is 
diffused  over  the  body  rubbed  and  the  other 
over  the  rubber,  one  kind  of  electricity  never 


as   a   mere   provisional   conception,   and   not   i 
proved    scientific    truth.      See    E1.BCTUCITT. 

ELECTRIC  FURNACES.  These  fnmaces 
are  devices  for  localizing  the  heat  of  an  elec- 
tric circuit  and  utilizing  it  In  the  usual  tech- 
nical use  of  the  term  it  signifies  a  device  or 
receptacle  in  which  a  comparatively  Iddb  tem- 
perature is  developed  for  the  purpose  of  effcct- 
mg  a  chemical  reaction  or  producing  a  ciiange 
of  stale  in  the  substance  to  be  treated,  such,  for 
instance,  as  the  reduction  of  an  ore,  flie  forma- 
tion or  disruption  of  a  compound,  or  the  fusion 
or  volatilization  of  a  metal  or  compound.  Elec 
trie  furnaces  comprise  means  for  developing  the 
necessary  heat  at  the  point  or  points  desired, 
and  for  subjecting  the  material  to  be  treated, 
technically  known  as  the  ■charge,'  to  the  influ- 
ence of  this  heat.  The  several  types  or  classes 
of  electric  furnace  will  be  briefly  described  ac- 
cording to  the  principles  employed.  The  heat 
development  in  any  given  portion  of  a  circuit 
is  proportionate  to  Ae  resistance  oSered  to  the 
passage  of  the  current ;  hence  those  portions  of 
the  circuit  external  to  the  furnace  proper  are 
always  composed  of  metals  which  conduct  the 
■  well,  and  generally  of  copper  or  alumi- 


i  the 


of  t 


of  the  circtiit  in  which  the  heat  is  to  be  focalized 
is  relatively  high.  These  latter  portions  of  the 
circuit  may  consist  of  gases,  in  which  case  an 
arc  is  formed  and  the  localization  of  the  heat 
is  extreme ;  of  substances  of  high  melting  and 
boiling  points,  in  a  state  of  fusion,  when  an 
electrolytic  effect,  to  be  hereinafter  more  fully 
referred  to,  usually  supervenes ;  or  of  solids, 
such  as  platinum  and  other  diflicultly  fusible 
metals,  carbon,  graphite  and  carbonaceous  mix- 
tures, or  such  bodies  as  the  oxides  of  the  alka- 
line earths  which  become  conductive  when 
heated.  These  three  classes  of  furnace,  wherein 
the  heat  is  localized  in  a  gas,  a  liquid  and  a 
solid,  respectively,  may  be  conveniently  desig- 
nated by  the  terms  arc  furnace,  electrolytic 
furnace  and  incandescent  furnace,  although  as 
will  appear  it  is  not  always  easy  to  apply  one  or 
another  of  these  names  to  the  actual  construc- 
tions. Although  electrically  developed  heat  il 
relatively  costly,  the  fact  that  it  can  be  locally 
applied,  within  the  interior  of  the  charge  if  so 
desired,  is  an  important  advantage,  and  the 
utilization  of  the  heat  is  often  so  complete  that 
its  use  represents  a  real  economy.  The  heat 
lost  is  that  which  is  carried  from  the  furnace 
by  the  escaping  products  of  the  reaction,  and 
that  which  is  conveyed  by  radiation,  convection 
or  conduction,  from  the  walls,  the  electrodes 
and  oilier  exposed  portions  of  the  structure. 
Inasmuch  as  tne  exjrased  surfaces  of  a  furnace 
are  roughly  proportionate  to  the  square  of  its 
dimensions,  whereas  its  capacity  varies  as  the 
cube,  it  is  evident  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
the  larger  the  furnace  the  less  will  be  the 
percentage  of  total  beat  which  is  l«st  and  t^ 


BLBCTRIC   FURNACES 


107 


greater  will  be  the  ^dency.  This  indicates  the 
employment  of  large  units.  Ii  is  always  (tos- 
sible  to  reduce  the  expenditure  of  electrical 
energy  by  makine  use  of  heat  otherwise  gen- 
erated, such  heat  being  employed  for  raising  the 
temperature  of  (he  charge  previous  to  its  intro- 
duction into  the  electrically  heated  zone,  or  for 
heating  the  exposed  surfaces  of  the  furnace 
structure  in  order  to  check  conduction  from 
within.  Furnaces  in  which  chemical  reactions 
are  conducted,  as,  for  instance,  those  in  which 
calcium  carbide  is  produced,  often  yield  gaseous 
products  which  arc  not  only  themselves  very 
highly  heated,  but  are  capable,  by  combustion, 
of  further  heal  development.  It  has  freauently 
been  proposed  to  utilize  this  heat  by  conaucCing 
such  gases  through  or  around  the  incoming 
charge  or  by  burning  them  in  flues  surrounding 
the  furnace,  but  the  greater  complexity  of  the 
structure  and  the  difficulty  of  purifying  the 
large  volume  of  dust-laden  gas  constitute  prac- 
tical difliculties  of  a  serious  nature. 

The  Arc  Ftimace^-^  When  an  electric  arc  is 
formed  in  air  between  carbon  terminals  there 
is  observed  to  be  a  definite  limit  to  the  length 
of  arc  which  can  be  maintained  with  d  given 
current  strength ;  furthermore  this  limit,  which 
■t  first  increases  ahnost  in  proportion  to  the 
current  strength,  increases  very  slowly  as  the 
current  density  reaches  higher  values.  The 
majcimum  length  of  the  arc  is  therefore  limited. 
The  temperature  of  the  carbon  terminals  may 
attain  3,500°  C,  at  about  which  point,  under 
atmospheric  pressure,  carbon  volatilises.  The 
temperature  of  the  mcandescent  gases  of  the 
arc  is  perhaps  a  thousand  degrees  higher.  It 
follows  that  the  arc  furnace,  in  its  simplest 
iorm,  is  adapted  particularly  for  subjecting 
small  charges  to  extremely  high  temperatures, 
and  its  value  for  experimental  work  is  am>arent 
For  use  upon  a  commercial  scale  it  is  generally 
necessary  so  to  distribute  the  heat  from  the  arc  ■ 
diat  a  comparatively  \iT^e  body  of  the  charge 
may  be  acted  upon  at  a  given  time.  This  result 
may  be  accomplished  by  establishing  a  plurality 
of  arcs  in  adjacent  portions  of  the  charge,  1^ 
exposing  the  charge  to  the  heat  radiated  from 
one  or  several  arcs  not  in  contact  with  it,  by 
causing  the  arc  to  move  relatively  to  the  charge, 
or  t;y  moving  the  charge  through  or  past  uie 
arc  The  temperature  of  that  portion  of  a 
charge  which  is  in  immediate  contact  with  an 
arc  may  be  practically  that  of  the  arc  itself  and 
is  uncontrolled;  the  operations  for  which  this 
method  of  procedure  is  suitable  and  economical 
are  relatively  few.  The  high  temperatures 
which  the  electric  furnace  is  capable  of  produc- 
ing have  opened  a  new  field  to  chemistry,  but 
in  order  to  insure  the  fonnation,  in  theoretical 
quantity  atid  in  a  state  of  purity,  of  many  com- 
pounds, a  careful  regulation  of  the  temperature 
IS  essential;  for  the  highest  attainable  tempera- 
tures are  capable  not  only  of  giving  rise  to  new 
combinations  but  also  of  breaking  them  down, 
resolving  them  into  similar  bodies  or  even  into 
their  elements.    A  single  instance  of  the  import- 


n  electric  resistance  furnace  a  partial  reduc- 
tion of  the  sand  occurs  and  a  product  contain- 
ing silicon  oxygen  and  carbon  and  known  as 
*suoxicon*  is  formed;  at  a  somewhat  higher 
temperature  the  reduction  is  complete  and  there 


results  an  amorphous  bodj;  having  the  essential 
composition  of  carbid  of  silicon  and  technically 
called  "while  stuff';  at  somewhat  higher  tem- 
perature ranges  this  amorphous  body  passes 
into  the  crystalline  carbid  of  silicon  'carborun- 
dum,* a  compound  approximating  In  hardness 
the  diamond  itself;  and  at  still  higher  tempera- 
tures, approximating  those  of  the  arc,  this  car- 
borundum is  broken  down,  its  silicon  escapes  as 
a  vapor,  and  its  carbon  remains  in  the  form  of 
graphite.  The  effect  of  high  temperatures  upon 
reactions  is  twofold:  in  the  first  place  the 
velocity  of  the  reaction  is  increased,  so  that 
chemical  changes  which  at  lower  temperatures 
occur  slowly  or  not  at  all  take  place  rapidly  or 
even  with  explosive  violence;  in  the  second 
place  new  conditions  of  equilibrium  are  estab-. 
lished,  and  the  chemical  elements,  entering  into 
that  combination  which,  under  the  circum- 
stances, is  the  most  stable;  sometimes  (pvt  rise 
to  compounds  not  before  known.  To  produce 
a  given  result,  however,  it  is  usually  necessary 
to  work  within  definite  temperature  limits,  and 
since  the  heat  of  the  arc  cannot  well  be  con- 
trolled, it  is  necessary  to  govern  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  charge  by  limiting  the  duration  of 
its  exposure  to  this  heat.  As  above  pointed 
out,  this  may  be  accomplished  by  moving  the 
arc  through  or  near  the  charge  or  by  moving 
the  charge  through  or  past  the  arc,  the  duration 
of  contact  bein^  so  adjusted  to  the  quanti^  of 
charge  and  to  its  specific  heat  as  to  bring  it  to 
the  desired  temperature.  As  a  rule,  however, 
tlte  arc  as  a  source  of  heat  is  both  wasteful  and 
inefficient. 


through  a  molten  salt  not  only  will  the  salt  be 
maintained  in  fusion  by  the  heat  developed  by 
its  own  resistance,  but  it  will  be  'electrolyicd,' 
that  is  to  say,  it  will  be  decomposed  in  such 
maimer  that  one  of  its  component  parts,  which 
may  be  a  metal,  will  tend  to  accumulate  at  one 
electrode,  while  another  component,  which  waa 
before  in  combination  with  the  metal,  will  ap- 
pear at  the  other  electrode.  The  electrode  at 
which  the  current  is  assumed  to  enter  the 
molten  bath,  and  at  which  the  negative  or  non- 
metallic  portion  of  the  compound  appears,  is 
called  the  'anode,*  while  the  other  electrode, 
which  receives  the  positive  or  metallic  element 
and  at  which  the  current  is  considered  to  leave 
the  bath,  is  designated  the  'cathode.'  Thus  if 
common  salt,  sodium  chloride,  be  fused  and 
traversed  by  a  direct  current,  the  nezative  ele- 
ment chlorine  will  appear  at  the  anode  and  the 
metal  sodium  at  the  cathode.  If  the  substance 
of  either  electrode  be  such  that  the  element 
liberated  in  contact  with  it  can  combine  with  or 
dissolve  in  it,  the  corresponding  compound  or 
solution  will  be  formed ;  If,  for  instance,  the 
fused  sodium  chloride  be  elcctrolyied  with  an 
anode  of  carbon  and  a  cathode  of  molten  lead, 
chlorine  will  be  evolved  at  the  anode  and  escape 
from  the  bath  while  sodium,  dissolving  in  the 
lead,  will  yield  an  alloy  from  which  the  metal 
sodium,  or  its  hydroxide  caustic  soda,  may  be 
obtained.  In  electrolytic  furnaces  also  it  is 
essential  carefully  to  regulate  the  temperature, 
not  only  because  an  unnecessary  high  tempera- 
ture means  a  waste  of  energy,  but  because  of 
losses  arising  throu^  volatilization  of  the  bath 
and  the  recombination  of  the  separated  prod- 


,5lc 


ELECTRIC   FURNACES 


ucts  of  the  electrolysis.  So  important  is  this 
last  factor  that  in  certain  cases,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  separation  of  metallic  sadiutn  from 
molten  caustic  soda,  it  is  absolutely  essential  to 
the  success  of  the  process  that  the  temperature 
be  maintained  wit&in  limits  of  a  few  degrees 
only. 

The  locandcBcent  Furnace.— This  terra  is 
commonly  applied  to  those  furnaces  wherein  the 
heat  is  developed  by  the  passage  of  the  current 
ihrou^  a  body  which  initially  at  least  is  solid. 
Such  body  may  comprise  a  rod  or  core  of  car- 
bon or  corbonaceous  mixture;  a  granular  bed 
or  core  consisting  of  fragments  of  coke,  retort 
carbon  or  graphite;  the  charge  itself,  often 
admixed  with  a  quantity  of  carbon  sufficient  for 
its  reduction ;  the  furnace  product  when  this  is 
conductive  and  possesses  a  volatilizing  point 
stifficiently  high  to  permit  the  necessary  tem- 
perature to  be  attained:  or  a  pyro electrolyte, 
that  is  to  say,  an  oxide  or  mixture  of  oxides 
which  is  normally  non-conductive  or  substan- 
tially so,  but  which  while  remaining  un fused 
becomes  capable  at  temperatures  considerably 
above  the  normal  of  carrying  the  current.  Each 
of  these  resistance  materials  possesses  its  ad- 
vantages for  particular  lines  of  work,  but  all 
have  in  common  the  advantage  of  permitting 
accurate  and  ready  adjustment  of  the  tempera- 
ture by  varying  the  amount  of  current  passing. 
These  incandescent  furnaces  have,  therefore, 
the  widest  applicability,  and  in  case  the  resist- 
ance material  used  is  carbon  the  maximum  tem- 
perature attainable  is  probably  not  inferior  to 
that  of  the  terminals  of  the  electric  arc.  The 
above  defined  types  are  not  always  sharply  dis- 
tinct, but  under  certain  conditions  the  operation 
proceeds  under  two  or  perhaps  all  three  of  the 
methods.  Thns  if  the  resistance  consists  of 
fragments  of  carbon,  the  current  may  traverse 
the  interspaces  in  the  form  of  minute  arcs ; 
and  if  this  fragmentary  carbon  be  commingled 
with  a  suitable  ore  or  compound  there  may  be 

f resent  also  an  electrolytic  effect;  the  primary 
usion  of  an  electrolyte  is  often  accomplished 
'  '  '  '       t  rod  connecting  the 


tion   according  to  the  character  of   the  _ 

and  the  adjustment  of  the  eleurodes  with  refer- 
ence thereto.  The  most  important  as  well  as 
die  most  characteristic  applications  of  the  elec- 
tric furnace  have  relation  to  certain  elements 
and  compounds  which  cannot  be  produced 
directly,  if  at  all,  by  other  means.  See  Electbd- 
cnEMisTity;  Electrochemical  Industhies. 

Commercial  Pumaces.— The  carborundum 
furnace  employs  a  continuous  core  of  coke  be- 
tween the  electrodes.  This  core  of  broken  coke 
constitutes  the  resistance,  and  a  hirfi  tempera- 
ture is  obtainable.  The  material  tor  making 
the  carborundum  is  finely  divided  coke,  sand 
and  sawdust.  These  being  packed  around  the 
core,  the  current  is  turned  on  at  about  200  volts 
pressure,  and  when  the  furnace  heats  this  may 
be  reduced  to  less  than  half  the  voltage.  The 
coke  core  changes  to  graphite  and  the  mixture 
Into  crystalline  silicon  carbide  in  from  30  to  35 
hours.  The  great  Acheson  carborundum  fur- 
naces at  Niagara  Falls  are  over  IS  feci  long, 
and  42  feet  cross  section.  For  electrodes  car- 
bon rods  two  feet  long  and  three  inches  diameter 
are  grouped  in  bundles  of  60.     The  resisting 


core  of   coke  is  nine  feet  long  and  two  thick. 

About  l.OOOhorse  power  are  required  to  run  such 
a  furnace,  and  the  product  is  about  one-quarter 
pound  of  carborundum  per  kilowatt  hour. 
There  is  a  considerable  by-product  of  graphite, 
and  the  principle  of  this  furnace  is  made  use  of 
in  the  manufacture  of  graphite,  for  which  there 
is  an  increasing  demand. 

For    the    manufacture    of    calcium    carbide, 
furnaces  with  carbon  electrodes  are  employed, 
one  of  the  electrodes  is  of  metal. 
of 


set  of  connected  carbon  rods  may 
constitute  the  other  electrode.  Alternating  cur- 
rent is  usually  employed.  An  arc  being  formed, 
the  lime  begins  to  give  off  oxygen,  which  com- 
bines with  some  of  the  carbon,  forming  carbon 
monoxide,  which  gasifies  and  passes  away,  leav- 
ing the  pure  calcium  to  unite  with  the  remain- 
ing carbon  as  calcium  carbide.  A  temperature 
of  about  2,000°  C.  is  desirable  for  the  pt^cess, 
though  calcium  carbide  can  be  forraed  at  a 
considerably  lower  heat.  The  King  furnace 
is    described   under    ELEcniocuExtCAL    Indus- 

A  similar  type  of  furnace  answers  for  the 
manufacture  of  phosphorus;  the  materials  sup- 
plied are  phosphoric  acid  and  coke.  The  phos- 
phorus comes  out  as  a  vapor  and  is  caught  in  a 
flue  and  condensed.  Both  calciiun  carbide  and 
phosphorus  m^  be  made  continuously,  by  pro- 
viding means  for  feeding  the  furnace  with  new 
material  and  carrying  on  the  product 

In  the  aluminum  furnace  a  continuous  cur- 
rent is  employed,  the  positive  electrode  being  at 
the  top,  so  that  the  current  may  pass  downward 
throu^  the  fused  mass  to  the  negative  elec- 
trode, which  may  be  of  either  iron  or  caiiKin. 
The  liquid  is  thus  electrolyzed  on  the  wet  prin- 
ciple.   The  metallic  oxide  alumina  is  fed  into 

fused  mass  of    Huoride   of   alumin  ' 


__  the  negative  electrode  the  metal  collects  a_ 
the  bottom,  and  may  be  drawn  off  throu^  a 
tap-hole,  the  process  being  continuous.  Over 
130,000,000  pounds  of  aluminum  are  annually 
produced  by  electrical  furnaces  in  the  United 
States,  and  large  factories  have  recently  beea 
buill  at  Whitney,  N.  C. 

The  electric  furnace  has  been  tried  for 
smelting  a  great  variety  of  ores,  with  many  in- 
teresting results.  Several  concerns  announce 
success  m  smelting  zinc  ores  in  the  electric  fur- 
nace, one  being  at  Keokuk,  Iowa,  where  there 
is  cheap  hydroelectric  power.  It  is  practically 
certain  that  within  a  few  years  there  will  be 
considerable  electrolytic  smelting  in  localities 
where  electricity  is  obtainable  in  large  quantity 
at  low  cost. 

The  smelting  of  iron  ores  in  an  electric  fur- 
nace was  begun  in  Italy,  where  Captain  Stassano 
patented  a  furnace  in  1898,  and  by  1900  terro- 
allovs  were  being  produced  commercially,  and 
to-day  ferro-alloys  are  generally  and  preferably 
made  in  electric  furnaces,  of  which  114  were 
known  to  be  in  operation  and  30  building  in 
different  countries  just  before  the  European 
war  of  1914.  Of  these  14  were  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  majority  in  Germany,  Austria, 
France  and  Sweden.  These  electric  furnaces 
do  not  pretend  to  compete  with  the  great  blast 
furnaces  in  cheap  proauction  of  iron  and  sted. 


BLBCTRIC   FURNACES 


but  their  product  is  superior  in  the  case  of 
alloys  of  known  exact  percentage,  and  the  de- 
mand for  such  steels  beiag  constant  and  increas- 
ing, the  future  of  the  electric  furnace  is  assured. 
As  the  cost  of  electrolytic  iron  becomes  lowered 
there  is  a  tendency  to  introduce  the  furnaces 
for  commercial  iron  in  regions  where  coal  is 
scarce,  as  in  California.  There  are  large  de- 
posits of  iron  ore  in  Southern  California  which 
are  liable  to  become  of  commercial  importance 
when  electrolytic  reduction  is  better  developed, 
as  they  have  the  advantages  of  cheap  oil  as  a 
reducing  agent 

The  first  electric  iron-making  furnace  at 
Shasta.  Cal.,  was  completed  in  1907,  being  of 
the  Heroult  type,  1,500  kilowatt,  three-iihase  re- 
duction furnace.  It  had  to  be  rebuilt  and 
rebuilt  again,  and  was  not  deemed  a  commercial 
success  until   1911.     The  furnace  proper  is  a 


well-burned  lime  and  \2yi  pounds  oi  quartz. 
With  coke  at  $6  a  ton  and  power  at  $16  a  kilo- 
watt year,  the  cost  of  these  items  and  for  con- 
sumed electrodes  is  $6.87  per  ton   of  pig  iron 

New  electric  furnaces  under  construction 
have  an  average  capacity  of  4'/i  Ions.  A  25- 
ton  furnace  and  another  of  22  tons  were  com- 
pleted at  Bruckhausen,  Germany,  just  before 
the  war  broke  out.  In  1911  Gerihany  produced 
over  60,0(X)  tons  of  electrolytic  iron  or  almost 
as  much  as  all  other  countries  combined.  The 
United  States  production  is  now  (19161  nearly 
as  large.  The  Heroult  furnace,  developed  in 
France,  is  the  most  popular  type  and  is  used  in 
California.  South  Cnicagj,  Worcciter  and 
other  places  in  the  United  States.  The  first 
Swedish  furnace  was  the  Kjellin,  which  was 
superseded  by  the  Rochling-Rodenhauser,  and 


steel  shell  27  feet  long,  13  wide  and  12  high. 
The  bottom  slopes  toward  the  tap-hole  which  is 
centrally  placed  in  front.  There  are  five  24-inch 
stacks,  extending  IS  feet  above  the  roof.  Cylin- 
drical graphite  electrodes  are  used  one  foot  in 
diameter  and  four  feet  lon^.  They  last  about 
30  days,  but  the  working  is  made  continuous 
by  fastening  a  new  one  to  the  stump  of  the  one 
partially  consumed.  Three  service  transformers 
supply  three-phase  current  at  40  to  80  volts  to 
the  electrodes.  They  are  each  750  kilowatts,  and 
are  water-cooled  and  oil-immersed.  The  metal 
is  drawn  off  three  limes  in  every  24  hours.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  shut  off  the  current  during 
the  charging,  so  the  operation  is  continuous. 
The  charging  is  done  by  cars,  rimning  to  a  plat- 
form at  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  shafts.  A 
normal  charge  is  500  pounds  of  magnetite  iron 
ote,  140  pounds   of   charcoal,  i'A    pounds   of 


pltnti  Obn-hBiMD.  Ovrrauiy. 


is  especially  adapted  to  refining  molten  metal. 
It  is  built  in  sizes  up  to  15  tons  capacity,  some- 
thing like  a  great  steel  converter,  having  an 
enormous  steel  tank,  mounted  on  rollers  and 
tipped  sideways  for  pouring.  One  of  these  has 
been  installed  at  Lands  town.  Pa.,  and  uses  300 
kilowatts,  furnished  by  a  25-cycle  current  at  480 

The  success  of  the  electric  furnace  in  the 
iron  and  steel  industry  is  due  to  the  tact  that 
the  product  of  these  furnaces  is  much  purer 
than  the  blast  furnace,  and  this  notwithstand- 
ing the  blast  furnace  product  has  been  vastly 
improved  in  purity.  Pure  iron  is  essential  to 
making  allov  steels  with  a  known  percentage 
of  this  or  tnat  other  metal,  required  for  pro- 
ducingcertain  results.  For  further  details  con- 
sult 'Electric  Furnaces  for  Making  Iron  and 
Steel,'  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines. 


Google 


110 


ELECTRIC   GAS-LIOHTING— ELECTRIC   LIGHTING 


ELECTRIC  GAS-LIGHTING,  a  method 
of  igniting  illuminating  gas  by  which  one  or  a 
large  number  of  jets  may  be  lighted  simultane- 
ously by  an  electric  spark.     In  the  figure  a  sim- 
ple form  of   electric  gas  lighter  is   shown.     A 
metal  tongue  t,  insulated 
from   ihe   burner,  is   sup- 
ported near  the  tip  as  in- 
dicated.     A     metal     rod 
carried  on  suitable  levers 
brushes  across  the  tongiic 
t    when    the    knob    k    is 
pulled  down,  thereby  clos- 
mg    and    opening,    as    it 
does  so,  an  electric  circuit 
r   which  includes  the  rod  r, 
'    tongue  (,  battery  b,  of  two 
or  three   dry  cells,  and  a 
spark  coil   m,   consisting   of   a   bundle  of   iron 
wires  surrounded  by  a  coil  of  copper  wire.     At 
the  reopening  of  the  circuit  a  spark  occurs  at 
tongue  (  igniting  the  gas.     For  lighting  the  gas 
jets  in  large  halls  an  electric  circuit  is  carried 
from  one  jet  to  the  next  and  two  terminals  of 
the  circuit  are  upheld  over  the  gas  tip.     The 
spark  jumps  across  from  one  terminal   to   the 
Other  when  the  spark  coil  or  static  machine  is 
operated,  thereby  igniting  all  the  jets  in  the  cir- 
cuit. _  In  this  arrangement  the  terminals  of  the 
circuit  are  arranged  in  multiple. 

ELECTRIC  GENERATOR.  Sec  Elec- 
tric Machine  ;  Electbic  Altebnatinc  CtiKSENT 
Machinery;  Electric  Direct  Current. 

ELECTRIC  HEATER.  If  a  wire  of  more 
or  less  resistance  is  wound  on  a  frame,  and  a 
current  sent  through,  the  resistance  encountered 
by  the  current  develops  heat,  and  this  is  the 
principle  of  the  electric  heater.  The  hot  wire 
or  metal  is  surrounded  by  some  non-inflam- 
mable substance  that  is  a  good  conductor  of 
heat,  as  porcelain.  In  a  well-known  type  a 
metallic  paint  is  fired  upon  mica  strips,  which 
are  formed  into  groups  or  sets,  so  that  a 
heater  can  be  built  up  of  any  size  from  these 
units.  For  heating  an  electric  car  some  six 
sets  of  conducting  wires  are  coiled  around 
porcelain  tubes,  the  current  being  supplied  with 
the  motor.  The  cost  is  stated  at  about  60  cents 
a  car  per  day.  The  method  of  heating  is  waste- 
ful where  uie  source  of  heat  is  coal,  and  it 
cannot  be  generally  substituted  for  house  heat- 
ing; but  it  b  excellently  adapted  for  smalt  in- 
dividual heaters,  where  the  cost  is  less  import- 
ant than  the  convenience,  as  for  fiatirons,  ket- 
tles, saucepans,  dinner  plates,  soldering  tools, 
toasters,  dishwashers  and  cookers.  The  indus- 
try of  manufacturing  such  small  healers  already 
runs  into  several  million  dollars  annually  in 
the  United  States.  A  recent  new  use  for  the 
electric  heater  is  the  stimulation  of  petroleum 
wells  that  are  running  dry.  Heating  coils  are 
lowered  into  the  well  to  melt  out  the  heavy  oil 
accumulation  and  cause  it  to  flow  freely.  In 
the  manufacture  of  armatures,  time  has  been  re- 
duced by  the  use  of  electrieallv  heated  ovens  to 
dry  out  the  moisture.  The  temperature  can  be 
regulated  so  accurately  that  there  is  no  danger 
of  melting  the  solder.  In  enameling  iron  the 
electric  heater  has  also  found  a  field  of  use- 
fulness, because  it  maintains  a  high  and  uni- 
form heat.  The  same  quality  of  uniformity  has 
caused  the  manufacturers  of  linotype  maoiines 


to  make  an  electric  heater  for  dieir  meltiDg 

ELECTRIC  INDUCTION.  See  Induc- 
tion. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING.  In  1800  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  discovered  that  if  two  pieces  of 
carbon  are  joined  by  conductors  to  a  source  of 
electric  current,  and  such  pieces  momentarily 
touched  together,  so  that  the  circuit  is  complete 
and  a  flow  of  current  established,  upon  their 
seoaration  for  a  short  distance,  a  dame  is  emit- 
ted, and,  if  the  current  be  sufficiently  powerful, 
this  flame  will  continue,  the  cart>on  points  will 
become  intensely  hot  and  emit  a  brilliant  light. 
In  separating  the  carbon  points,  the  extra  fO- 
tenlial  induced  by  the  self-induction  of  the  cir- 
cuit is  sufficient  to  leap  the  small  air  gap  and 
thereby  vaporizes  a  small  quantity  of  carbon. 
Carbon  vapor,  being  a  conductor,  allows  the 
current  to  flow  across  die  gap.  The  vapor  is  of 
high  resistance,  and  therefore  it  is  heated  to 
a  high  temperature.  In  1809,  Davy  exhibited 
his  arc  light  before  the  Royal  Institution  of 
London,  his  carbon  points  bemg  charcoal  from 
the  willow,  and  his  source  of  current  a  voltaic 

We  do  not  know  in  which  direction  an  elec- 
tric current  flows  through  a  circuit,  and  there 
are  many  reasons  for  believing  that  it  flows 
both  ways  at  the  same  time.-  It  is  usual,  how- 
ever, to  assume  that  it  flows  in  one  direction 
only,  namely  —  from  what  is  called  the  'posi- 
tive pole'  of  the  generator,  through  the  exter- 
nal circuit  to  what  is  called  the  "negative  pole.* 
According  to  this  view,  when  a  direct,  continu- 
ous current  flows  between  two  slightly  separated 
carbons  so  as  to  form  an  arc,  the  electricity 
tears  away  particles  of  carbon  from  the  positive 
electrode,  and  deposits  some  of  them  upon  the 
negative  one.  Some  of  the  particles  become 
burned  in  the  passage,  so  that  both  carbons 
waste  away;  but  the  positive  carbon  wastes  the 
faster  and  becomes  hollowed  out,  while  the 
ne^tive  one  wastes  less  rapidly  and  assumes  a 
pointed  form.  The  temperature  is  high  cnouf^ 
to  melt  the  most  infusible  substances,  such  as 
flint,  platinum  and  the  diamond.  The  carbon 
points  emit  the  larger  portion  of  the  light,  and 
the  positive  point  more  ttian  the  negative.  The 
resistance  of  the  arc  may  vary  from  1  to  100 
ohms.  It  requires  a  current  strength  of  from 
3  to  10  amperes,  and  a  mtnimtun  electromotive 
force  of  40  to  50  volts,  to  maintain  a  satisfac- 
tory lighting  arc. 

Dav);  used  wood  charcoal  for  his  electrodes, 
and  while  they  were  of  excellent  quality,  on 
account  of  their  softness  they  lasted  only  a 
short  time.  As  the  arc  would  bum  away,  it  was 
necessary  continually  to  adjust  them,  or  the 
arc  would  go  out.  Therefore  it  was  found  nec- 
essary to  have  carbons  of  sufficient  density 
to  last  a  reasonable  time,  and  purity  so  that  the 
light  might  be  steady.  Also  to  have  a  mechan- 
ism automatically  to  feed  the  carbons,  and  keep 
them  a  constant  distance  apart,  as  well  as  auto- 
matically bring  them  together  in  order  to  start 
the  arc.  Refined  petroleum  coke,  ordinary  gas 
coke,  or  lamp  black  is  now  taken  for  the  base 
material,  thorou^ly  ground  and  mixed  into  a 
stiff  paste,  dried  and  carbonized  out  of  contact 
with  the  air.  A  very  hard  and  uniform  carbon 
is  thus  obtained,  in  any  desired  size,  the  usual 
length   being   12  or    14   inches,   and   diameter 


ELBCTRIC  LIGHTING 


111 


7/10,  'A  or  H  inch.  Broadly,  the  Umps  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes :  series  and  multiple ; 
each  system  into  two  sub-divisions:  the  open 
and  the  enclosed. 

The  electric  energy  loss  from  the  point  of 

geheration  to  the  lamp  may  be  expressed,  W  = 

'  CR;  where  W  is  energy  in  watts,  dissipated  as 

heat  in  conductors,  C  is  current  in  amperes,  and 

R  is  resistance  of  circuit  in  ohms. 

From  the  equation  it  may  be  noted  that  the 
loss  is  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  cur- 
rent so  long  as  R  remains  constant.  Therefore, 
in  istributmg  electric  energy  to  a  number  of 
arc  lamps,  it  is  more  economical  to  keep  the  cur- 
rent constant,  and  have  the  lamps  joined  la 


___  _ a  constant  quantiQ',  (1)  the  dif- 
ferential lamp;  (2)  the  shunt  lamp.  In  the 
differential  lamp,  the  current  must  remain  at  a 
constant  value.  The  main  current  is  carried  to 
3  pair  of  lifting  magnets,  over  which,  but 
wound  in  opposition  thereto,  is  a  coil  of  high 
resistance  called  the  shunt  magnet,  the  terminals 
of  which  are  cut  around  the  arc  itself.  When 
current  is  thrown  into  the  lamps,  the  main  cur- 
rent pulls  the  carbons  apart  until  sufhcicnt 
potential  is  obtained  at  the  arc  to  force  current 
through  the  shunt  magnet,  which  neutralizes  the 
main  magnet,  thereby  securing  a  balance,  and 
maintaining  the  potential  at  me  arc  constant. 
In  the  shunt  type  lamp,  the  shunt  magnet  cir- 
cuit is  so  arranged  as  to  trip  the  clutch  holding 
the  carbon  rod,  thereby  allowing  the  carbons  to 
come  together,  should  the  potential  around  the 
arc  exceed  the  predetermined  amount  This 
tam_p  will  bum  upon  any  current  strength,  pro- 
viding it  is  enough  to  operate  the  main  magnet. 
The  conditions  comnjon  to  both  types  of 
series  lamps  are:  (1)  As  the  carbons  bum 
away,  they  must  be  fed  down  gradually  and  not 
allow  the  potential  around  the  arc  to  exceed  a 
certain  voltage.  (2)  Should  the  carbon  rod 
stick,  or  anything  happen  to  disarrange  the 
lamp,  protective  devices  calkd  cut-outs  come 
into  operation,  so  the  lamp  will  not  be  burned 
Up,  or  the  circuit  opened.  These  open  types  of 
lamps  are  now  practically  obsolete. 

The  Enclosed  Arc— The  open  arc  was 
superseded  by  what  is  called  the  enclosed  arc. 
It  was  discovered  that  if  the  arc  be  surrounded 
by  a  narrow,  nearly  air-tight  globe,  it  greatly 
modified  the  character  of  the  lii^t  and  the  car- 
bon would  last  much  longer.  The  small  globe 
prevents  the  air  from  having  access  to  the  car- 
bon, thus  diminishing  its  oxidation.  When  the 
lamp  is  started,  it  soon  exhausts  the  oxygen 
contained  in  the  globe,  and  if  the  globe  is  tight. 
the  carbons  will  last  from  80  to  175  hours. 
This  type  of  lamp  held  the  market  for  some 
vears  and  then  die  flame  arc  lamp  became  popu- 
lar. This  was  based  on  the  principle  of  intro- 
ducing oxides  into  the  carbons,  to  secure  an  in- 
creased flame  arc,  somewhat  as  the  Welsbach 
mantles  increase  uie  luminosity  of  a  gas-flame. 
Calcium  chloride,  and  the  oxides  of  iron,  titan- 
ium, (iiromium,  etc.,  were  employed  with  more 
or  less  success.  In  the  making  of  the  car- 
bons (which'are  commonly  of  petroleum  coke 
Sound  fine  and  mixed  with  tar,  forced  through 
es  and  dried),  the  metalHc  oxides  are  either 
mixed  with  the  mass  or  introduced  in  a  metal- 
lic core.     An  increased  voltage  is  required,  as 


the  electrodes  are  drawn  farther  apart  to  get  a 
long  flame;  in  some  forms,  as  the  magnetite 
lamp,  the  lower  positive  electrode  is  simply  a 
permanent  knob  of  copper,  while  the  upper 
negative  electrode  carries  the  mineral  salts. 
Such  lamps  give  a  large  body  of  arc  or  flame 
and  do  not  bum  a  crater  in  the  carbon,  but 
consume  a  comparatively  flat  surface  when  di- 
rectly opposed  In  one  form  two  carbons  are 
emploj-ed,  positioned  like  the  sides  of  a  V.  The 
quantity  of  vapor  g^ven  off  by  the  flame  arc 
lamps  necessitated  an  open  globe  at  first,  but 
later  it  was  found  possible  to  draw  out  the 
vapor  by  a  draft  and  largely  to  enclose  them. 

■  Glowers  and  Vapor  Lamps. — The  Nemst 
lamp  was  the  next  popular  favorite.  Instead 
of  carbons  it  employs  what  is  known  as  a 
glower,  this  being  a  little  tube,  something  over 
an  inch  long,  and  made  of  the  oxides  of  tho- 
rium, zirconium,  yttrium,  etc,  mixed  with  a 
binding  paste  and  baked  into  a  condition  re- 
sembling porcelain.  This  tube  is  coated  with 
oxides  and  provided  with  platinum  terminals. 
On  passing  a  current  it  emits  a  soft  white  lidit 
The  glower  has  to  be  heated  to  start  it,  and  a 
coil  called  a  heater  is  provided  for  the  purpose: 
there  is  also  a  •ballast"  or  resistance  to  avoid 


overheating.  After  the  lamp  glows  it  provides 
its  own  heat  and  the  coil  is  automatically 
switched  out  These  glowers  are  of  about  SO 
candle  power  and  when  more  light  is  demanded, 
several  glowers  are  included  in  one  lamp.  The 
life  of  a  glower  is  about  600  hours  on  direct 
circuit  and  400  on  alternating  current,  thus  far 
outclassing  the  arc  lamps.  They  are  made  for 
both  110  and  220  volt  circuits, 

A  distinct  advance  in  durability  and  long  life 
of  the  working  parts  of  an  electric  lamp  has 
been  scored  by  the  so-called  vacuum  tube 
lamps,  in  which  a  long  tube  is  exhausted  of  air 
and  then  supplied  with  a  small  quantity  of  me- 
tallic vapor,  as  of  mercury,  which  lights  up 
when  an  electric  current  is  passed  tnrou^ 
emitting  a  very  soft  diffused  light,  that  does  not 
trouble  the  eyes  with  its  glare,  as  is  the  -case 
with  most  strong  lights.  The  Cooper-Hewitt 
mercury  vapor  lamp  was  first  tried  out  in  1903, 
at  the  office  of  the  Evening  Post,  in  New  York, 
and  has  since  been  largely  introduced  for  gen- 
eral indoor  use.  The  typical  house-lamp  em- 
ploys a  tube  from  20  to  50  inches  long  and  of 
perhaps  an  inch  diameter,  backed  by  a  metallic 
reflector.  At  one  end  of  the  tube  is  an  iron 
mercury  cup  serving  as  the  positive  electrode, 
while  a  glass  bulb  at  the  other  end  is  the  nega- 
tive terminal.  Platinum  wires  supply  the  cur- 
rent The  air  is  exhausted  from  the  tube,  which 
is  then  sealed.  When  the  current  flows,  a  little 
mercury  is  allowed  to  vaporiie  in  the  tube  and 
a  soft  greenish -white  li^t  of  great  intensity  is 
obtained.  Induction  coils  are  placed  in  the 
body  of  the  fixture,  also  an  adjuster  resistance, 
shunt  resistance  and  cut-out.  Pulling  a  hand- 
chain  operating  a  switch  starts  the  li^t,  and  if 
the  current  fails  and  it  goes  out  through  any 
accident,  an  automatic  device  can  be  had  for 
relisting  it.  Lamps  are  made  for  both  direct 
and  alternating  current.  A  tube  gives  normally 
3,750  hours'  service,  or  the  equivalent  of  10 
hours  a  night  for  one  year.  These  Cooper- 
Hewitt  mercury  vapor  lamps  are  also  mantifac- 
tured  with  tubes  of  a  great  variety  of  lengths 
and  doublings,  for  use  in  factories,  mills,  ma- 
chine shops,  stores,  photc^aph  and  moving-]^ 


8l^ 


lU 


BLBCTRtC   LIGHTING 


ture  studios,  etc  They  briDg  illumtaation 
wherever  it  is  wanted  commercially,  closely  re- 
producing daylight  conditions  and  obviating 
strain  oQ  the  eyes  from  glaring  lamps.  For 
outdoor  use  the  Cooper-Hewitt  quartz  lamp  is 
supplied,  which  employs  a  short  tube  of  fused 
silica  (or  quartz  glass),  permitting  a  high  tem- 
perature and  stronger  current  for  bri^ter  il- 
lumination, as  in  railway  yards,  parks,  etc 
Such  lamps  have  lasted  for  months  without  at- 


for  matching  colors,  owing  to  its  close  ap- 
.  proximation  to  daylight  conditions.  By  the  em- 
ployment of  different  vapors  it  can  be  made  to 
yield  blue,  whit«,  yellow  or  rose  light.  It  re- 
quires renewal  of  carbon  dioxide  after  1,000 
hours'  use,  but  the  tubes  will  last  four  or  live 
thousand  hours.  It  is  run  on  UO-volt  circuits 
at  23  amperes. 

■Hie  IncandeKcnt  Lamp,— The  great  ob- 
jection attending  the  use  of  the  arc  system  of 
lighting  was  that  the  lieht  was  too  intense  for 
most  purposes  reouired  inside.  It  could  not 
be  readily  subdivided.  From  the  earliest  days 
of  electric  lighting,  various  inventors  endeav- 
ored to  subdivide  the  light  The  idea  of  using 
continuous  conductors,  instead  of  the  discon- 
tinuous as  in  arc  lighting,  was  tried  in  almost 
every  conceivable  form.  These  conductors  were 
to  be  heated  to  a  white  heat  and  rendered  in- 
candescent  by  thepassage  through  them  of  an 
electric  current.  The  great  difficulty  arose  from 
the  fact  that  to  give  useful  results,  the  working 
temperaiure  of  the  material  was  so  near  its 
melting  point,  that  any  slight  increase  in  the 
current  would  destroy  the  conductor.  In  1878  a 
great  improvement  was  effected  in  the  platinum 
filament  incandescent  lamp,  which  was  obtained 
in  a  condition  safely  to  withstand  a  much 
greater  current  strength.  The  filament  was 
placed  in  a  vacuum,  and  slowly  heated  therein. 
The  occluded  gases  were  slowly  liberated,  and 
it  was  discovered  that  if  a  hieh  vacuum  were 
maintained  and  the  wire  raised  to  a  point  just 
below  its  melting  point,  the  point  of  fusion  was 
raised,  and  the  physical  character  of  the  metal 
was  considerably  changed.  This  lamp,  how- 
ever, was  never  a  commercial  success. 

Various  inventors  experimented  with  the 
platinum  lamp,  enclosed  in  vacuo,  but  the  great- 
est improvement  was  made  by  the  substitution 
of   carbon   filaments    for   platinum.      This    was 


Torricellian  vacuum.  Many  patents  were  taken 
out  in  all  countries  for  lamps  of  various  types, 
but  none  were  commercially  successful ;  many, 
perhaps^  for  the  want  of  a  cheap  method  of 
eencralmg  the  electrical  energy,  as  well  as 
through  fault  of  the  lamp  iiselfT 

The  advent  of  the  first  successful  incandes- 
cent lamp  dales  from  about  1879,  when  Edison 
Sve  us  the  carbon  incandescent  lamp,  and  from 
It  time  the  growth  of  the  incandescent  electric 
lighting  industry  has  been  extremely  rapid. 

Eveiy  such  incandescent  lamp  consists  of  a 
carbon  hlament  attached  to  two  platinum  wires, 
a  glass  bulb  in  which  a  vacuum  is  formed,  and 
finally  a  threaded  base  attached  to  the  bulb,  and 
designed  to  hold  the  lamp  in  its  socket. 

The  following  is  in  a  general  way  the  method 
by  which  the  lamps  are  made.    The  bulbs  are 


blown  at  the  ^au  factory  whcBce  the  muw- 

facturets  obtain  them  directly.  Hie  first  ma* 
nipulation  consists  of  preparing  them  for  the 
filament.  The  nature  of  the  filament  varies 
with  different  systems.  There  are  three  kinds 
employed.  Some  ^Swan)  employ  cotton 
threads ;  others  gelatine  or  vitrified  cellulose 
(Khotinski  Lave-Fox)  ;  and  others  use  vegetable 
fibres  (F.dison-Siemens).  Finally,  some  employ 
a  natural  fibre  submitted  to  a  chemical  process 
fLanghans  Cruto  Seel).  Form  is  given  to  the 
filament  according  to  its  nature,  either  by  means 
of  a  die,  or  between  cylinders,  or  by  cutting  it 
out  while  in  a  plastic  mass.  The  fibre  thus 
obtained  is  transformed  into  compaa  carbon  by 
prolonged  baking  at  a  high  temperature  in  a 
crucible  or  by  heating  with  the  electric  current 
itself.  To  give  the  filament  homogeneity  and 
the  desired  resistance  a  layer  of  carbon  should 
be  deposited  on  its  surface.  This  deposit  is 
affected  in  many  ways.  A  very  simple  method 
termed  'flashing*  consists  in  immersing  the  fila- 
ment in  petroleum  and  rising  it  to  a  red'heat 
in  that  liquid.  The  filament  being  cut  to  the 
desired  length,  Edison  clamps  the  carbon  with 
platinum  wires  and  covers  the  points  of  attach- 
ment with  a.  layer  of  electrolytic  copper;  Lave, 
Fox  and  Swan  deposit  a  greater  quantity  or 
carbon  there,  while  other  manufacturers  employ 
a  special  cement  or  solder.  The  filaments  may 
be  fixed  in  the  bulb  in  two  ways;  either  the 
two  wires  are  fused  into  a  piece  of  glass  called 
the  budge,  which  is  next  'used  into  the  neck 
of  the  bidb:  or  else  the  wires  are  fixed  sc^ 
arately  on  the  edges  of  a  glass  socket,  which 
is  then  fused  into  the  bulb,  A  small  tube  is 
also  fused  to  the  top  of  the  bulb  in  order  to 
provide  for  the  prociuction  of  a  vacuum.  The 
exhaustiott  of  the  lamps  takes  place  by  means 
of  mercury  pumps.  The  vacuum  obtained,  the 
lamp  is  tested.  Then  the  luminous  inten^nr 
and  the  resistance  when  cold  are  measured. 
The  dimensions  of  the  filaments  vary  with  the 
luminous  intensity  of  the  lamp;  they  should  be 
proportionately  greater  as  the  normal  intensity 
of  the  lamp  is  higher.  These  dimensions  depend 
also  upon  the  specific  resistance  of  the  catton- 
ized  substance.  As  to  the  form  of  the  section 
of  the  filament,  the  circular  one  is  preferable 
because  it  presents  the  minimum  resistance  for 
a  given  surface. 

The  reason  for  withdrawing  the  air  from  the 
bulb  is  that  if  the  filament  were  heated  in  the 
air  the  oxj^en  of  the  air  would  combine  with 
the  carbon,  causing  combustion  and  consequent 
destruction.    Even  enclosed  as  it  is  i 


advantage  named  is  the  fact  that  there  i 
heat-conducting  medium  between  the  filament 
and  the  globe,  practically  all  the  heat  that  is 
emitted  being  that  which  radiates  from  the 
filament  (a  small  amount  is  lost  by  conduction 
through  the  leading^-in  wires).  H  there  were 
any  gas  or  vapor  within  the  bulb  it  would  con- 
duct additional  heat  to  the  glass  walls,  and  also 
dissipate  heat  by  convection,  so  that  with  a  given 
current  in  a  given  filament  the  temperature  of 
the  filament  would  be  reduced,  and,  therefore, 
less  light  would  be  obtained.  The  destruction 
of  the  filament  referred  to  is  not  doe  to  com- 
bustion because  as  just  explained  there  is  no 
oxygen  left  in  the  bulb.  There  is  a  disintegra- 
tion of  the  filament  by  some  process  that  has 


BLBGTRic  LiamriMa 


iifl 


never  been  pontiTely  identified  or  explained,  the 
resnlts  being  thu  iminlpable  particle*  of  carbon 
are  dejwsited  on  the  inside  surface  of  the  bntb, 
causinE  a  Kradnal  darkening  of  the  glass  that 
is  reaaily  aiscemible. 

The  jeading-in  wires  are  made  of  platinum 
because  that  metal  has  the  same  coefncient  of 
expansion  W  heat  as  that  of  glass.  Were  the 
caefEdcDt  cufferent,  small  cracks  would  form 
in  the  bulb  and  the  vacuum  would  be  spoiled. 
Carbon  is  an  exception  to  tbe  general  rule 
that  almost  all  conductors  increase  m  resistance 
when  the  temperature  a  raised  Its  resistance 
decreases  rapidly  with  an  increase  in  tempen- 
ture  up  to  the  red  point.  Thereafter,  up  to 
the  white,  the  resistance  decreases  more  slowly. 
The  ordinary  carbon  filament,  when  at  its  work- 
ing point,  has  about  one-half  the  resistance  as 
when  cold.  The  standard  filament  gives  out  a 
mean  illumination  of  16-candle  power  at  right 
angles  with  the  axis  of  the  lamp  from  bdse 
to  top. 

The  power  required  for  the  usna!  ]&-candIe 
power  standard  lamp  varies  from  50  to  64 
watts,  depending  upon  the  temperature  ^t  which 
the  filament  is  operated  The  hi(*er  die  tem- 
perature of  the  filament  the  higher  the  efficiency 
in  watts  per  candle  power,  and  also  the  shorter 
will  be  the  life.  The  life  of  the  filament  in  this 
vray  litnits  the  efficiency  of  the  lamp.  The 
candle  power  of  the  incandescent  lamp  may  be 
greatly  increased  by  simply  increasing  its  fila- 
ment temperature  by  the  simple  expedient  of 
increasing  the  current,  but  thereby  its  life  is 
shortened  The  increase  in  candle  power  is 
not  directly  in  proportion  to  the  increase  in 
current  but  in  a  considerably  hif?her  ratio. 

It  is  important  to  maintain  the  potential  on 
tbe  terminals  of  an  incandescent  lamp  at  the 
normal  working  point.  Any  slight  excess  ma- 
teriallv  shortens  its  life.  The  resistance  of  an 
incandescent  tamp. filament  is  much  lower  when 
hot  than  cold,  approximately  in  the  ratio  of 
two  to  one;  that  is,  the  resistance  is  twice  as 
faigh  cold  as  when  hot  when  at  normal  burning 
temperature.  The  illumination  is  rated  in 
candle  power  and  power  constimed  in  watts 
per  candle  measures  when  the  lamp  is  ^ving 
Its  rated  candle  power,  but  this  condition  is  not 
obtained  with  any  incandescent  lamp  through  a 
large  portion  of  its  active  life.  When  a  new 
lamp  is  placed  in  circuit  it  will  usually  give  the 
full  candle  power  or  a  trifle  more  at  the  start, 
and  the  candle  power  will  rise  to  a  value  from 
5  per  cent  to  II  per  cent  higher  than  the  rating. 
H  soon,  however,  begins  to  fall  off  with  a 
constant  diminution  up  to  the  breaking  point. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  candle  power  are  due  to 
changes  in  the  structure  of  the  filament.  The 
resistance  at  first  decreases,  allowing  more  cur- 
rent to  flow  and  consequently  higher  tempera- 
ture and  more  light.  This  is  indicated  by  the 
rise  of  the  curve  from  16.2  candle  power  to  17.3 
candle  power  during  the  first  SO  hours.  Then 
the  diminution  of  resistance  ceases  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  gradual  wasting  away  of  the 
filament,  which  causes  a  gradual  increase  in 
resistance,  by  reducing  its  cross  section.  The 
current  thus  gradually  falling  off,  taken  together 
with  the  decreased  surface  of  the  filament  and 
the  depo»t  of  carbon  upon  the  globe,  causes  the 
fall  in  candle  power  indicated.  The  decrease 
in  candle  power  is  not  directly  proportional  to 
the  decrease  in  current,  thus  me  energy  per 


candle  power  increases  rafidty  ti\xr  Ae  filBt 
few  hundred  hours. 

The  TnngBten  Lamp.— The  tungsten  fila- 
ment has  revolutioniied  the  incandescent  light- 
ing industry  and  is  reducing  the  use  of  arc 
lamps.  The  carbon  filament  is  rapidly  going 
out,  and  the  old-fashioned  arc  lamps  are  being 
replaced  either  by  groups  of  tangsten  lamps  -or 
Nemst  or  vapor  lamps.  The  tungsten  filament 
has  a  life  of  1,000  hours,  and  some  have  been 
made  of  twice  that  durability,  whereas  125  to 
200  hours  is  long  for  other  filaments  and  arc 
lamps.  The  tungsten  also  has  the  advantage 
of  diffusing  the  light  more,  there  being  mote 
turns  in  the  filament,  and  it  is  closer  to  day- 
light in  its  coloration.  The  ttmgsten  is  a  truly 
automatic  light,  requiri^  no  attention  beyond 
an  occasional  dusting.  Tungsten  is  not  so  rate 
a  metal  as  once  supposed,  and  its  great  resist- 
ance to  heat  —  it  melts  at  3200°  C— renders  it 
a  most  fit  metal  for  filaments.  At  first  it  was 
found  exceedingly  difiKult  to  form  it  into  the 
minute  diameter  wire  form  needed  It  is  ex- 
ceedingly brittle  and  fragile,  and  early  attempts 
to  draw  it  throu^  fine  dies,  such  as  are  used 
for  maldng  the  most  delicate  strands  of  copper 
and  steel  itirc,  were  failnres.  Kuzel  solved 
the  probletn  1^  making  a  sohition  of  tun|;Bt«n, 
evaporating  the  surplus  moisture  and  squirting 
the  residuum  throwb  a  die,  setting  a  thread 
which  would  bsar  handling.  Sndi  a  filament 
is  "flashed*  in  a  mixture  of  steam  and  hydro- 
gen, and  as  the  steam  decomposes  the  oxygen 
unites  with  the  carbon  of  tlie  filament.  Later 
a  method  of  drawing  the  metal  was  worked  out 
successfully  and  is  preferred  to  the  scjuirted 
film.  The  character  of  tungsten  is  sues  that 
a  very  long  and  frequently  lapped  filament  is 
required  to  give  the  necessary  light  This  is 
an  advantage,  reducing  the  glare. 

In  recent  tungsten  lamp  practice  ni[rc^:en 
gas  is  introduced  in  the  bulb  after  extracting 
the  air  as  fully  as  practicable.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  the  pressure  of  the  gas  re- 
lards  the  wasting  of  the  filament,  more  than  off- 
setting the  heat  lost  by  its  introduction  to  the 
bulb.  As  tungsten  lamps  can  be  made  of  1,000 
to  2,000  candle  oower,  and  show  a  life  of  1,000 
to  2,000  hours,  iney  have  naturally  become  very 

Wiring  and  Plxtnres.— The  building  regula- 
tions of  all  lar^e  cities  contain  more  or  less 
stringent  regulations  as  to  the  wiring  of  build- 
ings, the  result  of  somewhat  numerous  fires 
caused  b;y  careless  wiring  in  the  early  stages  of 
introducing  electric  lighting.  Cables  carrying 
street  wires  are  now  aoundantly  insulated,  and 
the  individual  wires  entering  buildings  are  care- 
fully insulated  and  protected  from  accidental 
abrasion.  At  the  point  of  entering  a  building, 
s  switch-box  is  usually  placed  with  accommo- 
dation for  one  or  more  fuse-wires.  These  are 
short  connections  made  of  easily  fusible  wire, 
as  a  mixture  of  lead  and  zinc,  so  that  when 
by  accident  a  strong  current  reaches  the  switch, 
the  fuse  is  instantly  burned  out,  and  the  cur- 
rent can  go  no  further  having  no  wire  conduc- 
tor. Wires  for  incandescent  lighting  are  usu- 
ally covered  and  boxed  in,  under  certain  regula- 
tions of  safety,  and  led  to  the  various  points  of 
use  —  to  ceiling  fixtures,  pendants,  electroliers, 
brackets,  portable  lamps,  etc.  The  pendant, 
with  flexible  cord,  that  can  be  swung  to  any 
cotnrenient  point  within  its  radius,  is  easily  tlu 


'?lc 


U4 


ELECTRIC    LOCOHOTIVES  — BLBOTRIC   HACHINX 


most  populsi  lamp.  The  modem  idea  of  ulte- 
rior hating  of  dwellings  involves  the  use  of 
a  senu- transparent  inverted  half  globe,  as  of 
thin  porcelain,  within  which  the  light  is  hidden, 
casting  its  full  g;lare  upward  toward  a  white 
ceiling,  from  which  a  soft  radiance  is  reflected 
downward  over  the  surroundings.  This  plan 
diffuses  the  l^ht  in  a  most  acceptable  manner. 

The  low  value  of  the  common  radiants  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  based  upon  the 
incandescence  of  carbon. 

If  the  conversion  of  coal  into  light  is 
through  the  medium  of  the  incandescent  lamp, 
we  throw  away  95  per  cent  of  theoretical 
energy,  and  secure  as  light  only  95/100  or  prac- 
tically  1   per   cent   of   the   energy  of   the  coal. 

However,  the  incandescent  light  is  almost  a 
perfect  light.  Since  it  gives  off  no  waste  prod- 
ucts of  any  kind,  it  has  no  deleterious  effects 
upon  the  atmosphere  of  the  rooms  or  buildings 
in  which  it  may  be  utilized  Its  light  is  white, 
soft  and  brilliant,  yet  not  dazzling.  The  lamp 
itEelf  is  rather  ornamental  than  otherwise,  and 
lends  itself  readily  to  external  ornamentation 
without  dai^er  of  fire,  since  of  course  it  gives 
off  no  flame.  Nevertheless,  b^  v/ay  of  caution 
it  may  be  noted  that,  comparatively  insignificant 
aa  is  the  heat  which  the  incandescent  lamp  gives 
out  throi^  the  glass  bulb,  it  cannot  be  allowed 
to  rest  for  an  undue  time  in  touching  proximity 
to  inflamihable  materials,  since  experiments 
have  shown  that  when  such  a  lamp  is  encased  in 
two  thiclcnesses  of  muslin  for  about  six  min- 
utes, and  fresh  air  is  admitted  to  the  interior, 
the  muslin  has  burst  into  flame.  Again,  an  arti- 
cle of  celluloid  pressed  against  the  lamp  for  three 
minutes  has  ignited;  and  a  newspaper,  under 
similar  conditions,  ignited  in  three-quarters  of 

ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES.  See 
Traction.  Electric. 

ELECTRIC  MACHINE,  or  Dynamo 
Static  Machine  (now  extensively  employed  in 
therapeutics),  for  exciting  electricity  by  fric- 
tion or  by  static  electric  induction,  as  distin- 
guished from  dynamo  electric  machines  in 
which  elwtricity  is  excited  by  cutting  magnetic 
lines  of  force.  The  excitation  of  electricity  by 
friction  was  observed  by  the  ancients,  and  the 
word  electricity  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word 
el e drum,  sigrm tying  amber,  in  which  the  at- 
tracting power  of  electricity  after  friction  was 
first  noticed.    Sec  Electricity,  Friction ai. 

It  was  subsequently  found  that  a  glass  rod 
or  a  rod  of  sealing  wax  also  possessed  this  elec- 
trical property  when  rubbed.  Later  on.  other 
methods  of  exciting  static  electricity,  such  as 
by  the  elect rophorus,  were  discovered.  Such 
methods  were,  however,  slow  and  laborious  and 
better  devices  were  sought  for,  resulting  in  the 
development  of  two  general  types  of  dynamo 
static  machines,  namely,  frictional  machines 
and  induction  machines,  the  first  representing 
the  rubbed  glass  rod  or  wax  type;  the  second. 
the  electroptiorus  type.  These  machines  pro- 
vided means  whereby  the  rubbing  and  the  in- 
duction might  be  performed  continuously  and 
mechanically. 

Frictional  Electric  Machine.— The  flrit 
continuous  frictional  machine,  due  to  Naime, 
consisted  of  a  glass  bottle,  or  hollow  cylinder, 
mounted  on  a  horizontal  axis,  well  insulated. 
and  turned  by  a  winch  or  handle  on  suitable 


supports.  (See  Fig.  I).  On  one  side  of  the  cyl- 
inder and  pressing  fimily  against  it,  is  placed 
the  "rubber,"  a  cushion  of  leather,  c,  stuffed 
with  horse^hair,  and  sometinKs  faced  with 
amalgam.  From  the  upper  edge  of  the  cushion 
a  silk  flap,  s,  passes  over  the  cylinder,  reaching 
half  way  round  A  brass  cyUnder,  or  a  wooden 
cylinder  plated  with  metal,  p,  termed  the  prime 
conductor,  supported  by  a  glass  or  ebonite  rod. 
R.  is  placed  as  shown.  A  metallic  comb  is  at- 
tached to  the  left  end  of  the  prime  conductor, 
as  indicated  in  iigure. 

Before  the  machine  is  set  in  riperation  an 
amalgam  of  line  and  tin  or  other  suitable 
metals,  is  sprinkled  or  pasted  on  the  surface  of 
the  rubber.  When  the  cylinder  is  turned  elec- 
iparks  are  seen  and  heard  to  play  c 


face  and  positive  electricity  on  tlie  surface  of 
the  cylinder,  due  to  the  friction  between  the 
glass  and  the  amalgam  coated  surface  of  the 
rubber.    As  the  cylinder  is  a  non-conductor  of 


-  Cyliot 


I  Prictionsl  Machine. 


electricity  this  positive  charge  is  held  on  its  sur- 
face until  the  cylinder  in  revolving  brings  it  be- 
neath the  comb,  where  it  acts  inductively  on  the 
prime  conductor,  p,  attracting  negative  electricity 
to  its  near  end  and  repelling  positive  electricity 
to  its  far  end;  the  negative 'electricity  esca[unK 
across  the  points  of  the  comb  as  an  electrical 
breeiie,  or  brush  discharge,  uniting  with  and 
neutralizing  the  positive  electricity  on  the  glass 
cylinder  opposite  the  comb,  which  portion  of 
the  cylinder  is  then  ready  to  take  a  positive 
charge  as  before  when  it  again  reaches  the  rub- 
ber. When  the  prime  conductor  by  these  suc- 
cessive charges  of  positive  electricity  has  at- 
tained a  hign  potential,  sparks  several  inches 
in  length  will  jump  from  its  far  end  to  the 
hand  or  any  other  ground  connection.  To  ob- 
tain a  continuous  sut^ljr  of  electricity  from  the 
prime  conductor,  p,  it  is  necessary  to  connect 
the  rubber,  c,  to  the  ground,  which  is  usually 
done  by  allowing  a  mcta!  chain  attached  to  a 
steel  plate  on  the  back  of  the  cushion  to  lie  on 
the  floor  or  table,  this  permitting  the  negative 
electricity  excited  in  the  rubber  to  escape  to 
earth.  In  this  way  also  a  negative  stream  of 
electricity  may  be  drawn  from  the  machine.  The 
use  of  the  amalgam  on  the  rubber  has  the  effect 
of  largely  increasing  the  conductivity  of  the 
cushion,  and  also  provides  a  substance,  b,  be- 
tween which  and  glass  the  surface  friction  for 
the  exciting  of  static  electricity  is  greater  than 
that  between  leather  and  glass. 

The  quality  of  the  glass  used  in  electrical 
machines  is  important,  that  containing  most 
silica,  such  as  the  material  from  whicD  ordi- 
nary pale  green  t>ottles  are  made,  being  most 
suitable  for  this  purpose. 


ELECTRIC    MACHINE 


lit 


PUte  Electric  Mwhine.— This  is  another 
form  of  the  frictional  machine.  The  princij)le 
of  its  operation  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  cyhn- 
der  machine  just  described  It  consists  of  a 
circular  plate  of  glass,  or  ebonite,  e.  Fig.  2,  in 
place  of  the  cylinder.    Two  sets  of  rubbers,  s,  s, 


PiO.  2.—  Pbtc  PrictiaDa]  MacIiinB. 

are  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  ^late,  and  as 
the  plate  is  rotated  positive  electricity  is  devel- 
oped on  the  glass,  and  is  collected  by  the  prime 
conductor,  f,  virtually  as  in  the  case  of  the  cyl- 
inder machine. 

Static  Electric  Induction  Machine.— Th^se 
machines  depend  for  their  action  upon  static  in- 
duction as  excmplitied  in  the  case,  for  instance, 
of  the  elcctrophorus  which  may  be  briefly  de- 
scribed here. 

Elcctrophorus. —  A  simple  elcctrophorus 
consists  of  a  cake  of  resin  or  vulcanite  12  or  15 
inches  in  diameter  and  one  inch  thick,  resting 
on  a  lin  or  iron  ^late.  A  disc  of  metal,  termed 
the  cover  or  earner,  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
cake  of  resin,  is  provided  with  an  insulating 
handle.  When  the  cake  is  rubbed  with  dry  flan- 
nel it  becomes  negatively  electrified.  It  now 
the  cover  be  placed  on  the  cake,  its  positive 
electricity  is  attracted  to  the  side  of  the  cover 
next  the  cake.  The  electric  charge  on  the  resin 
is  not  discharged  into  the  cover,  however,  be- 
cause, on  account  of  the  slight  accidental  irreg- 
ularities of  the  two  surfaces,  the  cover  will  be 
in  actual  physical  contact  with  the  resin  at  only 
a  tew  points, —  perhaps  at  not  more  than  three. 
The  electricity  residing  in  the  resin  at  the  points 
of  true  contact  will  be  di.<char^cd,  but  not  that 
at  other  points,  bec.iuse  the  resin  is  a  non-con- 
ductor, and  so  its  electricity  cannot  pass  directly 
to  the  covering  plate  by  conduction.  Now  if  the 
cover  be  touched  by  the  finger,  its  negative  elec- 
tricity will  escape  to  earth.  If  now  the  cover 
be  lifted  from  the  cake  it  will  contain  free  posi- 
tive electricity  which  may  be  used  for  charging 
a  condenser  or  Lcyden  jar.  The  cover  may 
again  be  placed  on  the  cake  and  the  foregoing 
process  may  be  repeated  a  number  of  times  be- 
fore the  charge  in  the  resin  will  be  entirely  ex- 
hausted. The  cake  when  electrified,  with  the 
disc  in  its  place,  and  undisturbed,  will  retain  its 
charge  tor  weeks. 

A  number  of  induction  machines  based  on 
the  foregoing  principle  have  been  devised, 
among  the  best  known  being  the  Holtz  and  the 
Wimshurst,  which  are  sometimes  termed  con- 
tinuois  electrophori 


Holtz's  Electric  Indnction  Hechine.— This 

consists  of  two  glass  plates  or  discs  about  two 
feet  in  diameter,  placed  side  by  side  and  sep- 
arated by  a  very  small  air  space.  One  plate  is 
lixed  -  the  other  is  rotated,  the  fixed  _plate  being 
slightly  lar^r.  The  moving  plate  is  mounted 
on  a  we  11- insula  ted  axle.  On  diametrically 
opposite  points  of  the  fixed  plate  there  are  two 
sector-shaped  holes  or  windows.  On  the  back 
of  th^  fixed  plate,  at  the  windows,  are  glued 
paper  inductors  or  armatures,  blunt  tongues  from 
which  they  are  caused  to  pass  through  the 
windows  until  they  nearly  touch  the  moving 
plate,  which  must  be  rotated  in  the  direction 
opposite  to  that  in  which  the  tongues  point. 
Opposite  the  inductors  there  are  placed  metal 
combs  attached  to  brass  rods  or  electrodes, 
which  carry  brass  balls  that  at  their  terminals 
are  movable  to  and  from  one  another.  In  start- 
ii^  the  machine  the  two  balls  are  brought  to- 
gether and  a  negative  charge  from  a  nibbed 
ebonite  rod  is  given  to  one  of  the  inductors; 
then  when  the  plate  is  rotated  and  the  balls  are 
separated,  sparks  jump  across  the  space.  The 
action  of  the  machine  is  very  conaplicated  and 
need  not  be  gone  into  here  further  than  to  say 
that  in  effect  it  is  virtually  similar  to  that  of 
the  elcctrophorus,  the  initial  charge  imparted  to 
the  armature  inducing  opposite  electriaty  in  the 
rotating  disc,  which  in  turn  delivers  a  charge  to 
the  metal  comb,  which  charge  by  successive  ad- 
ditions as  the  disc  rotates  is  augmented  until  it 
attains  a  potential  of  50,000  volts  and  more. 
These  discs  are  rotated  at  a  speed  varying  from 
120  to  450  revolutions  per  minute.  See  Elec- 
trotherapeutics. 

Wimshurst's  Influence  Machine. —  This 
machine,  due  to  Mr.  James  Wimshurst,  is  one 
of  the  most  efficient  and  reliable  of  the  induc- 
tion electric  machines.  It  consists  of  two  glass 
discs,    which    in   practice    have   varied   in    site* 


Pic,  3. —  Wiinibuiit  Electric  Muhinc. 

from  14!4  inches  to  7  feet  in  diameter.  These 
discs  suitably  mounted  on  insulated  axles  are 
placed  side  by  side  and  both  are  rotated,  but  in 
opposite  directions.  On  the  outer  surface  of 
each  disc  thin  metal  strips,  or  sectors,  m,  are 
glued,  as  indicated  in  Fig,  3.    Two  adjustable 


8l^ 


lie 


BLECTRIC   MICROPHONE— ELECTRIC  MOTOR 


metal  "neutraliting*  rods,  n,  r,  lenDinating  in 
small  brushes  that  glide  over  the  metal  strips, 
are  supported  as  shown,  at  obU<iue  aiwles  to  one 
another;  one  opposite  each  disc.  t/-snaped  col- 
lectors, U  U,  carrying  metal  combs,  diametric- 
cally  opposite  to  one  another,  are  metallically 
connected  to  the  electrodes  or  prime  conductors, 
c  C  These  collectors  are  supported  on  metal 
rods  that  rest  in  what  are  practically  Leyden 
jars  or  condensers,  j  j.  The  best  position  of 
the  brushes  on  rods,  r  R,  relatively  to  each 
other  and  to  the  combs  is  microphone,  found 
by  actual  test  to  be  virtually  as  shown  in  die 
figure. 

The  object  in  emplo^rg  condensers,  j  j,  is 
to  add  capacity  to  the  prime  conductors,  thereby 
increasing  the  amount  of  electricity  that  ' 


__   _..  _..._!:  electric  machines.    The 

action  of  this  madiine  in  operation  is  also  com- 
plicated. The  Wimshurst  machine  is  self-excit- 
Ug,   that   is,    it    starts   without   any   externally 


initial  charge  is  due  to  the  friction  of  the  air 
in  the  space  between  the  two  oppositely  re- 
volving plates,  this  space  not  exceeding  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch.  Apparentlj;  the  metal  sec- 
tors arc  the  equivalent  of  the  inductors  in  the 
HoltE  machine;  the  neulraliitng  rods  serving 
to  allow  the  repelled  electricity  in  one  sector  to 
escape  to  a  diametrically  opposite  sector  on  the 
same  plate,  where  it  in  turn  acts  inductively 
on  the  opposite  sector  on  the  opposite  plate,  the 
free  electricity  when  it  reaches  the  collectors 
being  carried,  off  as  a  discharge  by  the  prime 
conductors.  Frequently  a  small  Wimshurst  ma- 
chine is  used  to  excite  a  larger  Holtz  machine. 

t  All  static  electric  machines,  owing  to  the 
high  potentials  which  they  develop,  require  ex- 
tra precautions  as  regards  insulation,  even  the 
damp  atmosphere  of  a  room  preventing  their 
successful  operation.  Some  other  insulating 
materials,  such  as  ebonite  and  gutta-percha,  are 
less  hygroscopic  than  glass,  but  these  materials 
are  not  so  durable  as  glass;  hence  the  latter  is 
given  the  preference  for  the  plates  of  these  ma- 
chines. But  to  add  to  their  insulating  quali- 
ties they  are  always  covered  with  a  shellac  var- 
nish, and  are  enclosed  in  a  glass  chamber  or 
box  from  which  moisture  is  extracted  by  sul- 
phuric acid  or  other  desiccators,  contained  in 
suitable  vessels  within  the  chamber.   These  ma- 

'  chines  are  now  usually  operated  by  electric  mo- 
tors. Although  the  electro-motive  force  devel- 
oped by  these  machines  is  vct7  high,  the  current, 
owing  to  the  high  resistance  of  the  machines,  is 
comparatively  low.  Thus  tests  have  shown  the 
output  of  a  Holtz  machine  to  be,  with  a  six- 
inch  spark,  71,000  volts  and  .00048  ampere,  equal 
o  34  watts,  and  with  a  spark  of  18  inches,  180,- 
■  )  36  watts 
._  .  :hine  is,  in 
t,  and  in  the  second 


type  are  continuous  current  machines,  and  at  a 
given  speed  their  current  output  and  electro- 
motive force  are  constant.  By  efficiency  is 
meant  the  energy  ^ven  out  by  the  machine  as 
compared  with  that  expended  in  driving  it.  (The 


per  cent.)  The  electric  power  c 
pended  in  driving  these  tnachines,  under  test, 
was,  in  the.  first  case,  126  watts,  and  in  the  sec- 
ond case,  180  watts.  Later  tests  t^  Sheldon  on 
other  static  machines  show  an  ^denc?  of  40 
to  46  per  cent,  with  an  output  of   10  to   12 

To  increase  the  volume  of  current  from 
static  electric  machines,  the  number  of  plates  is 
increased  Hence  matiines  of  the  Holtz  and 
other  more  or  less  similar  types  are  constructed 
with  from  say  6  revolving  and  6  stationary 
plates  to  16  revolving  and  16  stationary  plates, 
or  more  as  may  be  desired.  In  many  cases  the 
stationary  plates  are  square  or  oblong  sheets  of 
^lass.  For  therapeutic  purposes,  macnines,  giv- 
mg  at  least  a  12-inch  spark,  are  considered  ad- 
visable. Plates  made  of  micanite  have  been 
tried  for  static  machines,  hut  with  some  doubt 
as  to  their  durability.  See  ELEcntOTHEBAPEg- 
TICS.  WUJ,IAM    Maver,    Jr., 

Consulting  Electrical  Engxneer. 
,  ELECTRIC  MICROPHONE.  The  prin-' 
ciple  of  this  instrument  was  discovered  by  Prof. 
David  E.  Hu^es,  an  American  resident  ia 
London,  who  announced  the  discovery  in  a  paper 
delivered  before  the  Royal  Society,  London,  in 
1878.  The  microphone,  as  the  name  implies, 
largely  amplifies  sounds.  It  consists  of  a  verti- 
cal carbon  pencil  pivoted  loosely  at  both  ends 
in  solid  carbon  receptacles  which  arc  fastened 
to  a  thin  sounding  board,  which  board  is  suit- 
ably upheld  by  one  edge  on  a  solid  block  or 
base.  When  the  carbon  pencil  is  made  part  of 
an  electric  circuit  in  which  are  also  a  small 
battery  and  a  telephone  receiver,  sounds  are 
many  times  amplified;  even  a  small  cotton  ball 
dropped  on  the  block  is  heard  in  the  telephone 
like  a  bullet  falling  on  the  floor.  A  number  ot 
theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the  ac- 
tion of _  the  microphone;  one,  adopted  by  the 
courts  in  this  country  in  a  case  in  which  the 
validity  of  the  Berliner  telephone  transmitter 
was  an  issue,  being  that  the  action  is  due  to 
the  remarkable  effect  of  sonorous  vibrations  in 
varying  the  electrical  resistance  at  a  loose  con- 
tact between  solid  electrodes.  The  most  com- 
mon form  of  carbon  telephone  transmitters  in 
use  to-day  are  varieties  of  the  microphone.  It 
may  be  added  that  Professor  Hughes  gave  this 
instrument  to  the  world  gratis.  The  principle 
of  the  microphone  has  also  been  utilized  in  a 
stethoscope  and  in  a  telephonic  relay. 

ELECTRIC  MOTOR.  The  electric  motor 
is  simply  a  dynamo  reversed,  a  machine  tor 
transforming  electrical  energy  into  mechani- 
cal power.  It  takes  its  power  from  off  a  wire, 
as  sent  by  a  dynamo  fi;,om  the  source.  To  un- 
derstand the  technique  of  its  construction  and 
operation,  consult  the  articles  on  Electric 
Direct  Current;  Electricity  and  Elei;-  ■ 
TEiCAL  Alternating  Cuhrent  Machinery. 
The  small  electric  motor  has  displaced  the 
steam  engine  in  a  great  many  uses,  and  con- 
tinues to  supplant  it.  In  1909  there  were  more 
than  half  a  million  small  motors  made  for  man- 
ufacturing establishments  in  the  United  States. 
with  a  total  horse  power  of  nearly  3,000,000 
and  a  valuaUon  of  $32,000,000.  More  and  more 
{Mwer  is  being  produced  in  large  plants  utiliz- 
ing some  waterfall  to  rotate  dynamos,  and 
sending  out  current,  much  of  which  is  used  for 


ELECTRIC   NAVIGATION— ELECTRIC    SIGNALING 


117 


small  electric  motors,  driving  individual  ma- 
chines. Users  of  machinery  in  almost  all  lines 
tiow  accept  it  as  the  best  practice  to  equip  all 
large  machines  with  individual  motors,  and  in 
this  way  not  Tmly  make  their  operation '  inde- 
pendent of  other  machines,  but  also  save  the  ex- 
pense of  surplus  power  and  of  ninning  shaft- 
ing and  belts  when  the  machines  are  idle. 
While  electric  motors  have  cost  more  in  some 
cases  than  steam  or  gas  engines,  and  while  the 
charge  for  electric  power  in  many  localities  is 
higher  than  for  direct  steam  power,  yet  the 
convenience  and  the  doing  away  with  cum- 
bersome overhead  shafts  and  belts  has  more 
than  offset  these.  The  individual  motor  per- 
mits machines  to  be  located  without  reference 
to  shafting  lines,  and  makes  for  greater  effi- 
ciency and  output.  With  each  added  machine 
a  new  motor  comes,  and  there  is  no  throw- 
ing out  of  central  engine  plants  to  make  way 
for  larger.  The  small  electric  motor  may  be 
built  in  as  a  part  of  the  machine,  or  it  may  be 
bolted  to  the  floor  or  ceiling.  It  may  be  di- 
rect-connected if  the  speed  of  the  machine  is 
appropriate,  or  it  may  he  connected  by  reducing 
gears,  rendered  nearly  noiseless  by  introducing 
rawhide.  Belt  connection  is  often  used  direct 
or  through  cone  pulleys,  and  where  the  power 
transmitted  is  light,  a  friction  connection  is 
made  satisfactory  by  covering  the  smaller  of  the 
opposed  pulleys  with  a  leather  face.  Where 
machines  arc  small  it  is  common  to  group 
them  for  motor-driving;  four  or  six  madiines 
wilt  all  be  coupled  to  one  motor,  conveniently 
located  in  the  centre  of  the  group. 

Manufacturers  wind  motors  in  an  almost  in- 
finite number  ot  ways  to  suit  an  endless  variety 
of  conditions.  By  placing  resistances  in  the 
shunt  circuit,  a  considerable  variety  of  speed  is 
permitted.  For  printing  presses  a  motor  is 
made  with  a  continuous  current  transformer  of 
variable  ratio.  This  permits  a  slow  speed  with- 
out loss,  as  a  small  current  at  full  pressure  is 
instantly  convertible  to  a  large  current  at  low 
pressure.  Continuous  current  series  motors  are 
preferred  when  the  work  is  irregular,  as  in 
starting  under  heavy  load,  as  with  a  crane- 
hoist,  or  when  encountering  extra  load  from  fric- 
tion or  dampness,  as  with  cotton  spinning  ma- 
chines on  a  day  of  hi^  humidity.  Sinf^le-phase 
alternating  current  motors  have  special  uses, 
but  are  not  well  adapted  to  sudden  changes  of 
load.  Motors  that  are  both  shunts  and  series 
wound  are  in  large  demand.  This  type  is  used 
on  inssenger  elevators.  The  driving  drum  that 
carries  the  wire  rope  that  hoists  and  lowers 
the  elevator  is  commonly  driven  by  this  bre  of 
motor.  To  secure  the  needed  gear  reduction 
without  grinding  noise,  a  steel  worm  and  gun- 
metal  spur  gear  are  run  in  oil.  When  the 
operator  pulls  the  rope  or  lever  in  the  elevator 
he  turns  the  starting  svritch  or  controller  on  or 
off.  A  band-brake  on  the  motor  shaft  guards 
against  racii%  and  is  normally  held  out  of 
operation  magnetically.  Thus  if  the  current 
fails  the  brake  slows  iu>  the  elevator.  An  au- 
tomatic switch  is  placed  to  shut  oS  the  current 
at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  elevator's  travel. 
See  Electrical  Manufacturing  Industry. 

ELECTRIC  NAVIGATION.  Vessels  of 
small  draft  are  now  propelled  by  electricity. 
The  power"  drives  a  motor,  which  actuates  a 
screw  propeller.    The  current  is  generalty  nip- 


pUed  t>y  a  storage  battery.  From  their  noise- 
Tessness  electric  boats  are  peculiarly  available 
for  nocturnal  torpedo  operations,  and  the  uni- 
versal equipment  of  modern  warships  with  elec- 
tric lighting  and  power  plants  makes  their  use 
possible  at  all  points.  This  type  is  often  termed 
an  electric  launch,  and  most  of  all  electric 
boats  fall  under  this  category. 

ELECTRIC  PEN,  a  pen  invented  l^ 
Thomas  A.  Eldison,  bearing  on  its  head  a  small 
magnet,  arran^d  to  rapidly  reciprocate  a 
needle  so  that  it  protrudes  and  withdraws  from 
the  point.  When  connected  with  a  battery  this 
pen  may  be  used  to  write  or  make  drawings 
which  appear  on  the  paper  as  a  scries  of  per- 
forations. The  paper  so  perforated  can  be  used 
for  stencil  printing,  and  several  hundred  copies 
struck  off. 

ELECTRIC  PENDULUM,  a  form  of 
electroscope  con^sting  of  a  pith  ball  suspended 
by  a  non-conducting  thread. 

ELECTRIC  PHONOGRAPH.  See 
Phonograph. 

ELECTRIC  POLICE  SIGNALS.  See 
Electric  Signaling. 

ELECTRIC  POWER.  See  Ei^cnuc  Ma- 
chine; Power. 

ELECTRIC  RAILROAD.  See  Traction, 
Electtuc. 

ELECTRIC  RAILROAD  BLOCK  SIG- 
NALS. See  Electric  Signaung;  Block  Sig- 
nal System. 

ELECTRIC  REPULSION,  the  mutual 
tendency  of  similarly  electrified  bodies,  or 
similar  electric  charges,  to  repel  one  another. 

ELECTRIC  RESISTANCE,  that  non- 
conducting property  of  a  substance  that  resists 
or  limits  uie  passage  of  an  electric  current ;  the 
characteristic  that  goes  to  make  a  good  non- 
conductor or  insulator;  sometimes  called  re- 
luctance. It  is  defined  mathematically  as  equal 
to  the  electro-motive  force  divided  by  the  cur- 
rent-strength. All  metals  present  some  resist- 
ance to  an  electric  current,  mercuiy  being  the 
most  resistant.  For  the  relative  resistance  of 
metals  see  table  under  Elbctkic  CoNDUcnvixY. 
The  resistance  of  a  conductor  varies  directly  as 
its  length  and  inversely  as  its  cross  section.  A 
box  containing  coils  that  are  designed  to  resist 
or  impede  a  current  is  called  a  resistance-box 
or  rheostat.  The  starting-box  of  an  electric 
car  and  the  controllor  of  a  machine  run  by 
motor  are  based  on  this  principle.  The  unit  of 
electrical  resistance  is  the  ohm.  See  El£Ctiucal 
Unffs. 

ELECTRIC  SIGNALING.  While  it  is 
true  in  a  broad  sense  that  any  method  of  com- 
municating intelligence  to  a  distance  is  em- 
braced in  the  term  telegraphy,  in  the  present  in- 
stance the  term  electric  signaling  will  be  em- 
ployed to  cover  the  signaling  systems  and  meth- 
ods described  in  this  article.  This  term  is  per- 
haps the  more  appropriate  inasmuch  as  certain 
of  the  systems  to  be  outlined  in  reality  partake 
more  of  the  nature  of  mere  signals  than  of  a 
means  of  transmitting  intelligence  as  that  term 
is  generally  understood.  Almost  without  excep- 
tion electro-magnetism  is  employed  in  the  op- 
eration of  electric  signals.  See  Electbo-Mag- 
mnsM. 

The  Electric  Door-BelL— This  is  perhaps 


,^le 


118 


BLBCTRIC   SIONALINQ 


the  best  known  and  one  of  the  simplest  methods 
of  electric  signahng  In  its  operation  it  cm- 
ploys  a  primary  battery,  a  push  button  at  the 
door,  a  vibrating  bell  within  the  house,  and  a 
wire  connecting  the  push  button  and  the  bell. 
The  bell  and  its  armature,  the  connecting  wire, 
the  push  button  and  the  battery,  comprise  the 
electric  circuit.  The  push  button  is  merelj^  a 
key  consisting  of  two  strips  of  metal  which 
when  pressed  together  allowed  the  current  to 
flow.  The  electric  bell  consists  of  a  coil  of 
wire  wound  around  a  soft  iron  core.  Its 
armature  carries  at  its  free  end  a  small  hammer 
which,  when  the  armature  is  attracted,  strikes 
against  a  small  gong,  ringing  it.  The  vibration 
of  the  hammer  is  brought  about  by  a  very 
simple  device.  Normally  the  armature  rests 
a^dinsl  a  contact  point  which  is  a  part  of  the 
circuit;  the  armature  itself  also  being  a  part  of 
the  circuit.  The  circuit  is  normally  open  at  the 
push  button.  When  this  button  is  pressed  the 
circuit  is  closed  and  the  armature  of  the  bell  is 
forthwith  attracted,  iu  hammer  striking  the 
gong  at  that  instant.  In  the  act  of  moving 
forward,  however,  the  armature  leaves  the  con- 
tact point  against  which  it  had  been  resting, 
with  the  result  that  the  circuit  is  opened  at  that 
point.  This  has  the  effect  of  permitting  the 
magnet  of  the  bell  to  lose  its  magnetism,  wherc- 
itpon  the  armature  falls  upon  its  contact  point, 
again  closing  the  circuit  with  the  result  that 
the  armature  is  again  attracted,  which  action  is 
continuously  repeated  so  long  as  the  push  button 
is  pressed  in.  A  small  spiral  or  tension  spring 
■unices  to  keep  the  push  button  normally  open. 
See  Electric  Bell. 

Annunciator  Signals.— The  "annunciator" 
or  call-bell  sjntems  so  generally  used  in  hotels 
and  offices  utilize  the  principle  of  the  door  bell. 
Annunciator  systems  in  fact  might  be  termed 
multiple  electric  door-bell  systems.  Usually  a 
wire  runs  from  each  room  to  a  central  point 
or  office  where  the  annunciator  is  placed.  This 
annunciator  contains  within  its  case  a  small 
electro- magnet  for  each  room.  One  battery  is 
caused  to  supply  the  current  for  all  the  circuits 
by  simply  connecting  the  wire  from  each  room 
to  the  terminals  of  the  battery.  In  a  similar 
way  one  bell  at  the  annunciator  is  caused  to 
respond  to  all  the  calls  that  come.  _  The  arma- 
ture of  each  electro-magnet  within  the  case 
carries  a  small  shutter,  on  which  is  placed  the 
number  or  letter  of  the  room  with  which  it 
is  connected.  This  shutter  is  held  out  of  sight 
by  means  of  a  smalt  catch  hook  attached  to 
the  armature  of  the  magnet  until  the  push 
button  in  a  given  room  is  pressed,  where- 
upon the  armature  is  attracted,  releasing  the 
shutter,  which  instantly  drops,  showing  the 
number.  At  the  same  time  the  annunciator  bell 
rings,  directing  the  attention  of  the  clerk  to  the 
call  In  other  forms  of  annunciators  the  fall- 
ing of  the  armature  is  caused  to  deflect  a  small 
arrow  on  the  face  of  the  case,  hencath  where 
is  marked  the  number,  name  or  letter  of  the 
room.  There  may  be  almost  any  number  of 
rooms  for  I  up  to  100  or  more  connected  with 
one  annunciator.  In  practice  a  single  wire, 
called  the  "common  return"  wire,  is  usually  run 
from  the  battery  and  annunciator  to  alt  rooms. 
From  each  room  a  separate,  individual  wire  is 
then  run,  from  the  ■common  return*  in  the 
room,  through  the  push  button  and  then  down 
to  the  elect ro-magnet  in  the  annunciator,  there- 


by supplying  a  separate  circuit  for  each  room. 
In  order  to  restore  the  shutters  to  their  normal 
position  after  the  call  has  been  received,  a  rod 
IS  provided  with  a  knob  at  its  lower  end  which 
projects  below  the  under  side  of-  the  ease  con- 
taining the  annunciator  magnets.  By  pushing 
up  the  rod  a  cross-bar  within  the  case  is  raised 
and  this  cross-bar  in  turn  lifts  up  and  resets 
the  shutter  and  armature  for  the  next  call.  In 
the  later  form  of  annunciators  which  are  now 
frequently  operated  by  alternating  current  of 
low  voltage,  the  shutters  of  the  annunciator 
are  elect ro-magnetically  reset  by  merely  push- 
ing a  button,  thereby  closing  the  circuit  of  an 
electro-magnet. 

Burglar  Alarm  Signals For  simple  do- 
mestic purposes  the  arrangement  employed  for 
burglar  alarm  signals  is  also  closely  akin  to  the 
systems  just  described,  the  main  difference 
being  that  the  finger  push  button  is  displaced 
by  a  circuit  dosing  contact  in  the  frame  of  a 
window  or  the  jamb  of  a  door.  To  bring 
about  the  result  desired  the  circuit  closer  is 
placed  on  the  frame  of  the  window  in  such  a 
way  that  the  movable  portion  of  the  circuit 
closer  projects  beyond  the  surface  of  the 
window  frame.  The  contacts  of  the  circuit 
closer  are  held  apart  normally  by  a  simple 
spring.  In  order  that  when  the  window  is 
closed  this  projection  may  not  be  depressed,  a 
piece  is  cut  out  of  the  window  sash  at  a  point 
directly  opposite  the  projecting  circuit  closer. 
In  an  analogous  manner  the  circuit  closer  is 
attached  to  a  door  jamb.  The  wires  leading 
to  the  circuit  closer  are  concealed  behind  the 
woodwork.  When  a  window  is  raised  or  a 
door  is  opened  by  an  intruder  the  contact  points 
of  the  circuit  closer  are  brought  together, 
whereupon  the  annunciator  bell  is  rung,  giving 
the  alarm,  and  at  the  same  time  the  room  where 
the  door  or  window  has  been  opened  is  indi- 
cated by  the  dropping  of  the  corresponding 
shutter  in  the  annunciator.  The  annunciator  is 
located  in  any  desired  part  of  the  house, 
usually  in  a  bedroom.  The  method  described 
is  termed  an  open  circuit  method.  In  such  sys- 
tems what  is  known  as  open  circuit  batteries, 
such  as  the  ordinary  dry  flatteries,  may  be  used. 
In  some  cases,  to  guard  against  a  momentary 
opening  of  a  door  or  window,  such  as  would 
only  occasion  a  short  ring  of  the  alarm  be)], 
not  sufficient  perhaps  to  arouse  a  sleeper,  an 
auxiliary  arran^ment  is  provided  at  the  an- 
nunciator consisting  of  a  drop  arranged  to 
close  the  bell  circuit  continuously  until  the  drop 
is  reset,  A  small  switch  is  provided  near  the 
annunciator  by  means  of  which  the  alarm  cir- 
cuit may  be  opened  during  the  daytime  so  that 
needless  alarm  may  not  be  pven  by  the  ordi- 
nary opening  of  windows.  Other  switches  are 
also  used  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  vari- 
ous circuits  to  see  that  they  are  in  proper 
working  condition.    See  Electbtc  Anwunoatob. 

Central  OfRce  Borglar  Alarm  System.— 
This  system,  as  the  name  implies,  relates  to  one 
in  which  the  ringing  of  an  electro-magnetic 
alarm  in  a  central  ofhce  wilt  announce  the 
presence  of  intruders  in  the  building  or  build* 
ings  in  which  the  protecting  apparatus  is  in- 
stalled. The  eetitral  office  may  be  any  con- 
venient distance  from  the  protected  buildin;^ 
These -systems  are  frequently  termed  electric 
protective  systems.  The  plan  usually  adopted 
IS  to  ,run  a  net-work  of  wires  through  parti- 


BJ^CT^^IC.  SIQHALINQ 


lions,  aerosi  floors,  skyli^ts,  etc    These  wires 

are  part  of  a  circuit  exteooing  to  the  central 
ofEce,  and  the  »aJd  wires  are  so  connected  with 
the  circuit  that  any  interference  with  them, 
after  they  have  been  "set,"  will  cut  out  a  high 
resistance,  consisting  of  a  coi!  of  wire,  suitaUy 
placed  in  the  circuit  o£  the  protected  building. 
The  cutting  out  or  short-circuiting  of  this  re- 
sistance will  so  increase  the  strength  of  the 
current  in  the  circuit  as  to  operate  a  "doid>le- 
halanced*  instrument  in  the  central  offic?.  If 
on  the  other  hand  the  resistance  is  not  "cut  out,^ 
but  instead  the  wires  of  the  circuit  be  cut  or 
broken,  by  accident  or  design  on  the  part  o£ 
intruders,  the  consequent  absence  of  current,  or 
even  a  slight  decrease  of  current,  will  likewise 
cause  an  alarm  in  the  central  station.  The 
doubled'balanced  instrument  at  the  central 
ofEce  is  tisually  a  relay,  the  armature  of  which 
carries  a  needle  that  normally  stands  at  a  zero 
point,  from  which  point  it  may  be  deflected  in 
either  direction.  An  increase  of  current  on  the 
circuit  deflects  it  in  one  direction -~  a  decrease 
of  current  allows  a  spring  or  weight  to  deflect 
it  in  the  other  direction.  In  either  case,  the 
alarm  is  given  when  the  needle  moves  ajid  an 
attendant  is  despatched  to  the  premises  from 
which  the  alarm  has  emanated.  £^h  relay  is  of 
course  suitably  numbered  or  otherwise  desig*. 
natcd  in  the  central  oflice  so  thai  the  building 
with  which  it  is  connected  is  knowTL 

Telegraph  Message  Service  or  Smergeacy 
Signals. —  This  service  relates  to  the  supplying 
or  calling  of  messengers,  policemen,  firemen, 
etc.,  at  the  call  of  or  by  a  "subscriber,"  in 
whose  house  or  office  a  "call  box"  has  been 
placed.  This  call  box  is  electrically  connected 
by  means  of  a  wire  with  a  central  ofEce  at 
which  the  messengers  are  located,  and  from 
which  office  communication  with  police  and  fire 
headquarters  can  quickly  be  made.  Each  call 
box  is  nimabered  and  is  supplied  with  what  are 
termed  "make  and  break'  attachments  which 
arc  set  in  operation  by  the  turning  of  a  crank 
on  the  cover  of  the  box.  These  attachn:bents, 
when  thus  operated,  transmit  automatically  to 
the  central  office  the  number  of  the  box,  which 
at  once  indicates  to  that  oSice  the  location  of 
the  signaling  box.  The  construction  and  opera- 
tion of  the  call  box  are  as  follows :  A  crank  is 
mounted  rigidly  with  a  recoil  spring  on  a  shaft. 
On  this  shaft  is  also  mounted,  but  loosely,  a 
cog-wheel,  A  'break- wheel,"  having  a  number 
of  slots  in  its  periphery,  is  geared  with  the  cog- 
wheel in  such  a  maimer  that  it  receives  a  tend- 
ency to  turn  in  a  given  direction,  but  it  is 
normally  prevented  from  turning  by  the  engage- 
ment of  a  pin  on  its  side  with  a  curved  cam 
which  is  attached  to  a  prolongation  of  the 
crank  arm.  ^^'hen,  however,  the  crank  lever  is 
turned  to,  say  the  ri^hl,  preparatory  Co  send- 
ing in  a  call,  the  cam  is  automatically  moved  out 
of  the  path  of  the  said  pin  and  the  break-wheel 
is  then  free  to  move.  By  a  suitable  pawl  and 
ratchet,  the  cog-wheel  is  prevented  from  mov- 
ing when  the  crank  is  turned  to  the  right.  The 
effect  of  turning  the  crank  is  to  wind  the  recoil 
sprii^.  When  the  crank  is  let  go  the  spring 
unwinds  and  turns  with  it  the  break- wheel 
which  completes  a  revolution;  at  the  end  of 
which  it  is  ai^in  held  by  the  pin  as  before.  The 
bredc-wheel  is  made  part  of  the  circtiil  leading 
from  the  box  to  the  central  cfficc.    A  flat  nwttii 


spring  which  is  also  part  of  the  said  drciut 

rests  on  the  periphery  of  the  break-wheel  in 
such  a  manner  that  when  the  wheel  is  making 
its  revolution  the  spring  falls  into  the  slots  on 
the  said  periphery  and  opens  the  circuit  as 
many  times  as  there  are  slots  provided.  If,  for 
instance,  the  number  of  a  given  box  is  24,  there 
will  be  cut  on  the  periphery  two  slots  in  close 
succession,  then  an  interval  of  unbroken  metal 
surface  followed  by  four  slots  in  succession. 
The  circuit  in  such  a  case,  as  the  wheel  rotates, 
will  be  opened  twice  in  succession,  dosed  for  an 
interval,  and  then  opened  four  times  in  Buoces- 
sioQ,  with  the  result  that  a  bell  at  the  central 
office  will  g^ve  out,  first  two  strokes,  and  then 
four  strokes,  on  its  gong.  A  large  number  of 
such  boxes  can  be  ^acea  on  one  circuit  without 
causing  confusion.  The  call  box  just  descrUKd 
suffices  to  send  in  a  swift  call  for  a  messenger. 
When  it  is  desired  to  make  it  possible  to  call  a 
poUceman^  doctor  or  fireman  by  the  same  type 
of  box,  it  15  provided  with  a  "stop"  that  projects 
through  the  cover  in  such  a  way  that  the  crank 
caanot  be  moved  beyond  a  certain  point.  The 
ordinary  position  oi  the  "stop"  would  :be  at. 
the  messenger  call,  in  which  case  the  n>nnber 
of  the  box  only  wouM  be  sent  in  whes  the 
crank  is  (uroed.  If,  however,  a  doctor  should 
be  desire^  the  stop  is  moved  to  a  point  marked 
"doctor,"  on  the  cover  of  the  box,  and  in  luni- 
ine  the  crank  it  is  moved  up  to  that  point. 
This  farther  movemciu.  of  the  crank  has  the 
effect  of  bringing  into  operation  one  or  more, 
additionel  slots  on  the  periphery  of  the  break- 
wheel  in  consequence  of  which  the  box  number-- 
is  preceded  by  one  or  more  single  strokes  on 
the  bell,  which  indicate  to  the  central  office 
attendant  that  a  doctor,  fireman  or  policeman, 
as  the  case  may  be,  is  desired- 
Fire  Alann  Tdegraph  Signals.-^  The  iia- 
porlance  of  electricity  as  a  time  saver  in  an- 
n^mcing  the  existence  of  a  6re  can  scarcely  be 
overestirnaled.  A  special  feature  of  the  electric  - 
fire-alarm  system  is  that  it  not  only  gives  the 
alarm,  but  also  indicates  to  the  firemen  the  lo- 
cation of  the  fire,  or  within  a  very  short  dis- 
tance thereuf.  It  ma^  be  noted  that  a  simple 
Bre-alarm  system  is  in  many  respects  similar 
to  the  systems  just  described,  in  tlut  it  consists 
of  a  central  office  or  station  in  which  alarm  ap-  - 
paratus  and  battery  are  located,  aod  of  signkl 
boxes  in  the  street  and  elsewhere  by  which  to 
transmit  alarms  to  the  central  office.  A  wire 
connects  the  central  station  with  the  various  sig- 
nal boxes  in  the  streets  and  fire-engine  stations. 
In  each  sigpial  box  is  placed  a  break-wheel, 
prartically  similar  to  that  used  in  the  call-boxes 
of  the  district  messenger  or  emergency  service ; 
the  nuin  difference  peing  that  owing  to  the  : 
more  exposed  position  of  the  fire-alarm  boxes 
and  their  greater  relative  importance,  more  sub- 
stantial boxes  are  employed-  In  gcaeral  those 
signal  boxes  are  supplied  with  an  inner  and 
outer  door  to  protect  the  apparatus  from  the 
elements.  The  signal  boxes  are  provided  with, 
a  crank  or  a  hook  which  on  being  operated  . 
causes  an  alarm  to  be  sent  to  the  central  sta- 
tion giving  the  number  of  the  box  from  which 
the  call  has  emanated.  The  signal  box  .Is  also 
provided  with  a  small  electric  gong,  which 
rings  each  time  tht  circuit  is  opened.  This  in- 
timates to  the  one  sending  in  the  alarm  that  the 
alarm  is  being  properly  transmitted.     Zt  also 


,^lc 


1S& 


BLB(}1'RIC  8IGHALIH0 


serves  tfae  purpose  of  intimating  to  anyone  who 
might  open  an  adjacent  box  to  send  in  an  alarm 
therefrom,  that  me  alarm  is  already  being  sent, 
thus  preventing  interference.  Al  the  central 
station  and  the  various  fire  stations  a.  f^ng  Is 
struck  a  number  of  limes  corresponding  with 
the  number  of  the  box  from  which  the  alarm 
emanates.  In  the  same  circuit  also  an  ink-re- 
cording re^ster  in  the  central  office  marits  on 
a  paper  strip  the  number  of  the  signaling  box, 
thus  giving  a  permanent  record  of  such  alarm. 
Inasmuch  as  it  is  not  good  practice  to  put 
more  than  25  or  30  signal  boxes  on  one  circuit, 
but  yet  is  very  important  that  all  the  fire  sta- 
tions in  a  given  district  should  receive  the 
alarm,  a  repeating  device  is  utilized  at  the  cen- 
tral  station  which  receives  the  alarm  from  any 
one  of  the  circuits  and  thereupon  repeats  it  au- 
tomatically or  manually  to  alt  the  other  cir- 
cuits. It  frequently  happens  that  two  or  more 
street  boxes  on  the  same  circuit  are  pulled  si- 
multaneously by  different  people.  To  prevent 
the  confusion  of  signals  that  ^is  would  ordi- 
narily entail  special  arrangements  have  been 
devised,  termed  the  non-interfering  succession 
signal  fire-alarm  boxes.  These  boxes  not  only 
prevent  interference  with  the  signals  already  in 
process  of  transmission  by  any  given  box,  but 
also  permit  every  box  that  may  have  been 
pulled  simultaneously  to  send  in  its  signal  in 
rotation,  automatically. 

Automatic  Fire-Alsnn  Signals.— In  many 
of  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States  an  aux-  ' 
iliary  to  the  regular  fire-alarm  system,  consist- 
it>g  of  some  form  of  thermostat  included  in  a 
circuit  in  the  building  to  be  protected,  is  em- 
ployed. This  system  again  is  somewhat  analo- 
gous to  the  messenger  telegraph  system  de- 
scribed, the  chief  difference  being  that  in  the 
one  case  the  signal  box  is  manually  operated, 
while  in  the  other  case  an  increase  of  tempera- 
ture, due  to  fire,  by  affecting  the  thermostat 
catfses  the  alarm  to  be  transmitted.  Thermo- 
stats are  of  different  types.  One  type  consists 
of  a  ere  seen  t-shaped  spring,  made  up  of  two 
strips  of  metal,  steel  and  copper,  one  over  the 
other.  One  end  of  the  spring  or  strips  is  fas- 
tened to  a  support,  the  other  end  is  ad}acent 
to  a  contact  pomt  of  an  electric  circuit.  As  the 
metals  named  do  not  expand  equally  under  in- 
creased temperature  the  spring  as  a  whole 
bends  or  buckles  when  the  temperature  in- 
creases, and  the  movable  end  makes  connection 
with  the  contact,  thereby  closing  the  alarm  cir- 
cuit with  the  result  desired.  Other  types  of 
thermostats  are  made  of  easily  fusible  alloys. 
Still  another  form  of  thermostat  consists  of  a 
drtmi- shaped  box,  holding  sut^tances  which 
have  a  high  expansion  under  increased  temper- 
ature. The  expansion  causes  the  ends  of  the 
box  to  bulge,  tnereby  closing  an  alarm  circuit. 

Police  Electric  Signala,— These  may  be 
considered  as  more  or  less  amplified  fire-alarm 
systems,  consisting  as  they  do  of  signal  boxes 
placed  on  poles  and  in  booths  along  the  routes 
of  the  policemen ;  from  which  boxes  signals  of 
alt  kinds  may  be  transmitted  to  and  from  police 
headquarters.  The  siifnal  boxes  are  connected 
by  a  suitable  wire  with  head(|uarlers ;  and  each 
box  has  a  break-wheel,  carrying  the  numtier  of 
the  box.  A  telephone  outfit  is  also  placed  in  the 
t>ox  by  means  of  which  the  policemen  may  con- 
verse with  the  main  station.    In  fact  die  ie]e> 


phone  is  used  nearly  exclusively,  the  policeman 
as  he  arrives  at  a  signal  box  sending  in  a  signal 
which  intimates  to  the  attendant  at  headquarters 
the  number  of  the  box  at  which  he  has  arrived 
in  the  course  of  his  t>eat,  whereupon  the  at- 
tendant communicates  with  the  policeman  s    ' 


i  special  signal  of  any  kind,  as  for  an  ambulance 


r  for 


he  c 


1  do  s 


special  arrangmcnt  within  the  Imx.  In  some 
cities  certain  citizens  are  supplied  with  keys  of 
the  signal  boxes.  Such  citizens  are  authorized 
to  send  in  signals  for  police  assistance  in  cases 
of  emergency,  and  thus  the  nolice  force  is  prac- 
tically augmented  by  a  volunteer  service.  In 
many  cities  also  the  police  signal  apparatus  is 
kept  in  a  kiosk  or  sentry-box  on  the  sidewalk 
curb.  On  the  top  of  these  boxes  an  electric 
colored  lamp  is  placed  and  so  connected  that  it 
may  be  lighted  from  police  headquarters  to  call 
a  policeman  to  the  post  for  instructions. 

Railway  Electric  Block  Signals.—  A  block 
system  in  brief  consists  of  a  means  of  showing 
maniwlly  or  automatically  certain  signals  which 
indicate  to  the  engineer  of  a  train  that  a  cer- 
tain portion  or  section  of  the  track  before  hirti 
is  "clear*  or  occupied.  The  road  is  divided  into 
blocks  which  are  of  various  lengths 


length  of  a  block  varies  from  600  feet  to  several 
miles.  The  signals  employed  in  a  "block*  are 
either  "safety,*  "caution"  or  "danger,'  repre- 
sented by  a  white  light  or  sign,  a  green  li^t  or 
sign  ana  a  red  lijfht  or  sign,  respectively.  The 
sign  usually  consists  of  tie  well-known  sema- 
phore arm  or  blade.  In  automatic  electric  sys- 
tems the  circuits  and  apparatus  arc  generally 
so  arranged  that  the  entrance  of  a  train  into  a 
"block"  sets  the  danger  signal  and  Hiat  signal  is 
displayed  until  the  train  passes  out  of  that  block 
into  the  next,  when  the  <^nger  signal  is  towered 
and  the  caution  signal  is  shown.  When  the 
train  passes  into  a  second  block  ahead  the  cau- 
tion signal  is  lowered  and  safety  is  shown.  The 
part  assigned  to  electricity  in  the  operation  of 
these  signals  consists  in  actuating  electro-mag- 
nets which  are  placed  in  circuits  capable  of 
being  opened,  dosed  or  short-circuited  by  the 
car  wheels  of  a  train,  which  elect ro-magnrts 
are  caused  directly  or  indirectly  to  operate  the 
signals.  In  what  is  known  as  the  Hall  Block 
Signal  system  the  blades  are  operated  against 
gravity  by  an  electric  motor  placed  in  a  case 
at  the  top  or  foot  of  the  pole  supporting  the 
signals;  suitable  battery  being  provided  for  the 
operation  of  the  motor.  Thus  when  a  train 
enters  a  given  block  a  circuit  is  closed  which 
starts  the  motor  which  in  turning,  by  a  system 
of  cog-wheel  gearing,  raises  the  blade  to  a  pre- 
arranged point,  at  which  time  the  motor  cir- 
cuit is  automatically  opened  and  the  signal  is 
held  in  position  by  an  electro-magnet  until  Ae 
train  moves  out  of  the  block,  when  the  blade 
is  released  and  falls  bv  gravity,  means  being 
provided  to  graduate  and  wfeguard  the  fall  of 
the  blade  l)y  means  of  friction,  due  to  the  actien 
of  a  centrifugal  governor.  Another  electric 
block  system  uses  a  disc  enclosed  in  a  drum- 
shaped  box  on  the  top  of  a  pde.  This  disc  is 
operated  by  an  electro-magnet,  the  latter  bring 
attracted  t^  an  electric  current  which  is  under 


ELECTRIC  SMELTIHO— BLBCTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERY 


ISl 


control  of  th«  engine,  the  tatter  ororating,  as  it 
passes,  a  heavj^  circuit  closer  by  tne  side  of  the 
track.  There  is  one  of  these  circuit  closers  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  a  block.  The  en^ne 
thus  sets  the  signal  to  danger  as  it  comes  into 
a  block  and  sets  it  at  clear  ss  it  leaves  the 
block.  A  device  named  the  Miller  Cab  signal 
is  different  from  the  foregoing  systems.  It 
consists  of  suitable  apparatus  and  battery  for 
operating  certain  electric  lights  in  the  engine 
cab.  Normally  a  white  li^t  is  burning,  but 
when  there  is  another  train  on  the  block  in 
which  the  train  enters,  the  circuits  are  so  oper- 
ated that  the  white  light  is  cut  out  of  the  cir- 
cuit and  a  red  li^t  is  lit  up  in  its  place.  This 
notifies  the  engineer  of  the  near  proximity  of 
another  train.    See  Block  SrcNAL  System. 

For  a  more  detailed  and  illustrated  account 
of  the  foregoing  systems,  the  reader  may  be  re- 
ferred to  uie  aiitiior's  'American  Telegraphy 
and  Encyclopaedia  of  the  Telegraph.' 

WiLUAM  Waver,  Jr.. 
Author  of  'American  Telegraphy? 

BLBCTRIC  SMELTING.  Sec  Elechuc 
FtnNACGs;  Metallurgy. 

ELECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERY, 
The.  Electrical  enerw  is  developed  in  com- 
mercial quantity  al  the  present  day  almost 
exclusively  by  means  of  a  dynamo-electric 
machine,  driven  in  turn  by  a  steam  engine,  gas 
engine,  water  wheel  or  other  prime  mover.  A 
plant  of  either  of  these  kinds  is  somewhat 
complicated,  so  as  to  require  skilled  care  in  its 
operation ;  the  electrical  energy  is  available  only 
while  the  machinery  is  in  actual  motion,  and 
at  such  points  as  are  connected  with  the  gen- 
erating plant  by  suitable  electrical  distributing 
circuits, 

A  device  to  supply  electrical  energy,  under 
isolated  conditions,  and  in  such  form  as  to  be 
instantly  available  over  long  periods  of  time  is 
therefore  an  almost  imperative  necessity  and 
the  device  which  science  has  developed  for  this 
purpose     is     known     as     the     electric     storage 

The  storage  battery  does  not.  as  its  name 
might  impl;^,  store  energy  in  the  electrical  form, 
but  rather  in  the  chemical,  and  hence  it  belongs 
lo  the  general  family  of  electro-chemical 
apparatus. 

Electro -Chemistry  of  Storage  Battery.— 
The  essential  'working  parts*  of  a  battery, 
broadly  speaking,  are  three  in  number,  namely, 
active  material  of  the  positive  and  negative 
plates,  respectively,  and  the  electrolytic  solu- 
tion, surrounding  and  electrically  connecting  the 
first  two. 

For  the  purpose  of  causing  these  working 
parts  to  function  as  a  battery,  there  are  required 
a  number  of  subsidiaries,  equally  necessary, 
whose  duties  are  mainly  mechanical  and  elec- 
trical in  their  nature.  The  active  material  con- 
sists of  a  more  or  less  cemenied  mass  of 
powder;  possessed  in  itself  of  very  little 
mechanical  strength.  To  retain  this  materia 
in  working  condition  there  are  required  the 
*grids,*  which,  as  the  name  implies,  are  in 
most  cases  flat  metallic  plates  of  very  open 
grid-like  structure,  with  projections  or  "lugs" 
at  one  comer,  to  serve  for  making  the  electrical 


Since  the  plates  of  opposite  polarity  would 
quickly  discharge  themselves  if  allowed  to 
touch,  they  must  be  kept  apart,  and  this  is 
invariably  accomplished  by  the  insertion  of 
"separators*  between  them. 

As  the  electrolyte  is  almost  invariably  a 
liquid,  rarely  a  jelly-like  substance,  there  is 
required  a  retaining  vessel,  glass  or  hard  rub- 
ber jar,  lead  lined  tank  or  steel  jar,  according 
as  the  case  may  be. 

Reference  to  Figs.  24  and  25  will  make  clear 
the_|^neral  construction^  the  plates,  alternately 
positive  and  negative  side  by  side,  with  sep- 
arators between,  and  resting  or  hanging  in'  a 
jar  which  holds  the  electrolyte.  A  very  neces- 
sary detail  of  design  is  that  there  shall  be  left 
sufficient  clear  space  beneath  the  plates  so  that 
the  sediment  which  gradually  collects  may  settle 
there  without  contacting  with  the  plates  and 
causing  a  short  circuit. 

While  attempts  have  been  made  to  utilize 
all  sorts  of  materials  as  "working  parts,^  the 
successful  combinations  have  narrowed  down, 
until  to-day  there  are  practically  only  two  in 
commercial  operatiotL 

The  older  and  far  the  most  generally  used 
is  known  as  the  lead-siilphuric  acid  type;  the 
newer  as  the  alkaline,  or,  more  generally,  the 
Edison  tjye.  A  description  of  each  type  sep- 
arately will  be  followed  by  a  brief  analysis  of 
its  characteristic's. 

Equations  of  the  Alkaline  Battery.— The 
Edison  battery  is  chosen  as  the  representative 
of  the  alkaline  type  because,  although  other 
varieties  have  been  developed,  and  have  met 
with  limited  success  in  Europe,  yet  Mr.  Edison 
has  carried  the  development  of  the  type  so 
much  beyond  any  of  the  others'  that  to-day  his 
is  the  only  alkaline  battery  of  commercial 
importance. 

The  positive  active  material  consists  of 
nickel  peroxide ;  the  negative  of  sptmgy,  metal- 
lic iron ;  the  electrolyte  of  caustic  potash  or 
caustic  soda  solution.  The  chemical  affinity  of 
the  sponge  iron  for  oxygen  constitutes  the 
chief  working  force  of  the  cell,  diagrammat- 
ically  represented  in  Fig.  1,  in  which  A  and  B 
are  the  positive  and  negative  plates  and  C  the 
active  material,  immersed  in  the  electrolyte 
within  the  retaining  vessel. 

The  reaction  of  discharge  may  be  explained 
thus ;  KOH  readily  splits  up  into  the  two 
"ions'  OH  and  K;  the  former  tending  to  travel 
to  the  negative  plate,  and  there  combine  to 
form  Fe,0,  and  H.0;  while  the  K  ion  tends 
to  travel  to  the  positive  plate,  and  there  com- 
bine with  part  of  the  oxygen  of  the  NiO,  and 
with  water  from  the  electrolyte,  thus  forming 
again  KOH,  exactly  equal  to  the  initial  quantity. 

The  reaction  may  be  represented  as  follows: 
3Fe+8KOH+6NiO,-Fe.04+8KOH+2Ni.O^ 

It'will  be  seen  that  ihe  net  result  is  a  trans- 
fer of  oxygen  from  the  positive  to  the  negative, 
accompamed  by  a  concentration  of  caustic 
potash  at  the  positive  and  a  dilution  at  the 
negative;  the  total  amount  of  caustic  in  solu- 
tion remaining  constant  throughout.  The  re- 
action of  discharge  is  held  in  check,  and  the 
electricity  is  furnished  to  the  electrodes  much 
as  in  the  lead  cell,  described  more  fully  on  a 
subsequent  page.  During  the  process  of  charije 
the  reactions  are  exactly  reversed,  with  metallic 


',5le 


190 


ELECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERY 


iron  as  the  result  at  the  negative  plate  and 
nickel  peroxide  at  itie  positive. 

The  reaclion  on  charginft.  however,  does  not 
lake  place  directly  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  current,  with  the  result  that  the  charKe  must 
always  considerably  exceed  the  discharge  in 
order  to  restore  the  cell  to  its  initial  condition. 
Moreover,  the  active  materials  in  discharge  are 
never  completely  converted  according  to  the 
reactions  shown;  there  always  remain  largo 
proportions  of  metallic  iron  and  nickel  peroxide, 
even  in  a  discharged  cell. 

Description  of  Edison  Cell. —  Caustic 
potash  solution  has  but  slif-ht  efFect  upon  steel 
and  none  upon  metallic  nickel ;  hence  nickel 
plated  sheet  steel  constitutes  an  idea!  material 
for  almost  all  the  structural  parts  of  an  alkaline 
cell,  and  is  used  for  positive  and  negative  plates, 
as  well  as  for  retainer. 

The  positive  plate,  Fig.  2,  consists  of  a 
number  of  thin-walled  steel  tubes  jplaccd  side 
by   side   and   united   by   a   surrounding   frame. 


OMK^n  riumH  Cm. 


compresses  the  contents  which  are  thus  grad- 
ually built  up  till  the  tube  becomes  full,  when 
it  is  pindied  oil  and  later  assembled  with  others 


i»n  Positn-c  H^u 
d  G«neml  Service- 


-  Vehicle 


into  a  complete  plate.  The  usual  diameter  of 
the  lubes  is  about  one-fourth  inch,  though  lat- 
terly a  smaller  size  is  also  used  to  some  extent. 
In  assembling  llie  plates  right  and  left  wound 
tubes  are  used  alternately  to  eliminate  twisting 


Fig.  1. 

Diagram  of  Edison  Cell. 

likewise  of  sheet  sicel,  nickel  plated.  Each 
tube  is  made  up  of  a  spirally  wound,  and  double 
seamed,  strip  of  thin  sheet  siccl  very  finely 
perforated  and  filled  with  the  aclive  material, 
nickel  peroxide.  This  material,  however,  hap- 
pens to  be  an  extremely  poor  electrical  con- 
ductor, and  in  order  to  give  it  the  necessary 
conductivity  the  material  within  the  tube  is 
interspersed  with  extremely  thin  transverse 
discs  of  metallic  nickel,  about  80  of  ihera  per 
inch  length  of  tube.  Tne  nirkol  is  prepared  in 
the  shape  of  extremely  thin  Rakes,  and  a  meas- 
ured Quaniit]/  of  these  is  fed  into  the  lube, 
alternately  with  a  measured  quantity  of  nickel 
hydroxide  (which  is  later  converted  into  nickel 
peroxide).  After  each  double  charge  of  flake 
and  hydroxide   n   ramrod  enters   the   tube   and 


Pia  3. 

Editon  Nesativt  PUM  —  Vehicle 
Bnd  General  Service—  1/3  site. 

tendencies,  and  each  tube  is  strengthetied  by  a 
number  of  tight-fitting  steel  rings  at   frequent 

intervals. 


h,  Google 


ELECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERY 


The  dctai]  with  which  the  manufacture  of 
this  plaie  has  been  worked  out  is  extremely  in- 
teresting, but  limiiatioos  o{  space  preclude  a 
full  description. 

The  negative  plate  (Fig.  3)  is  somewhat 
similar  in  design,  with  the  ditTerence  that  the 
active  material,  in  this  case  metallic  sponijre  iron, 
initially  introduced  as  oxide  of  iron,  is  con- 
tained within  small  rectangular  pockets  or  boxes 
of  perforated  sheet  steel.  The  surface  of  the 
boxes  is  corrupted  to  give  strength,  but  as 
the  iron  inside  is  a  ^ood  conductor  there  is  not 
required  the  mechanical  pressure  which  necessi- 
tates the  cylindrical  form  of  the  positive  tubes. 
The  pockets  are  about  one-cighih  inch  in  thick- 
ness and  are  locked  by  pressure  into  a  surround- 
ing frame  of  sheet  steel  verj*  similar  to  that  of 
the  positive. 

Positive  and  negative  plates  are  assembled 
alternately,  with  small  hard  rubber  insulating 
strips  between;  and  the  plates  of  each  kind  are 
united  by  a  bolt  extending  across  tbc  whole 
group,  through  the  holes  at  the  top  corner,  as 
shown  in  Fig,  4.    Hard  rubber  frames  arotmd 


necessary  in  order  to  exclude  the  carbonic  add 
of  the  atmosphere,  which  is  readily  absorbed 
by  caustic  solution,  and  which  if  allowed  thus 
tu  enter  into  an  alkaline  cell  exercises  a  verv 
detrimental  effect  upon  its  operatioa  A  check 
valve  in  the  cover  permits  the  egress  of  oxygoi 
and  hydrogen  liberated  during  charge,  while  it 


~^B«rem^  f  £Mjr 


Ch^»  LtAPCtu. 


^(tma^etLemCm 


About  l/S   CI 


if  usseinbling. 


the  edges  and  bottom  of  the  group  insulate  it 
effectively  from  the  steel  case  which  holds  the 
electrolyte    and    retains    the    whole    cell    as    8 

The  steel  case  is  closed  by  a  cover  of  the 
same  material,  which  is  welded  all  around  so 
as  to  be  perfectly  air  light.     This  feature  is 


excludes  all  atmospheric  air  with  it 
lion  of  carbonic  acid. 

The  Edison  cell  of  to-day  is  a  very  highly 
developed  piece  of  electro -chemical  apparatus, 
bearing  ample  witness  to  the  genius  of  its 
inventor.  The  fact  of  its  being  built  of  nickel 
plated  steel  throughout  gives  it  a  ruggedness 
and  a  finished  appearance  which  can  hardly  be 
matched  by  other  types.  If  operated  under 
favorable  conditions  it  will  last  for  a  long  time, 
often  upwards  of  1,000  cycles  of  charge  and 
discharge. 

It  possesses  on  the  other  hand  certain  ap- 
Iiarcnlly  inherent  properties  which  very  much 
limit  its  application,  and  which  absolutely  ex- 
clude it  from  many  of  the  fields  to  which 
storatje  batteries  are  applied ;  under  the  heading 
of  characteristics  these  pomts  will  be  more 
fully  brought  out. 

Electro- Chemical  Eqtutions  of  the  Lead- 
Sulphuric  Acid  Battery.—  The  oldest  and  most 
generally  used  type  of  storage  battery  employs 
as  its  active  materials  peroxide  of  lead  for  the 
positive  plate,  spongy  metallic  lead  for  the 
negative,  and  for  the  electrolyte  an  aQueous 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  of  about  25  to  40  per 

A  cell  of  this  land  is  diagrammatically  shov.n 
in  Fig.  5.  in  which  A  and  B  are  the  positive 
and  negative  dates,  respectively,  eadj  with  a 
coating  or  cake,  Cj  of  active  material,  held  in 
contact  with  it,  while  both  plates  ate  immersed 


-gle 


X84 


ELECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERY 


in   the   sulphuric   add   electrolyte,    held   in    a 

suitable  containing  jar. 

Between  sulphuric  acid  and  metallic  sponge 
lead  there  exists  a  strong  chemical  affinity, 
which  constitutes  the  basic  opera  ting  farce 
of  the  lead  cell. 

So  soon  as  the  internal  reactions  are  per- 
mitted to  take  place,  by  the  clositig  of  the 
external  circuit,  the  sulphuric  add,  HiSOi,  be- 
^ns  to  split  up,  SOi  going  to  the  negative  plate, 
there  combining  with  the  sponge  lead  to  form 
lead  sulphate,  PbSOi,  and  in  so  doin^  liberating 
at  the  negative  plale  a  quantity  of  minute  nega- 
tive charges  carried  by  the  individual  S0< 
'ions"  (as  these  disengagcdgroups are  termed); 
and  at  the  same  time  the  hydrogen,  Hi,  pro- 
ceeds to  the  positive  plate,  there  combining 
with  one  part  of  the  oxygen  of  the  lead  ^r- 
oxide  to  form  water,  and  giving  up  an  equiva- 
lent quantity  of  minute  positive  charges,  carried 
on  the  individual  H  "ions.^  Simultaneously  the 
PbO,  which  results  from  this  action,  unites 
with  another  part  of  HiSOi  to  form  lead 
sulphate  and  a  second  molecule  of  water. 

The  reaction  may  be  represented  as  follows ; 
Pb-f2H,SO.-fPbO.=PbSO.-l-2H.O-t-PbSO.. 

The  discharge  thus  results  in  the  formation 
of  lead  sulphate  at  both  plates,  the  disappear- 
ance of  sulphuiic  acid,  and  the  formation  of 
water  at  the  positive.  It  may  be  said,  in  brief, 
that  these  reactions  are  held  in  check  by  the 
fact  of  the  charge  upon  the  negative  plate 
acting  to  rmel  the  negatively  charged  SO. 
ions;  while  the  charge  upon  the  posiuve  plate 
in  like  manner  repels  the  positively  charged 
■  H  ions.  Immediately  the  respective  charges  upon 
the  two  plates  are  lessened  by  closing  the  ex- 
ternal circuit  (i.e.,  the  potential  difference  be- 
tween  them  is  reduced),  the  equilibrium  between 
electrical  and  chemical  forces  ceases  and  the 
ions  rush  to  the  respective  plates  and  discharge 
their  minute  unit  charges,  thereby  maintaining 
the  potential  difference  of  the  cell  nearly 
constant. 

But  if  there  be  applied-  to  the  cell  terminals 
a  potential  difference  slightly  greater  than  that 
of  equilibrium,  the  chemical  forces  are  over- 
balanced by  the  electrical,  with  the  result  that 
these  various  internal  movements  are  reversed, 
so  that  the  original  condition  of  the  "working 
parts"  is  restored,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  5. 

During  charge  there  are  thus  restored  to 
the  electrolyte  the  two  parts  of  H.SO,,  ab- 
sorbed by  the  plates  in  discharge,  and  simuU 
taneously  there  are  removed  the  two  parts  of 
water  given  off  in  discharee ;  at  all  times  there 
lemains  a  surplus  of  H,SUi  in  solution. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  charge  these  re- 
actions are  quite  complete,  so  that  the  active 
materials  are  entirely  converted  into  metallic 
lead  and  peroxide  of  lead,  respectively;  but 
that  on  discharge  thej^  are  never  in  practice 
carried  to  the  theoretical  limit,  and  a  large 
proportion,  usually  above  60  per  cent,  of  the 
metallic  lead  and  lead  peroxide  remains  even 
after  a  cell  is  completely  discharged.  The  fully 
charged  condition,  however,  is  not  accomplished 
with  100  per  cent  efficiency;  the  charge  fin 
ampere  hours)  must  exceed  the  discharge  by 
10-IS  per  cent,  the  loss  manifesting  itself  irf 
the  evolution  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

Brief  Historic^  Sketch  of  the  lead  Bat- 
tery.—  The  lead  storage  battety  of  to-day  exists 
in  several  distinct  tyites,  and  as  each  is  the 


survivor  of  many  unsuccessful  attempts,  and 
as  development  has  been  gradual,  it  is  con- 
venient to  treat  it  historically. 

About  the  year  1860  Planie,  experimenting 
with  a  number  of  electrolytic  cells,  placed  a 
couple  of  lead  plates  in  a  vessel  contaimng  weak 
sulphuric  acid,  through  which,  in  series  with  a 
galvanometer,  he  passed  an  electric  current. 
After  the  current  had  flowed  for  some  time  in 
one  direction,  he  stopped  it,  and,  bringing  the 
two  cell  terminals  together,  was  surprised  to 
find  from  a  reverse  swing  of  the  (ralvanometer, 
still  in  circuit,  that  the  cell  gave  hack  some  of 
the  electrical  energy  that  had  been  applied  to  it. 
Repetition  of  the  experiment  showed  that  the 
cell  slowly  but  steadily  gained  in  capacity  for 
storing  energy,  while  occasional  reversals 
greatly  accelerated  the  gain. 

The  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  as  we 
now  understand  it  is  this ;  Metallic  lead,  when 
placed  in  sulphuric  acid,  is  immediately  at- 
tacked, with  the  formation  of  a  thin  skin  of 
lead  sulphate,  which,  being  insoluble,  protects 
the  metallic  lead  inside  and  prevents  further 
action.  Electrolysis,  however,  converts  the 
sulphate  upon  the  positive  to  peroxide  of  lead 
and  permits  the  sulphuric  acid  to  work  a  little 
further  into  the  metal  beneath ;  and  it  is  thus 
that  the  action  is  cumulative  and  the  amount 
of  lead  in  a  porous  or  'active*  state  con- 
tinually increases.  Dectrolysis  affects  the  neca- 
live,  however,  merely  in  reducing  the  lead  sul- 
phate to  metallic  lead,  so  there  is  here  but  little 
cumulative  action,  and  hence  occauonal  reversal 
is  necessary  to  build  up  the  thin  skin  of  'active 
material*  on  both  plates  together. 

Months  of  charge,  discharge  and  reversal 
were  required  to  build  up  a  layer  sufficiently 
thick  to  make  a  battery  of  useful  capacity. 
Hence  other  inventors  set  about  to  shorten  this 
arduous  process,  known  as  "formation,*  and 
finally  Faure,  in  France,  and  Brush,  in  Americ^ 
about  simultaneously  discovered  that  they  could 
apply  to  the  plates  a  thick  coating  of  lead 
oxide,  made  into  a  sort  of  putty-like  paste  with 
sulphuric  acid,  which,  by  means  of  a  single 
slow  chat^,  was  converted  into  thoroughly 
porous  active  material. 

Subsequent  improvements  on  Plante's  proc- 
ess have  shortened  it  until  now  it  is  about  as 
quick  and  as  cheap  as  Faure's  process,  so  that 
at  the  present  time  both  are  successfully  em- 
ployed, the  Faure  very  much  the  more 
extensively. 

Plante  and  Pasted  Types  Compared.— 
The  Plante  and  'pasted*  types  as  now  used 
differ  very  distinctively  in  their  design,  though 
electrically  the  difference  is  much  less  than 
would  be  expected.  The  Plante  plate  consists 
of  pure  lead,  upon  the  surface  of  which  there 
is  "formed"  a  thin  layer  of  "active  material* 
having  a  thickness  of  the  order  of  a  few 
hundredths  of  an  inch.  The  layer  is  necessarily 
thin  in  order  to  prevent  its  peeling  off  readil};; 
hence  a  very  large  surface  is  required,  and  this 
is  usually  obtained  by  making  the  lead  plates 
in  the  form  of  a  number  ot  parallel  transverse 
leaves,  as  shown  in  Figs.  13  and  14. 

The  surface  is  increased  by  this  construc- 
tion anywhere  up  to  8  or  10  times  that  of  a 
plain  ^eet  of  equal  superficial  area. 

The  "pasted"  (Faure)  type,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  characterized  b^  a  relatively  thidt  mass 
of  porous  active  material,  retained  by  an  open- 


BLBCTRIC  8TORAOB  BATTBSY 


work  grid  or  Iattk«  of  lead-antimony  allojr, 
13  shown  in  Figs.  6,  7  and  8. 

Both  types  of  plate  can  be  used  as  either 
positive  or  negative,  but  certain  characteristics 
make  the  one  or  the  other  better  stiited  to 
particular  classes  of  service,  as  will  appear 
hereafter. 

Negatin  Plttta.— Exide  Negative.— Tbt 
negative  plate  of  a  lead  storage  battery,  at  least 
theoretically,  is  quite  a  simple  matter;  the 
sponge  lead  which  constitutes  the  active  ma- 
terial has  considerable  mechanical  tenacity  and 
is  therefore  relatively  easy  to  hold  in  place 
upon  the  skeleton  frames  or  'grids"  to  which  it 
is  applied.  There  is  no  destructive  action  upon 
the  lead- antimony  alloy  of  which  these  grids 
are  made,  and  they  may  therefore  be  as  liffht 
as  methods  of  manufacture  will  permit.  Fig,  6 
shows  a  n^ative  grid  of  the  type  which  is 
now  standard  in  the  United  States,  and  which 
is  still  best  known  under  its  orifnnal  name  of 
the  'Exide.'  Fig.  7  shows  a  cross-section  of 
the  same  grid,  and  shows  how  the  active  ma- 
terial occupying  the  interior  spaces  is  locked 


Fic.  7. 

Croa  SectiOD  —  Biide  Grid. 

from  three-thirty-seconds  to  one-fourth  inch, 

jnd  for  every  variety  of  purpose  for  which  lead 

Mtleries  are  employed. 

l^oi  Negative. —  For  some  purposes,  how- 
^r,  ii  is  desirable  to  have  a  plate  which  will 
P«  the  maximum  possible  life,  consequent  in- 
S**«o  wei^t  bein^  a  secondary  consideration. 
^0  meet  this  requirement  the  "box"  negative 


shown  in  Fig.  9  ii  used.  This  plate  may  be 
considered  as  a  development  of  the  exide  type, 
the  active  material  is  held  within 


Bifda  HtBitiye  Plata  — 

Vehicle  *nd  Gtneral  SErvic*. 

Appfxix-  1/5  lize. 

two  protecting  surfaces,  which,  in  the  case  of 
the  box  plate,  consist  of  finely  perforated  lead 
sheets,  while  in  the  exide  type  they  consist  of 
parallel  bars  with  relatively  large  openings 
between. 

The  box  plates  are  used  almost  entirely 
where  long  lite  is  the  main  consideration,  but 
the  greater  weight  of  grid,  with  consequent 
greater  cost,  has  caused  tnem  for  most  purposes 
to  be  superseded  by  the  Exide  type. 

The  grids  of  the  Exide  type  are  castings  of 
antimony-lead  alloy,  made  as  light  as  possible 
consistent  with  necessary  mechanical  and  elec- 
trical conductivity.  The  box  grids  are  com- 
posite, consisting  of  perforated  lead  sheets,  upon 
which  are  cast  intersecting  ribs,  or  bars,  of 
antimony-lead  alloy,  which  gave  the  necessary 
strength;  and  each  plate  consists  of  two  parts 
riveted  together,  with  the  active  material  en- 
closed between  them. 


Biide  NesBtive  Grid. 
About  1/5  siu. 

in  place  so  as  to  be  hoth  retained  and  protected, 
while  Fig.  8  shows  the  finished  plate,  the  active 
material  filling  all  the  interior  spaces.  This 
iJTie  oE  plate  is  used  in  siics  from  about  three 
square  inches  surface  up  to  700.  in  thickness 


Fig.  9. 
Ben  Na^tiM  Plate  —  Gaenl 
Stationary  Seivice  —  I-IO  liie. 

While  any  oxide  of  lead  may  be  used  for 
the  active  material  of  negative  plates,  a  long 
process  of  elimination  has  finally  resulted  in 


V_T 


oogle 


186 


ELECTRIC  STORAGE   BATTERV 


the  universal  adoption  of  litharge  PbO,  for  this 
purpose,  applied  a5  a  putly-iike  mass,  made  by 
mixing  the  litharge  with  dituie  siilphtiric  acid. 
An  initial  charge,  or  "formation,"  converts  the 
litharge  into  metallic  sponge  lead,  giving  the 
plate   a    characteristic   light    slate   color. 

Plonte  Negative.— There  are  still  a  few 
Planle  negatives  used,  in  this  country  only, 
such  a  one  being  shown  in  Fig.  10,  but  their 
weight  and  cost  are  against  them,  and  they 
are  to-dav  almost  a  thing  of  the  past. 

PositiTe  Plates,— The  positive  plate  offers 
a  more  complicated  problem,  chiefly  because 
lead  peroxide,  under  the  conditions  which  exist 
in  a  storage  battery,  does  not  possess  mucli 
sustained  mechanical  strength,  but  gradually 
becomes  soft,  and  in  time  is  loosened  from  the 
plate,  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  cell  and  ihence- 
fom'ard  plays  no  useful  part  in  the  life  of  the 
hatlcry. 

To  maintain  the  capacity  over  an  extended 
period  of  charges  aifd  discharges  three  distinct 
methods  are  employed. 


in  its  design  than  the  negative,  in  order  to 
withstand  the  greater  corrosion  and  mechanical 
stresses  to  which  it  is  subject.  While  various 
oxides,  or  mixtures  of  such,  are  used  by  differ- 


ent manufacturers  as  positive  active  material, 
the  usual  material  is  red  lead,  PhiOt,  mixed 
to  a  putty-like  mass  with  weak  sulphuric  acid, 
or  ammonium  sulphate  solution.  The  initial 
charge,  or  formation,  converts  this  into  lead 
peroxide,  a  material  which  when  dry  has  about 
the  consistency  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  a  very 
characteristic  dark  chocolate  brown  color. 

Plante  Positive.— The  Plante  plate  is  also 
subject  to  the  continual,  slow  washing  away  of 
its  lead  peroxide,  but  the  original  layer  is  more 
durable  than  the  peroxide  made  from  red  lead, 
so  it  lasts  a  considerable  time  in  spite  of  its 


Lighting  — 

Pasted  Positive.— In  the  pasted  type  of  plate, 
when  new,  only  a  part  of  the  lead  peroxide 
is  available  for  entering  into  the  chemical  re- 
actions of  the  celt,  as  Uie  acid  penetrates  only 
partially  into  the  interior  of  the  mass.  As  the 
surface  wears  away  the  action  penetrates  far- 
ther in,  and  thus  the  inner  part  of  the  mass 
acts  as  a  reserve  and  maintains  the  capacity 
for  a  number  of  cycles,  roughly  staled  at  300 
to  500.  By  maidng  the  plate  very  thin,  say  of 
the  order  of  one-eighth  inch,  the  reserve  of 
active  material  is  cm  down  lo  a  minimum,  hence 
giving  a  plate  of  maximum  capacity  per  unit 
of  weight,  but  of  relatively  shorter  life. 

Positive  plates  of  the  pasted  type  are  uni- 
versally employed  where  lightness,  or  maximum 
capacitj'  for  given  weight,  is  the  primary  con- 
sideration, and  the  correct  balance  between 
thick,  heavy  plates  of  long  life  and  thin,  light 
ones  of  shorter  life,  to  meet  special  conditions, 
is  a  continual  problem  to  the  designer.  The 
general  trend  of  modem  practice,  however,  is 
toward  much  thinner  plates  than  were  thought 
practicable  a  few  years  ago,  a  thickness  of 
three -thirty- seconds   inch   being   quite   common. 

The  Exide  type  of  pasted  plate.  Fig.  11. 
which  has  become  standard  in  the  United  States, 
and  largely  so  in  Europe,  is  very  similar  to  the 
negative  plate,  except  as  to  its  active  material. 
The  grid.  Fig.  12,  is,  however,  more  substantial 


thinness.  Moreover,  all  the  while  that  the 
original  layer  is  disintegrating  and  falling  away, 
the  electrolytic  action  is  penetrating  farther 
into  the  metallic  lead  of  the  plate  and  forming 


EUICTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERY 


1S7 


fresh  active  material,  in  the  manner  of  the 
Plante  formation,  and  thus  there  is  a  balance 
between  toss  and  gain,  and  the  capacity  of  the 
plate  is  maintained  for  a  long  period,  say  about 


performs  the  electro-chemical  function  of  the 

The  comtiined  mechanical  and  electrical  en- 
durance of  this  type  of  plate  has  given  it  a  veiy 
broad  field  of  application ;  its  weight,  roughly 
triple  the  pasted  type,  and  its  consequent  coat 

.;....-  iij  chief  limitations. 


CroM-Scction  Tudor  Pcoi 


vPlat. 


Motto 


two  or  three  times  as  long  as  in  the  case  of  the 

Eistcd  plates.  For  effecting  this  extended  life, 
Dwevcr,  there  is  requirea  a  large  reserve  of 
pure  lead;  so  that  in  actual  practice  the  Plante 
plates  weigh  from  two  to  three  times  as  much 
as  pasted  plates  of  equal  capacity. 

Figs.  13  and  14  show  a  Plante  type  of  plate 
known  in  this  country  as  the  •Tudor."  used 
largely  in  Europe,  and  consisting  of  an  integral 
one-piece  casting;  while  Fig.  10,  though  actually 
a  negative,  may  be  used  as  illustrating  the 
Gould  type,  made  from  rolled  sheet  lead,  by  a 
spinning  process. 

In  this  country  and  in  England  a  modified 
Plante  plate,  known  as  the  "Manchester,*  has 
largely  superseded  all  of  the  above,  chiefly  on 
accoimt  of  its  superior  mechanical  construction. 
The  Planle  plate  is  made  of  pure  lead,  because 
this  metal  is  attacked  by  the  electrolytic  action 
at  about  the  right  rate  to  replace  the  loss  of 
lead  peroxide;  but  pure  lead  is  very  sofl.  hence 
these  plates  are  much  subject  to  buckling  and 
breaking.  The  Manchester  plate  (Fig.  IS) 
differs  in  that  a  rigid  grid,  or  frame,  of  anti- 


Geneial  Swiioniry  Scrvico. 
1/10  liie. 

Ironelad  Type. —  During  the  past  five  years 
a  third  type  of  positive  plate  has  come  into 
prominence  in  this  country,  fotmded  on  the 
principle  firft  successfully  developed  by  Phili- 
part,  in    France,    about  the  year    1898.     This 


plate,  known  as  the  "Ironclad,"  is  shown  in 
Fig.  1^  and  differs  from  those  heretofore  dis- 
cussed in  that  a  porous  exterior  envelope  retains 
the  active  material  in  place,  so  that  the  large 
reserve  ncccssarj'  with  other  ^pes  is  here 
unnecessary. 


Pic.  14. 
Tudor  Positive  Ptau  tor  Train 

Lighting.     1/5  siie. 

mony-lead  alloy  furnishes  mechanical  strength, 
while  small,  pure  lead,  spirally  wound  "hut- 
tons'  (Fig.  16)  inserted  in  holes  of  the  grid 
(Fig.  17)    furnish   the  active   material   which 


Fic.  17. 
SecUon  of  MaDcbgnn-  Plat*. 

TTie  i^ate  consists  of  a  number  of  cylindrical 
pencils,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  section  in 
Fig.  19;  a  central-lead  ant'mony  core  fur- 
ni^es  support  and  conductivity  for  the  sur- 
lounding  mass  of  active  material,  itself  again 
enveloped  bv  the  perforated  hard  rubber  tubes 
(Fig.  IS).    The  perforations  in  the  tube  consist 


BLECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERY 


of  minute  fiaw  cuts  of  the  order  of  one  one- 
hundredth  inch  wide;  and  so  effective  are  these 
tubes  as  "reuiners"  that  the  plates  which  em- 
ploy   them    have    a    life    approximating    1,000 


come  the  'separators.*  Considerations  of  qtace, 
weight  and  tlectrical  resistance  all  demand  that 
adjacent  positive  and  negauve  plates  be  main- 
tained as  close  together  as  possible,  yet  without 
touching  anywhere.  To  fulfil  these  require- 
ments spacers  or  separators  of  some  sort  are 
inserted  between  them.  Here  again  countless 
schemes  hnve  been  tested  out,  but  to-day  prac- 
tically only  two  types  have  survived,  and  these 
often  used  in  conjunction. 

The  older  of  the  two  is  the  perforated  rub- 
ber separator,  shov,-n  in  Fig.  20,  as  a  flat  sheet 
of  pcrfoisrcd  hard  rubber,  and  often,  when 
used  alone,  provided  with  a  series  of  parallel 
ridge*  on   one   side,    to  afford  sufficient  add 


«od  GtnerBl  Service. 
Appcoi.  1/5  lilt, 

CTcles  of  charge  and  discharge,  being  two  to 
three  times  that  of  the  flat  plates,  Fir.  11,  in 
which   the  active  material  is  left  exposed. 

The  hfe  of  the  Ironclad  plate  is  thus  about 
the  same  as  that  of  a  Tudor  or  Manchester 
plate,  while  its  capadty-weif^t  ratio  is  about 
on  a  par  with  the  pasted  types. 

With  the  Ironclad  plate  loosening  and  wash- 
ing out  of  the  active  material  is  reduced  t 


Flu  Pnfonted  Rnbbcr  Seiiantor 

Space  between  plates.     When  so  used,  however, 
even  though  the  holes  be  smalt,  "trees*  of  lead  . 
are  very  apt  lo  develop  on  the  negative  plates, 
which   in   time   find   thdr  way   through   to   the 
positives  and  cause  short-drcuils. 

The  perforated  rubber  separator  used  by 
itself  is  thttefore  not  satisfactory  and  has  been 
almost  entirely  replaced  by  the  wood  separator, 
examples  of  which  are  shown  in  Figs.  21  and  22. 


Pk;.  1«. 

Vertical  Section  Iroocted  Tube 
Approi-  1/2  liie. 

..  .  _j  and,  contrary  lo  what  might  be  ex- 
pected, tnc  protective  ruhber  lube  offers  but 
veiy  slighlly  increased  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  the  electric  current. 

This  type  of  plate,  in  conjunction  with  an 
exide  negative  of  suitable  thickness,  is  fast 
becoming  standard  in  this  country  in  all  portable 
service  where  durability  is  a  prime  factor. 

SeparatorB.— Thus  far  we  have  limited  our- 
selves to  the  question  of  the  plates  of  the  lead 
battery;  but  though  they  undoubtedly  constitute 
the  greater  problem  of  storage  battery  design, 
yet  the  manner  in  which  ihcy  are  assembled  is 
almost  as  important  as  the  design  of  the  plates 
themselves;  and  next  in  order  of  importance 


Gmond  Wood  Separator — 
Vehicle  uid  Gencidl  Service. 

In  the  one  rase  the  separator  is  a  veneer  abont 
one-sixteenth  inch  thick,  with  split  wood  dowels 
slipped  over  it  to  give  the  necessary  space 
between  plates;  in  the  other  it  is  made  of  a 


■I^CTSIC  STORAGE  BATTERY 


thicker  piece,  (troorcd,  and  in  either  inttatice 
treated  by  a  special  chemical  process.  The  dis- 
tifictive  feature  of  the  wood  separator  is  that 
it  is  not  perforwed,  with  the  result  that  short- 
circuits  are  practically  eliminated,  while  its 
electrical  rcjistance  is  nevertheless  almost  neg- 
ligible. 


General  Aaaeinbty. —  So  much  variety  ex- 
ists in  the  details  of  assembly  employed  by  dif- 
ferent manufacturers  and  for  different  purposes 


In  many  cases  the  grooved  separator  and 
plain  perforated  rubber  are  used  together,  the 
flat  of  the  wood  against  the  negative  plate,  this 
making  an  excellent  combination,  used  in  most 
of  the  vehicle  propulsion  and  many  other  port- 
able batteries. 

The  flat  veneer  with  split  dowels  is  used 
chiefly  in  large  stationary  (latteries,  where  the 
grooving  would  constitute  too  great  a  wastage 
of  wood. 

Containers.— The  vessels  which  contain  the 
complete  element  —  plates,  separators  and  acid  — 
are  of  three  different  lands:  hard-rubber  jars, 
where  lightness  and  ruggeduess  are  required, 
that  is,  for  all  kinds  of  portable  service;  glass 
jars  for  stationary  service  in  the  smaller  si^es; 
lead-lined  wooden  tanks  for  the  larger  station- 
ary installations. 

Electrolyte.— The  electrolvte  in  lead  bat- 
teries is  dilute  sulphuric  acid  of  the  highest 
available   purity  and  of  strength  varying  ac- 


that  it  will  be  ^lossible  to  mention  only  a  few 
of  the  controlling  factors  and  lo  give  a  few 
illustrations  of  complete  cells  (Ftgs.  24,  25 
and  28). 

In  all  present-day  designs,  positive  and  nega- 
tive plates  are  placed  alternately  side  by  side, 
all  of  like  polarity  being  firmly  united  into 
■groups'  by  means  of  'lugs'  which  project 
from  the  tqrper  comers.    Fig.  23  shows  a  posi- 


Plau  Groupi  fcrt  Auto  Stairting  Battery  of 
Fig.  as.     1/6  liu. . 

cording  to  conditions.  Where  space  and  weight 
are  of. utmost  importance,  stronger  acid,  about 
1^80  specilic  gravity,  is  employed,  but  where 
these  items  are  non-essential  a  greater  bulk  of 
weaker  acid,  say  1,200  specific  gravity,  s 
belter,  in  that  it  causes  less  Toss  froi 
action,  especially  on  the  negative  plates. 


I  local 


tive  and  a  iiegaiive  group  as  used  in  the  small 
auto  starting  battery  of  Fig.  26;  and  these  illus- 
trations also  show  the  general  manner  in  which 


8l^ 


aao 


BIACTBK  8TDSA0B  SATTCRT 


tbe  plates  are  united,  by  a  lead  wddiiw  process, 
to  the  connecting  straps  which  form  the  termi- 
nals of  the  cell. 

The  corrosive  action  of  the  acid  electrolyte 
make;  this  lead  welding  necessary,  and  in  most 
instances  it  is  applied,  not  only  in  fastening  the 
plates  to  the  cell  terminals,  but  also  in  fasten- 
ing  adjacent   cell    terminals    together,    so   that 


of  electro  deposited  lead.  In  I^.  27  it  shown  a 
connector  as  tised,  not  only  for  auto  starting 
batteries,  but  for  most  other  portable  and  Mmi- 


Approl 

there  is  a  solid  metallic  contact  from  cell  to 
cell  throughout  the  whole  battery. 

Between  the  plates,  and  thus  keeping  them 
apart,  lie  the  separator; ;  the  whole  element  so 
proportioned  as  to  fill  the  container,  tightly  in 
portable  batteries,  somewhat  loosely  in  station- 

The  plates  are  usually  either  supported  upon 
ridges  projecting  upward  from  the  bottom  of 
the  jar  (Fig.  24)  or  are  suspended  from  the 
top  of  the  jar  (Fig.  25)  or  from  the  lid  or  in 
some  equivalent  manner. 

Tight  covers  for  the  containers  ha*e  to  be 
provided  only  for  portable  service;  stationary 
cells  are  generally  left  open  for  ready  inspection 
and  access. 

Qeneral  Principle!  of  Complete  Batterr 
Assembly,— Till  now  we  have  dealt  with  only 
the  single  cell,  which  forms  the  electrical  unit 
of  which  a  battery  is  built  up.  This  unit  has 
a  current  output  dependent  upon  the  number 
and  size  of. plates  which  it  contains,  while  its 
electro-motive  force  has  a  fixed  value,  roughly 
two  volts,  virtually  independent  of  its  size. 
Hence  the  current  requirements  of  a  given  bat- 
tery dciernuiic  the  n'ne  of  cells  (o  be  employed, 
and    the    votlage   requirements   the   number   of 


8«rnc(.    CoBtaiiu  45  pUla  a*  ui 
Pifl.  29.       Approa.  1/20  Aiib 

portable  types.  Composed  of  lead,  or  alloy,  it 
IS  made  to  fit  over  the  tapered  terminal  posts 
(Fig.  23),  to  which  it  is  permanently  secured 
by  means  of  a  hydrogen  flame,  or  its  equivalent, 
which  melts  the  lead  of  both  post  and  connector 
till   ihq;  flow  together   and  become  united 

In  Fig.  25  there  are  no  connectors  proper, 
die  pure  lead  straps  to  which  the  plates  are 
attached  having  prolongations  adapted  to  be 
boiled  together  from  cell  to  cell. 


cells  to  be  used  in  series.  As  the  field  of  the 
storage  battery  is  ver^  broad,  so  the  design 
varies  greatly,  including  almost  every  con- 
ceivable combination  from  the  small  ihree-cetl 
battery  for  auto  starling  (Fig.  26)  to  the  large 
central  station  balterv  of  150  cells,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  30. 

Inter-Cell  Connectors.— For  connecting  the 
individual  cells  logelher  electrically  various 
forms  of  "connectors"  and  "bus  bars"  arc  in  use, 
usually  made  of  lead  or  lead-aniimony  alloy, 
occasionally  of  copper,  protected  by  a  coating 


In  the  large  stationary  batteries  the  plates 
of  adjareiii  cells  are  as  nearly  as  possible 
welded  directly  together,  each  plate  (Fig.  29) 


fttaCTKIC  STOftAtifi  bAtlTBRV 


having;  a  projecting  lug*  which  reaches  part 
way  over  the  edge  of  the  cell  where  all  are 
Dnited  to  a  substantial  lead  bus  bar,  as  in  Fig. 
30  and  at  "D»  in  Fig.  28.  The  bus  bar  "C"  in 
this  figure  is  one  of  the  battery  terminals,  and 
the  lead  is  reinforced  by  a  large  tapered  plate 
of'copper,  to  which  is  bolted  the  copper  bar  that 
connects   the  battery  to  the  switchboard. 

In  Fig.  30  are  shown  a  number  of  these 
terminals  with  the  large  coppers  leading  oS. 
In  this  instance  the  battery  is  so  arranged  that 
the  number  of  cells  in  circuit  may  be  varied 


'  Capadtr  ll.Vn  4nip.  for 

■tsDil*  abtiat  four  leei  mgo. 

by  means  of  a  rootor  operated  "end  cell  switch,* 
so  as  to  vary  the  voltage  at  will,  or  more  usually 
to  maintain  the  voltage  constant  by  throwing 
in  additional  cells  as  the  E  M  F  oi  each  falls 
off  during  the  progress  of  discharge. 

Iniulation.—  In  the  small  portable  batteries, 
such  as  the  auto  starting  type,  insulation  of  the 
individual  cells  is  easily  accomplislied  by  the 
rubber  jars  themselves,  which  accordingly  are 
placed  side  by  side  in  a  box  of  suitable  siie. 
When,  however,  a  number  of  such  cells,  say 
40  or  more,  are  connected  in  series,  aj  in 
Fig.  36,  ti  IS  found  necessary  to  divide  the 
series  amongst  a  number  of  boxes,  or  'trays,* 
each  one  preferably  containing  not  more  than 
8  or  10  cells. 

In  small  stationary  batteries  a  flat  glass 
tray  under  each  cell  is  often  used,  as  shown  in 
Fig  25,  a  little  sand  being  placed  in  the  bottom 
to  ^ve  an  even  seat  for  the  glass  jar.  Larger 
stanonary  cells  are  usually  provided  with 
double  insulation  of  some  kind;  thus  in  Fig.  28 
the  tank  rests  upon  a  glass-oil  insulator,  ■B," 
which  in  turn  is  supported  by  a  large  inverted 
Stoneware  cup,  'A.' 

CharactenaticB  of  the  Storage  Battery.— 
The  primary  useful  quantities  furnished  by  a 
storage  battery  are  eitctromotivt  ferct,  or 
P.D.  (measured  in  volts),  and  current  (meas- 
ured in  amperes)  ;  since  the  time  during  which 
a  given  current  may  be  maintained  is  frequently 
of  controlling  importance  there  arises  a  thirfl 
quantity  called  the  capacity,  the  product  of  the 
current  and  the  time  which  the  battery  can  fur- 
nish it.  Freguently  the  relation  of  these  three 
pnmarjF  attributes  to  the  weight  of  the  battery 
w  a  vital  factor;  while  the  effects  of  internal 
"Jwsuice  and   temperature   are    scarcely  less 


important.  The  characteristics  of  a  battery 
therefore  consist  of  the  relations  of  these  quan- 
tities one  with  another.  In  the  following  dis- 
cussion the  unit  considered  is  in  every  case  a 
single  cell. 

In  speaking  of  the  discharge  of  a  battery, 
the  term  discharge  rale  is  very  frequently  used, 
commonly  expressed  in  terms  of  the  time  dur- 
ing which  the  discharge  can  be  maintained;  the 
four-hour  rate  for  instance  being  that  rate 
which  the  battery  can  hold  for  four  hours. 
The  so-called  "normal  rate,"  originally  that  for 
which  llie  battery  was  intended,  is  actually  of 
but  little  significance,  since  the  modem  battery 
may  be  disdiarged  at  almost  any  rate  without 
injury. 

The  capacity  is  limited  by  the  fall  of  voltage 
to  a  point  where  usefulness  ceases,  this  point 
being  a^in  arbitrary,  but  through  large  experi- 
ence fairly  well  defined  as  about  1.60-1.80  for 
the  lead  cell,  about  0.6-1.0  for  the  Edison  type. 

Many  variations  exist  in  the  design  of  mod- 
em storage  batteries,  and  each  design  possesses 
its  own  characteristics ;  the  curves  which  fol- 
low are  chosen  as  fairly  representative,  but  of 
course  cannot  pretend  to  tit  all  cases. 

Characteristics  of  the  Bdisoa  CelL— 
Capacity  —  Temperature. —  The  capacity  of  a 
given  Edison  cell  is  very  nearly  a  constant 
quantity  independent  of  the  rate  of  discharge, 
amounting  under  ordinary  conditions  to  about 
11.5  ampere  hours  per  pound  The  capacity  is, 
however,  very  markedly  dependent  upon  tem- 
perature, to  an  extent  which  varies  with  the 
discharge  rate.  This  variation  with  tem[>era- 
ture  is  so  great  that  there  results  a  cnticsl 
point,  below  which  the  Edison  cell  becomes 
practically  inoperative;  and  siace  this  point  is 
from  30-50'  F.,  depending  on  conditions,  it 
constitutes  one  of  the  chief  limitations  to  the 
usefulness  of  this  form  of  battery.  If  given  a 
chance  to  discharge  rapidly,  when  slightly  below 
the  critical  temperature,  the  battery  will  grad- 
ually warm  itself;  but  for  immediate  action  at 
low  temperatures  it  is   unworkable. 

Voltage  — '^P.D.*— Fig.  31  shows  a  typical 
voltage  curve  of  an  Edison  cell  during  its 
"normal"  or  five-hour  rate  of  discharge,  and 


at  higher  rates  it  becomes  lower.  Fig.  32  sum- 
marizes a  number  of  discharge  curves  by  ^ving 
the  initial,  the  mean  and  the  final  voltage  at 
rates  up  to  six  times  the  normal.    It  is  notice- 


current  obtainable  is  only  about  14  times 
(he  normal,  while  the  maximum  watt  output 
is  reached  at  about  seven  limes  the  normal  rate. 

It  is  of  interest  to  notice  that  the  mean  volt- 
age of  the  Edison  cell  is  about  60  per  cent  that 
of  the  lead  type  and  that  the  percentage  drop 
during  discharge  is  about  triple  with  the 
Edison.  It  is  thus  necessary  to  employ  at 
least  65  per  cent  more  cells  of  Edison  type  for 
a  given  discharge  voltage;  and  still  more  than 
this  if  the  disuiarge  rate  be  high. 

Efficiency, —  Comparing  the  mean  values  of 
the  two  curves  of  Fig.  31  we  arrive  at  the 
value  —  72  per  cent  — as  the  mean  volt  ^- 
ciency;  the  corrcspan<Kng  ampere  hour  efficiency 
is  approximately  88  per  cent,  while  the  watt 
hour,  or  energy  efficiency,  the  product  of  tfaeie 
twO)   is  63  per  cent. 


joogle 


ELECTRIC  STORAaE  BATTERY 


In  actual  practice,  the  charging  is  frequentlj 
done  from  a  fixed  source  of  vdtage  equal  to 
or  slightly  exceeding  the  maximum,  1.75  in  the 
present  case ;  hence  under  these  conditions,  the 
■commercial*  voltage  efficiency  is  but  68  per 

Also,  in  practice  the  charge  required  is 
greater  than  that  shown  in  Fig.  30,  so  that 


show  that  at  ordinary  temperatures  and  mod- 
erate discharge  rales  the  Edison  battery  may 
give  excellent  service  At  high  rates,  or  low 
temperatures,  however,  its  performance  is  so 
limited  that  it  is  now  seldom  used  where  such 
conditions  prevail.  It  is  these  conditions  which 
have  excluded  it  entirely  from  the  field  of  auto 
self -starting;  while  on  the  other  hand,  in  other 


jsnoL  CfuBfr ^  fitrouefe  cuevEr  or einsy/ cm.-/^iie'iAL  ens 


actually  the  ampere  efficiency  is  about  80  per 
cent.  The  commercial  watt  hour  efficiency  of 
the  Edison  battery,  where  worked  to  its  full 
capacity  and  charged  from  a  source  of  constant 
voltage,  is  thus  found  in  actual  practice  to 
average  hardly  above  55  per  cent.  Where 
charged  from  a  source  of  variable  voltage,  and 
where  worked  to  partial  capacity  only,  the  effi- 


_  _ ,  _._ ,  train  lighting  and  mine 

lamps,  it  has  proved  very  satisfactoir. 

CharacteristicB  of  the  Lead  Cell.— 
Coj6aci(ji. —  The  capacity  of  a  given  lead  cell  is 
mainly   dependent   upon   two   variable   factors: 

(1)  Oic  rate  ai  which  it  is  dischai^d,   and 

(2)  its  temperature. 

1.  The  effect  of  varied  discharge  rates  is 


Ampckcs  /m  /-Mn^us  or  HiB-M.  i>»fOiiafe  iBira- 


ciency  may  be  much  higher,  depending  on  actual 
conditions. 

Capacity  and  Weight.—  The  ener^  capacity 
of  the  Edison  cell  at  normal  rate  and  tempera- 
lure  is  about  14  watt  hours  per  pound.  With 
higher  rates,  or  lower  temperatures,  this  value 
falls  very  markedly. 

Summary. —  The  characteristics  noted  above 


shown  by  the  curved  line  in  Fig.  33,  from  which 
it  will  be  seen  that  (he  capacity  varies  inversely 
with  the  rate,  though  not  in  direct  ratio.  While 
the  abscissie  of  this  figure  show  the  discharge 
rate  in  terms  of  the  normal,  vertical  lines  at 
intervals  give  the  rate  in  terms  of  the  duration 
of  discharge. 

The  shape  of  this  curve  is  very  characteris- 


V_i 


oogic 


ELECTRIC  STOSAGE  BATTERY 


tic  of  all  lead  batteries,  though  differences  in 
design  modify  it  appreciably.  Thinner  plates 
Imd  to  fftve  a  flatter  curve,  thicker  ones  a 
more  slopitig  one. 

A  very  important  corollary  of  the  variation 
of  capacity  with  rate  exists  in  the  fact  that 
a  lead  cell  which  has  been  completely  dis- 
durged  at  a  high  rate,  if  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  hours,  will  largely  recover,  so  as  to  ffivt 
a  considerable  further  dischara;e.  In  the  case 
of  a  continuous  discharge  of  diminishing  rate, 
the  ultimate  capaciw  approaches  that  which 
would  have  obtained  had  the  final  rate  been 
maintained  throughout.  In  the  operation  of 
an  electric  vehicle  the  rates  on  starting,  up 
grades,  etc.,  exceed  the  normal  rate  by  6ve 
to  one  or  more ;  yet  owing  to  the  periods  of 
rest,  or  low  rate,  the  capacity  attainable  is 
praclically  identical  with  that  of  »  continuous 
normal  rate  discharge.  The  normal  rate  for 
batteries  of   this  kind   is  usually  that  corre- 


again  to  Fig.  33,  the  three  upper  lines, 
the  scale  of  ordinates  at  the  right  hand  side, 
sumtnariic  the  effect  upon  voltage  of  various 
discharge  rates  up  to  10  limes  the  normal. 
It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  at  10  times  normal 
the  mean  voltage  has  lost  but  20  per  cent; 
that  the  maximum  watt  output  occurs  at  about 
25  times  normal;  and  that  short  circuit  gives 
about  50  times  normal  discharge  current.  Com- 
parison between  these  curves  and  the  corre- 
sponding ones  for  the  Edison  battery,  Fig.  32, 
is  very  significant  The  Edison  battery  is 
inferior  (a)  in  that  it  has  a  much  greater  per- 
centage drop  in  voltage  during  discharge  at  any 
ftven  rate,  and  (b)  in  that  the  lead  battery  can 
ischarge  at  about  three  times  as  high  a  rate 
as  the  Edison. 

2.  Acid  Change  («GroMiy»).— It  has  been 
pointed  out  in  discussing  electric-chemical 
equations,  that  the  amount  of   free  sulphuric 


"I 


AHrrFcsMt/'txTincorNKrtAL  fiisc/**efe  /PATe 


sponditK  to  a  continuous  discharge  of  four 
or  five  hours. 

2-  Temperature  at  time  of  discharge  exer- 
cises a  direct  influence  upon  capacity  to  the 
extent  of  about  6^  per  cent  per  10  degrees 
F.  It  thus  comes  about  that  at  0°  the  lead 
baitery  has  about  54  per  cent  normal  capacity, 
and  that  it  is  perfectly  workable  at  temperatures 
much  lower  even  than  this,  especially  where 
the  discharge  rate  is  lower  than  normal. 

DiKharge  Phenomena.— 1.  Voltage  (or 
PO).— Of  equal  importance  vvith  the  capacity 
of  a  baitery  is  its  voltage  characteristic,  a 
5Tiical  curve  of  whidi  is  shown  in  Fig.  34. 
Stattinf!  off  at  approximately  two  volts,  there 
>s  a  gradual  falling  off,  till  the  end  approaches, 
"hen  the  vohage  rapidly  drops  below  a  use- 
ful value.  The  curve  shown  is  for  the  normal 
ri'e.  bot  is  fairly  indicative  of  the  general 
whavior  of  a  lead  cell  on  disdiarge.  With 
•Uflher  rate^  however,  the  curve  is  lower 
tbrmigfaont   its    length,   and   more  nearly  ap- 


acid  varies  as  discharge  proceeds,  and  the 
third  curve  of  Fig.  34  shows  for  a  particular 
case  what  this  change  amounts  to.  Barring 
the  fact  of  a  lag  at  the  start,  the  change  of 
acid,  measured  by  hydrometer,  varies  directly 
with  the  ampere  hours  drawn  from  the  cell ; 
but  the  amount  of  change  depends  so  entirely 
upon  the  relative  volume  of  acid  contained  in 
a  given  cell,  that  the  numerical  values  of  this 
curve  in  Fig.  34  have  no  general  significance. 
3.  Temperature  Change. —  The  lead  cell  to 
a  slight  extent  is  a  thermo-electric  accimiu- 
tator,  inasmuch  as  a  slight  disappearance 
of  heat  accompanies  the  dis^arge.  This  phe- 
nomena is  graphically  shown  in  the  lower  curve 
of  Fig.  34,  where  it  is  seen  that  the  tempera- 
ture dropped  9'  F.  during  discharge.  At 
higher  rates,  the  heat  goierated  by  internal 
electric  friction  overbalances  that  absorbed,  and 
at  the  one  hour'  rate  the  temperature  rises 
about  to  the  same  amount  as  it  dropped  at 
normal  rate.     The  absorption  o{  heat  on  di»- 


V_i 


oogle 


ISf 


VLSCTKIC   8TORAGS   BATTmtY 


charge,  wbile  of  mnch  theoretic  intcrett,  is  of 
Uttle  practical  value. 

Inttmal  Rttistanee. —  One  of  the  most 
valuable  attributes  of  the  lead  Iwtlery  is  its 
high  conductivity,  which  enabks  it  to  yield  up 
its  stored  energy  at  extremely  high  rates.  It 
is  impossible  to  state  the  resistance  definitely 
owing  to  variation  of  design;  but  by  way  of 
illustration  it  may  be  said  that  a  cell  of  the 
type  from  which  Fig,  34  was  taken,  having  a 
normal  rate  of  35  amperes,  has  an  internal  re- 
sistance of  about  .0014  ohms  at  beginninfi,  and 
.0028  ohms  at  end  of  discharge.  Since  it  is 
mainly  throu^  its  influence  upon  vollasie  that 
internal  resistance  is  of  interest,  the  data  fur- 
nished by  the  curves  of  Fig.  33  give  the  iwac- 
tical  information  required  better  than  an  at- 
tempted formula  for  calculating  resistance. 

Efficiency  —  During  diarge,  the  P.  D.  of  a 
lead  cell  starting  at  about  two  volts  rises  gradu- 


ditions,  the  volt  efficiency  is  nbftiit  75  per  cent. 
the  watt  hour  efficiency  about  65  per  cent. 
These  condttioiu  are  the  most  prevalent,  except 
when  a  battery  is  charged  airectly  from  a 
generator,  whose  voltage  is  made  to  vaiy  ac- 
cording to  the  charging  curve. 

Capacity  Wtigkt  Ratios.— The  capacity  per 
unit  weight  of  lead  storage  batteries  varies  all 
the  way  between  1.4  ampere  hour  per  pound  of 
cell  in  the  heavier  stationary  types,  such  as  Fig. 
2S,  to  about  5J  in  the  lightest  thin  plate  types 
for  portable  service.  Fig.  26.  These  fignres,  as 
a  basis  of  comparison,  refer  in  all  cases  to  a 
discharge  rate  approximating  the  five-hour.  To 
find  tKe  corresponding  values  for  other  rates, 
reference  should  be  had  lo  the  capacity  curve 
of  Fi^.  33,  bearing  in  mind  that  100  per  cent  in 
this  figure  corresponds  to  an  actual  capacity  of 
4.6  ampere  hours  per  pound. 

Since   the    mean    discharge    voltage    under 


Timm  CftK^e  S  tmutv^  Cxrer  or  tea  ceiL-NxruL  etrr 

Pic  34. 


ally  and  finally  becomes  constant  at  a  rather 
indefinite  value,  from  2,5  to  2.6  volls,  follow- 
ing the  general  trend  of  the  upper  curve  of  Fig. 
34.  The  mean  hei{^I  of  this  curve  is  2.3  volts; 
that  of  the  discharge  curve  I.9S  volts.  Hence 
the  volt  etficiencv  is  85  per  cent. 

In  commercial  operation,  it  is  found  neces- 
sary that  the  charge  exceed  the  discharge  by 
about  15  per  cent,  so  that  (he  ampere  hour 
efficiency  is  about  87  per  cent,  the  watt  hour 
efficiency  about  75  per  cent.  When  worked  to 
less  than  100  per  cent  capacity,  both  voltage  and 
cuiTent  efficiency  are  hi^ier;  so  that  in  such 
cases  it  may  reach  or  even  exceed  90  per  cent. 
as  in  reguladi^  service,  where  charge  and  dis- 
charge succeea  each  other  rapidly  and  for  a 
few  minutes  duration  only. 

Where  a  battery  is  charged  from  a  fixed 
voltage,  on  the  other  hand,  this  voltage  must  at 
least  equal  that  at  the  end  of  the  charge;  hence 
fi^Kre  worked  to  full  capacity  under  diese  con- 


these  conditions  is  approximately  1.95  i 
lows  that  the  energy  capacity  of  a  c 
lively  designed  battery  for  portable  service  (as 
in  Fig.  24)  is  about  9  watt  hours  per  pound ;  for 
the  lightest  types  in  commercial  use  (Fig.  26) 
about  11. 

It  is  a  prevalent  and  quite  natural  idea  that 
because  the  ordinary  storage  battery  is  made  of 
lead,  it  is  therefore  unduly  heavy.  But  when  it 
is  stated  that  each  pound  wei^t  of  battery  can 
store  up  24,000  fool-pounds,  it  may  be  readily 
appreciated  that  the  electric  stora^  battery  of 
to-day  is  by  far  the  most  effective  piece  of 
mechanism  known  for  storing  energy.  Put  in 
slightly  different  form,  it  mair  be  stated  that  the 
modem  battery  of  conservative  and  substantia] 
design,  as  in  Fig.  24,  can  give  out,  in  the  space 
of  five-hours,  electrical  energy  sufficient  to  lift 
itself  approximately  five  miles  high. 

Care  and  Operation^  To  give  a  complete 
treatise  on  battery  operation,  covermg  the  triiole 


BLBCTRIC   S'TOKAOE  BATTBRY 


tSB 


varied  field  to  wlm^  bsttteics  are  afphed,  would 
be  beyond  the  scope  at  thh  article;  but  a  few 
fundamental  principles  which  are  applicable  to 
all  cues  may  be  briefly  stated. 

I.  Core  of  Electralytt.—  Evaporation  of  Ae 
water  of  the  electrolyte  is  constantly  taldnR 
place,  especially  while  the  cdl  is  gassing  freely 
at  the  end  of  dtarge;  this  must  be  made  up  by 
periodic  additions  of  water.  Since  the  amount 
of  water  thus  added  during  the  life  of  a  bat- 
tery is  many  times  the  on^nal  amount  con- 
bined,  any  impurities  in  the  water  accumulate 
quite  rapidly.     Hence  it  is  very  important 


becomes  gradually  more  and  more  converted 
into  lead  sulphate,  until  in  time  it  ceases  to 
function.  Very  long  continued  charge  is  then 
necessary  to  restore  it  to  a  working  condition. 
If  on  the  other  hand  it  be  charged  too  much, 
the  gas  bubbles  liberated  from  the  plates  give 
rise  to  a  softening  and  eroding  action  upon  the 
positive  material,  which  detaches  it  from  the 
plates,  and  in  time  leaves  the  grids  bare,  and  no 
longer  workable.  Experience  has  demonstrBted 
that  best  results  are  obtained  when  each  charge 
exceeds  in  ampere  hours  the  previous  discharge 
by  about  15  per  cent. 

Several  methods  are  in  use  for  determinlni; 
Ae  correct  amount  of  charge,  as  follows :  (a) 
The  'ampere  hout*  metre  shows  directly,  both 
the  current  withdrawn  on  discharge  and  that 
put  in  on  charge,  from  which  the  tatter  may  be 
regulated;  a  very  generall^r  effective  method 
when  the  discharge  current  is  not  too  low,  say 
10  per  cent  of  tne  normal,  (b)  The  battery 
may  be  chared  till  the  voltage  ceases  to  rise; 
one  of  the  older  and  less  reliable  methods.  (c> 
The  best  indication  of  the  state  of  diafge  Is 
that  based  apoa  specific  gravity  of  the  electro- 
lyte. If  the  specific  gravity  be  read  at  rt^tular 
intervals  during  charge,  it  will  be  found  to  rise 
steadily  for  a  time,  and  then  become  constant. 

When  three  successive  readings  covering  a 
period  of  about  an  hour  show  no  chanjie  in 
gravity,  it  means  that  <iemical  action  between 
plates  and  electrolyte  has  ceased,  and  hence  that 
flie  charge  is  complete,  and  should  be  stopped. 

This  method  of  determining  charge  is  far 
the  most  reliably  and  should  be  used  wherever 
possible;  and  in  any  case  shotitd  be  used  from 
time  to  time,  to  check  up  and  make  certain  that 
charging  is  bemg  done  correctly.  A  single  cell 
is  usualhr  selected  as  a  "jbIoP  for  laHng  read- 
ings witn  this  method. 

While  the  life  of  a  battery  may  be  much  in- 
creased by  careful  regulation  of  the  charge, 
according  to  the  above  principles,  yet  many 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  batteries  are  In  suc- 
cessful o^ration,  where  the  only  care  observed 
in  charging  is  to  arrange  that  it  is  ample,  re- 
gardless of  other  considerations. 

The  strength  of  electrolyte  used  in  storaKC 
batteries  is  not  standardised,  but  varies  with 
different  makes  and  designs,  and  even  with  the 
individual  cells  of  a  giv«n  battery.  In  general 
where  weight  is  a  prime  factor,  hif^er  gravity. 
nstially  about  1.280  sperific  gravity,  is  used; 
where  weight  and  bulk  are  not  important  lower 
gravity,  liOO  or  even  1.130.  are  preferably  cm- 


ployed.  In  the  former  case  the  voiume  of  add 
IS  sniall,  and  the  drop  of  acid  during  discharge 
is  correspondingly  large,  so  thai  in  discharged 
condition  it  may  be  1,150;  in  the  case  of  a 
Stationary  cell,  where  there  is  no  close  limit  to 
bulk,  the  add  which  reads  perhaps  1,200  on 
charge  will  drop  during  discharge  to  about  the 
same  point  as  the  other,  namely,  1,150-1,170.  It 
is  thus  impossible  to  give  any  generally  ap- 
plicable values  for  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
electrolyte,  but  the'  theory  of  cnarginE  till  « 
maximum  is  reached  holds  universally  true. 

The  specific  gravity  of  sulphuric  acid  of  the 
concentration  used  in  batteries  varies  with 
temperature,  a  rise  of  10°  F.  causing  a  drop  of 
.003  specific  gravity;  and  as  a  matter  of  refer- 
ence it  is  usual  to  correct  all  readinRs  to  70°  F. 

Amplication ■  of  the  Storage  Battery,— 
The  field  of  the  storage  battery  to-day  is  so 
broad  that  a  few  of  the  most  important  appli- 
cations only  may  be  enumerated,  as  follows: 

Propulsion  of  AulomobiUs  and  Commercial 
TfiKA J.— Usually  40  or  42  cells,  caoadty  of 
100-250  ampere  hours,  type  of  cell  as  per 
Fig.  24. 

PropuliioM  of  Mine  LocomoJifM.— 40-88 
cells,  200-300  ampere  hours  capadty.     Fig.  36. 

Prop^itvm  of  Smail  Industrial  Trvcki.— 
Usually  12-16  cells,  100-200  ampere  hours 
capadty,  type  of  cell  as  per  Fig,  24. 

Propulsion  of  Subtnarixp  Torpedo  Bocl^, 
while  running  submerged, —  Usually  120  cells, 
4,000-14,000  ampere  hours  capadw. 

Electric  Lighting  of  Railviay  Tnuns, —  Each 
car  equipped  with  a  batterj;,  usually  16  cells, 
150-350  ampere  hours  capacity.    Fig.  35. 


Fig.  JS. 

..___  FramLkhtii, ,.  .- 

6  Celli  in  hU.     Appnx.  1/10  n 

Starling  tntd  Lighting  of  Aulomobilt. — 
Usually  3  cells,  designed  to  give  150-250  am- 
peres for  short  intervals  of  a  few  minutes  du- 
ration.    Fig.  26. 

Airplane  Motor  /fratfton.— Usually  4  small 
cells,  to  insure  motor  reliability. 

Mine  Lamps.— Oat  or  two  cells,  8-12  am- 
pere hours  capadty. 

Raihsay^  Signal  Service,  for  operating  the 
signals  winch  control  the  movements  of  trains. 

Wireless  Telegraphy  as  the  source  of  power, 
both  ashore  and  afloat,  in  army  aad  navy,  as 
wdl  as  commercial  service. 

Telephone  Stations  furnishing  power  for  the 
tdephone  systems.  Practically  every  central  is 
provided  with  a  battery,  charged  from  a  small 
dynamo,  and  for  the  purpose  of  assuring  c 


■8l^ 


lae 


BUBCTRIC  8TOSH 


tinuUy  of  operation.  Batteries  from  15  to 
2,400  ampere  hours  capacity;  Fig.  25  sho^s  a 
^jrpical  cell. 

Light  and  Power  Plants,  in  greal  variety. 
Fig.  37  shows  a  small  16  cell  battery,  charf^ed 
from  a  low  power  gaaoline  engine  and  dynamo, 


BtActric  Locomoiiv 


Fic.  36- 
Sattery.  48  CeLIi,  21  PUt«  each, 
I  for  1  hour.     Approi.  1/25  liic. 


smd  suitable  for  lifting  the  buildings  on  a 
form.  Fig.  30  shows  a  mammoth  size  central 
Station  batter^,  used  as  a  reserve  or  stand-by  in 
connection  with  a  large  central  power  station. 

Between  these  extremes,  batteries  of  all 
kinds  and  sizes  are  employed,  in  steam,  water 
and  oil  operated  power  plants. 

As  an  indication  of  the  importance  of  the 
Storage  battery  in  the  United  Slates,  it  may  be 


[16  Cell  BBttcry  far  Snull  IioUMd  L«htm 


H  [or  S  bi 


Plam 
About  1/30  n: 


stated  that  their  manufacture  gives  direct  em- 
ployment to  some  14,000  persons,  with  many 
more  indirectly  employed ;  that  it  is  among  the 

three  largest  consumers  of  lead  in  the  country; 
and  that  the  annual  output  approximates  2,- 
000,000  horse  power  hours  capacity. 

Bibliof raphy,— Dolezaiek,  'Theory  of  ibe 
Lead  Accumulator'  (tr.  by  Van  Ende,  1904)  ; 
Lynion,  Lamar.  "Storage  Battery  Enrineering' 


(London  1902), 

Edwaro  Wanton  Smith,  Ch.E., 
Factory  Engineer,  The  Electric  Storage  Batltry 
Company,  Philadelphia. 
ELECTRIC  STORH,  a  sudden  and  violent 
change  in  the  normal  magnetic  currents  of  the 
earth,  with  oscillations  of  potential,  interfering 
wilh  the  action  of  telegraph  and  telephone  in- 
struments, sometimes  suspending  their  opera- 
tion and  even  diverting  the  current  so  as  to 
slop  trolley  cars;  called  also  magnetic  storm. 
Without  any  advance  warning  the  magnetic  nee- 
dles will  swing  a  long  way  out  of  normal  posi- 
tions, because  of  the  disturbed  earth  currents. 
The  electric  potential  of  the  earth  is  ordinarily 
stated  as  zero,  and  all  electric  currents  are  meas- 
ured from  that  basis  or  standard,  which  repre- 
sents the  balance  that  electricity  seeks.  The 
earth  is  a  huge  dynamo,  wi'h  magnetic  currents 
continually  flowing,  and  it  will  absorb  any 
amount  of  electric  current  that  the  machines 


of  man  can  colled  wUfaoot  any  apparmt  eS«ct 
on  this  vast  storehouse  of  nature.  But  the  tun 
is  also  a  natural  dynamo,  of  vastly  greater  ac- 
tivities and  subject  to  electric  stresses  of  a  vio- 
lence far  transcending  anything  we  have  or 
can  experience  on  this  earth.  One  of  tha  ap- 
;>arent  effects  of  the  electric  and  chemical  ac- 
tivities of  the  Sim  is  displayed  in  the  sun-spots, 
which  occur  there  with  irregular  frequency,  ap- 
pearing to  come  and  go  in  undetermined  cycles- 
The  cause  o£  these  sun-spots  is  largely  conjec- 
tural, but  the  view  is  generally  accepted  that 
they  represent  openings  or  vortices  in  the  outer 
gaseous  envelope  of  the  sun.  However  this 
may  be,  it  is  apparent  that  cbcy  are  in  some  way 
connected  witn  the  electric  storms  or  violent 
changes  of  magnetism  that  occur  on  the  earth. 
These  electric  stresses  occur  at  iniervats  that 
cannot  be  predicted,  but  are  comparatively  fre- 
quent, and  perhaps  once  or  twice  a  year  tbt 
violence  of  the  magnetic  changes  is  sufficiently 
abnormal  to  be  characterized  as  a  great  storm, 
which  for  a  short  time  paralyzes  the  action  ol 
more  or  less  electric  machinery,  much  as  a 
great  storm  of  wind  and  rain  paralyses  the 
traflic  of  a  large  city. 

For  the  past  25  years  or  longer  many  scien- 
tists and  a  number  of  observatories  have  been 
more  or  less  engaged  in  studying  the  phenomena 
of  these  storms  and  have  striven  to  formulate 
a  correct  theory  of  their  origin  and  progress. 
The  difficulty  is  not  that  reasons  caimot  be 
fotmd  for  such  irregularities  of  the  earth's  po- 
tential, but  rather  that  there  are  so  many  plaus- 
ible explanations  which  cannot  all  be  true,  that 
the  investigators  are  puziled  which  clues  to 
follow.  Early  observations  discloi^d  a  periodic- 
ity in  the  electrical  storms,  that  clearly  tended 
to  follow  the  displays  of  sun-spot  activity.  If 
these  spots  were  the  direct  cause  it  would  be 
reasonable  to  expect  the  following;  electrical 
storm  on  the  earth  to  come  at  a  definite  interval ; 
but  the  fact  is  that  an  electric  storm  always 
lags  behind  the  sun-spot  activity,  and  lags  all 
the  way  from  a  few  hours  to  a  few  days.  While 
the  average  lag  is  al>out  38.4  hours,  the  lag  in 
great  storms  is  only  about  20  hours,  indicating 
that  the  more  violent  the  influence  the  swifter 
the  travel. 

Another  sort  of  evident  periodicity  in  elec- 
trical storms  is  their  recurrence  at  periods  of 
about  a  month.  Some  observers  have  figured 
numerous  intervals  corresponding  with  the 
lunar  month,  while  others  have  noted  a  close 
correspondence  with  the  synodic  months  of  29 
and  a  fraction  days,  this  synodic  month  repre- 
senting the  dates  on  which  the  earth,  sun  and 
moon  come  almost  or  quite  into  a  direct  line. 
This  suggests  that  the  storms  are  influenced  by 
the  sun  and  moon  jointly,  or  that  in  some  way 
the  moon  directs  these  extraordinary  electric 
activities  of  the  sun  toward  this  planet. 

Certain  other  well-established  phenomena 
have  been  established  with  reference  to  these 
storms.  Not  onlv  are  they  coincident  with 
sun-spots  to  a  marked  d^ree,  but  also  with  dis- 
plays of  the  aurora  bo  real  is  or  *northem 
lights.*  Evidently  the  aurora  is  but  a  visual 
evidence  of  magnetic  disturbance.  Another 
pertinent  fact  discovered  is  that  the  magnetic 
storm  is  about  twic?  as  apt  to  occur  in  dte  ni^t- 
time  as  in  daylight,  which  is  accounted  for  on 
the  supposition  that  the  rays  strike  the  earth's 
atmosphere  at  a  great  height  and  are  deflected 


ELECTRIC    STRBS8  — ELBCTBIC   TKAHSHISSION    OF    ENERGY 


by  the  earth's  magnetic  currents,  bcinK  mainly 
manifest  on  the  bemis^ere  opposite  the  sun. 
The^  are  by  no  means  confined  to  the  dark 
hemisphere ;  in  fact  they  f  re<]ueotly  strike  the 
earth  and  circle  it  several  times  before  their 
force  is  sjwnt.  Prof.  L.  A.  Bauer,  of  the  Car- 
negie Institute  at  Washington,  discovered  that 
in  two  great  electrical  storms  (in  1902  and 
1903)  the  magnetism  circled  the  earth  at  a 
(peed  of  about  7,000  miles  a  second,  requiring 
^li  to  4  secontU  only  to  complete  the  cir- 
cumference. It  had  previously  been  supposed 
that  all  magnetic  needles  felt  the  storm  at  the 
same  instant.  He  not  only  demonstrated  this 
travel,  but  showed  that  some  storms  traveled 
from  weal  to  east,  others  from  east  to  wesL 
Other  things  we  know  about  electric  storms  are 
that  the  smaller  storms  are  comparatively  local, 
being  termed  equatorial  storms  and  polar 
Stomu  according  to  the  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface  aSected.  There  are  also  types-  recog- 
nized as  positive  and  negative  storms. 

Within  recent  years  a  new  theory  has  de- 
veloped, which  may  be  summed  up  with  the 
idea  that  pencil-shaped  emanations  or  shafts  of 
Roen^en  or  cathode  rays,  or  perhaps  of  nega- 
tively charged  particles,  are  shot  out  by  the 
sun  during  periods  of  sun-spots,  and  that  when 
the  earth  runs  into  one  of  these  the  effect  here 
is  an  electric  atonn.  This  hypothesis  assumes 
that  the  same  electric  activities  that  produce 
sun-spots  also  produce  these  pencil -shiqied 
shafts  of  rays  and  not  that  the  sun-spots  are 
responsible  for  them.  Professor  Baiter  points 
out  that  the  fact  that  electric  storms  may  travel 
in  either  direction  around  the  earth  is  against 
thb  pencil-iike  shaft  theory,  as  these  should 
intercept  the  earth  always  in  the  same  way. 
The  professor  has  also  noted  that  these  storms 
seem  to  break  at  a  height  of  about  75  miles  in 
the  earth's  atmosphere  and  that  as  they  come 
closer  to  the  surface  their  effects  are  felt  more 
severely.  He  contends  that  the  energy  of  elec- 
tric storms  is  supplied  by  the  earth  itself  and 
not  by  the  sun  or  sun-spots ;  that  the  same  ac- 
tivities in  the  sun  that  cause  sun-spots,  set  in 
motion  the  electric  storms  very  much  as  a  trig~ 
pn-  sets  in  motion  die  activities  of  die  powder 
ma  guiL 

Prof.  Kr.  Birkeland,  of  Christiania,  has 
made  exhaustive  experiments  with  vacuum  tube 
apparatus  of  his  own  designing,  in  the  effort 
tb  prove  the  theory  of  cathode  ray  origin  or 
9omediing  similar.  He  has  succeeded  in  dupli- 
cating much  of  the  phenomena  of  the  electric 
storm  and  made  many  valuable  records,  but  his 
theories  have  not  been  generally  accepted. 

ELECTRIC  STRESS,  the  force  that 
causes  the  deformation  of  the  surface  of  a  sub- 
stance within  an  electric  field. 

ELECTRIC  SUNSTROKE,  a  stroke  that 
prostrates  a  person  in  a  manner  resembling 
sunstroke,  brought  on  by  prolonged  exposure  to 
a  strong  electric  light. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  See  Tele- 
<aAPHy, 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH  CABLE.  See 
Cable;  Telecrapht. 

ELECTRIC   TELEPHONE.     See  Teu- 


BLECTRIC  TORPEDO,  a  torpedo  oper- 
ated by  electricity.  There  are  various  kinds  of 
electric  torpedoes.  The  Sims-Edison  torpedo  is 
driven  by  an  electric  motor  and  its  motions  are 
controlled  from  the  shore  by  electricity.  The 
torpedo  proper  is  carried  some  distance  below 
the  surface  of  the  water  by  a  vessel  immediately 
above  it,  from  which  it  is  suspended  by  two 
rigid  bars.  In  the  torpedo  is  a  cable  reel  on 
which  the  conducting  cable  is  disposed.  An 
electric  motor  and  controlling  gear  are  also 
contained  within  the  torpedo.  In  its  front  the 
explosive  is  placed.  It  is  driven  by  a  screw 
propeller  actuated  by  the  electric  motor.  As  it 
moves  it  pays  out  cable  so  that  it  has  no  cable 
to  draw  after  it  through  the  water,  the  cable 
lying  stationary  in  the  water  behind  it.  This 
avoids  frictional  resistance  to  its  motion.  The 
maintenance  of  the  torpedo  at  a  proper  depth  is 
one  of  the  advantages  of  the  system  over  other 
methods. 

ELECTRIC  TRANSMISSION  OP  EN- 
ERGY, Long  Distance.  An  electric  trans- 
mission of  energy  obviously  occurs  when  the 
relay  of  a  Morse  telegraph  circuit,  or  the  sensi- 
tive mirror  used  in  submarine  cable  telegraphy, 
responds  to  the  feeble  current  impulse  origi- 
nated at  the  transmitting  end  of  the  wire.  It 
is  also  obvious  that  we  have  the  electric  trans- 
mission of  power  in  the  ordinary  use  of  electric 
light  or  electric  motors  even  when  the  generator 
is  stationed  in  the  building  in  which  that  light 
or  power  is  used.  But  generally  spcaldng  the 
term  electric  transmission  of  energy  denotes  the 
transmission  of  energy  on  a  large  scale  by  means 
of  overhead  or  underground  conductors  or 
cables  and  its  transformation  into  light,  heat, 
chemical  energy  or  mechanical  power  at  the 
remote  end  ot  the  conductors.  When_  the  dis- 
tance to  which  this  electric  power  is  trans- 
mitted exceeds  say  IS  or  20  miles  it  is  usually 
spoken  of  as  (he  long  distance  transmission  of 
electric  energy  or  power. 

In  cities  like  New  York  where  electric  energy 
for  lighting,  power  and  railway  traction  is  trans- 
mitted distances  ranging  from  less  than  a  mile 
to  IS  or  18  miles  from  the  power  house  the 
conductors  are  usually  placed  in  cables  in  under- 
ground conduits  and  the  maximum  electro- 
motive force  transmitted  is  about  11,000  volts. 
This  pressure  is  directly  generated  by  a  steam- 
driven  alternating  current  generator  and  is 
transmitted  over  me  conductors  to  sub-stations, 
where  by  means  of  step-down  transformers  the 
pressure  is  dropped  to  say  600  volts  altematinfj 
current  which  when  direct  current  is  desJrea 
by  rotan-  converters  is  converted  into  direct 
current  for  the  street  mains,  the  feeders  of  the 
railway  system  and  for  charging  storage  bat- 
teries which  in  turn  give  out  direct  current  at 
limes  of  heavy  demand  or  when  otherwise  re- 

?uired;  or  when  alternating  current  is  required 
ar  service  mains  the  11,000  volts  is  transformed 
to  say  240  volts.  When  water  power  is  avail- 
able, as  at  Niagara  Falls  and  innumerable  other 
places  in  this  and  other  countries,  the  electric 
sion  of  power  on  a  large  scale  to  dis- 
if  25,  SO,  100  and  200  miles  from  its 


In  order  that  electric  power  may  be  trans- 
mitted economically  to  long  distances  the  use 
of  high  electric  pressure  or  tension  is  essential, 
since  otherwise  the  cost  of  copper  in  the  con- 
ductors would.be  e         '         ~ 


„8le 


I8B 


BLSCTSIC    TRANSUISSION    OF    BKBRGY 


has  been  calcalated,  on  the  basis  of  5,000  volts, 
that  to  transmit  2J56  kilowatts  a  distance  of 
100  miles  would  require  about  22,862,737  pounds 
of  copper  in  the  conductors,  assuming  a  line 
drop  of  750  volts,  or  IS  per  cent  of  the  total 
electro- motive  force,  whereas  with  40,000  volts 
the  total  amount  of  coM>er  required  would  be 
about  357,230  pounds.  Even  doubling  the  pres- 
sure would  quarter  the  amount  of  mi?tal  re- 
quired for  a  ^ven  distance  and  given  line  drop. 
In  the  electric  transmission  of  power  to  long 
distances  the  use  of  alternating;  current  is  een- 
eral,  and  transformers  are  utilized  1 
Ihc  electro-motive  force  on  the  transn 
and  for  reducing  it  at  the  points  of  distribution. 
Where  the  electro-motive  force  on  the  line  does 
not  exceed  10.000  volts  generators  developing 
that  electro-motive  force  may  be  employed 
When  that  line  voltage  is  exceeded  the  station 
voltage  adopted  is  about  2,300  volts;  this  being 
stepped  up  by  transformers  to  the  elect ro-motive 
force  desired  on  the  line.  This  moderate  voitaKe 
admits  of  the  use  of  lighter  copper  wires  or 
conductors  in  the  station  apparatus  than  higher 
voltages  would  require.  In  present  day  prac- 
tice, liowever,  the  use  of  150.000  volts  is  not 
uncommon  and  line  insulators  and  transformers 
to  withstand  this  pressure  are  now  employed. 
Indeed,  manufacturers  are  prepared  to  supply 
transformers  capable  of  operating  at  200,000 
volts.  In  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina 
over  1,000  miles  of  100,000-voIt  transmission 
circuits  are  in  operation  on  the  system  of  the 
Southern  Power  Company,  which  derives  its 
power  mainly  from  hydro- electric  developments. 
In  Cahfornia  there  is  a  i50,000-vo!t  circuh  from 
Big  Creek  to  Los  Angeles,  a  distance  of  240 
miles,  on  the  system  of  the  Pacific  Light  and 
Power  Corporation.  The  conductors  of  this 
circuit  are  supported  on  steel  towers.  In  addi- 
tion this  company  has  in  operation  105  miles  of 
60.000-volt  circuits,  240  miles  of  SO.OOO-volt  cir- 
cuits and  831  miles  of  IS.OOO-volt  circuits.  These 
last  circuits  are  supplied  with  current  from  the 
lS0,000-volt  circuits  at  various  distribution 
points  by  means  of  step-down  transformers  in 
sub-stations. 

Modem  usage  in  the  matter  of  type  of  alter- 
nating current  employed  leans  largely  toward 
three-phase.  (See  Electhic  Alternatikc  Cur- 
rent Machinery).  For  each  circuit  this  re- 
quires three  conductors  which  are  arranged  on 
the  poles  and  cross-arms  usually  in  an  equilat- 
eral triangle,  the  wires  being  separated  from 
one  another  by  a  distance  of  six  or  eight  feet 
The  wires  are  in  some  cases  transposed  on  the 
poles,  to  form  in  effect  a  long  horizontal  spiral. 
This  is  generally  done  to  prevent  inductive 
effects  on  the  telephone  wires  used  tor  siimaling 
on  the  same  or  adjacent  poles,  although  some 
engineers  also  think  that  spiraling  the  con- 
ductors diminishes  the  impedance  of  the  cir- 
cuit. So  far  as  the  telephone  line  belonging  to 
the  transmission  company  is  concerned  the  sim- 
plest way  to  avoid  inductive  effects  is  to  spiral 
the  telephone  circuit.  While,  as  just  intimated, 
the  long-distance  transmission  of  energy  is  car- 
ried on  chieRy  by  means  of  the  alternating  cur- 
rent, transformers,  etc.,  high  potential  trans- 
mission in  at  least  one  instance  in  Europe  has 
been  effected  with  continuous  current.  In  this 
instance  the  line  pressure  is  60.000  volts,  which 
is  generated  directly  on  the  line  by  six  dynamo 


machities  .     „. 

At  the  point  of  distritiation 


10,000  volts. 


□ected  in  series  and  each  motor  is  caused  to 
drive  a  generator  which  in  turn  develops  elec- 
trical energy  of  a  desired  potential  and  current 
output 

For  the  supports  of  the  traastnissian  line 
the  choice  is  practically  between  the  use  of 
wood  poles  or  steel  towers.  The  kind  of  wood 
employed  for  the  poles  varies  somewhat  with 
the  locality,  cedar  being  used  in  the  northern 
States  and  redwood  in  the  Padtic  Coast  States. 
These  poles  must  be  of  BuRicient  heii^t  to  afford 
ample  clearance  from  ground  and  suftciently 
strong  to  withstand  wind  strains,  etc.  Poles 
fitted  to  meet  these  requirements  and  to  carry 
two  three-wire  circuits  should  be  at  least  35 
to  40  feet  in  height,  set  5  to  6  feet  in  the 
earth  and  be  12  to  14  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
butt  and  at  least  8  inches  at  top.  l^e  use  of 
steel  towers  ^rmits  longer  spans  and  conse- 
quently diminishes  the  total  number  of  insu- 
lators necessary.  With  wooden  poles  the  maxi- 
mum length  of  span  is  180  feet ;  minimum 
80  feeL  With  steel  towers  using  12  to  the  mile 
the  span  between  towers  is  440  feet.  On  one 
long-distance  transmission  the  towers  are  made 
up  of  four  galvanized  angle  iron  posts  40  feet 


suitable  angles  and  cross  rods. 

For  the  very  high  potentials  used  on  long- 
distance transmission  lines  extra  precautions  as 
to  insulation  are  requisite,  both  wnere  the  wires 
leave  the  power-houses  and  on  the  poles  or 
towers.  For  insulating  the  conductors  from 
the  poles  or  towers  large  porcelain  discs  are 
now  commonly  used,  in  a  scries  of  four  or  more 
(arranged  somewhat  like  Japanese  dinner 
gongs),  termed  suspension  insulators,  the  upper 
disc  of  which  is  attached  to  the  pole  or  tower. 
The  conductor  is  attached  to  the  lowest  disc. 
Much  care  is  required  in  the  manufacture  of 
these  insulators.  This  series  arrangement  of 
insulators  has  largely  increased  the  amount  of 
electro-motive    force   that   can   be   successfully 


Power  HouM  Temuiu]  of  lYanamiMion  Lin*. 

employed  in  electrical  transmission  of  power  as 
the  electric  potential  is  divided  between  the 
individual  discs.  Other  types  of  insulators  for 
high  tension  service  consist  of  large  petticoat 
insulators  about  12  inches  In  diameter  across 
the  top,  12  inches  in  height  and  wei^  18  to 


BLBCTKIC   UNDBROROIWD    CABIiSS   AND   COKDUITS 


IM 


__    __i  the  pole  itself  by  wooden  or  iron 

pins.  For  pressures  up  to  about  25,000  volts 
wooden  pins  are  found  fairly  satisfactory,  but 
iJjove  that  pressure  they  are  found  to  char  by 
a  peculiar  action  of  the  current,  and  it  is  ad- 
risable  on  this  account,  as  well  as  for  mechanical 
reaMiu,  to  employ  cast  iron  or  metal  composi' 
tion  ^ins.  These  pins  are  from  15  to  17  inches 
in  heiefat  and  they  maintain  the  insulator  about 
12  indies  from  the  pole  or  cross-arm.  (See 
illustTation,  which  shows  an  icon  tower,  a  three- 
wire  circuit,  with  cross-arms,  |nns  and  porcelain- 
insnlstors;  also  the  openings  in  the  ^Ue  of 
power-house  by  which  the  high  tension  con- 
ductors pass  out). 

The  choice  of  metal  for  the  conducloia  in 
this  service  is  virtually  confined  to  copper  and 
aluminum.  Il  is  known  thai  there  is  a  tendency 
to  a  brush  discharge,  termed  corona,  in  the  air 
between  condnctors  conveying  currents  at  high 
pressures  that  leads  to  a  waste  of  electric  energy 
when  with  wires  o£  given  diameter  a  critical 
electromotive  force  is  reached.  The  critical 
electromotive  force  also  varies  with  the  dis- 
tance between  the  wires.  It  was  at  one  time 
thou^t  that  this  effect  would  constitute  the 
limiting  factor  in  the  Ions-distance 


of  electric  power,  but  in  Prof.  Harris  J,  Ryan'a 
paper,  'Conductivity  of  the  Atmosphere  at  High 
Volts^es'  (consult  'Proceedings*  American  In- 
stitute Electrical  Engineers,  VoL  XXI,  No-  3). 
he  shows  that,  regardless  of  the  metal  employed, 
by  increasing  the  diameter  of  the  conductor, 
whereby  the  electric  gradient  is  tept  below  the 
breaking  down  point  of  the  air  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  wire,  this  effect  is  avoided.  For  example, 
to  avoid  atmospheric  losses  between  conductors 
separated  by  an  air  space  of  four  feet,  with 
barometric  pressure  oi  29.S  inches  of  mercury, 
temperature  70°  F,,  the  conductors  must  have, 
for  an  operating  electromotive  force  of  50,000 
volts,  a  diameter  of  at  least  .058  inch;  for 
10O.OOO  volts,  .192  inch;  for  150,000  volts,  .430 
inch;  for  250,000  volts,  .990  inch.  On  this 
account  it  has  been  deemed  advisable  in  numer- 
ous cases  to  emploj;  aluminum  conductors,  since 
weight  for  weight  its  diameter  is  much  greater 
than  that  of  copper. 

For  instance,  on  a  ISO-mile  line  in  California 
transmitting  745  kilowatts  (10,000  horse  power) 
at  40,000  volt^  aluminum  conductors  seven- 
eighths  inch  in  diameter  are  used.  In  a  100-mile, 
6(^00O-volt  transmission  line  in  Mexico  a  copper 
wire  three-eighths  inch  in  diameter  is  used. 
The  transmission  line  from  Shawaniga'i  Falls 
to  Montreal.  Canada,  employs  aluminum  con- 
ductors carryii^  12,000  horse  power  at  50,000 
vtdts.  Steel'Cored  aluminum  conductors  are 
also  used  for  this  purpose  and  in  some  of  the 
latest  high  tension  transmission  lines  steel-cored 
copper  conductors  are  utilized. 

To  provide  a  system  that  will  be  as  nearly 
absolutely  reliable  as  practicable  duplicate  cir- 
cuits are  in  the  majority  of  cases  conslfucted, 
in  order  that  if  one  circuit  becomes  inoperative 
the  other  may  immediately  be  brought  into 
service.  In  some  cases  the  two  circuits  are 
erected  on  one  set  of  poles.  In  others  two 
separate  pole  lines  are  built 

Wherever  possible  private  ri^ts  of  way  are 
obtained  for  we  transmission  luie  and  it  is  of 
advantage  to  have  this  way  so  wide  that  danger 
from  faJling  trees  shall  be  avoided.    Ri^ts  oi 


w«y  along  steam  railway  tracks  are  not  ooa- 
sidered  desirable  for  the  reason  that  the  smoke 
from  the  engines  very  soon  so  impairs  the 
insulating  quality  of  the  insulators  that  frequent 
cleaning  and  washing  of  the  insulators  is 
rendered  necessary.  Even  on  private  routes  the 
deanitig  of  the  insulators  is  at  times  essential 
to  maintain  the  insulation. 

The  dbtance  to  which  electric  encr^  can 
be  profitably  transmitted  from  a  source  of  elec- 
tric power  is  not  yet  definitely  determined. 
Much  depends  on  the  cost  of  fuel  at  the  dis^ 
trifauting  points  and  the  amocnt  of  energy  to  be 
dchvcred.  In  California,  where  coal  is  dear, 
electric  energy  is  now  being  commercial Iv  trans- 
mitted from  a  number  of  water-power  plants  in 
that  State  to  an  amount  exceeding  100,000  horse 
power  at  a  pressure  of  40,000  to  60,000  volu 
and  to  distances  ranging  from  50  to  230  miles. 
In  Switzerland  electric  energy  from  water 
power  is  transmitted  to  the  point  of  consumptioa 
and  sold  at  $20  per  horse-power  hour  per 
annum.  There  the  price  of  coal  is  $6  to  $8  per 
Ion,  but  labor  is  cheap.  Electric  energy  gen- 
erated by  the  force  of  falling  water  and  trans- 
mitted 85  miles  by  wire  is  sold  in  Montreal, 
Canada,  at  $15  per  horse  power  per  annnm  at 
a  profit  Bnt  while  as  stated  the  distance  to 
which  electric  energy  may  be  commerciaOy 
transmitted  is  yet  undetermined,  calculations 
have  been  made  by  reputable  electrical  engineers 
which  indicate  that  under  proper  conditions 
electric  power  may  ultimately  be  profitably 
transmitted  in  large  quantities,  say  200^000  kilo- 
watts, and  at  a  pressure  of  170,000  volts,  to  a 
distance  of  500  miles.  This  transmission  would 
entail  the  employment  of  copper  wires  of  a 
diameter  so  large  that  the  dissipation  of  energy 
by  brush  discharges  between  the  conductors 
would  be  avoided  Should  this  conception  be 
realized  it  would  obviously  brin^  New  York, 
Chicago  and  other  large  cities  within  reach  of 
the  dectrical  energy  developed  at  Niagara 
Fails.  Indeed  the  calculation  just  referred  to 
was  based  upon  the  amount  of  mechanical  power 
utilized  in  New  York.  Consult  'Proceedings 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  De- 
cember 1904.*  See  Power.  Transmission  of. 
William  Maveh,  Jr., 
Consulting  Electrical  Engineer, 

ELECTRIC  UNDBRQROUND  CABLES 
AND  CONDUITS.  In  the  first  attempts  to 
operate  the  electric  telegraph,  over  60  years 
a^,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  the 
wires  were  placed  in  cables  underground;  bnt 
owin^  to  imperfection  in  the  methods  of  in- 
sulatmg  the  wires,  as  well  as  in  the  type  of 
conduit  or  pipe  employed,  and  of  the  manner 
m  which  the  conduits  were  laid  in  the  earth, 
the  cables  and  conduits  failed  after  compara- 
tively short  service  and  the  use  of  nverhead 
wires  supported  on  poles  was  resorted  to  and 
became  the  universal  practice,  which  continued 
almost  without  interruption  for  a  quarter  of  a 
cenlui^. 

Beginning  about  1890.  however,  there  has 
been  a  movement  in  all  the  principal  cities  ol 
America  and  Europe  to  place  all  electric  wires 
underground  in  order  that  the  streets  may  be 
freed  from  the  etKumbering  poles  and  overhead 
wires.  In  New  York  dly,  especially,  the  move- 
menl  to  this  end  was  carried  on  vigorously  and 
persistently,  with  the  result  that  for  many  jears 


,5le 


140 


BLECTRIC  UNDSRQROUND    CABLES  AND  CONDUITS 


there  ha^  not  been  a  poie  supportif^  telegraph, 
telephone,  electric  light  or  trolley  wire  in  any 
part  of  Manhattan  borough,  such  wires  all  being 
placed  in  cables  in  conduits  under  the  surface 
of  the  streets. 

Electric  UnderEronnd  Cablet.— The  type 
of  underground  cable  used  for  telephony,  teleg- 
raphy and  electric  light  and  power  purposes 
varies  greatly.  For  example,  the  conductors 
used  in  telephony  have  a  diameter  of  .040  inch ; 
those  for  telegraph  purposes  about  .080  inch; 
those  for  electric  light  and  power  range  from 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  to  one  inch  and  over  in 
diatneter.  The  smaller  electric  power  wires  are 
employed  in  high  potential  and  comparatively 
light  current  work;  the  larger  wires  in  low 
tension  and  heavy  current  work.  It  is  thus 
feasible  to  place  about  400  telephone  conductors, 
or  100  lelegraph  conductors,  in  one  cable  in  a 
three-inch  underground  duct  or  pipe,  while  it 
is  only  practicable  to  place  two,  three,  or,  at 
most,  five  electric  light  or  power  conductors 
in  a  similar  ducL  The  insulating  material  used 
for  telephone  conductors  is  usual!)'  a  wrapping 
of  tissue  paper  in  narrow  strips,  laid  on  spirally 
over  each  conductor.  The  insulating  material 
of  telegraph  underground  cables  is  usually  a 
rubber  compound  or  strips  of  paper  saturated 
with  oils,  the  thickness  of  the  viail  of  which  is 
about  .038  inch.  The  insulating  material  of 
electric  li^t  and  power  cables  is  usually  a  rub- 
ber compound,  oil  paper  or  varnished  cambric, 
which  is  from  one'ciKhth  of  an  inch  to  nearly 
half  ao  inch  thick,  depending  on  the  electric 
pressure  to  be  withstood,  which,  in  the  case  of 
low  potential  drcuils,  is  about  220  to  600  volts, 
and  m  the  case  of  high  potential  circuits  may 
range  from  1,000  to  30,000  volts.  Gutta-percha, 
which  has  been  emploj'ed  for  the  insulation  of 
long  submarine  cables,  is  not  used  for  under- 
ground cables,  owing  <jiiefly  lo  its  low  softening 
point  under  heat,  120°  F.,  which  temperature  is 
not   infrequently    encountered    in    siAways    in 

Cables  designed  for  undei^otind  work  are 
encased  in  a  lead  envelope  to  protect  the  in- 
sulating material  from  water,  moisture  and  the 
effects  of  gases,  acids,  etc.,  in  the  underground 
conduits.  For  crossing  rivers  such  cables  are 
also  armored  with  iron  wires  in  addition  to  the 
lead  covering,  as  a  mechanical  protection. 

The  term  cable  indndes  the  conductor 
(•core"),  the  insulating  material,  the  lead  cov- 
ering and  the  armor  when  the  latter  is  em- 
ployed.  Copper  is  practically  the  only  metal 
used  for  the  conductors  of  electric  cables. 
Aluminum  is  not  used  because  of  its  bulk  for 
a  given  conductivity,  which  bulk  is  about  1.6 
greater  than  copper.  The  increased  amount  of 
insulaiinfj  material  and  lead  covering,  as  well 
as  space  m  the  conduits,  that  would  be  required 
in  the  case  of  aluminum  for  a  given  con- 
ductivity would  be  virtually  prohibitive  of  its 
use  for  underground  cables. 

The  copper  wire  used  in  cables  is  drawn  to 
the  required  size  in  the  wire  factory.  If  the 
wire  is  to  be  insulated  with  a  rubber  compound 
it  is  "tinned"  to  prevent  any  chemical  action 
between  the  sulphur  used  in  the  nibber  com- 
pound and  the  copper.  When  the  covering  is 
paper,  linen  or  fibre  the  wire  is  not  tinned. 
The  tinning  process  consists  in  passing  the  wire 
through  a  vat  of  molten  tin.  For  electric  lis^t 
and  power  cables,  when  the  conductors  do  not 


exceed  .204  inch  diameter,  they  are  usually 
solid,  or  of  one  wire;  above  that  siKC  they  are 
generally  stranded  to  obtain  flexibility.  The 
wires  are  stranded  in  a  stranding  tnachine  in 
one  process,  the  wires  bein^  wound  on  reels, 
which  are  held  on  suitable  spmdles  on  the  frame 
of  the  machine.  A  sinj^e  wire  is  held  in  the 
centr;  of  the  frame  and  is  slowly  drawn  through 
a  guide.  The  wires  for  the  first  layer  are 
wound  spirally  around  the  central  vnre;  the 
wires  for  the  second  layer  are  held  on  anothcl 
frame  and  are  laid  over  the  first  layer  in  an 
opposite,  direction,  and  so  on  for  the  additional 
layers  required.  The  strand  is  wound  upon  a 
drum  and  is  then  reat^  for  the  insulating 
process. 

Rubber  Inaulation. — The  rubber  used  in 
the  insulating  material  for  cables  is  ptire  Pari 
rubber.  After  the  rubber  has  undergone  treat- 
ment by  washing  and  kneading  to  remove  the 
impurities  whidi  it  always  contains  in  its  crude 
stale,  it  is  then  mixed,  by  suitable  madiinery, 
with  the  ingredients  that  go  to  make  up  the 
compound,  such  as  litharge,  whiting,  blue  lead 
and  sulphur.  The  compound  is  then  ready  for 
placing  over  the  wire.  There  are  two  genera] 
methods  by  which  this  is  done,  termed,  re- 
spectively, the  seam  and  seamless  methods.  In 
the  seam  process  the  rubber  compound  is  calen- 
dered into  a  sheet  of  any  required  thickness, 
which  is  then  cut  into  long  strips.  These  strips 
are  then  passed  between  two  grooved  rollers 
having  sharp  cutting  edges.  "Hie  wire  to  be 
covered  also  passes  in  the  centre  of  the  grooves 
of  these  rollers,  and  as  it  does  so  the  rubber 
strips  are  pressed  closely  around  it,  the  knife 
edges  of  the  rollers  cutting  off  the  surplus 
rubber  strip.     The  wire  tbtis  insulated  is  fre- 


Lubber  Covering  Hftchme. 


quently  wrapped  spirally  with  a  tape,  after 
which  il  is  placed  in  a  vutcaniiing  ovta  and 
vnlcaniEcd.  In  the  seamless  method  the  com- 
pound is  placed  in  a  plastic  condition  around 
the  CMlduils  by  pressure,  while  passing  through 
3  die.  The  conductor,  c.  Fig.  1,  is  drawn 
through  a  metal  chamber  or  box,  b,  which  con- 
tains the  plastic  compound.  A  worm  gearing,  tv, 
within  the  diamber,  pushes  the  compound 
toward  the  opening  or  die,  d,  in  the  end  of  the 
chamber.  The  compound  is  fed  into  b  at  the 
aperture  a.  The  chamber  is  kept  at  a  desired 
temperature  by  a  hot  water  or  steam  jacket. 
After  leaving  the  chamber  the  insulated  wire 
is  drawn  slowly  along-  a  table,  through  powdered 
talc  to  prevent  sticking,  to  a  drum,  on  which  it 
is  then  taken  to  the  vulcanizing  box  or  re- 
ceptacle, unless  it  is  first  to  be  taped.  The 
taping  process  is  somewhat  analogous  to  that 
of  stranding  the  wire.  A  vertical  taping  ma- 
chine is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  in  which  the  insulated 
wire  w  is  seen  coming  through  the  floor  to 
the  guides  c  c,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a  slot 
through  which  tape  from  the  small  reels  K  R 
passes  to  and  around  the  wire.  The  wheels  on 
which  the  reels  R  n  are  carried  revolve  in  oppo- 
site directions,  this  action  laying  the  tapes  mi 


lOOglc 


BLBCTRIC  UHDBROROUND  CAKLBS  AND  COHtHflTS                  Ul 

ihe  wire   in  reverie   spirals.     The  Wire   thus  chief  ingre<Uent  in  the  compound  that  brings 

taped  passes  to  die  "lake  up*  drum  t,  ihence  to  about   these    results.     The    compound    usually 

ihe  reel  D.    In  the  case  of  rubber-covered  wires  enters    the   oven   a    yellowish    compound   and 

the  next  proceeding  is  to  immerse  them  in  a  comes  out  a  dark-blue  color.    This  color  may 

water  lank  for  12  or  24  hours,  after  which  they  be  varied  by  using  difieient  ingredients  in  the 


Pic  4. —  Telephone  Cabk.  Paper  Coreied. 

compound,  and  in  some  cables  certain  of  the 
conductors  are  colored  by  this  means  to  act  as 
'markers,"  or  distinguishing  wires  for  testing 
purposes. 

Piywr  Insnlation^-The  conductors  intended 


Pic  5.—  Tetcgrmrih  Cable. 

Pici.-TapmeMach™.  ^^^  telephone  work  are  covered  very  loosely 

are  electrically  tested  for  defects  in  the  insula-  with  two   layers  of   dry.   soft   paper,  laid  on 

lion  that  may  be  due  to  air-holes,  foreign  sub-  spirally,   m    practically    the   matiner   m   which' 

stances  in  the  insulation  or  any  other  cause.  t*P*  '^  placed  over  the  rubber  insulated  wire. 

The  vulcanizing  process  consists  in  placing  This  type  of  usulatjon  Is  found  to  be  the  most 
the  insulated  wire  in  an  oven,  where  it  is  kept 


Pro.  6.—  High  Tmiian  Cable. 


satisfactory  yet  devised  for  telephone  cables,  its 
capacity  being  quite  low,  about  .080  microfarad 
per  mile  of  conductor.  The  insulation  resistance 
of  each  conductor  is  about  500,000,000  ohms  per 
mile.    The  wires  thus  insulated  are  twisted  in 


Pic.  ]. —  Pufitt  Covtriog  Maohine.  Pic  T. —  Duplex  Cable.  Electric  ligM. 

".^"'uperature  of  250°  to  300°  F.  until  the  pairs   with   a  lay  of   about   three    inches,  the 

"Mber  compound  is  brought  to  a  desired  degree  pairs  being  laid  up  in  reversed  UycTS  and  built 

efferfl -*"''■  ""*<^''>''  '*•*  proper  time   for  up  into  cables  of  50,  100  and  2O0  pairs,  after 

wting  which  is  a  matter  of  experiment  and  which  they  are  lead  covered  as  a  protection 

*'^  with  different  compounds.    Sulphur  is  the  against  moisture.    Paper  cables  for  electric  l^t 


-gle 


^^tCnUC   UHDKRffitOlTND    CABLSS  AND   CONDUITS 


148 


In  some  of  these  ttmneis,  water  and  gas  pipes, 
pncunatic  tubes  aai  telepfaooe,  telegraph  and 
elcctric-Iight  wires  have  been  placed.  In  Paris 
at  one  time  some  oE  the  sewers  were  uliliied 
Ear  the  sane  purpose,  but  this  plan  was  not 
greatly  favored  and  has  .lot  been  followed  el»e- 
-where.  Tunnels  for  electrical  conductors  were 
also  bailt  in- Detroit.  Mich.,  the  longest  of  which 
is  about  232  feet  in  len^h.  It  is  six  feet  six 
inches  by  three  feet  six  inches  in  the  crOM-S«- 

Solid  Condoits. —  Another  plan  wtdch  has 
been  utilized  for  this  purpose  is  one  in  which  ■ 
the  conductors  are  well  in^ittlated  and  laid  di- 
rectly in  the  earth;  or  in  which  the  conductors 
are  laid  in  notches  in  a  tnbe  or  duel,  by  which 
means  they  are  kept  apart.  The  tube  is  then 
filled  with  an  insulating  compound,  which,  when 
it  hardens,  holds  the  condiKtors  securely  in  po- 
sition. This  is  termed  a  "solid"  conduit.  One 
of  the  earliest  forms  of  solid  conduit  was  that 
used  by  Morse,  between  Washington  and  Balli- 
more.  This  consisted  of  five  wires  insulated 
with  cotton  and  placed  within  a  lead  tube  which 
was  laid  directly  in  the  earth.  In  different  parts 
of  Europe,  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
and  afterward,  wires  were  laid  directly  in  the 
earth  without  other  covering  than  the  insulating 
material  around  them,  which  was  usually  a  bitu- 
men compound  or  gutta-percha.  Insulation  laid 
in  this  way  is  not  long  lived.  One  of  the  first 
solid  conduits  used  in  this  country  for  electric 
lighting  was  one  in  which  a  lead-covered  cable 
is  laid  directly  in  a  wooden  trough,  the  cable 
being  uncoiled  directly  from  a  cart  reel,  the  box 
being  then  filled  with  an  insulating  compound. 
To  protect  the  cable  from  injury,  a  thick  plank 
was  placed  over  the  box. 

In  many  European  cities  solid  conduits  are 
placed  under  the  sidewalks.    The  cables  c  are 


Bdiien  Solid  or  Iron  Tube  Conduit.—  This 
IS  the  conduit  adopted  by  Edison  for  the  di»- 
tributton  of  electric  current  by  the  three-wire 
system,  for  light  and  power  in  cities.  It  con- 
sists of  an  iron  tube  about  20  feet  in  length, 
into  which  the  three  conductors,  usually  copper 


Pic.  I 


:  Conduit. 


laid  on  a  bed  of  sand,  s,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  10. 
A  galvanired  iron  wire  netting,  k.  is  placed  over 
the  sand,  separalini;  it  from  a  bed  of  concrete, 
N,  upon  which  the  asphalt,  a,  of  the  sidewalk  is 
laid.  The  object  in  nsing  the  wire  netting  b 
to  warn  workmen  of  the  presence  of  die  cables. 


Pig.  It. —  Bdiacm  Junctioii  Box. 

rods,  separated  from  one  another  by  hemp  or 
jute  cords,  are  inserted.  An  insulating  com- 
pound is  then  forced,  under  heavy  pressure, 
into  the  tube  at  a  temperature  of  about  300°  F. 
The  copper  rods  project  about  two  inches  at 
each  end  out.  of  the  tube.  The  tubes  are  laid 
end  to  end  in  the  earth,  when  the  conductors  in 
one  tube  are  connected  to  those  in  the  next  by 
a  flexible  copper  strand.  A  split  iron  box  is 
then  jointed  and  clamped  over  the  ends  of.  the 
tube  and  the  box  is  then  filled  with  an  insulat- 
ing compound  through  an  opening,  which  is 
then  closed  by  a  screw  piug.  In  this  system  no 
manholes  are  employed,  but  instead,  at  suitable 
distances,  water-tight  junction  boxes  are  used, 
into  which  the  conductors  are  led,  as  outlined 
in  Fig.  11.  This  is  really  a  switch-box,  by  - 
means  of  which  the  current  from  the  "feeder" 
conductors  is  distributed  to  the  "mains'  or 
"service"  conductors.  Thtse  boxes  arc  also 
utilized  to  break  up  the  mains  into  shorter  sec- 
tions ;  to  open  the  circuits  for  testing  and  other 
purposes. 

The  disadvantage  of  'solid"  conduits  is  that 
in  case  of  defects  in  the  cables  there  is  no  means 
of  repairing  them  short  of  tearing  up  the  streets. 
Neither  is  it  convenient  to  add  to  or  take  from 
or  to  increase  or  diminish  the  size  of  conductors 
nsed  in  the  "solid*  system.  These  disadvan- 
xist  in  the  case  of  what  is  termed 
iduit  system,  to  be  described 


tages  do  not  . 
the  'drawing  ii 
presently. 

Bare-wire 
utilized  in  son 
as  the  "bare  v, 
lated. 


Conduits.— Still  another  plan 
le  parts  of  Europe,  and  Icnown 
ire"  conduit,  consists  of  uninsu' 
.  strips  or  rods  of  copper  placed 
in  tubes  underground  and  held  in  position  by 
insulators,  or  else  the  conduit  itself  is  com- 
posed of  an  insulating  material  and  is  protected 
from  moisture.    This  plan  is  not  in  extensive 

Drmwing-itt  Conduit.- The  method  which 
is  now  most  generally  employed  in  this  country 
is  that  known  at  the  'drawing-in"  conduit    * 


■8l^ 


ELECTRIC    UNDERGSOUNO    CABLES   AND    CONDUITS 


this  sj^stem  as  many  ducts  as  may  be  necessary 
are  laid  in  a  trencb  side  by  side  and  in  layers, 
and  manholes  are  built  at  intervals  of  200,  300 
or  400  feet  to  give  access  to  the  conduits  and 
to  aEFord  means   by  which   the  cables   may   be 


Pic  II.— Standan)  Muhote. 

drawn  into  the  ducts.  In  a  'drawing  in*  con- 
duit system  the  ducts  containing  the  "feeder" 
■  cables  or  cables  for  arc  circuits  arc  termed 
•trunk*  ducts  and  are  usually  the  lower  tier  or 
layer  of  duels.  The  ducts  carrying  the  distrib- 
uting cables  are  termed  "distributing  ducts"  and 
are  placed  at  the  top.  So-called  'hand-holes* 
are  laid  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  street 
every  40  or  50  feet  to  give  access  to  the  distrib- 
uting ducts  and  cables  for  electric  light  and 
power  service.  One  type  of  manhole  is  shown 
in  Fig  12.  This  is  a  brick  manhole;  others  are 
made  of  concrete.  The  hand  pump  shown  is 
used  to  provide  fresh  air  where  gas  is  prevalent 
in  the  streets.  The  siie  of  the  manholes  and 
number  of  ducts  varies  with  the  requirements 
of  a  given  locality.  Some  manholes  are  from 
4  to  5  feel  square;  others  are  12  to  IS  feet  deep 
and  6  to  8  feet  wide.  The  number  of  ducts  in 
a  conduit  may  ranpe  from  2  to  3  ducts  to  200 
or  300  ducts;  the  larger  number  usually  being 
near  the  power-house  or  the  telephone  or  tele- 
graph headquarters.  The  manholes  and  hand- 
holes  are  provided  with  double  iron  covers. 
Some  of  the  covers  are  designed  to  make  the 
manholes  air-  and  water-tight ;  other  covers  arc 
perforated  to  ventilate  the  conduits,  to  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  gas  from  adjacent  j^as- 
mains,  which  occasionally  causes  explosions  in 
the  subways.    The  respective  conductors  in  the 


caMes  are  joined  together  by  twisting  or  bjr 
copper  sleeves,  in  the'manbtdes ;  the  conductors 
bemg  separated  from  one  another  by  insulating 
material.  A  lead  sleeve  is  then  placed  over  the 
joints  and  soldered  to  the  main  cable.  A  hot 
insulating  substance,  as  wax  or  paraflin,  is 
poured  into  the  sleeve  throuf^  a  small  hole  in 
the  sleeve,  the  holes  being  soldered  thereafter. 
For  telegraph  and  telephone  distribution,  pipes 
are  run  from  the  manholes  into  the  vaults  of 
an  adjacent  building,  from  which  point  tlie 
wires  are  led  to  the  subscriber*'  offices  in  the 
block 

The  cables  are  drawn  into  the  ducts  by 
means  of  a  rope  and  windlass;  they  are  usually 
too  heavy  to  be  drawn  by  hand.  Electric  mo- 
tors earned  on  wagons  are  also  used  to  draw  in 
the  aablcs,  the  current  for  the  motor  being  sup- 
plied by  a  storage  battery,  an  adjacent  power 
wire  or  a  portable  gas  engine.  In  order  to  get 
the  rope  through  the  duct,  a  wire  is  sometimes 
placed  in  the  duct  as  it  is  laid.  More  frequently, 
however,  the  ducts  are  rodded  by  means  of  a 
stiff  steel  wire,  or  by  means  of  screw  and  socket 
rods,  similar  to  those  used  by  chimney  sweeps, 
one  rod  being  screwed  into  its  predecessor, 
which  is  then  pushed  along  the  duct  until  the 
distant  manhole  is  reached,  when  a  rope  is  at- 
tached to  one  end  of  the  rods  and  drawn 
through  the  duct. 

For  the  ducts  used  in  the  drawing-in  sys- 
tem different  material  and  varying  lengths  of 
pipe  or  tube  are  employed.  At  one  time. 
wrought-iron  pipe,  3  inches  in  diameter  and  20 
feet  in  length,  joined  together  by  thread  coup- 
hngs  and  laid  in  hydraulic  cement,  was  exten- 
sively used  in  this  country.  About  5,000,000  feet 
of  such  pipe  were  laid  and  are  still  in  service, 
but  in  recent  years  earthenware,  terra-cotta  or 
vitrified  brick,  stone  and  cement-lined  pipe  are 
mostly  employed.  The  iron  pipe  and  cement- 
lined  ducts  are  round,  about  three  inches  in  di- 
ameter. Many  of  the  holes  in  the  vitrified 
brick  ducts  are  square,  with  an  opening  of 
about  three  inches.  Pig.  13  illustrates  a  section 
of  cement-lined  pipe  under  construction.  These 
tubes  are  of  riveted  sheet  wrought  iron  and 
lined  with  five-eighths  of  an  inch  of  pure  ce- 
ment The  tubes  are  six  to  seven  feet  long  and 
two  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  as  required.  A 
large  quantity  of  these  tubes  are  in  use  in  this 
country  and  Great  Britain. 


FlC.  13. —  CemeDt-lincd  Conduit. 

In  Fig.  14  is  shown  a  12-duct  vitrified  clay 
conduit  entering  a  manhole.  Conduits  of  this 
type  are  made  in  blocks  of  two,  three,  four  and 
six  diKts.  The  four-  and  six-duct  blocks  are 
six  feet  long;  the  two-  and  three-duct  Mocks 


ELBCTRIC  VEOBTABL£  GARDENING 


t45 


are  three  feet  in  length.  These  blocks  are  laid  in 
cement,  end  to  end,  and  are  held  in  position  rela- 
tive to  one  another  by  dowel  pins.  The  walls 
of  these  blocks  are  five-cighthj  of  an  inch 
thick.  A  wrapping  of  wet  muslin  is  laid  around 
each  joint  and  over  the  muslin  cement  mortar 
is  placed.  Earthenware  conduits  are  also  made 
in  single  ducts,  18  inches  in  len^h. 

Wood  pipe  conduits  consisting  of  wooden 
tubes  which  have  been  especially  prepared  to 
withstand  decay  are  used  quite  largely.  The 
single  tubes  are  about  eight  feet  in  length  and 
have  socket  joints.  The  tubes  are  laid  in  the 
trench  in  tiers,  the  lower  tier  resting  on  plank- 
infj.  In  the  various  types  of  underground  con- 
duits mentioned  and  others  the  ducts  are 
■broken*  to  add  strength  to  the  structure.  Care 
is  taken  in  laying  these  ducts  to  exclude  cement, 
stones  or  any  other  obstacle  that  would  ob- 
struct or  injure  the  cables  in  the  'drawmg  in* 
process. 


Fig.  14.— Vitrified  Claji  Conduit. 

In  the  case  of  conduits  for  electric  traction, 
the  ducts  are  laid  at  the  side  of  the  tracks, 
underground,  and  wide  manholes  are  provided 
at  street  intersections.  For  the  'feeders"  and 
other  cables  of  the  New  York  subways,  conduits 
are  laid  in  the  wall  of  the  structure  and  access 
is  given  by  openings  in  the  wall  at  suitable  in- 

It  is  well  known  that  frequent  interruptions 
to  overhead  telegraph  and  telephone  lines  are 
occasioned  by  severe  wini  snow  and  sleet 
storms  in  this  country  and  Europe,  and  in  con- 
sequence the  question  of  placing  all  such  wires 
in  underground  conduits  has  frequently  been 
raised.  The  great  cost  of  such  an  undertaking, 
however,  together  with  the  fact  that  the  speed 

_i    1.1 — 1 — J    ..-1 l: —    would    be 

owing 


of     lelephonmg;    and    telegraphing 
greatly    diminished,    owing    to    tne 


trical  obstacles,  has  been  prohibitory  of  the  at- 
.  tempt  to  carry  out  such  a  plan  in  this  country 
on  a  large  scale.  In  Great  Britain  an  emer- 
gency underground  cable  system  has  been  laid 
between  Birmingham,  London  and  Edin- 
burgh, For  this  purpose  an  iron  pipe  contain- 
inR  a  76-conductor  telegraph  cable,  with  open- 
ings at  certain  intervals  to  pve  access  to  the 
cable,  is  employed.  In  the  United  Slates  long 
stretches  of  underground  telephone  cables  have 
been  constructed,  notably  between  New  York, 
Philadelphia  and  Washington,  D.  C.  The  suc- 
cessful _  operation  of  underground  telephone 
(mi'tallic)  circuits  at  such  distances  has  been 
made  possible  by  the  use  of  the  Pupin  induet- 
ance  coils  placed  at  certain  intervals  along  the 


circuit  and  by  the  use  of  the  audion  telephone 

William  Maver,  Jr., 
Ex-Electrician,    Consolidated     Telegraph    and 

Electrical  Sftbuiay  Co.,  New  York. 

BLECTRIC  VEGETABLE  GARDEN- 
ING. Experiments  carried  on  at  the  govern- 
ment agricultural  station  at  Amherst,  Mass., 
since  19uO,  show  that  the  use  of  electricity  by 
the  farmer  is  a  distinct  and  valuable  stimulus 
to  nature  and  exerts  a  marked  influence  upon 
the  germination  of  seeds  and  the  gtbwtb  of 
farm  products.  Scientists  argue  that  roaming 
around  loose  in  the  atmosphere  there  is  a  vast 
fund  of  electrical  force,  which,  by  means  of 
specially  devised  apparatus,  can  be  attracted  to 
the  earth  and  distributed  through  the  ground 
where  the  gardener  has  sown  his  seeds.  The 
apparatus  by  means  of  which  the  electricity  is 
caught  and  harnessed  has  been  tested  at  Am- 
herst and  has  proved  to  be  a  complete  success. 
Briefly  descrit^d  it  consists  of  a  number  of 
copper  spikes  which  are  elevated  at  the  top  of  a 
50-foot  metallic  pole.  These  spikes  gather  the 
electric  fluid  from  the  atmosphere  and  convey 
it  to  the  foot  of  the  pole,  where  it  is  caught 
by  wires  buried  a  few  feet  beneath  the  ground 
and  distributed  over  as  large  a  section  as  the 
gardener  desires.  Each  of  toe  poles  will  gather 
and  distribute  cnouEh  electricity  to  cover  sev- 
eral acres  of  ground.  With  this  apparatus  ex- 
periments have  been  made  which  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows;  After  seeds  have  been 
subjected  to  theelectric  treatment  for  a  period  of 
24  hours,  it  was  found  that  over  30  per  cent  more 
seeds  were  germinalcd  bv  the  aid  of  electricity 
than  in  a  like  quantity  of  seeds  sown  in  ground 
that  lacked  the  electrical  stimulant.  As  the 
scientists  in  charge  of  the  experiments  wished 
to  make  a  very  complete  test,  the  electric  cur- 
rent was  applied  to  seeds  that  were  allowed  to 
stay  in  the  ground  for  48  hours.  In  this  case 
it  was  foimd  that  20  per  cent  more  seeds  had 
germinated  in  the  electrified  ground  than  in  the 
soil  where  the  seeds  had  been  left  to  sprout 
under  normal  conditions,  and  in  72  hours  this 
percentage  had  dropped  to  6,  thus  showing 
that  the  use  of  the  current  for  the  purpose  of 
stimulating  germination  tmder  all  the  tests  was 
a  decided  success. 

In  the  various  tests  seeds  subjected  to  only 
a  temporary  current  of  electricity  have  been 
found  to  show  the  effect  for  a  few  hours  and 
then  resume  their  normal  growth.  In  one  in- 
stance, to  produce  a  constantly  beneficial  effect 
it  was  necessary  to  apply  the  electricity  every 
hour  to  germinate  growing  plants  or  seeds. 

Another  interesting  experiment,  made  in 
1902,  was  planting  in  two  sections  of  ground, 
the  soil  in  both  of  which  had  been  careiully  se- 
lected to  ensure  it  being  exactly  alike,  seeds  of 
the  following  vegetables ;  parsnip,  lettuce,  carrot, 
turnip,  radish  and  onion.  To  one  of  the  sec- 
tions of  ground  a  mild  current  ot  electricity 
was  applied.  The  following  day  the  plants  in 
the  electrified  plot  began  to  appear,  the  turnips 
sprouting  first.  The  rapidity  of  growth  of  those 
planted  in  the  electrically  treated  ground  was 
far  in  advance  of  those  treated  in  the  ordinary 
ground.  The  second  day  plants  broke  through 
the  surface  in  both  plots,  those  in  the  ejectnc 
garden  showing  considerably  the  more  rapid 
growth;  the  foliage  was  rank  and  when  har- 


■8l^ 


146 


BLBCTRIC   VBHICLSS 


vested  was  nearly  twice  as  high  as  that  of  the 
non-electric  ploL  The  roots  also  were  larger 
and  showed  a  marked  difference  in  favor  of 
electricity.  One  peculiarity  was  that  in  the  elec- 
tric plot  for  every  pound  of  roots  very  nearly 
a  pound  of  tops  was  produced,  while  in  me  other 
case  for  every  pound  of  lops  there  grew  1.43 
pounds  of  root,  but  the  difference  in  the  total 
was  all  in  favor  of  electricity.  With  reference 
to  the  other  vegetables,  the  lettuce  proved  a 
failure  in  both  plots.  The  cam>ts  diowed  a 
marked  superiorly  in  the  electric  bed  over 
those  ia  the  non~electric  The  onion  plants 
came  up  in  both  beds  and  grew  finely  for  a  time, 
then  blasted  and  not  one  developed,  neither 
electric   nor  non-electric. 

Besides  the  electric  treatment  of  the  soil,  ex- 
periments have  been  made  with  the  electric  light 
for  stimulating  the  growth  of  plants  and  the 
general  effect  has  been  to  hasten  the  maturity  of 
lettuce,  spinach  and  similar  products.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  electric  light  has  the  stimu- 
lating effect  of  daylight  upon  the  plants  and 
crops  thus  encouragecT  by  light  from  arc  lamps 
have  showed  50  to  60  per  cent  increase.  In 
short  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  by 
means  of  electricity  nature  can  be  forced  to  do 
double  duty  without  lessening  the  worth  of  her 
products.    See  Electroculture  of  Plants. 

BLBCTRIC  VEHICLES.  The  first  vehi- 
cles operated  by  electric  power  from  a  storage 
battery  appeared  in  1892,  but  they  failed  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  general  public  until 
1900,  when  the  very  superior  performance  of 
the  electric  carriage  in  a  winter  parade  in  the 
city  of  Qeveland,  Ohio,  gave  them  immediate 
prominence.  The  chain-drive  models  appeared 
in  1904,  and  continued  to  be  the  prevailing  type 
until  1908,  when  the  shaft-drive  tor  the  smaller 
vehicles  was  adopted.  Up  to  that  time  electric 
vehicles  were  equipped  with  pneumatic  tires. 
By  1912,  however,  solid  rubber  tires  had  been 
generally  substituted  and  the  battery  had  been 
enlarged  to  40  cells.  These  two  changes  were 
the  cause  of  a  great  improvement  in  the 
quality  of  the  metal  used  in  constructing  the 
electric  car,  in  order  that  the  jars  of  the  road 
might  be  completely  absorbed  and  the  additional 
weight  safely  earned.  The  result  has  been  that 
the  electric  vehicle  is  the  highest  class  of  all 
self-propelled  cars. 

For  city  use  and  for  the  short  haul,  the 
electric  possesses  many  advantages  over  steam 
and  gasoline  vehicles,  the  most  considerable 
being  its  simplicity  of  construction.  There  arc 
only  three  parts  to  the  mechanism ;  the  battery, 
the  motor  and  the  controller  —  no  gears,  no 
clutch  and  no  engine  as  in  the  gasoline  and 
steam  driven  cars.  The  motor  is  an  engine  of 
the  rotary  type,  delivering  a  continuous  torque 
at  any  desired  speed  up  to  25  miles  per  hour, 
without  the  crude  and  bulky  mechanism  which 
controls  the  two  or  three  speeds  between  which 
choice  must  be  made  with  the  gasoline  car. 
Moreover  the  operation  is  noiseless.  There  are 
no  nauseous  odors  of  gasoline  and  burnt  oil, 
and  there  is  no  danger  from  fire.  The  car  can 
be  started  instantly  and  surely  by  simply  throw- 
ing a  switch  and  there  areno  jerks  or  jolts  in 
either  starting  or  stopping  abruptly.  No 
chauffeur  is  needed,  the  car  practically  taking 
care'  of  itself  and  seldom  needing  any  repairs 
or  expert  attention.    The  great  drawbacks  are 


two  —  the  weight  o£  the  storage  battery  which 
supplies  the  current  and  the  UmJted  radius  of 
operation  from  a  single  charging  of  the  batterj', 
about  30  to  35  miles.  In  some  European  vehi- 
cles the  radius  of  travel  is  as  high  as  60  miles, 
the  weight  of  the  battery  being  doubled.  The 
usual  wpe  of  battery  constitutes  about  one- 
third  of  the  weight  of  the  car  and  costs  about 
$350.  The  lead  battery  is  good  for  10,000 
miles  and  then  has  to  be  replaced  with  a  new 
one.  The  Edison  battery  costs  a  good  deal 
more,  but  is  guaranteed  for  four  years,  during 
which  a  car  may  easily  make  60,000  miles,  so 
that  while  the  Edison  battery  costs  more  to  in- 
stall it  is  very  much  more  economical  in  ihc 
long  run.  The  average  consumption  of  energy 
is  about  100  watt-hours  per  ton  mile. 

But  it  is  not  as  the  passenger  or  pleasure 
car  that  the  electric  vehicle  demonstrates  its 
greatest  utility.  This  lies  rather  in  the  com- 
mercial world,  where  the  small  truck  of  mode- 
rate capacity  is  widely  in  use,  in  as  many  as 
124  lines  of  trade.  As  taxicahs  in  cities  where 
the  speed  limit  is  IS  miles  per  hour,  the  elec- 
tric excels,  showing  almost  no  delays  for 
derangonent  of  machinery,  no  tire  trouble, 
great  elasticity  in  movement  in  crowded  thor- 
pughfares,  no  repair  account  and  the  cheapest 
motive  power.  The  last-named  feature  has  be- 
come still  more  marked  as  the  cost  of  gasoline 
goes  up  and  the  cost  of  electric  current  is  cijn- 
tinually  diminishing.  An  electric  taxicab  on 
trial  in  Detroit  made  the  remarkable  record  of 
121)00  miles  in  one  year  without  any  repair 
whatever.  Another  field  in  which  the  elec- 
tric has  made  good  is  as  the  light  delivery 
wagon,  especially  for  the  large  department 
stores.  For  this  use  the  slow-speed  type  of 
motor  is  in  favor,  running  about  800  to  900 
revolutions  per  minute,  at  80  volts  and  28 
amperes,  4  pole  series  type,  unsaturated.  The 
winding  is  arranged  for  either  60  or  80  volts 
on  larger  trucks,  to  be  used  with  a60-cell  Edison 
or  42-cell  lead  battery,  respectively.  These 
motors  run  without  attention  except  an  oc- 
casional renewing  of  the  brushes  and  lubrica- 
tion, for  from  eight  months  to  a  year.  The 
control  most  generally  in  use  is. the  horizontal 
lever,  and  there  Is  a  motor  brake  besides  an 
efhcient  foot  brake.  The  standard  battery 
equipment  is  42  cells  of  15  plates  each  for  the 
lead  type,  or  60  Edison  cells  ot  the  G-7  type. 
For  ue  establishment  which  runs  its  own 
electric  plant  the  matter  of  charging  the  bat- 
teries becomes  merely  a  matter  of  adjustment 
to  the  other  work  of  the  plant.  In  several 
cities  the  battery  rental  plan  has  proved  popu- 
lar with  owners  of  electric  vehicles.  The  cars 
can  be  bought  without  the  battery  and  this 
be  supplied  at  a  stated  rate  per  month,  the 
battery  being  charged  as  often  as  exhausted. 
The  cost  of  such  service  is  not  excessive,  being 
about  half  the  initial  cost  of  a  new  battery, 
and  there  are  no  delays  while  the  battery  is 
being  charged  —  the  exhausted  battery  being 
lifted  out  and  the  fresh  one  put  in  its  place. 

The  electric  ^ype,  however,  is  not  linuted  to 
the  lighter  service,  as  five-ton  trucks  are  oper- 
ated successfully  in  the  transportation  of  coal, 
ice,  flour,  sugar,  lumber,  beer,  etc.  Fire  engines 
to  run  at  a  speed  of  25  miles  per  hour  are  in  use 
in  some  cities,  a  particularly  effective  ladder 
truck  being  able  to  divert  its  motive  power  to 


ELECTRIC   WAVES  — ELECTRIC  WELDING 


14T 


raising  a  90-foot  ladder,  which  is  accomplished 
in  10  seconds.  In  several  of  the  larger  cities 
the  Post-Office  Department  uses  two-ton  electric 
trucks  to  move  mail  ia  bulk,  there  being 
20  of  these  in  New  York  alone.  For  motive 
power  for  baggage  and  freight  trucks  in 
railroad  terminais  and  on  docks,  electricity  has 
been  proved  highly  efficient.  These  Uttle  vehi- 
cles have  a  speed  of  seven  to  ei^t  miles 
per  hour  when  empty,  and  five  to  six 
miles  per  hour  when  loaded  and  cost 
to  run  about  one  cent  per  mile.  Other 
adaptations  of  the  electric  vehicle  are  the  truck 
crane  for  loading  and  unloading  and  moving 
materials  in  foundries  and  other  manufactories 
of  heavy  products  and  in  workshops  and  their 
,  yards,  as  road  machines  and  road  tractors,  as 
warehouse  trucks  for  moving  goods  and  deliver- 
ing them  to  gangways,  as  mine  locomotives  and 
in  place  of  nana  trucks  in  loading  and  unload- 
ing vessels. 

One  of  the  incidental  advantages  of  the 
electric  vehicle  is  the  very  considerable  saviiie 
in  insurance  costs,  both  for  the  vehicle  itself 
and  for  the  prenuses  in  whidi  it  is  stored. 

In  1916  there  were  40  concenis  coined  in 
building  electric  rehiclea  and  the  number  in  uae  in 
the  Umted  States  was  estimated  at  above  60,000, 

ELECTRIC  WAVES,  a  motion  or  dis- 
turbance of  the  ether  or  mediimi  in  which  elec- 
tricity manifests  itself  and  appears  to  move,  of 
a  character  similar  to  light  waves,  of  varying 
length,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
cbarge but  with  a  velocity  similar  to  that  of 
light.  The  wave  theory  was  early  held  by 
Clerk  Maxwell,  Lord  Kelvin  and  others,  but 
was  first  demonstrated  by  Hcinrich  Rudolph 
Hertz  (q.v.),  who  began  experimenting  about 
18S3.  He  discovered  that  electric  waves  would 
produce  a  slif^ht  sparking  between  metals  when 
very  nearly  in  contact.  About  1887  he  ex- 
hibited a  special  form  of  condenser  which  he 
termed  a  radiator,  but  which  would  now  be 
called  an  oscillator,  as  it  discharges  across  a 
SMrk  gap  with  oscillations.  In  connection  with 
this  he  employed  what  he  termed  a  resonator, 
hut  which  would  now  be  styled  a  wave-detec- 
tor. By  radiating^  electricity  at  different  oscil- 
lations and  delecting  the  waves  at  certain  har- 
monious distances,  while  demonstrating  Aeir 
non-appearance  at  intermediate  points.  Hertz 
proved  the  theory  of  wave  action  and  that 
electricity  travels  in  the  same  way  as  light,  and 

Kved  the  wa]^  for  the  later  invention  of  wire- 
>s  transmission.  Hertz  also  reflected  and  re- 
fracted and  polarized  the  waves,  thoroughly 
demonstrating  their  action  under  the  same  laws 


:   the  ,1 


referred  to  as  Hertzian  waves  in  honor  of  his 
contribution  to  science.  The  study  of  the  waves 
was  at  once  taken  up  by  numerous  students  of 
electrical  phenomena,  and  Lodge,  Kelvin.  Foln- 
care  and  others  made  investigations  which  in- 
creased knowledge  of  the  subject  Bose  de- 
signed an  instrument  for  producing  very  short 
metrical  waves  so  they  should  be  more  easily 
studied.  Later  Brftdy  of  Paris  devised  an  im- 
proved form  of  detector,  and  E.  Rutherford 
brougbt  out  a  magnetic  detector.  ^  These  were 
outclassed  later  by  William  Uarconi's  coherer, 
and  that  has  yielded  place  to  still  more  accurate 
detectors  now  nsed  in  radiography.    See  TelB- 

GBAPHV,  WUUXJESS. 


ELECTRIC  WELDING.  The  heat  of  -an 
electric  arc  may  be  employed  in  fusing  or 
welding  metals,  or  the  heat  given  out  in  the 
body  of  metal  acting  as  a  resistance  to  the 
passage  of  a  heavy  current,  without  any  arc 
or  spark,  may  e&ect  that  result  The  arc 
method  appears  to  have  been  first  employed 
by  De  Meritena  m  1881.  In  this  instance  leaden 
pieces  designed  to  be  united  in  the  form  of 
storage  battery  plates  were  arranged  together 
as  an  extended  positive  electrode,  and  an  arc 
was  drawn  between  them  and  a  negative  carbon 
rod  manipulated  by  means  of  an  operating 
handle.  Fart  of  the  heat  energy  of  the  arc 
served  to  melt  the  lead  and  cause  union  of  the 
adjacent  pieces,  but  much  the  larger  proportion 
of  the  energy  escaped  by  radiation  and  convec- 
tion. The  electric  arc  was  thus  akin  to  a  gas 
blowpipe  as  commonly  used  in  lead-burning  in 
the  construction  of  tanks  for  the  chemical  in- 
dustries. Following  De  Meritens,  healing  by 
electric  arcs  has  been  apphed  to  the  iusing 
and  weldiiK  of  metals,  notably  of  iron  and  steel, 
by  fiemardos  and  Olszewski,  Coffin  and  others. 
When,  as  in  the  Bemardos  and  Olszewski 
method,  the  carbon  electrode  is  made  positive  to 
the  work,  carbon  is  transported  through  the  arc 
and  is  likely  to  enter  the  metal  underling  the 
process,  which  constitutes  the  negative  pole. 
This  addition  of  carbon  may  render  iron  or 
steel  hard  and  unworkable,  and  cause  cracks  to 
be  formed  during  the  cooling  of  the  fused  mass 
at  the  joint  or  filling.  By  the  employment,  in- 
stead of  carbon,  of  an  electrode  of  the  same 
metal  as  that  of  the  work,  SlavienoS  overcame 
this  difficulty.  The  gradual  melting  of  the 
metal  electrode  furni^cs  metal  for  forming 
joints,  or  for  repairing  or  supplementing  cast- 
ings which  are  defective;  such  as  those  which 
are  incomplete  or  contain  blowholes.  More 
recently  the  work  is  made  the  positive  pole  and 
this  results  in  a  greater  proportion  of  the 
energy  than  formerly  being  expended  in  headng 
the  metal  undergoing  the  operation.  Inasmuch 
as  the  conditions  of  ener^  supply  for  sus- 
taining the  arc  are  but  htlle  chfferent  from 
those  often  found  in  the  comm.erciaI  operation 
of  arc  lamps  from  constant  potential  mains, 
arc  welding  may  often  be  practised  by  connec- 
tions made  to  such  mains.  A  choking  or  steady- 
ing resistance  is  put  in  series  with  the  fusing 
arc  in  a  branch  from  direct  current  lines  at  a 
potential  difference  of  200  volts  or  thereabout. 
With  work  such  as  that  to  which  the  Bemardos 
and  Olszewski  method  has  been  found  to  be 
applicable,  the  current  in  the  arc  may  vary 
from  150  amperes  up  to  500  or  more.     The 

Stential  across  the  arc  itself  will  generally 
from  100  to  ISO  volts.  With  the  metal  elec- 
trode used  by  SlavienofC  Ihe  current  needed 
will  be  greater  and  the  arc  potential  less  than 
the  above  amounts.  It  appears  that  in  certain 
cases  the  current  may  even  surpass  4,000  am- 

While  a  moderate  application  of  these  arc 

Erocesses  for  fusing  and  welding  iron  and  Steel 
as  been  made,  the  range  of  operations  to  which 
they  are  suited  is  somewhat  limited  and  their 
success  depends  largely  upon  the  skill  of  the 
workman.  He  must  protect  not  only  his  eye- 
sight from  the  glare  of  the  large  arc,  but  also 
the  surface  of  his  body,  and  must  avoid  the  irri- 
tating vapors  which  arise  from  the  flame. 
At  the  same  lime  vigorous  ventilation  cannot 


8l^ 


14S 


ELECTRIC   WELDING 


be  employed,  for  motion  of  the  air  tends  to  dis- 
turb the  arc  and  render  the  work  tnore  difficult. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  energy  is  radiated  or 
carried  off  in  the  hot  gases  from  the  arc.  To 
these  energy  losses  must  be  added  that  due  to 
the  use  of  the  steadying  resistance  for  obtaining 
Stabihty  in  the  current  of  the  arc.  On  the  other 
hand  Uie  appliances  needed  for  arc  fusing  or 
welding  are  simple  and  the  source  of  current 
energy  often  conveniently  found  in  existing  elec- 
tric circuits.  One  of  its  most  recent  uses  has 
been  in  adding  metal  to  rail  surfaces  where 
worn  at  the  joints,  particularly  street  railway 
rails  in  situ.  A  considerable  extension  of  the 
use  of  arc  welding  has  recently  taken  place, 
owing  to  improvements  in  materials  and  meth- 
ods and  to  increasing  demand  for  its  use  in 
original  construction  and  repair  work. 

Werdermann,  in  18?4,  proposed  to  deflect  an 
electric  arc  formed  between  the  usual  carbons  by 
a  jet  of  air,  forming  thereby  an  electric  blow- 
pipe. More  recently  Zerener  has  in  a  similar 
way  employed  an  arc  deflected  by  a  magnet  as  a 
sort  of  blowpipe  for  welding  iron.  In  addition, 
the  curious  electric  heating  action  first  published 
by  Hoho  and  Lagrange  has  been  proposed  for 
welding  metals.  If  a  negative  electrode  of  a 
direct  current  circuit  having  a  potential  of  lOO 
to  150  volts  is  of  small  surface  relatively  to 
that  of  the  positive  electrode  when  both  are  im- 
mersed in  a  liquid  bath,  such  as  a  solution  of 
potassium  or  sodium  carbonate,  the  surface  of 
such  negative  electrode,  where  immersed,  glows 
with  light,  gas  bubbles  arise  from  it,  and  the 
electrode  itself  heats  rapidly  in  spite  of  its  im- 
mersion in  cold  liquid,  A  bar  oi  iron  used  as 
the  negative  electrode  may  thus  be  brought  to 
incandescence  and  removed  for  welding,  or  it 
may  even  be  melted  under  the  liquid  of  the  bath. 
The  loss  of  heat  in  such  a  liquid  heating  process 
is  necessarily  somewhat  great. 

The  Thomson  process  of  electric  welding, 
which  differs  radically  from  the  arc  beating 
operations  above  descnbed,  was  first  announced 
in  1886.  It  has  since  gone  into  extensive  com- 
mercial use.  No  electric  arc  is  employed,  but 
the  heat  which  effects  the  welding  is  solely  due 
to  the  resistance  of  those  parts  of  the  metal 
pieces  at  the  contact  where  they  are  to  be 
welded  together.  This  resistance  is,  of  course, 
extremely  low,  and  the  delivery  of  sufficient 
energy  for  heating  and  welding  is  the  result 
of  the  passage  of  relatively  enormous  currents. 
Their  potential  is  only  two  or  three  volts,  more 
or  less.  The  metal  pieces  to  he  welded  together 
are  held  respectively  in  massive  clamps  or  vises 
of  highly  conducting  metal  such  as  copper,  with 
a  slight  portion  only  of  each  piece  projecting  to 
form  the  joint  These  projections  of  the  pieces 
are  brought  together  in  firm  contact,  for  which 
purpose  at  least  one  of  the  clamps  is  made  mov- 
able toward  and  from  the  other,  both  of  them 
being  mounted  on  a  firm  support.  The  pieces 
having  been  adjusted  to  meet  m  correct  relation 
for  the  subsequent  formation  of  the  weld  uniting 
them,  an  electric  current  sufficient  in  amount  to 
heat  the  meeting  portions  of  the  pieces  to  the 


the  joint  and  the  short  projecting  portions  oi 
the  pieces  between  the  clamps.  So  heavy  is  the 
current  at  command  that  a  solid  bar  without 
break  spanning  the  space  between  the  clamps 
could  be  heated  and  melted.    The  completion  of 


the  weld  after  heating  is  effected  by  pressure 
exerted  to  force  one  clamp  toward  the  other, 
which  results  in  a  slight  upsetting  or  extrusion 
of  metal  at  the  weld  called  a  burr.  For  copper 
a  pressure  of  about  600  pounds  per  square  inch 
of  section  is  usual,  while  with  iron  it  is  1,200  and 
with  tool  steel  1,800  pounds  or  more.  Nearly 
all  of  the  metals,  even  those  like  antimony  and 
bismuth  which  are  brittle  and  crystalline,  may  be 
united  by  this  process,  and  many  different  metals 
and  alloys  joined  one  to  another.  In  some  cases 
as  with  high  carbon  steels,  a  flux  such  as  glass 
of  borax,  is  employed  to  facilitate  union  at  tem- 


are  usually  made,  as  in  ordinary  forges,  at  weld- 
ing heat,  or  that  which  melts  or  fluxes  the  or- 
dinary black  oxide  scale  upon  the  metal.  The 
heavy  welding  currents  cannot  be  convwed 
without  great  loss  to  distances  of  even  a  few 
feet  unless  conductors  of  prohibitive  section 
and  cost  be  used.  The  welaing  clamps  are  in 
practice  carried  directly  upon  the  secondary 
terminals  of  a  Social  welding  transformer.  The 
Thomson  welding  transformer  is  a  construc- 
tion like  a  lighting  transformer  in  which  the 
usual  secondary  circuit  of  numerous  turns  is 
replaced  by  a  very  massive  conductor  constitut- 
ing ordinarily  only  a  single  turn  around  the  iron 
magnetic  core.  The  primaiy  or  inducing  cir- 
cuit is  similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary  trans- 
former for  alternating  current  and  it  is  sup- 
plied from  alternating  current  dynamos  or  lines 
as  usual  in  such  work.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
secondary  conductor  is  unique  in  character,  be- 
ing often  a  bar  or  casting  of  many  square  inches 
of  section  of  copper  of  short  length.  The  circuit 
of  this  single  turn  secondary  is  completed  only 
by  the  meeting  ends  of  the  work  pieces  in  the 
clamps.  It  will  thus  be  evident  that  die  chief 
resistance  or  opposition  to  the  flow  of  the  low 
voltage  current  in  the  single  secondary  turn 
will  be  at  the  proposed  joint  or  weld  between 
the  clamps.  Here  it  is  then  that  the  trans- 
formed energy  is  for  the  most  part  given  out 
as  heat,  the  section  of  metal  which  can  be 
welded  depending  upon  the  scale  of  the  appara- 
tus used  and  the  energy  of  the  primary  source 
which  is  available.  The  welding  transformer 
has  found  convenient  application  in  the  heating 
of  metal  pieces  for  forgin^^  bending,  shaping, 
braring  or  the  like,  in  addition  to  welding.  It 
has  also  in  the  Lemp  process  been  divested  of 
its  welding  clamps  and  applied  to  the  local 
annealing  of  the  hardened  face  of  armor  plates, 
so  as  to  facilitate  drilling  and  tapping,  or  cut- 
ting into  desired  shapes.  The  welds  made  by 
the  Thomson  process  are  usually  butt  welds, 
though  lap  welds  are  also  made  with  almost 
equal  facility.  In  butt  welding  there  is  of  course 
an  upset,  burr,  or  extrusion  of  metal  at  the 
joint.  In  many  cases  this  is  not  removed,  and 
it  renders  the  joint  stronger  than  other  adjacent 
sections.  Oftentimes  the  joint  is  pressed  or 
forged  while  still  hot  so  as  to  remove  the  burr 
joint.     In   other  cases  the  joint   is  fin- 


the  shape  and  size  of  the  pieces  to  be  held,  and 
the  pressure  used  to  effect  the  weld  is  either 
manually  applied  by  levers  or  is  obtained  from 
a  strained  spring,  or  again,  in  large  work,  by 
hydraulic  means  under  control  by  suitable 
valves.    The  healing  effects  of  the  electric  cur- 


BLBCTRIC  WBLOINO 


14S 


rent  are  so  perfectly'  adjusted  by  regulating  ap- 
pliance! that  most  of  we  metals  formerly  re- 
garded as  unweldabie,  yield  good  results  with 
the  process.  Even  leaden  pieces,  such  for  ex- 
ample, as  sections  of  lead  pip^  may  be  joined 
together  with  great  ease.  The  operation  of 
the  electric  welder  is  chancteiized  by  uni- 
fonnity,  rapidity,  flexibility,  cleanliness  neat' 
ness,  accuracy  and  economy.  _  It  has  found 
extensive  application  to  repetition  work;  single 
machines  making  sometimes  as  many  as  2,000 
welds  per  day  of  10  hours.  It  is  used  widely 
in  the  wagon  and  carriage  industry  for  tires, 
axles,  bands,  fifth  wheels,  etc,  and  for  wire 
bands  for  ainxing  rubber  tires  to  wheels.  Uany 
parts  of  bicycles  and  automobiles  are  built  up 
by  electric  welding.  In  the  construction  of  tools 
and  parts  of  machinery  and  particularly  in  the 
wire  industry  it  plays  an  important  part.  An- 
other important  field  is  in  the  welding  of  wire 
or  strip  into  hoops  or  bands  for  barrels,  tubs, 
pails,  etc  Machines  are  in  operation  producing 
electrically  welded  wire  fencing,  in  which  the 
wires  which  in  the  fence  are  horizontal  are 
welded  to  verticals  at  intervals,  the  action  some- 
what resembling  that  of  a  loom.  In  joinins;  pipe 
into  continuous  lengths  or  coils,  and  also  in 
welding  in  sittt  street  railway  rails  into  a  con- 
tinuous track  the  electric  weld  possesses  a  spe- 
cial adaptability.  An  interesting  application  of 
the  electric  welder  is  found  in  the  production 
of  steel  tubing  by  the  progressive  welding  of  a 
longitudinal  seam.  A  long  strip  of  Hat  sheet  or 
skeJp  is  rolled  up  so  as  to  cause  the  lateral 
edges  to  meet.  It  then  passes  between  welding 
rolls  whereby  the  heating  current  locally 
traverses  the  meeting  edges  and  welds  them. 
The  operation  is  progressive  from  one  end  of 
the  pipe  to  the  other  a;  it  is  fed  through  the 
machine.  The  result  is  a  pipe  of  uniform 
diameter  with  walls  of  even  thickness,  haviiw 
a  delicate  bead  alon^  one  side  where  the  weld 
has  been  made.  This  bead  is  removed  if  the 
pipe  be  subsequently  mandrel  drawn  with  a  re- 
duction of  its  diameter.  In  the  earlier  electric 
welders  the  operations  of  clamping  the  pieces  in 
place,  applying  and  cutting  oft  the  electric  cur- 
tent  and  exerting  mechanical  pressure,  were 
usually  manually  controlled.  Machines  more  or 
less  automatic  are  now  frequently  employed. 
In  recent  types  adapted  for  rapid  repetition  of 
work  upon  identical  pieces,  the  action  is  en- 
tirely automatic;  the  machine  runs  continuously 
and  its  sequence  of  actions  is  definitely  deter- 
mined bv  its  construction.  These  machines  are 
power  driven,  movements  being  imparted  for 
clamping  the  pieces  as  they  are  fed  to  the  ma- 
chine, for  closing  the  current  switch,  for  exert- 
ing pressure  to  complete  the  weld,  for  cuttingoff 
the  current  and  for  releasing  the  pieces  from 
the  clamps  after  the  operation.  In  wire  fence 
and  chain  machines  the  stock  is  itself  fed  auto- 
matically and  the  welding  continued  until  the 
machine  is  stop->ed  or  the  material  exhausted. 
The  energy  required  to  effect  electric  welds 
naturally  varies  with  the  size  of  the  pieces  and 
with  the  material.  It  also  depends  upon  the 
time  consumed  in  the  work,  which  time  may  be 
made  shorter  or  longer  even  with  exactly  simi- 
lar pieces.  The  following  table  gives  the  results 
of  some  tests  made  upon  different  sections  of 
iron,  mild  steeL  brass  and  copper  in  the  form 
of  bars.  The  figures  are  only  approximate  and 
would  vsry  considerably  if  the  welds  had  been 


made  in  times  different  from  those  ^ven.  In 
general,  woridng  at  a  greater  rapidity  would 
lessen  the  total  power  used  but  require  larger 
apparatus  for  the  increased  output  required  dur- 
ing the  weldii^: 


SKtion. 
Sq.tn. 

Kilontt* 

'IT 

KCOIub 

Total  kilo- 

O.S 

M.J 

« 

380.3 

lis 

M-S 

33 

292.S 

Iron  and  SMd. 

8SS. 

M. 

3041 ! 

3.3 

4t'. 

S3 

7«. 

50. 

90 

SOD. 

0  15 

7  5 

IT 

Ill  5 

'.S 

u'.i 

22 

29t: 

19. 

» 

551. 

Bn» 

lizs 

U 

I. so 

3«: 

41 

i3ia: 

U 

ISOO. 

4*. 

.lis 

6. 

■ 

40. 

154. 

Coiwer 

i 

3».S 

IS 

s. 

MO. 

iloo 

«. 

M 

One  of  the  recent  and  most  important  devel- 
opments of  electric  welding  by  the  Thomson 
process  is  known  as  'Spot'  welding,  and  is 
particularly  applicable  to  the  union  of  sheet 
metal  overlapped.  The  process  is  known  aa 
the  Harmatta  method,  and  is  an  effective  sub- 
stitute for  riveting  with  the  advantage  of  leav- 
ing the  metal  sheets  united  in  spots  but  without 
rivet  heads  or  otter  deformation  projecting 
The  surfaces  of  the  sheets  may,  i  ' 
smooth  or  with  only  slight  i 


ojecting. 

:,  be  left 


accomplish  this  result  the  two  sheets  to  be 
"spot- welded'  are  placed  one  against  the  other 
and,  as  it  were,  pinched  tt^ethcr  between  two 
heavy  points  or  electrodes  from  a  welding  trans- 
former secondanf  circuit.  These  electrodes  be- 
ing placed  opposite  each  other  press  the  sheets 
together  at  any  desired  spot,  the  current  is  then 
sent  through  them,  when  the  sheets,  where  they 
are  in  contact,  instantly  attain  the  welding  heat 
and  the  joint  is  effected  in  a  spot  with  unwelded 
metal  around  it,  as  in  riveting.  The  electrodes 
used  usually  have  at  their  ends  the  form  of 
truncated  cones;    that  is,  they  narrow  toward 


the 


On  c 


ting  off  the  current  after  a  weld  is  made 
releasing  the  pressure  of  the  electrodes  on  the 
sheets,  they  may  be  moved  to  a  new  position, 
another  spot  weld  effected,  and  so  on  until  as 
many  are  made  as  desired. 

Projection  welding  is  a  modification  of  spot 
welding  in  which  the  sheet  metal  tneces  are 
first  given  smaTl  projections  by  stamping  or 
otherwise.  In  other  cases  small  pieces  of  metal 
are  placed  between  the  sheets  at  spots  where 
the  weld  is  to  occur.  Then  the  whole  is  pressed 
between  the  current  carrying  electrodes  which 
may  now  be  of  such  spread  as  to  cover  a  num^ 


8l^ 


160         ELECTRIC    WIRELESS    TELEGRAPH —ELECTRICAL   ENGINEERING 


ber  of  such  projections  or  spots  at  once,  all 
being  wdded  simultaneously.  Spot  welding  in 
its  various  forms  finds  a  large  and  rapidly 
extending  application,  particularly  to  sheet  steel 
structures,  such  as  steel  car  bodies,  automobile 
bodies,  metal  containers,  etc  It  has  become  the 
general  method  of  uniting  stamped  metal  pieces 
which  subsequently  are  to  be  enameled.  For- 
merly, for  example,  handles  were  riveted  to 
sauce  pans  before  enameling  and  liie  rivets  were 
plainly  to  be  seen  under  the  enamel.  By  spot 
electnc  welding  the  union  is  effected  without 
visible  change  in  the  metal  surfaces  and  the 
covering  of  enamel  is  in  consequence  uninter- 
rupted and  without  projections. 

The  jirocess  is  capable  of  further  great  ex- 
tensions in  its  application  to  the  union  of  over- 
lapped sheets  or  plates.  Riveted  joints,  always 
more  or  less  unsightly  and  often  disadvan- 
tageous to  construction  by  taking  up  room  and 
^ving  an  irregular  surface,  can  often  be  abol- 
ishea  and  the  spot  weld  substituted  therefor 
with  benefit  Besides  its  advantage  of  leaving 
a  smooth  surface,  it  effects  a  great  saving  of 
time  and  economizes  material.  As  in  the  case 
of  electric  welding  generally,  the  spot  weld 
gives  rise  to  new  modes  of  construction  of 
metal  objects  and  greatly  assists  the  substitu- 
tion of  pressed  steel  for  castings  or  forgings. 
Eliru  Thomson. 

ELECTRIC  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH. 

See  DeFohest  Wireless  Telegraph   System  ; 

MaBCONI;  TELBCaAFUr;  TELE(3tAFHY,  WnuLKSB. 

ELECTRICAL  ALARM,  or  THER- 
UOSTAT,  an  instrument  arranged  to  give  an 
alarm  or  announcement  when  the ' 


vices.     Thermostats   are   operated   on   open  . 
closed  circuits,  as  desired.     There  are  electro- 
pneumatic    and    mercurial    thermostats    which 
operate  tv  expansion  of  a  gas  or  mercury,  re- 
spectively. 

ELECTRICAL  DIAPASON,  a  tuning 
fork  the  vibration  of  which  is  maintained  by 
means  of  electro-magnetism  virtually  on  the 
principle  of  the  electric  door-bell.  (See  Euscrwc 
Signaling).  This  instrument,  provided  with  a 
resonator,  was  employed  by  Helmholtz  in  his 
notable  experiments  on  the  composition  of 
soimds. 


,  ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING.  Elec- 
trical engineering  is  probably  the  youngest  of 
all  the  professions,  for  it  has  hardly  been  recog- 
nized as  a  regular  profession  for  more  than  15 
years  past.  As  a  result,  the  men  who  have 
reached  prominence  in  it  to-day  have  attained 
thdr  positions  from  widely  different  courses  of 
preliminary  training;  many  of  them  are  men 
who  started  life  in  other  lines  of  work  and 
afterward  turned  to  electrical  pursuits  on  ac- 
count of  the  sudden  growth  and  importance  of 
the  business.  In  consequence  of  this,  all  meth- 
ods of  preliminary  education  are   represented 


and  their  relative  values  can  be  estimated.  The 
argument  runs  largely  between  two  classes  of 
men  — one  represented  by  the  so-called  "prac- 
tical man*  and  the  other  by  the  theoretical 
electrician;  the  graduate  of  the  machine  shop 
and  the  graduate  of  the  university.  Both  of 
these  types  have  attained  success,  but  the  cor- 
rect answer  to  the  argument  will  probably  be 
found  in  a  proper  combinatian  of  the  two  types. 
In  the  past  some  of  the  most  successful  ciec- 
trical  engpneers  have  belon^d  distinctly  to  the 
class  of  practical  men  with  little  theoretical 
training,  but  the  conditions  have  changed.  In 
the  early  days  of  the  profession,  there  was 
little  theoty  or  predetermination  of  results  and 
work  was  carried  on  largely  by  guesswork  or  by 
cut  and  dry  approximations.  At  the  present  time, 
however,  such  a  state  of  development  has  been 
reached  that  exactness  of  result  is  essential  to 
success  and  work  based  upon  exact  theory  be- 
comes imperative.    In  a  stationary  condition  of 


types  of  apparatus  and,  knowing  their  various 
applications,  may  qualify,  to  an  extent,  as  an 
engineer.  But  the  extraordinarily  rapid  growth 
of  the  electrical  arts  places  electrical  engineer- 
ing apart  from  all  the  other  engineering 
branches,  for  new  discoveries  and  theories 
make  radical  dianges  from  year  to  year  in  the 
construction  and  operation  of  electrical  ma- 
chinery. The  engineer  whose  education  is  based 
only  upon  practical  experience  cannot  keep  iip 


andf 


1  it. 


edge  of  the  theory,  and  a  mind  trained  by  the 
theoretical  studies  and  scientific  reasoning, 
easily  grasps  the  theory  of  the  change  and  re- 
adjusts his  mind  to  the  new  without  difficulty 
or  delay.  Many  instances  can  be  cited  of  men 
who  have  been  prominent  as  electrical  engineers, 
who  have  been  dropped  out  of  place  in  the 
course  of  the  rapid  progress  which  has  heen 
made  on  account  of  a  lack  of  theoretical 
foundation  in  their  knowledge.  Those  who 
have  retained  their  positions  throughout  the 
growth  of  the  art  have  done  so  by  persistent 
study  along  theoretical  lines. 

In  its  present  state  electrical  engineering  is 
the  most  scientific  of  all  engineering  profes- 
sions, A  man  must  be  to  a  great  extent  a 
physicist,  a  chemist  and  a  mathematician,  as 
well  as  b«  familiar  with  machinery  and  its  de- 
sign, in  order  to  be  a  worker  in  the  broadest 
field.  Many  of  the  problems  connected  with 
other  branches  of  engineering  can  be  solved  by 
common  sense  and  by  one's  sense  of  proportion 
as  guided  by  experience  and  b^  t£e  e^e.  But 
most  of  the  problems  in  electriaty  are  invisible, 
so  to  speak,  and  can  be  understood  only  through 
their  expression  in  the  form  of  symbols. 
Probably  no  one  4iI1  dispute  to-day  that  the 
preliminary  education  of  an  electrical  engineer 
demands  a  special  training  in  those  theoretical 
branches,  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry  aud 
mechanics,  sufficient  to  train  his  mind  into  ac- 
curate methods  of  thought  and  reasoning  and 
to  supply  him  with  the  actual  technical  informa- 
tion which  he  will  need  in  the  practice  of  his 
profession.  But  theory  alone  is  not  all.  The 
human  mind  is  such  that  it  works  with  difficulty 
in  pure  theory  without  a  series  of  ment^ 
pictures  to  fix  and  co-ordinate  the  ideas,  and 


ra/BCTSICAL   liANUPACTURING    INDUSTRY 


161 


the  study  of  theory  is  likely  to  make  little  last- 
ing impression  unless  the  physical  meaning  of 
the  theory  is  brought  out  by  constant  associa- 
tion with  actual  apparatus  which  demonstrates 
the  application  of  the  physical  law.  The  best 
course  of  training  for  an  electrical  engineer 
would  seem  to  be  a  broad  course  of  education 
in  general  subjects  at  the  preparatory  school 
before  entering  gollege,  with  practical  work,  if 
possible,  alon^  lines  of  simple  mechanics,  such 
as  carpentry,  in  order  to  train  the  mind  into  a 
sense  of  proportion  and  the  relations  of  parts, 
which  is  the  basis  of  all  engineering.  Next,  a 
college  course  with  general  subjects  the  first 
year,  and  afterward,  tor  the  remaining  years  of 
the  course,  those  general  and  theoretical  sub- 
jects which  have  a  direct  hearing  upon  the  prac- 
tice of  the  electrical  profession,  such  as  mathe- 
matics, mechanics,  physics,  chemistry,  theoreti- 
cal electricity,  ancl  magnetism  and  thermo- 
dynamics. This  should  be  supplemented  by 
actual  daily  practical  work  with  machinery 
operating  by  the  principles  covered  by  the 
theory  studied  and  demonstrating  all  the  phe- 
nomena incident  to  the  theory.  After  gradua- 
tion an  apprentice  course  should  be  pursued  in 
Mime  large  electrical  manufacturing  establish- 
ment where  the  commercial  relations  of  the 
knovHedge  acqtiired  in  college  can  be  dearly  set 
forth.  Large  machines  can  be  operated  which 
are  not  available  at  a  college  and  experience  in 
lh«  installation  of  large  plants  can  be  obtained, 
and  experience  gained  in  the  desiring  depart- 
ments where  all  kinds  of  commercial  apparatus 
are  laid  out. 

After  a  few  years  of  this  training  specializa- 
tion may  begin  along  the  lines  selected  for  the 
life  work  but  preferably  not  before,  A  man 
makes  a  mistake  to  consider  himself  a  qualified 
electrical  engineer  after  he  has  been  graduated 
from  college,  for  he  is  tiol  one.  His  mind  has 
been  trained  into  a  condition  where  he  can 
readily  absorb  the  principles  of  the  electrical 
profession,  but  that  is  all,  and  the  subsequent 
apprentice  training  is  as  important  as  the  col- 
le^  course,  in  order  to  acquire  the  broad  view- 
point from  which  to  make  the  correct  start  in 
the  direction  in  which  a  man  is  best  fitted.  It 
perhaps  means  a  smaller  income  the  year  after 
graduation  from  college,  but  it  means  much 
more  at  the  end  of  live  years.  But  theory  and 
practice  are  not  the  only  elements  necessary  for 
the  successful  engineer.  There  are  many  qual- 
ities required  in  common  with  other  profes- 
sions ;  executive  ability,  business  knowledge, 
presence  of  mind  and  ability  to  handle  men; 
nerve  and  resourcefulness  in.  handling 
machinery  in  times  of  emergency,  are  all  neces- 
sary to  (he  successful  engineer.  These  elements 
cannot  be  acquired  in  the  study  of  theory  and 

Eractice  alone,  and  many  men  who  have  stood 
i^  in  their  college  courses  have  failed  after- 
ward in  the  practice  of  their  profession  because 
of  a  lack  of  these  qualities.  The  study  of 
chemistry  becomes  more  and  more  important  as 
the  profession  advances,  for  the  branch  of 
cleetro-chemistiy  is  rapidly  developing  and  is 
likety  to  become  one  of  the  largest  fields  in  the 
application  of  electrical  science.  And  almost 
above  all  comes  a  training  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. No  man  who  cannot  express  himself 
dearly  and  concisely  in  writing^  or  in  conversa- 
tion can  hope  to  attain  a  prominent  position  in 


his  profession.  The  education  of  an  electrical 
engineer,  however,  must  never  be  considered 
as  completed.  The  art  advances  so  rapidly  that 
constant  study  is  necessary,  even  to  keep  up 
with  the  progress  of  the  times.  But  an  elec- 
trical engineer  should  be  wilUng  to  do  more 
than  this.  He  should  study  to  keep  ahead  of 
progress  and  do  his  share  toward  the  instruc- 
tion of  others. 

H.  W.  Buck, 
Consulting  Electrical  Engineer,  New  York. 

SLBCTRICAL  MANUFACTURING 
INDUSTRY.  The  conditions  as  to  the  elec- 
trical manufacturing  industries  in  the  United 
States  are  fairly  well  revealed  in  the  sta- 
tistics of  the  Bureau  of  the  United  States 
Census  for  1914,  giving  the  latest  authentic 
figures  available,  although  these  can  be 
supplemented  by  later  data  in  various  ways 
that  bring  the  information  up  to  1917  and  that 
illustrate  the  swift  and  enormous  expansion  of 
the  various  electrical  arts  and  applications. 
EUectrical  applications  divide  themselves  into 
two  large  groups.  One  of  these  comprises  the 
production  of  apparatus ',  and  the  other,  many 
limes  larger,  embraces  the  utilization  of  the 
apparatus  chiefly  through  the  agency  of  what 
are  known  as  'public  utilities,*  such  as  teleg- 
raphy, telephony,  electric  lighting  and  power 
supply  and  electric  traction.  One  group  of  in- 
dustries manufactures  operating  matenals;  the 
other  group  manufactures  "service."  In  the 
United  States,  as  sharply  contrasted  with 
Europe,  these  agencies  are  in  the  hands  of 
private  capital  to  an  overwhelming  degree,  and 
the  comparative  figures  of  efficiency,  economy 
and  earning  power  are  equally  on  the  side  of 
individual  initiative  and  enterprise. 

As  to  the  production  of  electrical  machinery, 
apparatus  and  supplies,  the  data  are  given  here- 
with for  1914,  when  the  total  output  for  1121 
establishments  was  placed  at  a  value  of  $3S9,- 
412,676,  against  which  may  be  placed  the  fact 
that  in  1916,  three  concerns  billed  a  total  sales 
of  not  less  than  $305,000,000.  The  very  lowest 
estimate  for  1917  is  $600,000,000  and  in  view  of 
the  enhanced  cost  of  raw  material  it  would  not 
be  surprising  if  it  ran  in  excess  of  that  amount. 
These  figures  are  revelatory  of  many  new  con- 
ditions governing  the  electrical  arts,  such  as 
the  change  from  steam  engines  to  steam  tur- 
bines in  the  generation  of  electrical  ener^,  the 
increased  use  of  water  power,  the  invasion  of 
electricity  into  many  new  fields  of  supply,  in- 
dustrial, commercial  and  domestic ;  the  greater' 
use  of  the  electric  motor ;  the  advance  of  elec- 
tric heating;  the  supersession  of  the  arc  light 
by  the  larger  incandescent;  the  complete  con- 
quest of  the  incandescent  lighting  field  by  the 
tungsten  filament  lamp;  the  irresistible  intrusion 
of  the  electric  locomotive,  not  only  into  steam 
railway  terminals  but  ihto  the  operation  of 
long  stretches  of  main  line,  where  cheap  water 
power  is  available  for  the  generation  of  cui^ 

It  will  be  noted  that  dynamos  have  greatly 
increased  in  size,  and  have  fallen  oti  in  value, 
owinp  to  this  fact  In  rtie  early  days  of  the  elec- 
tric-hght  and  power  industry  it  was  customary 
to  employ  high  speed,  single  valve  automatic 
steam  engines  for  driving  belted  generators,  fis 
the  best  regulation  of  speed  could  be  obtained 


ELECTRICAL  MANUPACTURIHO    INDUSTRY 


v/Hh  engines  of  that  type,  for  iacandcKcnt 
lighdng.  'i'he  steam  economy  of  those  eogiaes 
was  usually  as  low  as  a  consumption  of 
40  pounds  of  steam  per  one  horse  power 
per  hour.  The  inecaanical  efliciency  was 
rarely  as  great  as  85  per  cent  and  the 
electrical  efficiency  of  the  generators  was 
rarely  75  per  cent  Corliss  type  engines  were 
used  for  arc  light  circuits  where  the  load 
was  uniform  and  close  regulation  was  not  so 
essential.  Their  economy  rarely  exceeded  30 
pounds  of  water  per  one  horse  power.  For 
incandescent  lighting  there  was  an  average  con- 
sumption of  at  least  10!4  pounds  of  coal  per 
kilowatt  hour  and  for  arc  iiRhting  8  pounds 
of  coal  per  kilowatt  hour.  This  compares  with 
the  present  Intcrborough  Rapid  Transit  50,000 
kilowatt  steam  turbo  generators  requiring  as 
little  as  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  coal  per 
kilowatt  hour;  while  it  is  understood  that  the 
Connell  Creek  station  of  the  Detroit  Edison 
Company  has  an  economy  even  superior  to  that 
There  is  a  60,000  k.  v.  a.  triple  steam  turbine 
under  construction  for  the  Inlerborough  sys- 
tem, which  will  have  an  actual  capacity  of 
70,000  k.  V.  a.  and  is  expected  to  have  an 
economy  of  11  pounds  of  steam  per  kilowatt 
hour.  The  increase  in  the  size  and  economy 
of  hydro -electric  generating  units  is  equally 
notable.  The  largest  water  turbines  for  elec- 
trical service  are  the  three  single  runner  units 
installed  in  the  plant  of  the  Tallassee  Power 
Company  on  the  Yadkin  River,  North  Carolina, 
with  a  guaranteed  rating  of  31,000  horse  power 
under  an  effective  head  of  180  feet,  and  27,000 
horse  power  under  16S  feet  at  154  r.  p_.  m.  The 
turbine  runner  weighs  20.000  pounds,  is  a  single 
piece  of  solid  bronze  and  is  probably  the  largest 
casting  of  its  kind  ever  made. 

It  is  to  be  understood,  however,  that  the 
manufacture  and  production  of  electrical  ap- 
paratus and  matenal  is  but  a  small  part  of  the 
electrical  industry  as  a  whole.  The  total 
capiulization  is  placed  as  high  as  $12,000,000.- 
000,  the  gross  sales  and  earnings  are  rated  at 
above  $2,500,000,000,  and  the  number  of  persons 
employed  at  more  than  l.OOO.OOO.  The  ac- 
compaaj-ing  figures  were  published  during  1916 


made  aod  published  by  the  n 


As  to  the  production  of  apparatus  alone, 
three  concerns  reported  a  total  around  $300,- 
000,000.  and  one  concern  reported  at  the  end 
of  1917  orders  on  hand  to  the  value  of  $240.- 
000,000.  The  increase  is  by  no  means  wholly 
in  output  but  must  take  into  consideration  the 
increase  in  prices  as  exhibited  in  the  following 
table  which,  while  applying  principally  to  elec- 
tric street  railway  material,  is  pertinent  in  many 
respects  to  the  electrical  field  as  a  whole: 


Matibim. 

Un 

B 

Copiw 

Orerhad    tyttm.    sUtiou    and 

Bibbju.  »]d^abk;  ^  c;^ 

Lad 

Babtiitt.  Blder.  aUn  and  tner 

l-« 

^^^i. 

!i! 

Pabno.  innilatioii.  watta 

ISO  to  ISO 

Pr- 

Cat*,  building*  and  poll  Um 

.«.'d'U 

cUft    xa'd 
piniDn.... 

ISO  to  250 
115 

ESTIMATE  OF  ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES   19I«. 


Central  dectric : 

Inlated  eLfCtric 

SticM  and  electric  railwan  —  power  seneraticm.  dutiil 

and  apoUoltkin 

Stmt  and  electric  railways  —  railny  openii 

Blectrifled  diviiJtmi  of  atom  raihoain 

Tdephone 

TelBJr«ph  Oaod  and  ocean) .  : 

Electric  machinery,  aoparatua  and  auppliea 

prvdvcta  of  othc  »nrtiiBt¥i*«l        

Blectrin]  dealer* ) 
Blstrical  jobben . 


In  gnonl.  mcit  U  Ihe  animates  are  bawi  u- 


cai»uli 

nli 
3« 

r« 

600 

lOO 
000 
000 

■JU 

libDtioB 

.*""       «. 

112.129 

6«O,000 

Anaoat  earainga 
•401,300.000 


75,300, 

3B3.300. 

120,000, 
80.000, 

•1,324.700.000 


,v  Google 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


1  Opentois  Bsidini  ■!  the  Tecdng  Tables,  Qsnerd  ElEClric  Woikt,  Sctaenecudy,  H,  Y. 

2  Dynimo  ELecIiLc  MucliiDeiy  Undsi  T«sl,  in  th(  THtiag  DeputmenC,  Genecil  Electric  WDTto, 

>    Schenectidy,  M.  Y.  ^-  r 

I.  Lioogle 


ELECTRICAL  MANUFACTURIHO  INDUSTRY 

PRDDDCTION  IN  UNITED  STATES  OP  Bl^CTRICAL  UACHINBRY,  APPAILA.TUS  AND  SDPPLIB8 


'"""""'"" ""  cbMPARXTIVrrTATiaTICS:     1914  Xn!)  i159' 

19.4. 

19091 

Percent 
of  in- 

iS^U 

i.m 

1,151 

Taul«h«                            PKiDUCis 

(359.412.676 

•240.037.479 

•23.233.437 

(17.231.804 

9.633 
(2.967:*65 

(t:«7;44s 

8.393 
(13.120.065 

».S!Jii 

(8.801.019 

nSS2*"''^~ 

ioiS 

266.3 

UmterSOkOointtJ  — 

4.857 

(0,543.224 
*245.154 

(147.965 

(44.176.235 

(4,184.832 

.,2.674.963 

(5!^71.804 
(32.087.482 

51.4 

500  kilomtti  4nd  over  — 

;!■? 

Siritdibci«rtta.  p«Ml  bo»rd.  ud  cutout  oibinrts  for  light  and  power 

50.5 

37.7 

(i3,ii:S 
(iJ:ij;i 

(23.402.455 

(24:604;938 

2.796 
(2.450.739 

■t!:S:!4 

(10,612.470 

1!1 

""ife""-' : 

120.S 

"^.io,*...™. 

•10.615. 150 
(2.'465;814 

71.092.438 

••*!S:!g 

(3.602.741 

*4M.21S 

,JS:Si5 

i61l.666 
•1.934,864 

H?;! 

PrinMuT  — 

"•^JSt,"*" 

18*7 

S«,2 

.yGooi^lc 


IM  KACTRICAL   UANUPACTURINQ   IMDUSTSY 

PRODUCTIDN  IN  DNITBD  STATBS  OP  BLBCTIUCAL  MACaiNBRT.  APPARATUB  AND  SOPPLIBS 
COMPARATIVE  STATISTICS:     I9U  AND  1»W— CoocludMl 


Nnmber.. 

V»lB«.  . .  . 

light*,  ptojea 

ItKandeteent  lunpi,  •nine. . , 

wnmber 

V.]UB 

Number 

Vklne.. 


Hi  TSpOT,  nitrofcn,  ilowtr  lU 
i-fcunauwe  «uu  ininutttre  lunpa.  X4my  bnlbi 

Sockati.  reeeplscle*.  but*,  stc 

Blactric  lishting  fiituR*' 

T^lccrmpb  Appantio.  valoa.  -, .,....,,,, 

IntcQwcDa  (Iwy^  KHUidcr.  stc) 


Ugbtning  ureaten . . 


imderffTouud  and  iriteTior) . . 


limit  flttinai  of  «JI  Idndi . . 
J1  othvr  etectricol  machine^ 
J1  Mbn  products.  Including 


m.-K"' 

U1CDUII  cwldnc  devica 

■™""  "" 

ssF 

oBtamat- 
na.nin« 

"S™*"" 

mdnulny: 

14,091, OSS 
|1,397.S71 

fl. 701. 719 

S5.StI.609 
(3.383.955 

•1.148.375 


i672|s75 
tll9.S90 

*21.SI5.UO 


ttO,701.7< 

i}74.a 

•1.001.7 


t4.0«0,8l 
14,034,4: 


iiteia 

t8.7Sa,5l 


55.038,378 
|6.157.00fi 

ieoo!ti9 

e,521.7» 
,300, 6M 

(1,957,432 


•■97,  M9 

•1, lit. 658 

8448.161 

•1U.S43 


il35.S67 

IJSJ.SU 

•51.614.737 

•5,098,164 

•940,171 

{1 .001 , 719 
1.080,287 
(18,995,176 


ry.  ■ppantui  and  ni^Ua  to  the  vahie 


„  „, ,  of  itbdmtry,  t«t  whkh 

1909.  number  nnd  output  oi 
•      of  (18,728,9)6. 


•  RheoMBti  uid  icsiitanc 


n  of  ttaning  moton  fi 


S  iiuiilat*d  vin  mule  ia  win-dnwins 


primtrily  ia  the  m 


8le 


BLBCTRICAL   HAHUFACTURING   IHDUSTKY 


BlMtric  Light  and  Power  SUtittlcm.— It 
is  unfortunate  that  the  authoritative  statistics 
as  to  the  four  K''cat  groups  of  electrical  public 
ntihties  which  manufacture  "service*  as  com- 
piled by  the  government  —  telegraphy,  tele- 
phony, electric  light  and  power  ■  and  electric 
street  railways  — no  not  come  down  to  a  later 
period  than  1912.  Their  figures  under  an  act 
of  Congress  are  taken  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  the  Census  every  five  years,  the  last 
being  combed  in  1912  and  the  next  not  being 
due  until  1917,  and  not  becoming  available  be- 
fore the  end  of  1918  at  the  earliest.  The  data 
for  1912  arc  therefore  presented  herewith  sub- 
ject to  the  expansion  up  to  date  under  the 
average  rates  of  increases  that  are  apparently 
revealed. 


6.00a000  customers  in  1916.  At  least  10,00a000 
devices  for  consuming  current,  outside  of  power 
and  light  purposes,  were  then  in  circuit  —  flat- 
irons,  vacuum  cleaners,  cofTee  percolators, 
grills,  toasters,  etc — but  electrical  refrigeration 
except  in  bulk  and  especially  in  the  production 
of  'raw  water*  ice  had  not  advanced  very  far. 
In  the  use  of  electric  power  some  States  in  the 
South  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast  showed  enor- 
mous gains  in  the  period  1905-12,  running  up 
to  4,000  per  cent,  due  in  both  sections  to  the 
utilization  of  water  power,  and  in  the  South  to 
the  electrification  of  the  cotton  goods  industry 
as  a  whole.  As  to  lighting,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  developments  has  been  the  relative 


COUMBRCtAL  AND  MaNICIPAL  CENTRAL  BLBCTRIC  STATIONS:  1912.  1907  » 


,.,. 

,«, 

1902 

1902^12 

berofMMiaM- 

1234:419:478 

7. 528; 648 

T.S44 
4.946,532 

1,471 :081 

ll,532:9<a;o06 

505,395 

76.507.142 

""■■B:Si 

4.098.188 

8.054 
J. 693) 273 

1,349:08T 

463 
S5,B28 

2,TO«,223 
5.8«2.2T6,737 

'41.876:331 

167.114 
1.649.026 

W.081.37S 

l.S45:04S 

6.295 
1.394.39S 

1.390 
*3*.472 

16S 

2.5OT:03i:iis 

385.698 

18,1*4,044 

101.064 

J^SkSnJ^'^-''''"'^'^"^ 

SK! 

^^V^^J'^^Z';^^.^'r\\::.\-::. 

fSi 

^sier"*"^*"^^ 

24  6 

WlteTKhB^^— 

K  ow«nhJp. 
■  --'<-^vt  ot  936^00,010  in  1912,  ^.093^02  In  1907 

u  iacome  boa  wle  of  clccMc  cumnt  foi  list" 


,1907  ud  *7.I03  J74  in 


ai  inpplie*  uid  nutoiBlc 
i]  cncrsy  purchawd.  Uwa,  and  al 
.: J  ^j^j^g  fof  uitAjwi^  fund- 


Various  items  in  connection  with  the  central  though  in  projection  and  searchlight  use  it  has 

station   electric  light   and  power  industry  may  made    such    strides    that    an    arc    search   light 

here  be  noted.     Statistics  as  to  its  income  are  operating  in   New  York   has   made  its  _beam 

regularly  compiled  by  the  Electrical  World  on  a  ■—■^^-  ■■•  >" 


1  excess  of  60  per  cent  of  the  totals 
ported  from  month  to  month;  and  these  show 
for  1916  an  income  of  not  less  than  $425,000,000 
from  electrif;  service.  If  the  return  from  other 
service  such  as  sale  of  electrical  supplies,  steam 
heating,  refrigeration  and  return  on  invesiments 
be  considered,  the  total  1915-16  income  of  the 
industry  cannot  possibly  be  put  lower  than 
$450,000,000,  and  it  is  probably  far  in  excess  of 
that.  The  number  of  electric  meters  on  all 
central  station  consumption  circuits  in  1912 
was  3,617,189,  coinciding  very  closely  with  the 
munber  of  customers,  and  it  is  estimated  on  this 
basis  and  others  that  there  were  not  less  than 


Philadelphia  90  miles  away.  There 
is  also  a  large  use  of  arc  lights  in  theatrical 
and  motion  picture  work  Owing  to  the  ad- 
vancing perfection  of  the  incandescent  lamp 
through  the  stages  of  Carbon,  metallized  car- 
bon, tantalum  and  tungsten  filaments,  the  num- 
ber of  spherical  candle  power  hours  delivered 
for  one  cent  has  risen  from  13.9  in  1885  to  71 
in  1916,  an  increase  of  nearly  500  per  cent  in 
about  30  years,  during  which  time  the  price  of 
the  lamp  and  tne  price  of  electrical  energy  have 
both  decreased  enormously.  The  rate  here  given 
is  figured  on  operation  at  1,000  hours  of  energy 
at  10  cents  per  kilowatt  hour  for  current 
Among  the  chief  advances  of  the  period  in 


jOOgIc 


IN 


ELECTRICAL  HAHUFACTURING    INDUSTRY 


electrical  develoixnent  outside  of  raitway  wade 
have  been  those  in  electro-chemical  and  electro- 
metallurgical  development,  both  stimulated  un- 
doubtedly by  the  great  war  and  both  dependent 
upon  the  supply  of  cheap  current  Thus  one 
plant  building  in  1916  in  California  was  to  use 
2,500  horse  power  of  electrical  energy  generated 
by  a  hydro- electric  company,  with  an  output  of 
S.O00  tons  of  caustic  soda  and  10,000  ton*  of 
*bleach.'  The  electrolytic  production  of  hydro- 
een  and  oxygen  has  increased  enormously,  so 
that  over  300,000,000  cubic  feet  of  hydroeen  per 
year  are  thus  manufactured  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that 
while  the  electrical  fixation  of  atmospheric 
nitrogen  has  Increased  enortnously  abroad, 
representing  about  300,000  "  .     .     ■     • 


of  1916,  or  a  gain  of  over  200  per  c 


lusly    abroad,      in   this  case, 
the  beginning     being  the  Ct 


a  three 
little 


cent  The  item  of  residence  lighting  reveals 
one  of  the  large  opportunities  before  the  cen- 
tral stadon,  and  includes  an  endless  variety  of 
apparatus  and  appliances,  ranging  from  the 
curling  iron  to  the  electric  range  for  cooking. 
In  other  dties  than  the  one  quoted  the  propor- 
tion of  commercial  and  domestic  service  would 
average  higher,  although  taking  the  country  a> 
a  whole  perhaps  only  one  house  or  family  in 
every  five  has  electric  service.  However,  very- 
few  new  houses,  even  in  remote  rural  districts, 
are  built  now  without   electrical  wiring. 

Electric  Rallwmy  Ststiat^cB.— Herewith  are 
given  the  latest  available  ofGcia)  statistics  for 
the  electric  street  railways  of  the  United  States, 

this  case,  as  in  those  of  electric  lighting. 
Office  figures  for  1912,  the 
compilation  not  being  made  by  the  mov- 
ent until  19)7  and  not  available  before 
1918-19.  The  present  figures  serve,  however,  as 
a  safe  basis  from  wh'ch  to  estimate  the  advance 
in  the  succeeding  five  years  in  almost  cvety 
respect  at  an  average  rate  of  increase  not  in 
excess  of  8  per  cent.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that,  as  to  surface  traffic,  street  railways  have 
been  subjected  to  a  serious  competition  from  the 
automobile  "jitney,*  but  this  element  of  los^  has 
been  larnely  reduced;  while  on  the  other  hand 


>nditig  activity  has  been  snown 
United  States  up  to  this  time  of  writing;  al- 
though several  processes  of  proved  value  are  of 
American  origin.  On  the  contrary,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  electric  steel  furnace  has  been  re- 
markable. Electrical  castinj^s  comtnand  a  pre- 
mium where  unusual  durability  and  resistance 
to  stress  are  needed.  On  1  Jan.  1916,  about  73 
electric  steel  furnaces  were  in  (n>eration  in  the  ..   , 

United  States  with  an  output  of  about  100,000  it  has  stimulated  the  street  railways  to  develop 
tons  per  year,  but  a  ternfic  jump  was  made  many  types  of  new  and  better  service,  adding  to 
during  1916,  so  that  the  number  of  American  the  return  on  the  investment  and  to  the  satis- 
fumaces  was  at  least  doubled,  while  their  out-  faction  of  the  public.  While  the  surface  trac- 
put  has  been  estimated  at  1,000.000  tons  b^  a  tion  lines  —  trolley  or  slot-conduit  —  have  bem 
conservative  authority.  Probably  the  United  worlcing  out  their  own  salvation  throiwh  this 
States  has  now  more  electric  furnaces  than  any  strenuous  period,  elevated,  subway  and  steam 
other  country,  railroad  electrification  have  undergone  a  mar- 

The  business  of  the  central  station  has  a  velous  expansion  as  indicated  by  other  statis- 
constantly  growing  diversity  factor.  The  tics.  The  §ross  income  of  operating  street 
revenue  of  one  leading  system  in  1916  was  railways  —  virtually  all  electric  —  is  given  for 
derived  as  follows :  Commerd^  li^^ting,  37  1912  as  $520,000,000.  The  income  of  all  electric 
per  cent ;  power  for  industrial  and  general  pur-     service,  urban,  interurban  and  main  l[m 


UNITBD  STATES  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  STATISTICS. 


m, 

1907 

1902 

1902-1912 

1907-1912 

I90J-1907 

1.260 

1200, 890 :9J1 
23,271 

< 259. 190 
tl74.762.lS3 

3.665,051 
3.193:7*; 

e.osi'.im'.ooi 

S3. Ml 

"■i 

,...Ji:Z 

(138,081 :631 
2,519.823 

3,409 

I. 427, 862 

91,961 

4,7S9:i3o:ioo 

9g| 

(80.770.'44< 
1,359,285 

49,1.^ 
5,261,484:391 

82:! 
40.8 

1.9 
19:4 

8; 

RoUiTW  Moat: 

Penoni  employed   by  opentiiv  cnm- 
nC"C 

100. 1 

W6.; 

116:- 

140  9 
16T  6 

S7.6 
33.0 

,S:S 

73.6 
16.6 

45.4 

3i:s 
4"? 

S-bnM^We,— 

W&ee  nmen  — 

Averageiraraber 

56.0 

Hona  power,  total 

guniKinFt  — 

85. 4 

KilowiHt  csparny  n(  dynimoe 

Output  of  na'ions.  kilowatt  nonn, . 

no:  4 

.yGooi^le 


.yGooi^le 


ELECTRIC  HAHUFACTUMHG  INDUSTRY 


Dcpcitmenli  (1)  No.  IB;  (21  No.  SO,  Worki  of  Geniiil  Bltctiic  Comiu},  Scfaantctadj,  If.  T. 


jOOgIc 


BLBCTRICAL  HANUPACTURINO  XNDUSTRY 

UNITBD  STATES  BI£CTRIC  RAILWAY  STATISTICS— Coocluded 


—r , ji  1912.  TM  compuiis  in  1907  at. 

'  BiclouvB  of  compama  doing  froaht  tmlDe  only  ■ad  id  1901  of  foiu  c , 

•  Eicliuivc  of  lii  corapania  In  1907  and  of  |g  companic*  in  1902.  which  fkOed  ti 
'~    '    '  impuiuain  1902,  irhici  bikd  to  hiniiihthb  infDnution. 


fumiib  tbn  uitoiDatio 


Telephony  and  Telegraphy.— The  genenl 
statistics  of  ^e  telegraph  and  telephone  tndni- 
tries  of  the  country  are  shown  both  comprehen- 
sively and  compsrativcly  in  the  fallowit^c  table. 
These  two  branches  of  the  great  modem  art  of 
the  commnnication  of  intetligfence  arc  separate 
and  distinct,  yet  are  very  closely  interwoven  in 
their  physical  relationships ;  and  at  various  times 
and  in  various  ways  have  been  largely  con- 
ducted financially  as  one  business.  The  econonuc 


3ns  for  such  a  combination  are  not  far  to 
and  are  recognized  in  the  existence  in  most 
a  united  telegraph  dnd  telephone 
Rovemtnental  administration;  whereas  in  the 
United  States  snch  a  policy,  under  the  pre- 
vailing private  ownership,  has  been  declared 
illegaK  American  telephone  and  telegraph  sys- 
tems as  to  apparatus  used  and  results  obtained 
are  in  general  infinitely  superior  to  anything 
prevailing  elsewhere.    A  point  to  be  noted  in 


,,.^ic 


158 


BLBCTRICAL    HANUFACTUKING   INDUSTKY 


the  accompanying  table  is  the  relatively  dis-  depots,  beins  placed  at  30,000.  The  annual  re- 
proportionate  magnitude  of  the  younger  art,  port  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Gimpany 
telephonjr,  in  all  respects,  particularly  invest-  for  1917  is  a  sufficient  indication  of  revived 
inent  and  earnings.  prosperity  now  and  in  recent  years.    The  report 

TBLBPHONB  AND  TBLEGRAPH  8YSTBUS  — COMPAKATIVB  SUUMARY:     1911.  I90T  AND  1903. 


{1.213,798, 
1,1»,9I», 
UtO.977, 

(319. S44, 
■136. OiS, 
tl2T.»5, 


t06,l 


t24,«M.9' 
■IT.SM.Z 
tlJi,039,6 


D.94tt.034 


ST.  8 


31.1 


■  IncladM  lanner  or  lunl  lines,  and  ia  1907  and  1912  lyHeini  TCportina  ltuiusI  inconia  of  1e«  than  tS.OOO;  therefor*, 
doept  for  vuaber  of  lyitsni  or  line*  And  mils  of  win,  figures  do  not  agree  with  those  diown  id  other  tables. 

•  Does  not  indod*  wint«s  teletrapfa  syatema. 

■  Bi^oaive  of  314,3^  miles  of  win  owned  aod  operated  by  railway  cofufaniea. 

•  Not  reported. 

•  Number  Bnploysd  16  Stpt.  1911. 

The  extent  to  which  the  condition  of  the  showed  that  the  company  in  1917  experienced 

times    affect    electrical    utilities    is    strikingly  the  most  prosperous  year  in  its  history.     The 

shown  in  the  facl  tliat  while  for  the  period  of  earnings  available  for  common  dividends  were 

eight  months  in  1917  the  American  (Bell)  Tele-  equal  to  $12.79  per  share  as  against  $12.42  m 

phone  and  Telegraph  Company's  earnings  rose  the  previous  year.    This  amount  was  earned  on 

from  $171,608,490  to  not  less  than  $194,337,712,  almost    $100,000,000    stock.      During    1917    the 

the  operating  net  income  was  but     $47,439,392  company  paid  ^  per  cent  dividends,  compared 

as  compared  with  $47,586,666.    The  whole  Bai"  wi*  5^4  per  cent  in  1916.    The  statement  for 

of  nearly  $23,000,000  was  thus  negatived  with  1917,  with  comparison,  follows: 
$150,000   more   thrown  in ;   but   the   gain   was  Bamed 

there  all  the  same,  and  in  due  time  the  larger  G™«  '>"»™  Surplus  moome  on  stodt 

interest  ^rges  due  to  rapid  increases  of  capital  Sli; ::::::;:::;:  'SSlS^iSSS     'I'llJSSiSSS      'ISiS 

will  work  out  to  advantage.     On  the  basis  of  1915  n  iti.qoo       iD,i6T,aoD        10.19 

total  operating  revenues  of  the  Bell  system  of  1914 M.le«.00a         S.37i.^  S,M 

$270,000,000  the  year  1917  will  show  at  10  per  jJ|J ""Jlfooo        ImJotS         2  ot 

cent    increase    an    amount    well    in    excess   of  mi;:;;:;;;;:'::    35;47s!aoo        lijTiioDO  5,3S 

$290,000,000.    For  telephony  as  a  whole,  includ-  i9io 32.7S4.00Q        s.sa7.ooo  s.to 

ing   the   independent   systems,   a   total   of,   say,  =^=^=^    '        ™ 

$^5,000,000  might  be  set  down.    The  physical  These    significant    figures    are    matched   by 

Statistics  of  the  Bell  telephone  system  and  its  those  with  regard  to  wireless  tdegraiAy.  -Thus, 

growth  are  strildnely  shown  in  the  accompany-  gross  earnings  of  the  Marconi  Wireless  Tele- 

ing  table.     ■  graph  of  America  have  nearly  doubled  during 

Telegraphr.—  As  an  industry  the  telegraph  the  period  of  the  war.  while  expenses,  including 

showed  a  remarkable  recovery   following  the  taxes,  were  less  during  1917  than  in  1914.    The 

outbreak  of  the  European  War,  and  at  the  end  company's  net  income  for  1917  was  $609,430,  and 

of  1917  there  were  no  fewer  than  60,000  tele-  undivided  profits  and  reserves  on  31   Dec.  1917 

grai^  operators  engaged  at  telegraph  centres,  amounted  to  $2,150,000.     The  capital  stock  is 

local  offices,  brokers'  offices,  etc.,  the  number  of  $10,000,000. 
distinctively  telegraph  offices,  including  railroad  Electric^   Export  Trwkw— The  effect  of 

gitizoc  by  Google 


BLSCTRICAL   MSASURING  INSTRUHBHTS 


the  European  War  has  been  felt  generally  in 
the  export  of  American  manufactures,  but  in 
this  respect  electrical  goods  have  been  a  con- 
spicuous item.  The  foreign  demand  for  Ameri- 
can dectrical  apparatus  and  supplies,  even  under 
the  severe  limitations  imposeaby  lack  of  ships 
and  manv  closed  markets,  has  carried  the  strictly 
electrical  exports  from  $19,771,757  in  the  year 
aiding  30  June  1915  to  no  less  an  amount  than 
$52,158,773  in  the  corrvspondine  period  1916-17. 
The  chief  gains  were  in  insulated  wires  and 
cables  from  $1,911350  to  $7,191,6B4;  electrical 


in  use  In  modem  power  stations  on  land,  con- 
nected to  two  independent  induction  motors 
mounted  on  each  of  the  four  propeller  shafts. 
It  is  (luite  probable  that  details  as  to  any  part 
o£  this  tremendous  innovation  in  naval  equip- 
ment should  not  be  expected  until  the  war  is 
over.  Many  advantages  for  this  method  of 
propulsion  are  claimed  by  the  designers  and 
disputed  by  critics.  Three  battleships  requiring 
33,000  horse  power  each,  of  the  same  type,  have 
also  been  provided  for  in  naval  plans ;  and  one 
of  thtse,  the  superdreadnought  California,  cor- 


BELL  TBLBPHONB  SYSTEM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


■STSS' 

31.  1913 

Decembn 
31.  1916 

Ina«M 

28J.87T 

330,  «2 

337.289 

30.165 

44.110 

47.120 

2.610 

S,992,303 

7,932.  JM 

11.468.525 

Mikaotmemtwin 

I^ia 

ll.M2,2II 

18.  JOS. 545 

19.B50.315 

1.963,994 

iS:S5:3S 

2,682,910 

11,641.212 

18.S0S.S4S 

I9.8S0.31S 

iis.soe 

1M.S41 

221,994 

5°i'b;'Sss5&. 

1,082, P60 
4.933 

^■"l:ia 

3,430.069 

.«..« 

3.933.054 

l:tg:lIS 

l:Sf:!S 

5.852, J19 

9.151,221 

9.847.192 

120.311 

156,294 

179.032 

n.84S 

28.306 

30.J5B 

l.OJl 

21, Ml. 471 

15.188,799 

18,530.073 

601.S39 

BI9.030 

889,860 

•  toclDdea  private  li«  itations, 

batteries  from  $967,146  to  $3,286,674;  electric 
motors  from  $2,818,743  to  $5,895,696;  trans- 
formers from  $624,483  to  $1,265,459 ;  telegraph 
instruments  from  $76,271  to  $539,3iB9;  incan- 
descent lamps  from  $575,072  to  $2,301,407; 
dectric  meters  from  $2,818,743  to  $5,895,696. 

Electrical  Ships.—  A  decided  novelty  in  the 
fidd  of  electrical  manafacture  is  the  equipment 
of  electrically  propelled  ships.  The  world  is 
familiar  with  the  use  of  launches  driven  hy 
storage  batteries  and  with  submarine  boats  in 
irtuch  the  samemotivepowcris  employed;  but  In 
the  modem  electrical  ship  propulsion  Is  secured 
by  means  of  electrical  ener^  fed  from  steam 
turbiie  generators  to  elecinc  motors  mounted 
on  the  propeller  shafts.  The  success  of  this 
method  in  the  United  States  collier  Jupiter 
would  seem  to  be  very  emphatically  evidenced 
in  the  provision  in  the  Navy  Bill  of  1916  for 
four  great  battleships  or  cruisers  each  requiring 
180,000  horse  power  delivered  to  four  screw 
shafts  turning  at  full  speed  at  about  350  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  which  yield  a  rate  of  travel 
tbrou^  the  water  of  35  knots  per  hour.  Each 
of  the  ships  is  to  have  installed  four  hi^h  speed 
tortune-dnven  generating  unit^  similar  to  those 


responding  to  the  present  direct  steam-driven 
Ar^totta,  is  under  construction.  No  other  nation 
has  yet  ventured  on  such  an  experiment. 

Thou  AS  C.  Uastin, 
Secretary  National  Electric  Light  Asiociation, 

SLECTSICAI.  MEASURING  INSTRU- 
MENTS. The  four  fundamental  electrical 
quantities  which  are  being  constantly  measured 
in  electric  circuits  are  ohms,  amperes,  volts  and 
watts.  Another  quantity  of  much  commercial 
importance  is  watt  hours. 

The  usual  method  of  measuring  ohms,  that 
is,  the  electric&l  resbt&nce  of  a  circuit,  is  to 
use  a  Wheatstone  Bridge,  which  is  described 
elsewhere.  The  electrical  resistance  of  a  cir- 
cuit may  also  be  measured  by  what  is  called 
'fall  of  potential  method,*  which  consists  in 
sending  a  measured  current  through  the  cir* 
cuit  and  measuring  the  difference  of  potential 
between  the  terminals  of  the  circuit,  as  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  1.  When  the  current  is  measured 
in  amperes  and  the  difference  of  potential  is 
measured  in  volts,  the  resistance  is  obtained  by 
taking  the  ratio  of  the  volts  to  the  amperes. 
The  mstruments  used  in  this  measurement  are 


,^lc 


ELECTRICAL  HBASURIHO   IN8TRUMBHTS 


and  voltmeters,  which  a 


In  measuring  amperes,  advantage  may  be 
taken  of  any  one  of  Ihree  different  physical 
effecU  of  the  electric  current:    (I)   The  elec-       meter 


FiC  1. —  Amnaement  lor 


tro-chemical  effect,  (2)  the  magnetic  effftct,  and 
(3)  the  healing  effect.  Instruments  which  are 
used  for  measurine:  currents  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  first  of  these  phenomena  are  called 
'  voltameters.  When  an  electric  ctirrent  is  passed 
through  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphuric  aod  and 
water,  the  water  is  electrolyzed  and  the  com- 
ponent gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  are  given 
off  respectively  at  the  two  metallic  terminals 
by  means  of  which  the  current  enters  and 
leaves  the  water.  These  two  terminals  may  be 
placed  in  the  two  limbs  of  a  vertical  U  tube, 
such  as  the  arrangement  illustrated  in  Fig.  2. 
where  A  and  B  are  the  two  ends  of  the  U 
tube  and  EE  are  the  two  metallic  electrodes. 
The  arrow  shows  the  direction  of  the  flow  of 
the  electric  current  from  the  battery.  A  riser  C 
is  provided  to  maintain  the  supply  of  acidulated 
water  as  the  gases  collect  in  the  upper  limbs  of 
the  tube. 


■  Water  Voltuutei. 


s  here  illustrated 
r  satisfactory 
for  measuring  currents,  and  voltameters  in  which 
the  electrolytes  are  the  solutions  of  salts  of 
metals  are  preferred  for  actual  measurements. 
Copper  plates  in  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate 


may  be  used  or  silver  terminals  in  a  solattCKi 
of  nitrate  of  silver.  Voltameters  are  not  novv 
practice,  as  they  are  not  sufhdently 
for  general  use ;  but  the  silver  volta- 
ne  time  proved  to  be  so  satisfactory 
lor  use  as  a  standard  that  the  InlemationaJ 
unit  of  current  (the  ampere)  is  defined  as  the 
current  which  flowing  for  one  second  through 
a  suitable  voltameter  will  deposit  .001118  grams 
of  silver  on  the  cathode. 

Uost  of  our  common  instruments  for  meas- 
uring currents  depend  upon  the  magnetic  effect 
of  the  current  for  their  indications,  and  each 
is  really  a  modified  galvanometer  provided  with 
a  pointer  to  indicate  the  deflections  of  the 
needle  or  movable  coil.  Such  instruments  ar- 
ranged for  convenient,  everyday  measurements 
of  electric  currents  are  generally  called  am- 
peremeters or  ammeters,  and  they  are  made 
m  numerous  forms,  some  of  tfaem  intended 
to  be  mounted  upon  switchboards  in  dynamo 
rooms,  and  others  made  up  in  more  or  less 
portable  form  so  that  they  may  be  carried 
around  to  be  used  at  any  convenient  place.  The 
switchboard  instrtunents  —  namely,  those  in- 
tended to  be  mounted  on  switchboards  —  are 
used  in  large  numbers  in  electric  lighting  plants 
or  works,  where  they  may  be  seen  moimlea  upon 
marble  or  slate  boards  along  with  switches  for 
controtlinK  the  current,  liiey  are  there  used 
to  show  the  dynamo  attendants  how  much  cur- 
rent is  being  generated  by  the  plant  at  any 
moment  and  what  proportion  is  tumished  Iqf 
each  dynamo. 

Portable  forms  of  these  instruments  are 
ordinarily  used  in  laboratories  for  experimental 
work. 

According  to  the  mechanical  details  entering 
into  their  construction  electromagnetic  ammeters 
may  be  roughly  divided  into  three  classes:  (I) 
Those  having  soft  iron  parts  which  are  moved 
by  the  magnetic  attraction  set  up  by  the  current 
in  the  coils  of  the  instrument ;  (2)  those  havins 
permanently  mE^netized  parts  which  are  acted 
upon  by  the  magnetic  force  set  up  by  a  current 
in  the  coils  of  the  instrument,  either  the  coil 
or  the  magnet  moving  under  the  influence  of 
the  magnetic  force;  (3)  those  having  no  iron 
in  their  construction,  but  having  two  coils,  one 
of  which  is  moved  by  the  magnetic  force  ex- 
erted between  them  when  a  current  flows  in 
both. 

The  moving  parts  of  these  instruments  are 
usually  mounted  on  pivots  which  are  carefully 
finished  to  reduce  the  friction  to  a  small  value, 
and  the  instruments  may  be  considered  equiva- 
lent to  galvanometers  arranged  with  the  moving 
parts  mounted  on  pivots,  instead  of  being 
mounted  upon  a  delicate  suspension,  and  each 
provided  with  a  pointer  arranged  to  play  over 
a  scale  graduated  to  read  in  amperes. 

If  the  magnetic  force  caused  by  the  current 
in  the  coils  of  an  ammeter  had  nothing  except 
the  friction  to  overcome,  every  current  capable 
of  moving  the  pointer  woula  pull  it  entirely 
across  the  scale.  As  the  instrument  should  be 
constructed  so  that  the  range  of  movement  of 
the  pointer  is  proportional  to  the  current  in 
the  windings,  a  proper  force  must  be  arranged 
to  hold  the  pointer  back,  and  this  may  be  done 
by  properly  counter- weighting  the  parts  or  using 
a  suitable  spring  to  oppose  the  magnetic  forte 
set  up  by  the  current. 

Instruments  of  the  first  class  may  be  cheaply 


jOOgIc 


ELECTRICAL   MEASURING   INSTRUMENTS 


Ml 


constructed,  and  formerly  wete  commonly  nude 
by  dynamo  builders  for  use  in  electric  light 
plants,  but  it  is  difficult  to  make  them  exiremely 
accurate  because  the  coercive  force  of  ihe  iron 
prevents  it  from  responding  equally  to  equal 


of  the  first  class  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  used 
where  great  accuracy  is  essential,  but  only  where 
an  accuracy  within  from  2  per  cent  to  5  per 
cent  is  sufficient.  For  measurements  that  re- 
quire greater  accuracy,  instruments  belonging 
to  the  second  or  third  class  are  usually  used, 
and  these  can  be  made  so  that  their  readings 
do  not  vary  more  than  one-half  of  1  per  cent 
from  true  values  when  the  instruments  are  used 
with  proper  care. 

The  best  form  of  such  instruments  consists 
of  a  modified  D'Arsonval  galvanometer  with 
a  movable  coil  mounted  upon  pivots  and  ar- 
ranged with  a  pointer  to  play  over  a  scale, 
which  was  first  successfully  produced  by  Dr,  Ed- 
ward Weston.  The  Weston  ammeters  and  volta- 


PiG.  3. —  PUn  of  the  Wertoo  Amperemeur, 

meters  made  of  this  construction  may  be  prop- 
erly said  to  have  revolutionized  the  everyday 
measurements  of  amperes  and  volts. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  plan  of  a  Weston  ammeter 
for  measuring  direct  currents.  A  A  represent 
the  binding  posts  of  the  ammeter  through  which 
the  current  may  be  led  to  and  from  the  instru- 
ment. W  W  are  wires  within  the  instrument, 
and  E  consists  of  a  series  of  conducting  shunts 
between  the  conductors  W  W.  The  movable 
coil  C  is  connected  by  the  wires  w  w  with  the 
binding  posts,  and  through  this  movable  coil 
there  flows  a  fixed  proportion  of  the  current, 
which  bears  a  ratio  to  the  total  current  depend- 
ing upon  the  electrical  resistance  of  the  shunt 
E  and  of  the  movable  coil.  The  movable  coil 
is  mounted  on  pivots  within  the  magnetic  field 
of  the  permanent  magnet  M,  and  any  motion 
which  is  caused  by  the  magnetic  effect  of  a 
current  flowing  through  the  coil  is  opposed  by 
the  spiral  spring  D.  The  spring  and  the  pole  pieces 
of  the  magnet  M  are  carefully  designed  so  that 
the  movement  of  the  coil  fh^i  be  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  current  flowing  through  the 
coil,  and  the  deflection  is  indicated  on  the  scale 
5  by  the  pointer  B  that  is  attached  to  Ihe  coil. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  sectional  end  view  of  the 
working  parts  of  one  of  these  instruments.  A 
stationary  soft  iron  cylinder  is  mounted  within 
the  movable  coil  C  for  the  purpose  of  produc- 
ing i^cal  direction  and  uniform  density  of 
the  ma^etic  flux  in  the  space  between  it  and 

VM..  10— 11 


the  pole  pieces  of  the  magnet,  within  which 
space  the  conductors  of  the  movable  coil  move. 
Weston  or  similar  instruments  are  used  a 
great  deal  where  accurate  portable  current  meas- 
uring instruments  are  required,  and  instniroenls 


following  this  type  are  now  manufactured  in 
large  numbers  in  this  and"foreign  countries. 

Magnetic  instruments  belonging  to  the  third 
class  are  frequently  called  eleclrodynamometers 
because    their    indications    are    caused   by    the 
"        "  "    "         irrent  in  the  fixed  eoi:s 

.  _..  the  movable  coils, 
early  form  of  elcctrody- 
irranged  for  use  as  an  am- 
oftcn  called  the  Siemens 
The  coil  marked  F  is 
]e  of  the  instrument,   and 

.  ,  which  stands  at  right  angles 

the  first,  is  suspended  by  a  heavy  silk  fibre 
or  a  wire  so  that  it  is  free  to  rotate.  The  ends 
of  the  conductor  composing  the  movable  coil 
dip  into  little  cups  C  C  containing  mercury, 
and  these  are  connected  with  a  circuit  arranged 
so  that  a  current  can  enter  and  leave  the  mov- 
able coil.  The  spring  G  is  attached  at  one  end 
of   the   movable   coil,   and  at   the   other  end   it 


magnetic  effect  of  the  c 
acting  on  the  currei  ' 

Fig.  S   shows  ar 
namometer  which  is 

pcremeter.  This  i< 
Electrodynamometei 
fastened  to  the  fra 
the  coil  marked  1' 


Fio.  s. — 8i«i 

is  connected  to  a  thumbscrew  T  called  a  torsion 
head,  by  means  of  which  this  spring  may  be 
twisted.  When  a  current  flows  in  the  coils,  the 
magnetic  force  tends  to  turn  the  movable  coil 
so  as  to  place  it  parallel  with  the  fixed  coil. 


■8l^ 


tea 


ELECTRICAL    MEASURING    INSTRUMENTS 


Hiia  force  is  balanced  by  twisting  the  spring 
by  means  of  the  thumbscrew.  The  amount  of 
twist  is  shown  by  the  pointer  B,  and  it  is  pro- 
portional to  the  force  exerteJ  by  the  coils  on 
each  other,  which  in  ttim  is  proportional  to 
thie  square  of  the  current  flowing  in  the  circuit. 
The  pointer  S  indicates  when  the  movable  coil 
is  at  its  zero  position. 


Fic  <S. —  Kelvin  Balance. 

Very  accurate  and  permanent  standard  in- 
struments have  beep  designed  for  measuring 
currents  by  this  direct  magnetic  action,  but  they 
have  not  been  made  sufficiently  portable  to 
bring  them  into  much  use.  The  most  important 
of  these  are  the  current  balances  of  Lord  Kel- 
vin, one  of  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig,  6,  The 
fixed  and  movable  coils  in  these  Kelvin  balances 
are  parallel  to  each  other  and  horizontal.  The 
force  with  which  the  coils  tend  to  move  with 
respect  to  each  other  when  a  current  flows  in 
them  is  directly  balanced  and  weighed  by  meatis 
of  a  slider  moving  on  a  scale  beam.  In  order 
to  avoid  any  disturbing  effect  from  the  earth's 
magnetism,  coils  are  placed  at  both  ends  of  the 
balance  arm. 

Instruments  utilizing  the  heating  effect  of 
the  current  are  usually  called  "hot-wire"  in- 
struments. It  the  heated  wire  is  carefully  en- 
closed so  that  its  temperature  is  not  affected 
by  air  currents,  it  will  rise  a  definite  number 
of  degrees  in  temperature  for  each  current  that 
is  passed  through  it  and  this  rise  is  approxi- 
mately proportional  to  the  scguarc  of  the  cur- 
rent. This  heating  of  the  wire  is  indicated  by 
its  expansion  in  length ;  and  the  wire,  if  prop- 
erly selected  and  protected,  will  take  up  a  cor- 
responding length  with  each  current  which  may 
flow  through  It,  so  that  measuring  its  length 
is  equivalent  to  measuring  the  square  of  the 
current.  A  simple  model  of  an  amperemeter 
depending  upon  this  action  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  7.  The  long,  thin  wire  fe  clasped  at  one 
end  in  a  stationary  binding  post  and  the  other 


and  a  pointer  which  moves  over  a  graduated 
scale  indicates  the  amount  of  expansion  of  the 
wire.  When  the  wire  cools  again  and  con- 
tracts, the  wheel  is  pulled  back  into  its  old 
position  by  the  shortening  of  the  wire. 

A  refined  instrument  of  this  tj-pe  suitable 
for  reasonably  accurate  measurements,  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  8.  The  extension  of  the  measur- 
ing wire  A  B  is  indicated  by  a  pointer  moved  by 
mechanism  attached  to  the  pulley  D.  Tlie  case 
protects  the  wire  from  air  currents  and  the 
■use  of  two  stretched  wires.  A  B  and  B  C,  through 
only  one  of  whicb  the  current  to  be  measured 
flows,  neutralizes  the  effect  of  the  general  tem- 
perature of  the  surrounding  air. 

Instruments  of  this  type  are  particularly 
useful  in  measuring  the  high  frequency  cur- 
rents  of   radio   telegraphy. 

Instruments  for  measuring  electrical  pres- 
sures, in  volts,  may  be  made  of  the  same  forms 
as  the  ammeters  utilizing  the  magnetic  effects 
and  the  heating  effects  of  electric  currents. 
Such  instruments  are  ordinarily  called  volt- 
meters and  when  they  are  constructed  to  utilize 
Ihe  aforenamed  effects  of  the  electric  current 
they  are  really  ammeters  wound  with  coils  of 


end  is  wrapped  around  and  fastened  to  a  small 
wheel  of  metal.  This  wheel  is  supported  on 
steel  pivots,  one  of  which  is  connected  to 
another  binding  post.  The  wire  is  Wept  under 
a  ctmstant  strain  by  means  of  a  spring  which 
is  fastened  to  the  periphery  of  the  wheel.  When 
the  wire  is  heated  and  thereby  lengthened,  the 
wheel  is  turned  by  the  contraction  of  the  spring 


high  resistance  so  that  very  little  current  will 
be  wasted  in  the  process  of  making  the  n 
urements  of  the  voltage.  Such  a 
really  measures  the  very  small  c< 
caused  to  flow  through  the  resi 
winding  by  the  voltage  to  be  measured.  The 
resistance  of  the  instrument  is  of  constant  value 
and  the  voltage  is  therefore  directly  propor- 
tional to  the  now  of  current  through  the  in- 
strument. It  is  consequently  jrassible  to  grad- 
uate the  scale  so  that  the  position  of  the  pointer 
indicates  volts. 

In  most  ammeters  and  voltmeters  the  scales 
are  so  divided  and  marked  that  the  divisions 
read  directly  in  amperes  and  volts.  These  in- 
struments are  generally  called  "direct  reading* 


having  soft  iron  parts  which  i 
moved  hy  the  magnetic  attraction  set  up  by  tile 
current  m  the  coils  of  the  instrument,  or  by 


BLBCTRICAL    MBASURINO   IHSTRUMBNTS 


hutnnneiits  of  the  dectrodynamometer  class 
■or  by  hot  wire  instruments.  In  the  first  class 
of  instruments,  the  soft  iron  core  is  always  at- 
tracted by  the  coil  in  which  current  flows,  with- 
out regard  to  the  direction  of  the  current  and 
the  attraction  in  an  electrodynamomcter  is  also 
independent  of  the  direction  of  the  current  he- 
cause  the  current  reverses  at  the  same  time  in 
both  coils.     Any  iron  cores  which  are  used  in 


Fig.  •>. —  ThomaOD  AlWftuitiag  Ciuteit  Ami 
VoltiHteT,  in  which  nusnetic  effect  of  coi 
oltaftiivii. 

instruments  designed  to  measure  these  alter- 
nating currents  must  be  built  up  from  thin 
strips  or  fine  iron  wires  so  that  induced  eddy 
currents  shall  not  be  set  UL'"  thero  by  the 
reversals  of  the  magnetism.  The  working  parts 
of  an  instrument  which  operates  by  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  coil  D  tH)on  a  thin  iron  strip  C,  are 
illustrated  in  Fig.  9.  the  exterior  of  the  case 
having  been  removea  so  that  the  working  pairts 
shall  be  exposed. 

The  heating  effect  of  currents  is  also  inde- 
pendent of  the  direction  of  the  current  flow, 
so  that  hot  wire  instruments  may  be  used  for 
measuring  alternating  currents  and  voltages. 

When  very  large  currents  are  to  be  meas- 
ured, it  is  often  inconvenient  and  expensive  to 
build  an  ammeter  with  conductors  large  enough 
to  carry  the  entire  current.  In  these  instances 
an  ammeter  of  small  capacity  may  be  shunted 
by  a  German  silver  wire  or  rod  and  the  shunted 
instrument  may  then  be  calibrated  and  used 
to  measure  the  large  current.  This  arrange- 
ment has  become  quite  universal  in  the  large 
electric  light  works  where  very  great  currents 
are  to  be  measured  and  it  is  not  uncommon  in 
ordinary  portable  instruments.  Indeed,  nearly 
all  Weston  self-contained  ammeters,  such  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  3,  consist  of  a  milli-ammeter 
arranged  with  a  proper  shunt  E  inside  the  case. 

An  entirely  distinct  method  of  measuring 
voltage  is  by  means  of  electrometers,  and  when 
these  are  converted  into  portable  form  for 
everyday  use  they  are  called  electrostatic  vo1t- 
They  are  particularly  useful  for  meas- 


part  of  a  continuous  current  circuit  may  be 
determined  by  measuring  by  means  of  an  am- 
meter the  current  flowing  through  the  circuit 
and  measuring  by  means  of  a  voltmeter  the 
voltage  at  the  terminals  of  the  circuit.  In 
a  direct  current  circuit  the  product  of  the  num- 
ber of  amperes  by  the  number  of  volts  gives 
the  power  in  watts.    This  product  catlea  the 


volt-amperes,  however,  differs  from  the  watts 
In  an  alternating  current  circuit  when  the  power 
factor  is  less  than  unity  and  a  summation  of 
instantaneous  values  of  the  product  must  be 
secured.  Instruments  are  made  which  in  them- 
selves pet^orm  this  double  measurement  and 
multiplication  so  that  their  indications  are 
directly  proportional  to  power  and  these  in- 
struments are  called  wattmeters.  The  simplest 
form  is  an  electrodynamo  meter  in  which  one 
coil  is  wound  with  many  turns  of  fine  wire 
exactly  as  though  it  were  to  be  used  as  a  volt- 
meter coiliand  the  other  coil  is  wound  with  a 
few  turns  of  coarse  wire  as  though  it  were  to 

The  action  of  such  a  wattmeter  is  best  ex- 
plained by  an  illustration.  Suppose  it  is  de- 
sired to  measure  the  power  used  by  an  electric 
.motor— the  line  wire  coil  of  the  wattmeter 
b  connected  across  the  terminals  of  the 
motor  and  the  coarse  wire  coil  of  the  wattmeter- 
is  connected  in  series  with  the  motor.  The 
magnetic  effect  of  the  fine  wire  coil  is  then 
proportional  to  the  voltage  at  the  motor  ter- 
minals and  the  magnetic  effect  of  the  coarse 
wire  coil  is  proportional  to  the  current  flowing 
througfi  the  motor.  The  force  exerted  at  any 
instant,  to  move  the  movable  coil,  is  propor- 
tional to  the  product  at  that  instant  of  the  two 
magnetic  effects  and  the  pointer  moves  over 
the  scale  so  as  to  indicate  the  average  force, 
thereby  indicating  the  watts  which  are  trans- 
mitted through  the  circuit 

is  diagrammalically  illustrated  in  Fig.  10,  where 
W  is  the  wattmeter,  V  V  are  the  terminals  of 
the  fine  wire  coil  and  C  C  are  the  terminals 
of  the  coarse  wire  coil.  This  figure  is  intended 
to  show  a  dynamo  furnishing  current  to  a  set 
of  incandescent  lamps  L  L  L  L  L,  and  the  watt- 
meter is  introduced  in  circuit  for  the  purpose 
of  measuring  the  power  delivered  to  the  lamps. 
The  number  of  alterations  made  in  each 
second  by  the  alternating  currents  that  are 
ordinarily  used  in  practice  is  so  great  that  the 
movable  coil  of  an  electrodynamometer  acts 
exactly  as  though  it  were  pulled  around  by  a 
continuous  force  proportional  to  the  average 
of  the  variable  force  which  results  from  the 
magnetic  action  of  the  alternating  current 
This  is  true  whether  the  instrument  is  arranged 
to  be  used  as  an  alternating-current  ammeter, 
in  which  instance  the  two  coils  are  placed  in 
series  with  each  other  and  both  are  of  low 
resistance;  or  the  instrument  is  arranged  to  be 
used  as  a  voltmeter,  in  which  instance  the  two 

♦  t  ^  .^  ^3 


Fm.  10.— 


;btheir 


which  tl 


coils  are  connected  in  series  with  each  other 
but  both  are  of  relatively  high  resistance  and 
their  resistance  is  re-enforced  by  that  of  a 
supplementary  non-inductive  coil  of  high  re- 
sistance: or  the  instrument  is  arranged  for  use 
as  a  wattmeter,  in  which  instance  one  of  the 
colls  is  of  low  resistance  and  is  a  current  coll 
to  be  connected  in  series  with  the  main  circuit, 
while  the  other  coil  is  a  fine  wire  coil  of  hlgti 


8l^ 


IM 


ELECTRICAL    HBASURINO    INSTRUMENTS 


resistance  re-enforced  by  a  sn^lementary  non- 
inductive  resistance  coil  and  is  a  voltage  coil 
to   be   connected   across   the    terminals   of   the 

The  wattmeter  already  described  is  called 
an  indicating  wattmeter,  but  it  is  often  desirable 
to  malce  a  registry  of  the  integrated  consump- 
tion of  energy  by  a  customer  during  a  given 
period,  such  as  a  month,  and  such  an  instrument 
IS  illustrated  in  Fig.  11,  which  is  called  the 
Thomson  watthour  meter.  This  is  built  like  a 
little  dectric  motor  without  andiron  in  its  work- 
ing parts.  It  is  arranged  with  its  revolving  iKirt 
or  armature  A  to  be  connected  to  the  circuit  like 
the  fine  wire  coils  of  a  wattmeter  and  its  field 
magnetizing  windings  W  W  to  be  connected 
in  circuit  like  the  coarse  wire  coils  of  a  watt- 
meter. The  magnetic  pull  which  tends  at  each 
instant  to  make  the  armature  rotate  is  propor-. 
tional  to  the  product  of  the  two  magnetiring 
-  effects,  so  that  the  rotative  effect,  or  torque,  ts 
proportional  to  the  watts  in  the  circuit  If 
the  speed  of  such  an  armature  is  made  propor- 
tional to  the  magnetic  pull,  it  is  easily  seen  that 
every  revolution  of  the  armature  means  a  cer- 
tain number  of  watts  used  for  a  fixed  length 
of    time.      Such   instruments   usually   have   at- 


When  the  power  in  alternating  current  cir- 
cuits is  to  be  measured,  it  is  necessary  to  make- 
the  self-induction  of  the  fine  wire  coil  of  such 
a  wattmeter  practically  negligible  in  compari- 
son with  the  resistance  of  the  coil,  to  prevent 
the  readings  of  the  instrument  b^g  affected 


.  Fig.  tl. —  Thonu 


n  Intcgrmtinfl  Wati 


by  the  frequency  of  the  alterations  of  the  cur- 
rent This  is  brought  about  by  introducing  a 
coil  of  liigh  resistance  and  of  practically  no 
self-induction  in  series  with  the  fine  wire  mov- 
ing coil  of  the  instrument. 

Another  form,  called  an  'induction  watt- 
hour  meter*  is  usual^  used  for  recording  the 
watthours  in  altematine  current  circuits.  This 
instrument  in  its  simpFest  form  illustrated  in 
Fig.  12,  consists  of  coarse  wire  coils  F  F  and 
a  nne  wire  coil  C  connected  to  the  circuit  as 
in  a  wattmeter.  The  iron  core  of  the  fine  wire 
coils  is  adjusted  so  that  the  magnetic  flux  lags 
in  phase,  90  degrees  behind  the  phase  of  the 
voltage,  thus  producing  a  magnetic  field  out 
of  phase  with  the  magnetic  field  produced  by 
the  coarse  wire  coil.    These  two  magnetic  ficl<u 


magnet  poles  generates  electric 

whidi  are  attracted  by  the  magnets  and  retard 

dte  motion  of  the  disc. 


tached  to  the  spindle  of  the  armature  a  set  of 
dials  D  like  those  of  a  gas  meter,  which  record 
the  revolutions  and  are  so  marked  that  the 
consumption  of  electric  energy  may  be  re- 
corded in  what  are  known  as  *wait  hours.* 
A  more  convenient  unit  for  commercial  instru- 
ments is  the  kilowatt  hotir,  each  kilowatt  hour 
being  1,000  watt  hours,  and  the  dials  of  such 
instruments  usually  read  in  kilowatt  hours. 

If  no  external  retarding  force  were  applied 
to  the  armature  of  such  an  instrument,  it 
would  lend  to  run  at  an  excessive  speed  for 
any  current  flowing  through  the  apparatus  and 
to  make  the  instrument  give  an  accurate  record 
of  power,  a  retarding  force  which  is  propor- 
tional to  the  speed  of  the  armature  must  be 
applied  to  the  spindle.  This  is  admirably  ar- 
ranged by  placing  at  the  bottom  of  the  spindle 
S  a  fiat  disk  of  aluminum  C,  on  either  side  of 


Pic.  13. 

act  on  an  aluminum  disc  armature  D  and  cause 
it  to  rotate  like  the  armature  of  an  induction 
motor.  Permanent  magnets  are  associated  with 
the  disc  so  as  to  cause  the  retardation  of  the 
rotation  as  in  the  Thomson  watthour  meter. 

Sometimes  a  continuous  record  of  amperes, 
volts  or  watts  is  desired  and  in  that  case  the 


ELECTRICAL   RSSlSTANCB  —  BLBCTRICAL   TERMS 


pointer  of  tn  indicating  instrttment  is  tipped 
with  a  pen  which  plays  over  a  moving  dial  or 
strip  of  paper,  thus  leaving  a  record  of 
changes  in  the  circuit.  Instruments  thus 
equipped  are  called  curve-drawing  instruments. 
Fig.   13  shows  part  of  a  record   taken  from  a 

Various  other  instruments  are  used  in  elec- 
tric circuits,  such  as  those  indicating  the  power 
f actor  of  alternating  current  circuits,  called 
power  factor  meters;  those  indicating  the  fre- 
quency of  alternating  currents,  called  fre- 
quency meters;  and  those  indicating  the  phase 
and  frequency  relations  between  the  currents 
in  two  alternating  current  circuits,  caJled  phase 
meters  or  synchroscopes.  Descripllons  of  all 
such  special  instruments  may  be  found  in 
standard  works  on  electrical  engineering. 

Bibliography,— For  further  mformation  in 
regard  to  electrical  measuring  instruments  con- 
sult Jackson,  D.  C  and  J,  P.,  'Elementary  Book 
on  Electricity  and  Magnetism';  Laws,  'Elec- 
trical Measurements';  Swenson  and  Franken- 
field,  'The  Testing  of  Electro-magnetic  Ma- 
chinery and  Other  Apparatus' ;  Gerhardi. 
'Electricity  Meters:  Their  Construction  and 
UanagemcDt',  and  other  treatises. 

DucALD  C.  Jackson, 
Professor    of   Elect ricat   Engineering,   Massa- 
ciutsetts  Inslilttie  of  Technology. 

ELECTRICAL  RESISTAHCB.  Se« 
Resistance  Electrical. 

ELECTRICAL  TERMS.  The  develop- 
ment of  electrical  industries  and  applications 
during  the  last  20  years  has  been  so  rapid  and 
considerable  as  to  constitute  one  oi  the  salient 
characteristics  of  this  era.  Prior  to  that  time 
a  knowledge  of  electrical  phenomena,  terms 
and  phrases  was  limited  to  a  few  philosophic- 
ally minded  persons.  During  that  time,  how- 
ever, this  knowledEC  has  not  only  spread  to 
a  large  professional  and  artisan  class  enlisting 
to-day  more  than  a  million  persons  in  the 
United  States  alone;  hut  has  also  extended  in  a 
considerable  measure  to  the  public  at  large.  We 
can  hardly  read  through  the  news  of  a  day  in 
the  columns  of  a  newspaper  without  encountrr- 
ing  electro- technical  words  or  phrases.  The 
telegraph  delivers  its  messages  at  every  door. 
The  telephone  vi'hispers  into  diousands  of  house- 
holds in  every  large  city.  The  electric  Iif{ht 
shares  with  the  primeval  flame  the  brightening 


terms  upon  our  speech.     The  following  is  _ 
list  of  about  100  ot  the  electrical  terms  in  very 


r  delivbed  thrvugh 
.    which 


c  Lichunc. 


which  tha  rotation  a 
elunei       ~ 
S«  El 


_  ftttimctod  to,  or  fELcHCd  from, 
0,  the  doTjeat  which  ii  coonBctu 
ii  subject  to  npid  cydicml  chuoM 

-  An  AJtermtuig-ciuTeDt  ffiotor  id 
iDt  lyochtaBon  with  tlw  rotatinE 
plying  the  drivibg  c 


CiacuiT-BjutAriE,   Electbic— (1)  ._   .__ 

uid  rMtnritw  a  circuit,  either  by  hmd  Bt  will  i 
matkilly,  in  the  can  of  aa  overload.  (2)  A  twit 
automacicaUy  opem  at  overload,  uiually  by 

CooBKMR. —  In  radio  tftegiapliy.  *  mxiyiiig  device 


•n  th*  panose  ol  an  electric  wave,  thereby 


CtnanjTATOK. — 
direction  or  pHn  m  a  cmTnn.     i 
which  enablea  the  attemtiDfl  c 
the  anrjLtnr*  to  be  delivered  aa 


Coimtou.Ea. — 

CONVEHTKI    Ol 


a  for  eontroDisg  art  cltEtiic  machine 


alon«  an  elottrio  circuit,  u«    ..  

CvT-OdT,  Elbctwc —  (I)  A  device  for  auiomatKallir 
interrupting  an  electric  circuit  in  which  an  eiceiaive 
current  flows,  by  the  me.  ing  of  a  fuae-wire  or  ttnp 
carrying  the  cumnt  and  heated  thereby.  (2)  A  device 
frtr  Bopportinfl  or  holding  an  electric  fuse. 

\n  iTi«iii»fiTig  material  capable  of  being  nb- 


Dm.Biuc.-'- 

jeeted  to  eteetric  «t    .. 

DiKKCi  Cuutmr. —  A  cbitsi 

may  vary  in  itrength.  alw« 


r  gnatly  il 


EnnciBMCT   or 


TTCtion.^A  tn-and-fro  electric 
n  amperet  the  electric  ei 


periodically       Blbctkod*. —  llw 


See  TKLBCKAroT. 

__    A    Dynamo,    Machhib;    , 

TKAHSLAtiMQ  Dbvicb. —  The  n 

out  <a  the  power  taken  in,  two 

The  ratio  ot  ootpM  to  inpot. 

Dee*  of  traniionnation   <-   -* 

device.      Bxan^,    a    ten 

power,    mechanically,    wtdle  recejvinv  li 

electrically,  wmld  hine  an  affideney  i3  IN 


aOjr  define 


ooiagnelic  principle^  froi 

•1    aa   the   carrent   which  will  depodt    1.11 

. _a  of  nlver  per  second  in  a  nandard  type  ( 

e1ectn>depD«iting  bsth. 

AiooB. —  'nie   electrode  From  which  a  current 
Actrelyte  or  condnctTT.     A  poeitim  electrode. 

A»c  Lamp. —  An  electric  iRtnp  consisting  essentially  ot 
a  column  of  intensely  heated  vapor  maintained  between 
two  drmely   irppo«ed,   or  (Ughtly  separated,  coadoctiiia 


conducting 

plate  immersed  in , 

Ei.ECTiioi.Tsis. —  The  ehamiosl  chaon  ncoompsinyins  tba 

flow  ot  d«ctridt1>  thnngh  electnlytes.  to  which  claa 

nearly  all  condnctmf  liquids  bekn.     Sea  Ei.KcnKii.THS. 
bBcnostAGKET. —  A  iiii)inet  exoted  by  an  electric  ciment 

and  whose  mafinetisin  nuunly  disappean  on  tbe  nastion 

t  (abbrwriated  B.U.P.,. 

t  irtiich  produces  therein,  ( 

ice,  an  electrio  diachaine  or   euirent. 
Valtaga.     tJsnally  n  ■  - 


8l^ 


BLBCTRICAL  TERMS 


■Dd  siMtly  prolonginc  tl 

Peedkb. —  In  an  elcctiic  diitributing  lytMm,  ■ 
ducCor  trnxTjina  current  from  a  pomr-hou 
cxicdiicton,  and  not  itasU  anuuKted  ta  motoi 
Muulatios  devioaa. 

Pixiuu.  BLicnuc-uoBT. —  OriaiiuUr,  an  eli 
bolder  fiud  to  a  mil  or  edthw-     Mow,  any  • 


of  an  aiflctnc 

lATQK.    HlKCTBIC— 1 

•ratiDff  an  electric  cur 
seaerator  or  dynamo. 
GkouND. —  (1)  The  earth. 

ductor.     (2)  Arotnmcin. 

(3)  A  fault  or  leak  of  electi 
defect  in  the 


Uwallya 

provided  throush  tb 
— 'ty  to  the  Mrth  tiuwuan  - 
oondoctor.     See  Butcruc 

electjic     distribution,     a 


-^ ..   _   pnaaw*   of 

over  S5D  volta  and  lea  than  3,500  volts. 
ItiCAHDBSCBNT    Lamp.^  An    electric    lamp    cojwiatiiis    es- 
vntially  of  a  g1owin«  filAmentajy  oondactor  maintained 
at  an  mcBBdiKBnt  tempentore  by  a  travenins  (Icctiic 


snch  Bonndi  to  be  haaid  with  llM  aid  ol  a 
"  ,     In  tnlBiUHmy,  the  ^ubon  xt 
'"--    ''pbnam  against  which 

4  and  dashes  fbrmins  tbe 


impulses  of  the  sender's  Vny.  and  ai . 

in  such  a  manoor  as  to  give  either  audible  of  --. 

to  the  leceiving  operator.     See  Tsucraphv. 

MoTOB,  EuBCTSjc. —  A  machine  for  transforming  e 

power  intA  utiHiable  niBdianical  power.  Moton  abust 
mvvrisblr    opera  td    on    electromsffnctic    — - — ^-'—      **" 

BLKCDUC  A1.TEENATTNG  CuilEHT    MACHI^ 

tiaitM;  GomuToKS 
Uoraa-STAHTm. —  An  antomatieaUy  opentns  d     . . 
starting  a  QVJtor  from  rest  with  a  proper  rate  of  accelsiatioit 
by  the  simple  act  of  clasiia  a 

HULTIPOLAK    DVMAMO.-^  A  dynj 

iNTUnunOHAi. —  A  imtt  of  electric  naistanoe.  theo- 
retically derived,  by  electnmiaanetic  _principleB.  from  the 
— .: .mmmM "    — "-         '^      ■-      '' '-"" 

irv  10S.3  centimetssVnB  andweii^iiig  li.4Sll 
the  temperstute  of  mehinj  ' 


ika.     Sec 


Eranunee,  atjhe 

On^CooLKD     Tbai 

cooled,  wbeo  opeiatiog,  by 


Induction  Motok. — 


altematinr-current 

electivmaaaeticKUy 
mary  member.     Soe 


&.BCIUC  ^TIBHATIKC  CuUtaHT 

Uoiou)  GnouATttta. 

haouatoH,  Blbctuc — T 

Paiticidaily  tha  property „— 

it  is  kept  out  of  contact  with,  or  out  of  likalUiood 
charge  to,  the  ground  or  neighboring  condttctors. 

IimuOB  CoMDUiT.— A  tuba  or  raceway  placed  in  the 
inUiior  walls,  Boots  or  ceilings  of  a  bnitduia.  to  guide, 
bold  and  protect  the  wit^s  or  conductors  supplying  the 

JouT.i,    jN 


in  degreta  of  300  .. 
PoLVPHASB  Svjrmi.— 


rwT. —  An   slt^rmting 

ceaSTC  load  or  duty 
'.  An  abnormal  or  an 
ional  development  oi 
i  reference  to  a  cylic 


^Lon.  system   employing  a    [dniahty   of    sltemating    t 

rhen  definitely    diSeiina    in    pbue.     See    Ei.bctuc 

dis-         NATtm:  CtmaiKT  HAcnmntv. 


Pown-PACTOR. —  The  n 


abeorbed  by  a  drctiit  or  conductor  c&rrying  an  Alternating 
rent,  to  the  apparent  power  consumed,  in  volt  amiieiea. 
iBT  Voltaic  Ckll.—  A  voltaic  cell  which  derivea  its 


llerived  from  the  c 

to  0.74  foot-pound. 
Ka.owATT  Hour.— A  ■ 


o  iaO0O,O0O  ei 


;    theoretically 
ApproxiniAt^  equal 


as  distinguished  firrm  a  _._     _     .    . 
charing,  may  he  rechaised  by  the  ai 


encr^.     One    thousand    watt 


a  the    ■  OtiAiiKUPHic  Tblkohaphy, —  The  method  of  sending  four 
uinn  m«ui«  limultancousTy  over  one  and  the  tame  telegraph 

at  direction  and  two  in  the  oppo^te  direction. 


«byo. 


re  of  l.OOO  v 


LtGHiHiHG  AuiMsrta. —  A  device  connected  to  an  electric 
farcuit  or  system  for  the  pttrpoae  of  pcolectioa  the  lyston 
from  damage  by  atmospbcric  tiectridty.  Commonly  a 
ttovioe  ooimscMd  to  an  serial  line  either  on  a  pole  or  near 
tbe  point  of  entrance  to  a  station,  and  ofiedng  a  separate 
condtuting  path  to  groiuid  along  which  lufatning  dis- 
chusaa  may  be  deflected.  See  Gehuiak 
LrettTHiNG  Axauiai. 

LoAI>. — -  The  output  of,  or  demand  upon  a  machine. 

daltvered.     A  load   may   be   light,   heavy,  normal,   [bU, 
"    "  '  "'".  according  to  the  output  of  the  machine 


RaiLBonds. — ^The   eonductiiui  straps  or   bridges   aiyliej 

in  order  to  iniprev*  their  eleetrie  conducting  pawn. 
Relav. —  An    apMntu*,    usually    flectiomagnetic.    which 
controls  and  operates  a  loca)  ctrciut  by  opening  or  donng 
the    san».     In    telegraphy,    a    sensitive    electromagnet 
ioBerted  in  tbe  telegraph  line  wtiich,  by  the  movaiBfut 

.  with  a  vigor  that  tt 


GKHKkAtaM; 


Low  POTKHTIAI.  Si 

of  conductors,  gw .. 

tlu  prcaaure  or  voltage  is  relatively  low.  Speafically, 
an  electnc  distribntinB  ayilem,  which,  acovdiBa  to  fiia 
^urmnee  rulee,  hu  within  it  a  presHire  teas  tban  S50 
volta  snd  more  thu  10  volts. 
Machkctic  PnLD. —  Any  ragioii  in  SMce  permeaisd  by 
' i*ed    ipaoe.     Commonly    a    mag- 


IL—  In  electric  distribution,  a  system 


TRLICaAPKT. 

RrasTANCi,     BucTuc— The     pniperty     ol     conducting 
sutstances  by  virtue  of  which  they  obatruct  o 
the  PUHCe  of  an  electric  cun 

Khbosiat. —  AJa  sdjunmble  elect 

RoToa. —  The  rotating  elemenl  oi 

from  the  stationary  element. 


parallel.  SI 
ben  or  m 
a.  better  < 


as  to  vary  the  speed  oE  tbe  car. 
slecUic  incandescent  lighti 
Br.  usually  of     ' 


Wing,  t 

_  „ .  _  jured  over  a  lamp  io 

iflect  the  light  and  produce  either 
of  light  or  a  more  pleaang  effect 


Saum. —  An    electrual    by-pies.     A 

order  to  divert  a  oart  of  the  cun 

Shuwt    Motor   ob    Dkhbhato*. —  i 

wfuae  field-magnet  winding  is  ct 

BBOlT-CiacuiT. —  Across  between  ai 
iriieieby  an  eiceuively  strong 
Usually  a  aeCalUc  bridging  betwei 


fnt  ^m  that  bruich. 

nnected    in    shunt  to. 
See  Gbkbratok. 


ELECTRICAL  UNITS 


187 


Stokace 


ODduy    <]r    ■tOTB^B 


D  th*  rotetlng  atemort. 

S«  Bl«ctiuc  StobacbBattki.  _ . 

SToaAOB   CB.L. —  A   voltoie   call  which  noeivii   Ha  elao- 

focbanucft]   vDttvx   from   the    clectrulytic    Kctum    of   a 

charpng   dirrent.     A    volUic   cell   which   Ii   iheitialely 

charged  wnl  diadiUBad. 
Sv>-8lApoii.—  In  an  electrical  diatribatins  lyaton.  a  locaJ 

or  ainiUaiy  pomt-houaa  for  fadliutuia  the  •in««iiiin  nr 

control  of  the  Byatera.     A  atatioD   wbch  i 

to  a  prindpal  ataticm  or  pomr-boaaa. 
Gmrca,  Elscric — Any  derica  ior  openbw,  doai 

modilyiag  an  eleotiic  ctrciiit.     U)ua1]y  a  hand-oi 


SwiionBOAJiii.- 
ol  ooovBoieot  contnJ 
.wiCcbea  mounted 


[  and  doainE  a 


e  Sutcnuc  A 


riKO    CUUEHT    MACmNBKV, 

nJ^n^.tT'^rBS  and'  ™.^^- 


raian   ... 

cooductor  ronninff  parAttet 

d  a  ateal  nil  alactrieaUy 

inaiilcwn,  for  carcyina  oorraat  to  uc  car-cioton.     £iee 

Tuiu>-Rail  Svsibu. 
THRVS-pHAaa    firsmi.— An     ahiwiMitit^-cunrat     rfrmem 

tniplayvag  Um*  altematiBS  euimt*.  of  aqiial  itrength. 

digenaa  kn  Dbaae  by  1]<F»  or  one-third  of  a  cycle. 
Thu*-Wiii  SYSTEM.—  la  electric  diitribuuan.  Ibc  tysum 


m  neatnl.  or  midway  i 


.  potential  bttumu  the 


-je  pnoiary  t- 

two  wiiSagt. 

TRANSKttiua.  SiBF-DowH.— A  tnuufonnr  which  locally 
lomn  thf  deetric  preaoure^  i.e-»  which  haa  a  letacr  number 
of  tuma  in  the  aeamdAiy  than  in  the  jmmarr  winding 


TKANatOKMIa.  S-rntUp.— A  tranaforraer  which  locally 
rajaea  the  electric  preaacre;  i^.,  which  haa  a  sreaier 
namter  ol  tuma  in  the  aapoBdary  than  in  the  primary 
wmdina  and  thanby  preduce*  a  )iiglier  voIuab  in  tim 
secondary  drcnit  than  in  the  pKmary. 
r. .    ..   j„yip^  actuated   eleetricAllT 

h«I    whi^h    IE    urried 
which 


TlumLATim:   Divics. —  Any 


Tboluv-Whih.. —  The 

at  the  Dpper  end  of  a  «ti«et-car  troIteT  pol< 
■         ■   Tt  the  tnilkr  — 

TVaEO-ALTIRNA  TOS . 


paralkL 
Vapor-Law'. —  An  electric  Uicp 


iher   uiuBlly    „    ... 

vajnt.  sihatMed  of  nr.  and  l»pt  HlBininMl  by  the  paaaaga 
thnranh  tfao  vuai  of  an  aleetric  cuneat  admitted  if 
eiectrodea  aealed  into  the  walla. 


VCH.T.  iMmHAnOHAL.— A  Unit  of  electric  ptanut  or 
CDitvnt-driviny  electric  torce.  tbeoietkBlly  dnted.  by 
•lactromaCDatic  priacqika.  mm  th*  c«ntiiiiet*F«ruiinB- 
•econd  VMam  of  unlta.  Practically,  the  international 
volt  i*  a  certain  fraction  of  the  electromotive  fore*  at 
4  atandard  type  of  voltaic  cell  at  a  itandard  temperature. 
VoLnmra.— An  elactncal  tneaaufing  lattranienc  for  da- 
letminiiig  the  value  of  the  electromotive  force  connected 
to  ita  terminal!.  A  voltage  meaiurer. 
Watt. —  A  nnit  of  power,  activity,  or  rate  of  worlang.  equal 
to  WlWOi  of  a  horaa  power,  or  to  M.4  foot-ponndi  per 
nute-  llie  power  expended  by  a  ourrent  of  one  ampcie 
'"  "  '  ne  volt  The  power  eipendea  by 
,  thiou^  a  — ^ ^ ■— 


under  a  oTVaaurv  o 
an  B.M.F.  of  one  - 


activity  et  on*  vatt;  apfno] 
exactly  3,6011  joulea.  ne  i 
under  one  tdtl  pressure.  ' 

wamunK. —  Ad    instnn- 

drcnit  and  mtaaaring  the  power  (Uivered 

WbeaTstohb    Budce. — Ai 


much  uaed  in  deotrical 
iximatdy  2.700  loot-pounda; 


upon  a  JraixhB  for  the  ^rpoae 
n^i^ctioD  of  an  clectnc  path. 
La.  Orit^naUy.  a  board  with 
.  _  .  .  ..  low  typic»l]y.  a  metal  flmma 
holdini  vwtlcal  alaba  of  ilata  or  msrble,  with  teitche*, 
oontrouina  hanillm  and  iadi»tin(  or  recodina  inatnunenta 
mounted  thereon.  In  an  electric  centra!  atatioo  or  di^ 
nibotim   centre-     In    telephony,    a    frkme    holding   the 

SvNCHKONOUS  MoiOR.^  An  alteroating-cuTTent  motor  in 
which  the  rotatioii  occurs  in  aynchroniim  with  the  rotating 
'"of  the  genantor  ao^lying  the  drivins  t 


knee  empbyt  a  \ttiitt  or  bridging  ecnductiir.  nsaaOr 
__ — itainiu  a  gidvanoscnn- 
WnsLm  'hLBaRAPHT-~-GerHTBlly ,  a 


See  TEUKKAfHY,  W1UI.ISS. 

For  definitions  of  mechanical  terms  see  the 
articles  in  this  encyclopedia  on  MECHANICAL 
Tcsus;  BoiLEB  Shop  Tekms:  FotiNragY  ahd 
FoKGE  Shop  Tebms;  Engine;  Engineering  and 
SiBticTUBAL  Tnus;  Toots;  Valve  and  Valve 
Tebms;  Wobkshop  Terms;  and  Locoifonv^ 
PsiNapAL  Parts  or. 

A.  E.  Kennbllv, 
Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Harvard 
University. 

ELECTRICAL  UNITS.  Two  systems  of 
electrical  units  are  in  use  by  electricians,  known 
respectively  as  the  Prajctical  system  and  the 
C  G.  S.  ( centime ter-pammc  second)  system. 
The  former  is  used  in  elecCxical  engineering, 
the  latter  in  the  notation  of  electrical  science. 
The  Practical  system  is  sometimes  called  ilie 
Q.  E.  S.  (quadrant-eleventh -second)  ^stem. 
It  b  based  on  the  earth  quadrant,  or  ]^  cen- 
timeters as  the  unit  of  length;  ID"  gramme  at 
[he  unit  of  mass ;  and  the  second  as  the  unit 
of  time.  The  foundational  mediantcal  units  from 
which  the  Practical  system  of  electrical  units 
is  developed  are  the  dyne  and  the  erg.  The 
dyne  is  a  unit  of  force,  assumed  to  be  that 
force  which  gives  a  weight  of  one  gramme  a 
velocity  of  one  centimeter  per  second  during 
that  second.  The  erg  is  a  unit  of  work,  being 
the  energy  exercised  when  a  weight  of  one 
gramme  is  moved  a  distance  of  one  centimeter 
with  the   force  of  one  dyne. 

Arranged  alphabetically,  the  principal  units 
of  the  Practical  system  with  their  definitions 
and  their  ratios  to  the  units  of  the  same  class 
in   the  C-   G.   S.   system   are  as   follows : 

Ampere  (the  unit  of  current)— the  rate, 
or  volume-per- second,  of  current  flowii^ 
through  a  conductor  in  which  the  resistance  is 
one  ohm,  when  the  pressure  is  one  volt-  It  is 
one-tenth  of  the  C-  G.  S.  unit  of  current, 
designated  as  10'—  that  is,  10  to  the  — 1  power. 

Coulomb    (the  ^  unit    of    quantity) — the 

3uantity_  of  electricity  passing  through  a  con- 
uctor  in  one  second  when  the  rate  is  one 
ampere.     This   unit   is   not   often   employed. 


„8le 


16S 


ELECTRICITY 


guantity  is  gCDe  rally  designated  in  ampere 
lurs,  an  ampere  hour  being  3,600  coulombs. 
The  coulomb  is  1(P  C.  G.  S.  units  of  quantity. 

Farad  {tlie  unit  of  capacity)  —the  capacity 
of  a  condenser  wfaich  would  require  a  diarge 
of  one  coulomb  to  establish  a  difference  of 
potential  amounting  to  one  volt  between  the  two 
conductors  forming  the  condenser.  The  farad 
being  expressed  by  figures  inconveniently 
large,  the  micro-farad,  the  one-millionth  part 
of  a  farad,  is  commonly  used.  A  farad  is 
equal  to  10-*  C.  G.  S.  units  of  capacity, 

Henry  (the  unit  of  inductance)  —  the  in- 
ductance produced  in  a  circuit  when  the  cur- 
rent is  changing  at  the  rate  of  one_  ampere  per 
second  and  is  producing  in  the  circuit  a  dif- 
ference of  pressure  amounting  to  one  volt  A 
henry  is  equal  to  10*  C.  G.  S.  units  of  inductance. 

Jotile  (the  unit  of  work)  ^ the  work  done 
by  one  ampere  of  current  flowing  for  one 
second  through  a  conductor  which  has  a  re- 
sistance of  one  ohm.  The  joule  is  seldom  em- 
ployed, the  watt  hour  being  the  more  common 
unit,  equivalent  to  3,600  joules.  (See  Watt). 
The  joule  is  equal  lo  10'  C  G.  S.  units  of  work 
—  that  is,   10'  ergs. 

Ohm  (the  unit  of  resistance)  —  the  resist- 
ance of  a  column  of  mercury  weighing  14.4521 
grammes,  o£  such  constant  cross-section  as  to  be 
106.3  centimeters  in  length.  In  desi^ating 
very  high  resistances  the  unit  used  is  the 
•megohm,"  equivalent  to  1,000,000  ohms.  The 
ohm  is  10*  C.   G.   S.  units  or  resistance. 

Volt  (the  unit  of  pressure)  —  the  electro- 
motive force  (E.  M.  F.)  required  to  force  a 
Steady  current  of  one  ampere  against  a  re- 
sistance of  one  ohm.  The  volt  is  equal  to  10* 
C.  G.  S.  units  of  pressure. 

Watt  (the  unit  of  power)— a  current  of 
one  ampere  flowing  under  a  pressure  of  one 
volt  —  equivalent  to  one  joule  jjer  second.  The 
usual  commercial  unit  is  the  kilowatt,  or  1,000 
watts.  The  commercial  consumption  of  electric 
current  is  commonly  designated  as  kilowatt 
hours.  The  physical  unit  of  power  called  one 
horse  power  is  equivalent  to  7A6  watts.  The 
watt  is  equal  to  10*  C.  G.  S.  units  of  power  — 
that  is,  \&  ergs- per- second. 

ELECTRICITY  is  a  form  of  energy  (q.v.), 
like  mechanical  energy  or  energy  of  motion, 
heat,  radiant  energy  (as  light),  chemical  energy, 
etc.  Electric  energy  js  the  form  of  energy  most 
recently  introduced  into  everyday  life  and  is, 
therefore,  not  yet  quite  familiar,  so  that  we  still 
ask,  'What  is  electricity?"  while  ages  ago  man- 
kind ceased  lo  ask,  "What  is  gravity?"  or 
"What  is  light?*  although  the  manifestations  of 
electric  energy  are  no  more  wonderful  and  in- 
ei^lainable  than  those  of  gravity.  That  is,  the 
cause  why  a  stone  falls  to  the  ground  and  water 
flows  down  hill  is  just  as  mysterious  as  the 
manifestations  of  electricity.  In  nature  electric 
energy  manifests  itself  during  atmospheric  dis- 
turbances as  lightning  (q-v.),  but  the  energy  of 
lightning  is  too  erratic  for  use.  For  the  pro- 
duction of  electric  energy  on  a  larger  scale  re- 
course must  be  had  to  the  stores  of  energy 
afforded  bv  nature.  In  large  amounts  energy  is 
found  in  nature,  first,  as  mechanical  energy  in 
the  waterfalls  and  to  a  lesser  extent  the  wind, 
and  second,  as  chemical  energy  in  coal,  wood, 
oil,  natural  gas,  etc. 

Ocnemtion,-- In  the  transformation  of  the 


mechanical  energy  of  waterfalls  into  electric 

energy,  the  water  power  is  first  converted  into 
rotary  motion  by  the  turbine  or  water-wheel, 
the  latter  then  converted  into  electric  energy  by 
the  electric  generator  or  dynamo.  Chemical  en- 
ergy can  be  converted  directly  into  electric 
energy  only  to  a  limited  extent,  as  chemical 
energy  of  metals.  This  is  done  in  the  electric 
battery.  (See  Electric  Battesy).  But  due  to 
the  high  cost  of  the  chemical  energy  of  metals, 
the  production  of  electric  ener^  by  means  of  the 
battery  is  commerciallj;  feasible  only  where 
small  quantities  are  required  and  the  cost  of  the 
energy  therefore  secondary  to  the  c        "   ' 


transferred  from  the  gases  of  combustion  ti 
water  in  the  steam  boiler,  converted  into  me- 
chanical energy  in  the  steam  engine  or  steam 
turbine  and  the  mechanical  converted  into  elec- 
tric energy  in  the  electric  generator.  In  the 
gas  engine  the  heat  energy  of  combustion  is 
directly  converted  into  mechanical  energy.  In 
any  transformation  of  energy  from  one  form  to 
another  a  certain  loss  occurs  by  conversion  into 
heat.  Tliis  loss  is  moderate  in  the  transforma- 
tion of  water  power  into  mechanical  ene^y. 
very  small  in  the  transformation  of  mechanical 
into  electric  energy,  but  enormous  Ln  the  trans- 
formation of  heat  into  any  other  form  of 
energy.  Our  modem  theories  consider  all 
forms  of  energy  as  different  modes  of  motion; 
of  the  masses  in  mechanical  energy,  or  of  the 
molecules  and  atoms  of  matter  or  of  the  elec- 
trons with  electric,  chemical,  etc.,  energy.  Heat 
is  the  simplest  form  of  energy,  irregular  motion, 
of  the  molecules  or  motion  without  di'finite 
speed  and  direction.  It  is,  therefore,  intelligible 
that  in  any  conversion  of  energy,  that  is,  of  a 
regular  motion  into  another  regular  motion, 
some  of  the  energy  is  lost  by  losing  its  regu- 
larity of  motion,  that  is,  converted  into  heat, 
the  more  the  greater  the  difference  between  the 
two  forms  of  motion,  and  that  when  convert- 
ing irregular  into  regular  motion,  diat  is,  heat 
into  other  forms  of  energv,  this  loss  is  Specially 
great.  The  cost  of  electric  power  derived  from 
water  power  does  not  differ  much  from  that 
derived  from  coal  by  the  steam  engine,  the  cost 
of  coal  in  the  latter  case  offseltinfif  the  interest 
on  the  greater  investment  required  in  developing 
the  water  power  and  transmitting  the  electric 
power  to  the  place  of  consumption.  Hence  where 
coal  is  cheap  the  steam  power  may  be  more 
economical,  and  where  water  iwwer  is  found 
which  can  cheaply  be  developed,  or  where  coal 
is  expensive,  water  power  is  more  economical. 
Use.—  Electric  energy  is  hardly  ever  used 
as  such,  but  only  after  transformation  into  other 
forms  of  energy,  mainly  mechanical  energy, 
heat,  chemical  enerto' and  lieht.  Since  electric  en- 
ergy is  generated  from  other  forms  of  energy, 
it  follows  that  it  is  used  essentially  as  an  inter- 
mediary form  of  energy.  For  this  it  is  better 
suited  than  any  other  form  of  energy,  due  to  the 
high  efficiency  and  simplicity  of  generation  and 
reconversion  and  espeeiallv  the  almost  unlim- 
ited flexibility  which  permits  transmission  over 
long  distance,  distribution  with  the  simpkst 
means  and  tmlimited  subdiviuon  and  ease  of 
control. 


jOOgIc 


ELECTRICITY 


16d 


Heclimnlcal  Power.— The  electric  motor  is 
a  secondary  and  not  a  primary  source  of  power, 
that  is,  it  does  not  convert  the  stores  of  eneiwy 
found  in  nature  into  mechanical  enerRy  as  the 
Steam  engine,  but  mechanical  power  has  to  be 
exerted  somewhere  to  produce  the  electric 
power  which  is  reconverted  into  mechanical 
power  in  the  electric  motor.  The  advantage  of 
the  electric  motor  is  that  the  mechanical  power 
can  be  utilized  at  a  distance  from  the  source  of 
power;  the  factories  and  mills  may  be  located 
far  distant  from  the  water  power  and  the 
railroad  train  or  street  car  receive  the  power 
from  the  distant  station.  The  power  generated 
at  one  place  can  be  distributed  effiuetitly  to 
a  large  number  of  places,  or  all  motors  of  the 
dty  ma^  receive  their  power  from  one  central 
peneratmg  statioti.  Instead  of  an  extended  and 
mefficient  system  of  belting,  individual  motors 
may  drive  the  machines  of  the  factory  or  mill. 
All  the  cars  or  trains  of  a  railway  system  may 
receive  their  power  from  one  generating  system, 
perhaps  a  water-power  as  Niagara.  The  elec- 
tric motor  is  under  more  perfect  control  than 
almost  any  other  motor,  and  when  not  used 
consumes  no  power  and  requires  no  special  care 
in  starling  and  operation.  Mechanical  power  in 
small  quantities  can  be  produced  almost  as  ef- 
ficiently  as  in  large  units  and  a  great  subdivision 
of  power  becomes  thereby  feasible.  In  the  field 
'     ncchanical   power  generated   by   electricity- 


distances. 

Light. —  For  lighting,  electric  enef|ty  usually 
is  first  converted  mto  Heat  and  the  li^t  given 
ty  the  incandescence  of  very  refractory  solid 
substances,  carbon  or  tungsten  (wolfram),  the 
tungsten  wire  or  carbon  filament  of  the  in- 
r  the  glowing  tip  or  crater 


lamps,  the  main  advantage  lies  in  the  absolute 
sleadinesSj  control  and  flexibility  of  the  light, 
the  simplicity  of  turning  it  on  or  off,  and  its 
relatively  high  efficiency,  which  gives  a  light 
with  less  heat  than  the  gas  flame  or  kerosene 
lamp.  While  due  to  the  use  of  heat  as  inter- 
medary  form  of  energy  only  a  very  few  per 
cent  of  the  electric  energy  are  converted  into 
light,  most  being  dissipated  as  beat  with  the  gas 
or  kerosene  flame  the  percentage  of  energy  con- 
verted into  light  is  still  much  less.  Recently 
considerable  work  is  being  done  and  with  great 
,  promise  of  converting  electric  energy  more 
directly  into  light  by  electro-luminescence  in 
luminous  arcs,  which  promise  an  efficiency  of 
light  tiroduction  very  much  greater  than  the 
incanaescent  or  carbon  arc  lamn,  and  there  is 
a  possibility  of  still  very  much  higher  eflieien- 
cies  of  light  production  by  electro  fluorescence. 

Heat. —  The  conversion  of  electric  energy 
into  heat  means  a  degradation  of  energy  from 
regular  to  irregular  motion  and  in  the  heat 
production  by  electric  energy  only  a  very  few 
per  cent  of  the  heat  energy  eici)ended  under 
the  boilers  of  the  steam  engine  driving  the 
electric  generator  is  recovered^  so  that  electric 
heating  is  usually  more  extwnsive  th^n  direct 
generation  of  heat  hv  combustion  and  therefore 
commerciallv  practieahle  onlv: 

1,  For  the  rrndiiction  of  teranerattires  be- 
j^ond  those  wh-eh  can  be  reached  by  combus- 
tion.   At  very  high  temperatures  cbemical  affin- 


ity and  therefore  combustion  ceases  and  tem- 
peratures beyond  this  cannot  he  reached  by 
combustion  but  are  reached  by  conversion  <n 
electric  energy  into  heat  in  die  electric  fur- 
nace. By  this  means  chemical  compounds  have 
been  produced  for  industrial  purposes  which 
were  either  entirely  unknown  or  mere  curiosi- 
ties before,  as  the  carbides,  calcium  carbide,  car- 
borundum, silicon  metal,  etc. 

2.  Electric  energy  is  used  for  heating  where 
the  temperature  has  to  be  perfectly  controlled, 

3.  For  intermittent  use,  such  as  flat-irons, 
etc.,  where  heat  production  by  combustion  is  tn- 
effidenL 

4.  Due  to  its  convenience  and  cleanliness 
for  domestic  uses  to  a  limited  extent,  electric 
heating  and  cooking  are  coming  into  use. 

Chemical  Energy. —  Electric  energy  is  con- 
verted into  chemical  energy  either  directly  in  the 
electrolytic  cell  or  indirectly  with  heat  as  in- 
termediary in  the  electric  furnace  as  discussed 
above.  Electrolysis  ((t.v.).  that  is,  the  chemical 
action  of  electric  energy,  is  used  exclusively  for 
the  production  of  aluminum,  magnesium^  cal- 
cium, etc.,  metal,  is  used  for  copper  refining, 
Eroduction  of  sodium,  chlorates,  soda  and 
leaching  powder,  and  many  other  compounds. 
Storage.—  Electric  energy  cannot  be  stored 
as  such  conveniently,  but  the  ease  and  efficiency 
of  conversion  of  electric  energy  into  the  chem- 
ical energy  of  metals  and  metallic  oxides,  and 
inversely,  permits  the  storage  of  electric  energy 
as  chemical  energy  in  the  Storage  battery.  (See 
Electric  Storage  BATTniY).  Charging  the 
storage  battery  means  converting  in  it  electric 
energy  into  chemical  energy,  discharging,  the 
reconversion  of  the  chemical  L-nergy  into  electric 

^mu  of  Electric  Energy. —  Electric 
energy  is  used  as  direct  current,  as  alternating 
current  and  as  high  frequency  current  In  the 
direct  current  circuit,  the  electric  current  con- 
tinuously flows  in  the  same  direction,  and  the 
electric  pressure  or  voltage  therefore  also  is 
constantly  in  the  same  direction.  Direct  current 
is  required  for  electrolytic  work,  therefore  also 
for  ibe  charging  of  storage  batteries.  It  is 
generally  preferred  for  electric  railroading,  and 
often  for  electric  lighting,  especially  where  the 
demand  is  very  concentrated,  as  in  the  centres 
of  large  cities.  All  electric  batteries  give  di- 
rect current.  Electric  generators  or  motors  may 
be  built  for  direct  current  as  well  as  for  alter- 
nating current.  In  the  alternating  current  cir- 
cuit, the  electric  current  and  thus  the  electric 
pressure  reverses  periodically,  usually  120  or  50 
times  per  second,  and  the  number  of  double 
reversals  or  cycles  per  second  is  called  the  fre- 
quency of  the  alternating  current.  Sixty  and  25 
3cles  per  second  are  the  standard  frequencies. 
sually  several  alternating  currents  are  used  in 
the  same  system,  which  reverse  successively, 
and  the  system  then  is  called  a  three-phase 
system,  if  three,  a  guarter-phase  system,  if  two 
successively  reversing  currents  are  employed. 
If  only  one  current  is  used,  the  system  Is  called 
single-phase.  Alternating  currents  have  the  ad- 
vantage that  ihey  can  be  raised  in  voltaire  hv 
stationary  aooaratiis,  so-called  •transformers," 
for  transmission  to  a  distance,  and  towered  in 
voltage  for  use.  They  are  therefore  more  flex- 
ible in  apolication.  and  for  this  reason  all  large 
electric  generating  systems  now  produce  alter- 
nating currents,  and  where  direct  corrent  is  re- 


■8l^ 


ELBCTRICITY 


quired,  it  is  produced  from  the  altematiog  cur- 

" " '      '  ■ "        '  ansforming   devices, 

stationary    devices. 


so-callea      

so-called  'rectifiers." 

High  frequency  currents  are  alternating  cur- 
rents reversing  very  rapidly,  often  a  hundred 
thousand  or  million  limes  per  second.  Often 
they  are  not  constant  in  value,  but  die  out  and 
then  start  over  again,  so-called  "oscillating  cur- 
rents."  They  are  mainly  used  for  wireless  teleg- 
raphy and  telephony. 

Heasurementa.—  Since  all  forms  of  energy 
are  convertible  into  each  other  they  can  be 
measured  by  the  same  measure.  Heat  being  the 
simplest  form  of  energy,  the  measure  of  heat 
has  been  the  usual  measure  of  energy.  It  is 
the  caloricj  or  the  amount  of  heat  required  to 
raise  one  litre  of  water  from  0°  to  1°C,  or  the 
British  Thermal  Unit  (B.T.U,),  that  is,  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of 
water  by  1°  F.  However,  due  to  the 
far  greater  convenience  and  exactness  of 
electrical  ineasurcments,  the  electrical  unit  of 
energy,  the  joule  or  watt  second  (one  watt 
equals  one  volt  times  one  ampere)  is  rapidly 
replacing  the  thermal  unit  or  calorie,  even  in 
chemistry.   Generally,  the  kilo-jouIe,  or  thousand 

t'oules,  is  used.  Other  forms  of  energy  usually 
lavesome  measure,  convertible  into  calories  or 
into  joules.  So,  mechanical  energy  is  measured 
in  foot-pounds,  or  kilogram-metres,  and  the 
flow  of  mechanical  energy,  or  mechanical  power, 
in  foot-pounds  per  second  or  horse  power,  1 
horse  power  =  550  fool-ponnds  per  second,  ^  76 
kilogram-metres  per  second  =  .178  calorie 
seconds.  The  value  of  electric  energy  or  elec- 
tric power  is  measured  either  in  the  mechanical 
measure,  horse  power,  or  ekctric  measure,  watts, 
746  watts  "^1  horse  power.  Usually  the  Idlo- 
watt  or  1,000  watts=1.34  horse  power,  is  used. 
1  kilowatt  =  .238  calorie  second.  1  kilowatt 
second^  1  kilojoule  (KJ).  Most  forms  of 
energy  are  resolved  into  the  product  of  two 
components ;  a  quantity  and  a  pressure  compo- 
nent, as  the  power  of  a  waterfall  is  the  product 
of  the  quantity  of  water  flowing  and  its  head 
or  fall.  So  electric  power  is  resolved  into  a 
quantity  component  called  'current'  and  meas- 
nred  in  amperes,  and  a  pressure  component  called 
*eleclroraolive  force"  or  *potential  difference" 
or  'voltage,'  and  measured  in  volts,  and  the 
electric  power  then  is  a  product  of  volis  and 
amperes,  I  watt  =  l  volt  X  I  ampere  and  one 
joule  =  1  watt  X  J  second  is  the  electric  energy. 

fust  as  a  small  quantity  of  water  under  a  hif^ 
ead  may  give  the  same  power  as  a  large  quan- 
tity under  low  head,  so  a  small  current  at  high 
voltage  may  represent  the  same  electric  power 
as  a  large  current  under  low  voltage.  The 
smaller  the  quantity_  and  the  hjf^er  the  voltage 
the  less  the  loss  in  transmitting  the  power. 
Therefore,  for  long  distance  transmissions  high 
voltages  are  use<t  me  higher  the  greater  the  dis- 
tance, while  relatively  low  voltages  are  employed 
tor  general  use,  due  to  the  difficulty  and  danger 
of  handling  high  voltages.  The  instrument 
measuring  electric  power  is  called  the  wattmeter, 
that  measuring  electric  current  or  flow  of  quati' 
tity  is  the  ammeter,  that  measuring  electric 
pressure  or  voltage  is  the  vollraeler. 

Conductora  and  Insulators. —  Some  sub- 
stances, as  metals,  carbon,  salt  solutions,  etc, 
are  conductors  of  electricity,  others  as  air,  glass, 
rubber,  paper,  oils,  etc,  are  insulators,    lliere 


is,  however,  oo  perfect  coiMliictw  nor  pofect 
insulator,  but  even  the  best  conductors,  silver, 
copper,  iduminum,  offer  still  some  resistance  to 
the  flow  of  electric  power  and  thereby  cause  a 
loss  of  energy  which  is  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  current  flowmg  and  appears  as 
heat  in  the  conductor.  For  transmission  of 
electric  power  conductors  are  therefore  used  to 
direct  the  flow  of  power,  copper  or  aluminum, 
surrounded  by  insulators,  as  rubber,  paper.  It 
is  not  sufficient,  however,  merely  to  surround 
the  conductor  hy  insulating  material,  but  the 
insulating  matenal  must  have  sufficient  thick- 
ness to  withstand  the  electric  pressure  or  volt- 
age, otherwise  it  is  disrupted,  that  is,  the  electric 
power  penetrates  it  as  spark  discharge.  The 
ability  to  withstand  electric  pressures  is  called 
the  dielectric  or  disruptive  strength  and  is  of 
foremost  importance  in  insulating  electric  cir- 
cuits of  high  voltage.  Very  good  insulators 
are  not  necessarily  of  very  oitch  dielectric 
strength,  for  instance  air,  which  is  perhaps  the 
best  insulator,  has  rather  low  disruptive 
strength,  that  is,  is  easily  penetrated  by  an  elec- 
tric spark,  while  mica  and  rubber,  although  not 
as  good  insulators  as  air,  have  very  much  greater 
dielectric  strength. 

Phyuological  Efiects. —  Electric  energy  is 
perceived  b^  the  senses  either  indirectly  by 
transformation  into  other  forms  of  enei^,  as 
li^ht  and  sound  in  the  spark  discharge  or  light- 
nmg,  or  directly  if  the  electric  current  passes 
through  the  body.  A  large  current  of  very 
short  duration,  or  electric  discharge,  causes  a 
shock  which  when  very  powerful,  as  in  light- 
ning, may  be  fataL  A  current  flowing  continu- 
ously through)  the  bod]^  catises  a  spea&c  sensa- 
tion which  with  increasing  voltage  and  therefore 
increasing  current  htcoraes  unbearable,  the 
inuscles  ccMitraci  and  become  uncontrollable,  so 
that  in  case  of  accidental  contact  with  electric 
circuits  the  victim  is  unable  to  let  go,  and  ulti- 
mately at  high  voltages  death  may  result  With 
altematit^  currents,  the  specific  sensation  de- 
creases with  increasing  frequency,  so  that  at 
very  high  frequencies  even  large  currents  are 
little  felt  —  though  not  without  danger.  (See 
EucmciTt,  Cause  OF  Death  ay).  The  amount 
of  current  flowing  through  the  body  depends 
upon  the  electric  pressure  or  voltage  and  the 
resistance  of  the  body.  This  reMstance  is 
mainly  the  skin  or  surface  resistance,  therefore 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  contact  between 
body  and  electric  circuiL  When  loosely  touched 
with   dry   hands   a  100-volt  circuit  may  hardly 

S've  any  sensation,^  while  grastied  with  wet 
mds  a  50>volt  circuit  may  be  unbearable.  Only 
at  very  high  voltages  the  nature  of  the  contact 
becomes  oT  less  importance  and  the  electric  cur- 
rent penetrates  as  arc.  Electric  pressures  below 
500  to  600  volts  are  considered  as  still  safe, 
since  only  in  cases  of  exceptionally  good  contact 
with  sucn  voltages  serious  results  may  occur. 
Uuch  higher  voltages  are  usually  fataLbut 
instances  are  on  record  of  contact  with  10,000  to 
20,000  volts  without  fatal  results,  in  cases  where 
thp  duration  of  the  contact  has  been  very  brief. 
The  causes  of  death  by  electricity  are; 

1.  The  direct  eifect  of  lance  power  exerted 
upon  the  body,  causing  destruction  by  heat,  etc, 
as  in  electrocution  wvere  several  horse  power 

2.  Mechanical  destruction  of  vital  oigam  by 
very  heavy  discharges,  as  lightning. 


.lOOg  Ic 


SLBCTRICITY,   ITS    HISTORY   AND   PROGRESS 


171 


page  of  the  heart  and  respiratory  organs. 
these  cases  resuscitation  oy  artificial  respira- 
tion, etc.,  when  immediately  resorted  to,  is  very 
promising,  especially  if  only  respiration  has 
slopped,  but  the  heart  is  slill  beating. 

Therapeutically  electricity  is  used  as  stimu- 
lant by  Its  action  on  the  nervous  system  and 


in  the  hands  of  expert  physicians  but  lile  an/ 

Ewerful  agent,  in  the  nands  of  a  layman,  is 
rmful  and  dangerous.  The  electric  healing 
devices  advertised  broadcast,  as  electric  belts, 
etc.,  are  mere  swindles  and  without  any  value. 
See  Electrotherapeutics. 

ProspecL —  Only  the  very  begiiming  has 
been  made  in  the  use  of  electncity  as  secondary 
form  of  power  for  transmitting  energy  from 
its  natural  source,  waterfall  or  coal  mine,  to  the 
place  of  consumption,  factory,  city,  railway. 
Here  very  great  strides  are  still  to  be  looked 
forward  to,  resulting  in  a  much  more  efficient 
use  of  the  stores  of  ener^  aSorded  by  nature. 
The  essential  characteristic  of  modem  civiliia- 
tion  is  the  independence  of  man  of  his  immedi- 
ate surroundings,  in  the  necessities  of  civilized 
life.  These  necessities  are  materials  and  energy. 
The  transportation,  distribution  and  supply  of 
materials  has  been  organized  in  the  last  century 
in  the  system  of  railway,  steamship  and  other 
transportation  agencies,  and  the  generatiott, 
transmission,  distribution  and  supply  of  energy 
is  now  being  organized  by  electric  power,  in  the 
system  or  network  of  transmission  and  dis- 
tribution lines,  which  increasingly  spread  over 
the  country  and  interconnect  the  electric  power 
generating  stations — steam  and  hydraulic  — 
with  the  places  of  energy  demand.  Only  elec^ 
tricity  can  fulfil  this  requirement  of  energy 
supply  of  bur  civilization,  due  to  the  high  em- 
dency  and  economy  of  electric  transmission,  the 
practically  unlimited  possibility  of  subdivision  in 
distribution,  and  the  efficiency  and  simplicity  of 
conversion  of  electric  energy  into  anv  other 
form  of  energy,  from  the  small  lamp  of  a  few 
watts  power  consumption,  to  the  huge  motor 
of  many  thousand  horse  power.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  light  from  electric  energy  at  present 
the  effidengr  is  low,  due  to  the  use  of  heat  as 
intermediary  form  of  ene^.  A  direct  con- 
version of  electric  energy  into  li^t  giving  aa 
'efiidaicy  of  SO  per  cent  or  more  would  make 
electric  lighting  (nany  times  cheaper  Aan  anv 
other  form  of  illtmiuiation  and  so  displace  all 
other  illutntnants.  In  this  direction  fair  promise 
of  a  gradual  advance  exists.  The  direct  con- 
version of  the  stored  energy  of  COal  into  electric 
energy  and  thereby  the  elimination  of  the  enor- 
mous loss  of  energy  between  the  chemical  energy 
of  the  coal  and  the  electric  ener^  is  still  en- 
tirely hopeless  and  no  clue  to  its  solution  visible. 
In  electro-chemistry  (q.v.),  that  is,  the  transfor- 
mation of  electric  mto  chemical  energy,  lies  an 
efiormous  field  which  has  already  produced 
powerful  industries,  as  the  aluminum  and  car- 
bide production,  and  therefore  holds  out  the 
hope  of  most  wonderful  advances  in  the  future. 
See  Electrochemical  Industmes'  Metal- 
Ltm^r;  and  various  other  articles  in  tnis  volume 
on  electrical  subjects. 

Charles  P.  Stein metz, 
Cttural  Electric  Company,  Sckentctady,  f!.  Y. 


ELECTRICITY,  lU  Hirtory  and  Prog- 
ress. There  is  perhaps  no  better  illustration  of 
the  slow  growth  of  man's  knowledge  concern- 
ing physical  things  than  the  fact  that  the  identity 
of  hghtntng  and  electricity  in  some  of  its  other 
modes  of  manifestation  should  have  escaped 
detection  for  so  many  centuries  of  ide  world's 
history, 

Li^tning,  of  course,  and  certain  other 
manifestations  of  electricity,  were  known  to  the 
philosophers  of  ancient  times,  but  to  them  no 
thought  was  more  remote  than  that  these  mani- 
festations had  a  common  origin,  Pliny  051- 
115  A.D,)  in  his  books  writes :  «Xbe  andent  Tus- 


send  forth  lightning  and  those  of 
3even  sorts."  This  was  in  general  the  early 
pagan  idea  of  lightning.  The  property  of 
amber  when  rubbed  of  attracting  light  bodies, 
such  as  particles  of  feathers,  a  property  now 
known  to  be  electrical  in  its  nature,  must  have 
been  familiar  to  philosophers  many  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  although  Thales  of 
Miletus  (640-548  B.C.),  one  of  the  seven  sages 
of  Greece,  is  mentioned  as  having  been  the  first 
to  observe  this  phenomenon.  Phny  has  several 
references  to  this  peculiar  property  of  amber. 
Pliny's  'Natural  History,'  (trans.  Philemon 
Holland,  London  1634,  pp.  606,  608.  609). 

The  peculiarity  of  the  torpedo  in  defending 
itself  by  means  of  a  property,  now  also  known 
to  be  electrical,  whidi  it  possesses  whereby  it 
can  stun  an  enemy,  was  also  known  to  Pliny 
and  other  early  writers.  Consult  Cavallo^ 
•Philosophy,'  p.  lid  (Philadelphia  1829). 

The  property  of  the  magnet  or  loadstone  in 
attracting  iron  was  likewbe  known  to  the  en- 
lightened men  of  that  early  period,  but  neither 
in  the  case  of  electricity  nor  of  magnetism  tu^ 
these  philosophers  any  conception  of  the  real 
nature  of  the  phenomena  involved,  attributing 
the  peculiar  properties  of  the  substances  named 
to  some  occult  vitality  possessed  by  them. 

It  is  not,  however,  mtich  to  be  wondered  at 
that  ihe  philosophers  of  long  past  ages  should 
have  failed  to  observe  any  relationship  be- 
tween the  electricity  of  lightning,  amber  and 
the  torpedo,  when  as  we  shall  see,  many  who 
may  be  termed  modem  philosophers  —  those  of 
the  17th  and  18th  centuries  —  failed  for  years 
to  discover  this  identity,  even  when  in,  posse»- 
sion  of  electric  machines  capable  of  producing 
m  miniature  many  of  the  effects  of  lightning, 
and  for  long  after  the  knowledge  of  the  elec- 
trical properties  of  amber  had  been  extended  to 
wax,  glass  and  other  substances.  Even  the 
corelationship  of  electricity  and  magnetism  es- 
caped particular  notice  for  some  years  after 
the  amnity  of  these  phenomena  had  been 
demonstrated.  Possibly  the  earliest  and  near- 
est approach  to  the  discovery  of  the  identity  of 
lightning;  and  electricity  from  any  other  source ' 
is  to  be  attributed  to  the  Arabs,  who  before  the 
ISth  century  had  applied  the  Arabic  word  for 
lightning  (raad)  to  the  torpedo.  The  Greek 
word  for  amber,  however^  is  eleklron,  and  it 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  this  substance  was  the 
first  known  to  possess  the  property  mentioned 
that  the  word  efectridty  is  derived. 

Centuries  passed  after  the  discovery  of  fric- 
tional  and  animal  electricity  before  anv  advance 
appears  to  have  been  made  in  the  proauction  of 
electridfy  artificiallv  or  before  any  important 
developments  of  value  were  made  m  the  art 


172 


ELECTRICITY,   IT&    HISTORY   AND   PROGRESS 


Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  I6th  century  a 
^ysician  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  Dr.  William 
Gilbert  (1MO-J603).  undertook  a  number  of 
careful  electrical  experiments,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  discovered  that  many  substances  other 
.than  amber,  such  as  sulphur,  wax,  class,  etc. 
(consult  Priestley's  'History  of  Electricity,' 
London  1757),  were  capable  of  manifesting 
electrical  properties.  Gilbert  also  discovered 
that  3  heated  body  lost  its  electricity  and  that 
moisture  prevented  the  electrification  of  all 
bodies,  due  to  the  now  well-known  fact  that 
moisture  impaired  the  insnlation  of  such 
bodies.  He  also  noticed  that  electrified  sub~ 
stances  attracted  all  other  substances  indis- 
criminately, whereas  a  magnet  only  attracted 
iron.  The  many  disco venes  of  this  nature 
earned  for  Gilbert  the  title  of  founder  of  the 
electrical  science.  Since  Glbert's  time  scarcely 
a  year  has  passed  in  which  some  new  discovery 
relating  to  the  science  and  art  of  electric!^  and 
magnetism  has  not  been  made.  This  is  es- 
pecially true   during   the   years   since   1872. 

Amongst  the  experimenters  immediately 
following  Gilbert  ore  of  the  most  notable  was 
Dr.  Wall  of  England  (1650).  During  one  of 
his  experiments  on  approaching  his  fingers  to 
an  electrified  rod.  Dr.  Wall  saw  a  spark,  ac- 
companied by  a  noise  which  he  likened  to 
lightning  and  thunder.  Wall's  contemporaries 
and  some  comparatively  recent  writers  have 
thought  that  this  was  the  first  time  an  artificially 
produced  electric  spark  had  been  observeo. 
This,  however,  is  doubtless  an  erroneous  view. 
Archbishop  Eustathias,  of  'Thessalonica,  Greek 
scholar  and  writer  of  the  12th  century,  for  in- 
stance records  that  Woliver,  king  of  the  Goths, 
was  able  to  draw  sparks  from  his  body.  The 
same  writer  states  that  a  certain  philosopher 
was  able  while  dressing  to  draw  sparks  from 
his  clothes,  a  result  seemingly  akin  to  that  ob- 
tained by  Symmer  in  his  sillc  stocking  experi- 
ments, a  careful  account  of  which  may  be 
found  in  the  'Philosophical  Transactions,' 
I7S9. 

It  would  indeed  have  been  surprising  if  the 
electric  spark  had  not  been  observed  prior  to 
Dr.  Walls  time  (although  its  origin  may  not 
have  been  recognized)  when  it  is  considered 
that  any  one  shuffling  across  a  car^  in  dry, 
crisp  weather,  or  if  whipped  with  a  piece  of  fur 
white  his  body  is  insulated,  will  accumulate  a 
charge  of  electricity  upon  his  person  that  will 
discharge  with  a  spark  into  any  other  person 
or  piece  of  metal  that  he  raav  touch.  The 
present  writer  has  even  noticed  electric  sparks 
passing  from  his  knuckles  to  the  metal  fixings 
of  a  hand  bag  that  he  was  carrying  while  walk- 
'irg  on  a  stone  pavement  in  cold,  dry  weather. 

Robert  Boyle  was  another  of  the  experi- 
menters in  electricity  of  this  period  (loSO). 
One  of  h's  important  discoveries  was  that  elec- 
trified bodies  m  a  vacuum  would  attract  light 
substances,  this  indicating  that  the  electrical 
effect  did  not  depend  upon  the  air  as  a  medium. 
He  also  nAA'i  resin  to  the  then  known  list  of 
electrics.  (Consult  Boyle's  "Experiments  on  the 
Origin  of  Electricity,'  and  Priestley's  'History 
of  Electricity*),  Up  to  about  the  year  1682  the 
only  known  way  in  which  electricity  could  be 
developed  was  virtuatlv  that  known  to  the  an- 
cients, namely,  by  rubbing  rods  of  amber,  glass, 
vrax,  resin  or  similar  substances.  The  amount 
of  electricity  producible  in  this  way  was  very 


small.  At  this  lime  Otto  von  Guericfce  of 
Magdeburg  (also  the  inventor  of  the  air-pump) 
invented  an  electric  machine  consisting  of  a 
sulphur  globe  or  ball,  suitably  mounted  on  a 
shaft  and  rotated  by  a  handle.  Using  his  hand 
as  a  "rubber"  (see  Electric  Machine),  von 
Guericke  obtained  electricity  in  fairly  large 
quantities,  the  production  of  which  was  accom- 
panied by  light  and  sound. 

The  electric  machine  was  subsequently  im- 
proved by  Hawkesbeeor  Haukesbee,  Lttzendorf, 
and  by  Prof.  George  Mathias  Boze,  about  1750. 
Litzendorf  substituted  a  glass  ball  for  the  sul- 
phur ball  of  Guericke.  Boze  was  the  first  to 
employ  the  'prime  conductor*  in  such  machines, 
this  consisting  of  an  iron  rod  held  in  the  band 
of  a  person  whose  body  was  insulated  by  stand- 
ing on  a  cake  of  resin.  Dr.  Ingenhousz,  in 
1746,  invented  electric  machines  made  of  plate 
glass.  Consult  Dr.  Carpue's  'Introduction  to 
Electricity  and  Galvanism,'  London  I8D3. 

Experiments  with  the  electric  machine  were 


tinfoil,  of  accumulating  a  charge  of  electricity 
when  connected  with  a  sourceof  electromotive 
force.  This  property,  now  and  for  many  years 
availed  of  in  (he  electric  condenser,  was,  accord- 


of  Leyden  in  1754.  Von  Kleist  happened  t 
hold,  near  his  electric  machine,  a  small  bottle, 
in  the  neck  of  which  there  was  an  iron  nail. 
Touching  the  iron  nail  accidentally  with  his 
other  hand  he  received  a  severe  electric  shock. 
In  much  the  same  way  Prof,  Pieter  van  Mus- 
schenbroeck  assisted  by  Cunaens  received  a 
more  severe  shock  from  a  somewhat  similar 
glass  bottle.  Sir  William  Watson  of  England 
greatly  improved  this  device,  by  covering  the 
bottle,  or  jar,  outside  and  in  with  tinfoil.  This 
piece  of  electrical  apparatus  will  be  easily 
recognized  as  the  well-known  Leyden  jar,  so 
called  by  the  Abbot  Nollct  of  Paris,  after  the 
place  of  its  discovery.  The  electric  machine 
was  soon  further  improved  by  Prof.  Andrew 
Gordon,  a  Scotchman,  of  Erfurt,  who  substi- 
tuted a  glass  cylinder  in  place  of  a  glass  globe; 
and  by  Giessing  of  Leipzig  vdio  added  a  'rub- 
ber* consisting  of  a  cushion  of  woolen  material 
The  •coileotor,'  consistii^  of  a  scries  of  metal 
points,  was  added  to  the  machine  by  Benjamin 
Wilson  about  1746,  and  Mr.  John  Canton  of 
England  (also  the  originator  of  the  first  pith 
ball  electrometer)  in  1762  made  a  notable  im- 
provement in  the  efficiency  of  electric  loachinei 
by  sprinkling  an  amalgam  of  tin  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  rubber. 

In  the  second  quarter  of  the  18tfa  century 
(1729)  Stephen  Gray  in  a  series  of  interesting 
experiments  for  the  first  time  demonstrated  the 
difference  between  conductors  and  non-con- 
ductors (insulators),  showing  amongst  other 
things  that  a  metal  wire  and  even  pack  thread 
conducted  electricity,  whereas  silk  did  not  Ib 
one  of  his  experiments  he  sent  an  electric  cmr- 
rent  through  700  feet  of  hempen  thread  which 
was  suspended  at  intervals  by  loops  of  silk 
thread ;  probably  explainable  on  suppositi<Ml 
that  the  hemp  is  more  absorbent  of  moisture 
than  silk.  Subsequently  Du  Fay  transmitted  % 
current  through  a  wet  hempen  string  to  a 
distance  of  1,256  feet,  the  string  bein^  insulated 
by  means  of  glass.    In  1741  Mr.  Blicott  "pro- 


BLBCTRICITY,  ITS  HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS 


poM(t  to  measure  the  strcnstb  of  electrificatioT 


power"   (CarpueJ. 

The  Sir  Willum  Watson  already  mentioned 

conducted  numerous  experiments,  about  1749,  to 


J  the  vcloci^  of  electricity  in 

which  experiments,  althou^  perhaps  not  so  in- 
tended, also  demonstrated  the  possibility  of 
transmitting  signals  to  a  distance  by  ekctnci». 
In  these  experiments  an  insulated  wire  12,276 
feet  in  len^^  was  employed  and  the  transmis- 
sion of  a  signal  from  one  end  of  the  wire  to  the 
other  appeared  to  the  observers  to  be  instanta- 
neous. Monnier  in  France  had  previously 
made  somewhat  similar  experiments,  sending 
shocks  through  an  iron  wire  1,319  feet  long. 

About  1737  Hawkesbee  and  Du  Fay  inde- 
pendently discovered  that  there  were  apparently 
two  kinds  of  frictional  electricity  namely,  that 
which  is  developed  by  rubbing  glass  and  resin, 
respectively.  The  former  electricity  Du  Fay 
termed  "vitreous,"  the  latter  "resinous"  elec- 
tricity. Later,  these  electricities  were  termed 
"positive"  and  'negative*  electricity,  respec- 
tively, by  FranUin,  Dr.  Watson,  Lichienberg 
and  others. 

Theories  regarding  the  nature  of  electricity 
were  quite  vague  at  this  period,  and  those  prev- 
alent were  more  or  less  conflicting.  Franklin 
considered  that  electricity  was  an  Imponderable 
fluid  pervading  everything,  and  which,  in  its 
normal  condition,  was  uniformly  distributed  in 
all  substances.  He  assumed  that  the  electrical 
manifestations  obtained  by  nibbing  glass  were 
due  to  the  production  of  an  excess  of  the  elec- 
tric fluid  in  that  substance  and  that  the  mani- 
festations produced  by  rubbing  wax  were  due 
to  a  deficit  of  the  tluid.  This  theory  was  op- 
posed by  the  ■two-fluid'  theory  due  to  Robert 
Symmer,  1759.  By  Symmer's  theory  the  vit- 
reous and  resinous  electricities  were  regarded 
as  imponderable  fluids,  each  fluid  being  com- 
posed of  mutually  rei>elient  particles  while  the 
particles  of  the  opposite  electricities  are  mutu- 
ally attractive.  When  the  two  fluids  unite  by 
reason  of  their  attraction  for  one  another,  their 
effect  upon  external  objects  is  neutralized.  The 
act  of  nibbing  a  body  decomposes  the  fluids 
one  of  which  remains  in  excess  on  the  body 
and  manifests  itself  as  vitreous  or  resinous 
electricity. 

About  1750  various  tests  were  made  hy  dif- 
ferent experimenters  to  ascertain  the  ph^o- 
logical  and  therapeutical  effects  of  electricity. 
Mainbray  (or  Mowbray)  in  Edinburgh  exam- 
ined the  effects  of  electricity  upon  plants  and 
concluded  that  the  growth  of  two  myrtle  trees 
was  quickened  by  electrification.  These  myr- 
tles were  electrified  'during  the  whole  month 
of  October,  1746,  and  they  put  forth  branches 
and  blossoms  sooner  than  other  shrubs  of  the 
same  kind  not  electrified."  (Priestley's  'His- 
tory of  Electricity,'  p.  138).  The  Abbe  Menon 
tried  the  effects  of  a  continued  application  of 
electricity  upon  men  and  birds  and  found  that 
the  subjects  experimented  on  lost  vi-eight,  thus 
apparently  showing  that  electricity  quickened 
the  excretions.  The  efficacy  of  electric  shocks 
in  cases  of  paralysis  was  tested  in  the  county 
hospital  at  Shrewsbury,  England,  with  rather 
poor  success.  ('Philosophical  Transactions,* 
p.  786,  17S4).    In  one  case  reported  a  palsied 


arm  was  somewhat  improved,  but  the  dread  of 
the  shocks  became  so  great  that  the  patient 
preferred  to  forego  a  possible  cure  rather  than 
undergo  further  treatment.  In  another  case  of 
partial  paralysis  the  electric  treatment  was  fol- 
lowed by  temporary  total  paralysis.  A  second 
application  of  this  treatment  was  again  fol- 
lowed by  total  paralysis,  whereupon  the  fur- 
ther use  of  electricity  in  this  case  was  stopped. 
For  further  accounts  of  the  early  use  of  elec- 
tricity as  a  remedial  agent  the  reader  may  con- 
sult De  la  Rive's  'Electricity.'  See  also  article 
Electrot  h  erapeu  tics. 

Up  to  the  time  of  Franklin's  historic  kite  ex- 
periment (see  Electricity,  Atmospheric)  the 
identity  of  the  electricity  developed  by  rubbing 
and  by  electric  machines  ffrictional  electricity). 


the    resemblance    between    the    pht _. 

"electricity"  and  "lightning,*  Gray  having  inti- 
mated that  they  only  differed  in  degree.  It  was 
doubtless  Franklin,  however,  who  first  proposed 
tests  to  determine  the  sameness  of  the  phenoni- 
ena.  In  a  letter  to  Peter  Comlinson,  London, 
19  Oct.  1752.  Franklin,  referring  to  his  kite 
experiment,  wrote,  *At  this  key  the  phial  (Ley- 
den  jar)  may  be  charged;  and  from  the  elec- 
tric fire  thus  obtained  spirits  may  be  kindled, 
and  all  the  other  electric  experiments  be  formed 
which  are  usually  done  by  the  help  of  a  rubbed 
glass  globe  or  tube,  and  thereby  the  sameness 
of  the  electric  matter  with  that  of  lightning  be 
completely  demonstrated.*  (Franklin,  'Experi- 
ments and  Observations  on  Electricity')-  Dali- 
bard,  at  Marley,  near  Paris,  on  10  May  1742, 
by  means  of  a  vertical  iron  rod  40  feet  long^ 
obtained  results  corresponding  to  those  recorded 
by  Franklin  and  somewhat  prior  to  the  date  of 
Franklin's  experiment. 

Franklin's  important  demonstration  of  the 
sameness  of  frictional  electricity  and  Hghtning 
doubtless  added  zest  to  the  efforts  of  the  many 
experimenters  in  this  field  in  the  last  half  of  the 
18lh  century,  to  advance  the  progress  of  the 
science.  Amongst  those  workers  may  be  men- 
tioned Watson,  Boze,  Smealon,  Le  Monnier,  De 
Romas,  Jallabert,  Beccaria,  Cavallo,  John  Can- 
ton, Robert  Symmer,  Nollet,  Winckler,  Rich- 
man,  Dr.  Wilson,  Kinnersley,  Priestley, 
Aepinus  Delaval,  Cavendish,  Coulomb,  Volta 
and  Galvani.  A  description  of  many  of  the 
experiments  and  discoveries  of  these  early 
workers  in  the  fields  of  electrical  science  and 
art  will  be  found  in  the  scientific  publications 
of  the  time ;  notably  the  'Philosophical  Trans- 
actions,' Philosophical  Magasine,  Cambridge 
Mathematical  Journal,  Young's  'Natural  Phi- 
losophy,* Priestley's  'History  of  Elpctricily.' 
Franklin's  'Experiments  and  Observations  on 
Electricity,'  Cavalli's  'Treatise  on  Electricity,' 
De  la  Rive's  'Treatise  on  Electricity.'  Among 
the  more  important  of  the  electrical  experi- 
ments and  researches  at  this  period  were  those 
of  Francis  Aepinus,  a  noted  German  scholar 
<1724-18021  and  Henry.  Cavendish  of  London, 
England.  To  Aepinus  is  accorded  the  credit 
of  Having  been  the  first  to  conceive  the  view 
of  the  reciprocal  relationship  of  electriciiv  and 
magnetism.  In  his  work  'Tentamen  Theoria 
Electric ilatis  et  Magnetism!.'  published  in  Saint 
Petersburg,  1759.  he  gives  the  following  ampli- 
fication of  Franklin's  theory,  which  in  some  of 


,^le 


174 


ELECTRICITY,   ITS    HISTORY   AND   PROORBS6 


its  features  is  measurably  in  accord  with  pres- 
ent day  views :  "-The  particles  of  the  electric 
fiuid  repel  each  other  and  attract  and  are  at- 
tracted by  the  particles  of  all  bodies  with  a 
force  thai  decreases  in  proportion  as  thr  dis- 
tance increases'  the  electric  fluid  exists  in  the 
pores  of  bodies;  it  moves  unobstrMctedly 
through  non-eUctric  (conductors),  but  moves 
with  difficulty  in  insulators;  the  manifestations 
of  electricity  are  due  to  the  unequal  dtstribution 
of  the  fluid  in  a  body,  or  to  the  approach  of 
bodies  uneqtudly  charged  with  the  fluid.* 
Aepinus  formulated  a  corresponding  theory  of 
magnetism  excepting  that  in  the  case  of  magnetic 
phenomena  the  fluids  only  acted  on  the  parti- 
cles of  iron.  He  also  made  numerous  electrical 
experiments,  amongst  others  those  apparently 
showing  that  in  order  to  manifest  electrical  ef- 
fects tourmalin  requires  to  be  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature between  37.5°  C  and  100°  C.  In  fact, 
tourmalin  remains  unelectrified  when  its  tem- 
perature is  uniform,  but  manifests  electrical 
properties  when  its  temperature  is  rising  or 
falhng.  Crystals  which  manifest  electrical 
properties  in  this  way  arc  termed  pyro-electrics, 
amon^t  which,  besides  tourmalin,  are  sulphate 
of  qumine  and  quarti. 

Cavendish  independently  conceived  a  theory 
of  electricity  nearly  akin  to  that  of  Aepinus 
('Philosophical  Transactions,'  1771).  He  also 
(1784)  was  perhaps  the  first  to  utihie  the  elec- 
tric spark  to  produce  the  explosion  of  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  >n  the  proper  proportions  to  pro- 
duce pure  water.  The  same  philosopher  also 
discovered  the  inductive  capacity  of  dielectrics 
(insulators)  and  as  earl^  as  177S  measured  the 
specific  inductive  capacity  for  beeswax  and 
other  substances  by  comparison  with  an  air 
condenser. 

About  1784  C.  A.  Coulomb,  after  whom  is 
named  the  electrical  unit  of  quantiw  devised 
the  torsion  balance,  by  means  of  which  he  dis- 
covered what  is  known  as  Coulomb's  law ; — 
The  force  exerted  between  two  small  electrified 
bodies  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance;  not  as  Aepinus  in  his  theory  of  elec- 
tricity had  assumed,  merely  inversely  as  the 
distance.  According  to  the  theory  advanced  by 
Cavendish  'the  particles  attract  and  are  at- 
tracted inversely  as  some  less  power  of  the 
distance  than  the  cube.* 

With  the  discovery,  by  the  experiments  of 
Watson  and  others,  that  electricity  could  be 
transmitted  to  a  distance,  the  idea  of  making 
practical  use  of  this  i^enomenon  began,  about 
1753,  to  engross  the  minds  of  'inquisitive'  per- 
sons, and  to  this  end  suggestions  looking  to  the 
employment  of  electricity  in  the  transmission  of 
intelligence  were  made.  The  first  of  the  meth- 
ods devised  for  this  purpose  was  probably  that 
due  to  Lesage  (1774).  This  method  consisted 
in  the  employment  of  24  wires,  insulated  from 
one  another  and  each  of  which  had  a  pith  ball 
connected  to  its  distant  end.  Each  wire  repre- 
sented a  letter  of  the  alphabet.  To  send  a  mes- 
sage, a  desired  wire  was  charged  momentarily 
with  electricity  from  an  electric  machine, 
whereupon  the  pith  ball  connected  to  that  wire 
would  fly  out ;  and  in  this  way  messages  were 
transmitted.  Other  methods  of  telegraphing  in 
which  frictional  electricity  was  employed  were 
also  tried,  some  of  which  are  described  in  the 
article  on  the  telegraph  (q.v.). 


Hitherto  the  only  electricity  known  was  that 
developed  by  friction  or  rubbing,  which  was 
therefore  termed  frictional  electricity.  We  now 
come  to  the  era  of  galvanic  or  voltaic  electricity. 
The  first  mention  of  voltaic  electricity,  although 
not  recognized  as  such  at  the  time,  was  prob- 
ably made  by  Sulzcr  in  1767,  who  on  placing 
a  small  disc  of  zinc  under  his  tongue  and  a 
small  disc  of  copper  over  it_,  observed  a  pecul- 
iar taste  when  the  respective  metals  touched 
at  their  edges.  Sulzer  assumed  that  when  the 
metals  came  together  they  were  set  into  vibra- 
tion, this  acting  upon  the  nerves  of  the  tongue, 
producing  the  eflfects  noticed. 

In  1790  Prof.  Luigi  Alyisio  Galvani  of 
Bologna  on  one  occasion,  while  conducting  ex- 
periments on  "animal  electricity,*  as  he  termed 
It,  to  which  his  attention  had  been  turned  by  the 
twitching  of  a  frog's  legs  in  the  presence  of  an 
electric  machine,  observed  that  the  muscles  of 
a  froK  which  was  suspended  on  an  iron  balus- 
trade Dy  a  copper  hook  that  passed  through  its 
dorsal  column  underwent  fively  convulsions 
without  any  extraneous  cause;  the  electric  ma- 
chine being  at  this  time  absent.  To  account  for 
this  phenomenon  Galvani  assumed  that  elec- 
tricity of  opposite  kinds  existed  in  the  nerves 
and  muscles  of  the  frog ;  the  muscles  and 
nerves  constituting  the  charged  coatings  of  a 

Galvani  published  the  results  of  his  discov- 
eries, together  with  his  hypothesis,  \^ich  at 
once  engrossed  the  attention  of  the  physicists 
of  that  time;  the  most  prominent  of  whom, 
Alexander  Volta,  professor  of  physics  at 
Pavia,  contended  that  the  results  observed  by 
Galvani  were  due  to  the  two  metals,  copper 
and  iron,  acting  as  'electromotors,'  and  tnat 
the  muscles  of  the  frog  played  the  part  of  a 
conductor,  completing  the  circuit 

This  precipitated  a  long  discussion  between 
the  adherents  of  the  conflicting  views;  one  set 
of  adherents  holding  with  Volta  that  the  elec- 
tric current  was  the  result  of  an  electromotive 
force  of  contact  at  the  two  metals ;  the  other  set 
adopting  a  modification  of  Galvani's  view  and 
asserting  that  the  current  was  due  to  a  chem- 
ical affiniw  between  the  metals  and  the  acids 
in  the  pile.  Michael  Faraday  wrote  in  the 
preface  to  his  'Experimental  Researches.' 
relative  to  ^tbe  question  whether  metallic  con- 
tact is_or  is  not  productive  of  a  part  of  the 
electndty  of  the  voltaic  pile:  *I  see  no  rea- 
son as  yet  to  alter  the  opinion  I  have  given; 
.  .  .  but  the  point  itself  is  of  such  great 
importance  that  I  intend  at  the  first  opportu- 
ni^  renewing  the  inquiry,  and,  if  1  can,  ren- 
dering the  proofs  either  on  the  one  side  or  the 
other,  undeniable  to  all.*  Even  Faraday  him- 
self, however,  did  not  settle  the  controversy, 
and  while  the  views  of  the  advocates  on  boui 
sides  of  the  question  have  undergone  modifi- 
cations, as  subsequent  investigations  and  dis- 
coveries demanded,  up  to  the  present  day  di- 
versity of  opinion  on  these  points  continues  to 

Volta  made  numerous  experiments  in  sup- 
port of  his  theory  and  ultimately  developed  the 
pile  or  battery  (see  Voltaic  Pile),  which  was 
the  precursor  of  alt  subsequent  chemical  bat- 
teries, and  possessed  the  distinguishing  merit 
of  being  the  first  means  by  whi^  a  prolonged 
rent  of  electricity  was  obtainabte. 


BLBCTRICITY,  ITS    HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS 


175 


Volta  cotnRianicated  a  description  of  his  pile 
to  the  Royal  Society  of  London  and  shortly 
thereafter  Nicholson  and  Cavendish  (1780) 
produced  the  decomposition  of  water  by  means 
of  the  electric  current,  using  Voha's  pile  as  the 
source  of  electromotive  force,  Davy  in  1806, 
employing  a  voltaic  pile  of  approximately  250 
cells,  or  couples,  decomposed  potash  and  soda, 
showing  that  these  substances  were  respectively 
the  oxides  of  potassium  and  sodium,  which 
metals  previously  had  been  unknown.  These 
experiments  were  the  bepnning  of  electro- 
chemistry (q.v.),  the  investigation  of  which 
Faraday  tooic  up,  and  concerning  which  in 
IS33  he  announced  his  important  law  of  electro- 
chemit^  equivalents,  viz.:  "Tht  same  quan- 
tily  of  electricity  —  that  is,  the  tome  electric 
current  —  decoviposes  chemically  equivalent 
auantiltes  of  all  ike  bodies  which  it  traverses; 
hence  the  weights  of  elements  separated  in 
these    electrolytes   are   to    each   other   as    their 


I>avy  in  1809  gave  the  first  public  demonstra- 
tion of  the  electric  arc  light  (q.  v.),  using  for 
the  purpose  charcoal  enclosed  in  a  vacuum. 

Somewhat  singular  to  note,  it  was  not  untfl 
many  years  after  the  discovery-  of  the  voltaic 
pile  that  the  sameness  of  annual  and  frictional 
electricity  with  voltaic  electricity  was  clearly 
recognized  and  demonstrated.  Thus  as  late  as 
January  1833  we  find  Faraday  writing  f  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,'  1833)  in  a  paper  on  the 
electricity  of  the  torpedo.  •After  an  examina* 
tion  of  the  experiments  of  Walsh,  Ingmhousi, 
Cavendish,  Sir  H.  Davy,  and  Dr.  Davy,  no  doubt 
remains  on  my  mind  as  to  the  identity  of  the 
electricity  of  the  torpedo  with  common  (fric- 
tional>  and  voltaic  electricity;  and  1  presume 
that  so  little  will  remain  on  the  mind  of  others 
as  to  justify  my  refraining  from  entering  at 
length  into  the  philoso^ical  proof  of  that 
identity.  The  doubts  raised  by  Sir  H.  Davy 
have  been  removed  by  his  hrouier.  Dr.  Dsvy; 
the  results  of  the  latter  being  the  reverse  of 
those  of  the  former.     .  .     The  general  con- 

clusion which  must,  I  think,  be  drawn  from  this 
collection  of  facts  (a  table  showing  the  similar- 
ity ,of  properties  oi  the  diversely  named  elec- 
tricities^ is,  that  electricity,  whatever  may  be  its 
source,  IS  identical  in  its  nature.' 

It  is  proper  to  state,  however,  that  prior  to 
Faraday's  tiihe  the  similarity  of  electricity  de- 
rived from  different  sources  was  more  than 
suspected.  Thus,  WUliam  Hyde  Wollaston,  b. 
1766;  d.  1828  (anodter  noted  and  careful  experi- 
menter in  electricity  and  the  discoverer  of  pal- 
ladium and  rhodium),  wrote  in  1801  (Philo- 
sophieal  Magimne.  VoL  III,  p.  211):  "This 
similarity  in  the  means  by  which  both  electric- 
ity and  galvanism  (voltaic  electricity)  appear  to 
be  excited  in  addition  to  the  resemblance  that 
ha£  been  traced  between  their  effects  shows  that 
th^  are  both  essentially  the  same  and  confirm 
an  opinion  that  has  already  been  advanced  by 
others,  that  all  the  differences  discoverable  in  the 
effects  of  the  latter  may  be  owing  to  its  being 
less  intense,  bat  produced  in  much  larger  quan- 
tity." In  the  same  paper  Wollaston  describes 
certain  experiments  in  which  he  uses  very  fine 
wire  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  through 
which  he  passed  electric  currents  from  an  elec- 
tric machine.  This  is  interesting  in  connection 
with  the  later  day  use  of  almost  similarly  ar- 


ranged fine  wires  in  electrolytic  receivers  in 
wireless,  or  radio -telegraphy. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century  many 
very  important  additions  were  made  to  the 
world's  Icnowledge  concerning  electricity  and 
magnetism.  For  example,  in  1819  Hans  Chris- 
tian Oersted  of  Copenhagen  discovered  the  de- 
flecting effect  of  an  electric  current  traversing  a 
wire  upon  a  suspended  magnetic  needle.  This 
discovery  gave  a  clue  to  the  subsequently  proved 
intimate  relationship  between  electricity  and 
magnetism  which  was  promptly  followed  up  by 
Ampere  who  shortly  thereafter  (1821)  an- 
nounced his  celebrated  theory  of  electro- 
dynamics, relating  to  the  force  that  one  current 
exerts  upon  another,  by  its  electro- magnetic 
effects,  namely:  (1)  'Tvia  parallel  portions  of 
a  circuit  attract  one  another  if  the  currents  in 
them  are  fiowing  in  the  same  direction,  and  re- 
pel out  mother  %f  the  currents  flow  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  (2)  Two  portions  of  ctrcuitt 
crossing  one  another  obliquely  attract  one  an- 
other if  both  the  currents  jtow  either  towards  or 
from  the  point  of  crossing,  and  repel  one  an- 
other if  one  /lows  to  and  the  other  from  that 
Point.  (3)  When  an  element  of  a  circuit  exerts 
a  force  on  another  element  of  a  circuit,  that 
force  always  tends  to  urge  the  latter  in  a  direc- 
tion at  right  angles  to  its  own  direction* 

Professor  Seebeck,  of  Berlin,  in  IS21  discov- 
ered that  when  heat  is  applied  to  the  junction 
of  two  metals  that  had  been  soldered  together 
an  electric  current  is  set  up.  This  is  termed 
"Thermo- Electricity.  (See  THESMO-ELEcraiaTY). 
Seebeck's  device  consists  of  a  strip  of  copper 
bent  at  each  end  and  soldered  to  a  plate  of  bis- 
muth. A  magnetic  needle  is  placed  parallel  with 
the  copper  strig.  When  the  heat  of  a  lamp  is 
applied  to  the  junction  of  the  copper  and  bis- 
tnulh  an  electric  current  is  set  up  which  deflects 


then 


tdle. 


Peltier  in  1834  discovered  an  effect  opposite 
to  the  foregoing,  namely,  that  when  a  current  is 
passed  through  a  couple  of  dissimilar  metals  the 
temperature  is  lowered  or  raised  at  the  junction 
of  the  metals,  depending  on  the  direction  of  the 
current.  This  is  termed  the  Peltier  *efFect.» 
The  variations  of  temperature  are  found  to  be 
proportional  to  the  strength  of  the  current  and 
not  to  the  square  of  the  strength  of  the  current 
as  in  the  case  of  heat  due  to  the  ordinary  re- 
sistance of  a  conductor.  This  latter  is  the  C*R 
law,  discovered  experimentally  in  1841  by  the 
English  physicist.  Joule.  In  other  words,  this 
important  law  is  that  the  heat  generated  in  any 
part  of  an  electric  circuit  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  product  of  the  resistance  of  this  part  of 
the  circuit  and  to  the  sijuare  of  the  strength  of 
current  (lowing  in  the  circuit. 

In  1822  Swei^ger  devised  the  first  galvanom- 
eter (q.v.).  This  instrument  was  subsequently 
much  improved  by  Wilhelm  Weber  (1833). 
In  1825  William  Sturgeon  of  Woolwich,  Eng- 
land, invented  the  horseshoe  and  straight  bar 
electromagnet,  receiving  therefor  the  silver 
medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  ("Trans.  Society 
of  Arts,'  1825).  In  1837  Gauss  and  Weber 
(both  noted  workers  of  this  period)  jointly  in- 
vented a  reflecting  galvanometer  for  telegraph 
purposes.  This  was  the  forerunner  of  the 
Thomson  reflecting  and  other  exceedingly  sensi- 
tive galvanometers  once  used  in  submarine  sig- 
naling and  still  widely  employed  in  electrical 
measurements.     Arago  in   1824  made  the  im- 


8l^ 


ELECTKICITY,   ITS    HISTORY   AND   PROGRESS 


portanl  discovery  lJia.t  when  a  copper  disc  is 
rotated  in  its  own  plan^  and  if  a  magnetic 
needie  be  freely  suspended  on  a  pivot  over  the 
disc,  the  needle  will  rotate  with  the  disc.  If 
on  the  other  hand  the  needle  is  fixed  it  will  tend 
to  retard  the  motion  of  the  disc  This  effect 
was  termed  Arago's  rotations.  Futile  attempts 
were  made  by  Babbage,  Barlow,  Herschci  and 
Others  to  explain  this  phenomenon.  The  true 
explanation  was  reserved  for  Faraday,  namely, 
that  electric  currents  are  induced  in  the  copper 
disc  by  the  cutting  of  the  magnetic  hnes  of 
force  of  the  needle,  which  currents  in  turn  react 
on  the  needle.  In  1827  George  Simon  Ohm 
(^.v.)  announced  the  now  famous  law  that  bears 
nis  name,  that  is : 

Electromotive  force 

Current = 

Resistance. 

In  1S31  began  the  epoch-making  researches 
of  Michael  Faraday  (q.v.),  the  famous  pupil 
and  successor  of  Humphrey  Davy  (q.v.)  at  the 
head  of  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  relating 
to  electric  and  etectroniagnetic  induction. 

Faraday's  studies  and  researches  extended 
from  1831  to  1855  and  a  detailed  description  of 
his  experiments,  deductions  and  speculations  are 
to  be  found  in  his  compiled  papers,  entitled 
'Experimental  Researches  in  Electricity.'  Fara- 
day was  by  profession  a  chemist  He  was  not  in 
the  remotest  degree  a  mathematician  in  the  ordi' 
nary  sense  —  indeed  it  is  a  quest  on  if  in  all 
his  writings  there  is  a  single  mathematical 
formula. 

The  experiment  which  led  Faraday  to  the 
discovery  of  electric  induction  was  made  as  fol- 
lows: He  constructed  what  is  now  and  was 
then  termed  an  induction  coil,  the  primary  and 
secondary  wires  of  which  were  wound  on  a 
wooden  bobbin,  side  by  side,  and  insulated  from 
one  another.  In  the  circuit  of  the  primary  wire 
he  placed  a  battery  of  approximately  100 
cells.  In  the  secondary  wire  he  inserted  a 
galvanometer.  On  making  his  first  test  he  ob- 
served no  results,  the  galvanomeler  remaining 
quiescent,  but  on  increasing  the  length  of  the 
wires  he  noticed  a  deflection  of  the  galvanome- 
ter in  the  secondary  wire  when  the  circuit  of  the 
primary  wire  was  made  and  broken.  This  was 
the  Rrst  observed  instance  of  the  development  of 
electromotive  force  by  electromagnetic  induc- 
tion. He  also  discovered  that  induced  currents 
are  established  in  a  second  closed  circuit  when 
the  current  strength  is  varied  in  the  firsl*wire, 
and  that  the  direction  of  the  current  in  the  sec- 
ondary circuit  is  opposite  to  that  in  the  first 
circuit.  Also  that  a  current  is  induced  in  a 
secondary  circuit  when  another  drcuit  carrying 
a  current  is  moved  to  and  from  tlie  first  circuit, 
and  that  the  approach  or  withdrawal  of  a  mag- 
net to  or  from  a  closed  circuit  induces  mo- 
mentary currents  in  the  latter.  In  short,  within 
the  space  of  a  few  months  Faraday  discovered 
by  experiment  virtually  all  the  laws  and  facts 
now  known  concerning  electro -magnetic  induc- 
tion and  magneto-electric  induction.  Upon  these 
discoveries,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  depends 
the  operation  of  the  telephone,  the  djmamo  ma- 
chine, and  incidental  to  the  dynamo  electric 
machine  practically  all  the  fngantic  electrical 
industries  of  the  world,  including  electric 
lighting  (q.v.),  electric  traction,  the  opera- 
tion of   electric  motors   for  power  purposes, 


and  electro-plating  (q.v.),  electra^ing  (q.v.J, 

In  his  investigations  of  the  peculiar  manner 
in  which  iron  fiUo^s  arrange  themselves  on  a 
cardboard  or  glass  in  proximity  to  the  poles  of 
a  magnet,  Faraday  conceived  uie  idea  of  mag- 
netic "lines  of  force'  extending  from  pole  to 
pole  of  the  magnet  and  along  which  the  filings 
tend  to  place  themselves.  Oa  the  discovery 
being  made  that  magnetic  effects  accompany  the 
passage  of  an  electric  current  in  a  wire,  it  was 
also,  assiuncd  that  similar  magnetic  lines  of 
force  whirled  around  the  wire.  For  conven- 
ience and  to  account  for  induced  electric.ty  it 
was  then  assumed  that  when  these  lines  of  force 
are  "cut'  by  a  wire  in  passing  across  them  or 
when  the  lines  of  force  in  rising  and  falling 
cut  the  wire,  a  current  of  electricity  is  devel- 
oped, or  to  be  more  exact,  an  elect 
force  is  developed  in  the  wire  that  s 
current  in  a  dosed  circuit 

Faraday  advanced  what  has  been  termed 
the  molecular  theory  of  electricity  which  as- 
sumes that  electricity  is  the  manifestation  of  a 
peculiar  condition  of  the  molecule  of  the  body 
rubbed  or  the  ether  surrounding  the  body. 
Faraday  also,  by  experiment,  discovered  para- 
tnagnetism  and  diamagnetism,  namely,  that  all 
Bol.ds  and  liquids  are  either  attracted  or  re- 
pelled by  a  magnet.  For  example,  iron,  nickel, 
cobalt,  manganese,  chromium,  etc.,  are  para- 
magnetic (attracted  by  magnetism),  whilst  other 
substances,  such  as  bismuth,  phosphorus,  anti- 
mony, zinc,  etc.,  are  repelled  by  magnetism  or 
are  diamagnetic  ('Phil.  Trans.,'  1845).  Brugans 
of  Leyden  in  1778  and  Le  Baillif  and  Bccquerel 
in  1827  had  previously  discovered  diamagnetism 
in  the  case  of  bismuth  and  antimony.  Faraday 
also  rediscovered  specific  inductive  capadty  in 
1837,  the  residts  of  the  experiments  by  Caven- 
dish not  having  been  published  at  that  time. 
He  also  predicted  (Phil.  Mag.,  March  1854) 
the  retardation  of  signals  on  long  submarine 
cables  due  to  the  inductive  effect  of  the  insula- 
tion of  the  cable,  in  other  words,  the  static 
capacity  of  the  cable. 

The  25  years  immediately  following  Fara- 
day^s  discoveries  of  elect nc  induction  were 
fruitful  in  the  promulgation  of  laws  and  facts 
relating  to  induced  currents  and  to  magnetism. 
In  1834  Lenz  and  Jacobi  independently  demon- 
strated the  now  familiar  fact  that  the  currents 
induced  in  a  coil  are  proporliona!  to  the  number 
of  turns  in  the  coil,  Lenz  also  announced  at 
that  time  the  important  law  that,  in  all  cases  of 
eUctramagnrtic  induction  the  induced  currents 
have  such  a  direction  that  their  reaction  tends 
to  stop  the  motion  thai  troducej,  them,  a  law 
that  was  perhaps  deducible  from  Faraday's  ex- 
planation of  Arago's  rotations. 

In  1845  Joseph  Henry,  the  American  physi- 
cist, published  an  account  of  his  valuable  and 
interesting  experiments  with  induced  currents 
of  a  high  order,  showing  that  currents  could  be 
induced  from  the  secondary  of  an  induction 
coil  to  the  primary  of  a  second  coil,  thence  to 
its  secondary  wire,  and  so  on  to  the  primary 
third  coil,  etc.    (Philesophical  Magasine, 


('Ann.  de  Chimie  III,'   i,  3^).     About  1850 


■LBCntlCITT,  ITS   HISTORY  AND  PR0GRS^8 


1T7 


KIrdiofT  pubtisfaed  his  laws  relating  to  branched 
or  divided  circuits.  He  also  showed  mathe- 
matically that  according  to  the  then  prevailing 
electrodynamic  theory,  electricity  would  be 
propagated  along  a  perfectly  conducting  wire 
with  the  velocity  of  light.  HelmhoiU  investi- 
gated mathematically  the  effects  of  induction 
upon  the  strength  of  a  current  and  deduced 
therefrom  equations,  which  experiment  con- 
firmed, showing  amongst  other  important  points 
ihe  reCacding  effect  of  self-ind action  under  cer- 
tain conditions  of  the  circuit  ('Poggendorf 
Ann.>  1851).  In  1853  Sir  William  Thomson 
(later  Lord  Kelvin)  (q.v.)  ^iredicted  as  a  re- 
sult of  mathematical  calculations  the  oscillatory 
nature  cf  the  electric  discbarve  of  a  condenser 
circuit.  To  Henry,  however,  belongs  the  credit 
of  discerning  as  a  result  of  his  experiments  in 
1842  the  oscillatory  nature  of  the  Leaden  jar 
discharge.  He  wrote  ('Proc.  Am.  Phil.  Soc.,' 
Vol.  II,  pp.  193,  196) :  The  phtnometta  require 
ut  to  admit  the  existence  of  a  principal  dis- 
charge in  one  direction,  and  then  severeU  reflex 
actions  backward  and  forward,  each  more  feeble 
than  the  preceding,  until  the  equUibrium  is  ob~ 
lained.  These  oscillations  were  subsequently 
observed  by  Feddersen  (ISS?)  who  using  a 
rotating  concave  mirror  projected  an  image  of 
Ihe  electric  spark  upon  a  sensitive  plate,  Eherebv 
obtaining  a  photograph  of  the  spark  whicn 
plainly  mdicated  the  altemaliiig  nature  of  the 
discharge.  Sir  William  Thomson  was  also  the 
discoverer  of  the  electric  convection  of  heat 
(the  'Thomson*  effect).  He  designed  for  elec- 
iT-cal  measurements  of  precision  his  quadrant 
and  absolute  electrometers.  The  reflecting  gal- 
vanometer and  siphon  recorder,  as  applied  to 
submarine  cable  signaling,  are  also  due  to  him. 

About  1876  Prof.  H.  A.  Rowland  of  Balti- 
more demonstrated  the  important  fact  that  a 
static  charge  carried  around  produces  ttie  same 
tnagnetic  tSectS  as  an  electric  current.  The 
importance  of  this  discovery  consists  in  that 
it  may  afford  a  plausible  theory  of  magnetism, 
namely,  that  magnetism  may  be  the  result  of 
directed  motion  of  rows  of  molecules  carrying 
static  charges. 

After  Faraday's  discovery  that  electric  cur- 
rents could  be  developed  in  a  wire  by  causing  it 
to  cat  across  the  lines  of  force  of  a  magnet,  it 
was  to  be  expected  that  attempts  would  be  made 
to  construct  machines  to  avail  of  this  fact  in  the 
development  of  voltaic  currents.  (Sec  Electric 
Mackinerv;  Electbic  Direct  Current;  Gen- 
erators) .  The  first  machine  of  this  kind  was  due 
to  Pixii,  1832.  It  consisted  of  two  bobbins  of 
iron  wire,  opposite  which  the  poles  of  a  horse- 
shoe magnet  were  caused  to  rotate.  As  this  pro- 
duced in  the  coils  of  the  wire  an  alternating 
current,  Pixii  arranged  a  commutating  device 
(commutator)  that  converted  the  alternating 
current  of  the  coils  or  armature  into  a  direct 
current  in  the  external  circuit.  This  machine 
was  followed  by  improved  forms  of  magnetO' 
electric  machines  due  to  Ritchie,  Saxton,  Oarke, 
Stohrer  1843,  Nollet  1849,  Shepperd  ISSl^  Van 
Maldem,  Siemens,  Wilde  and  others. 

A  notable  advance  in  the  art  of  dynamo  con- 
struction was  made  by  Mr.  S.  A.  Varley  in  1866 
(consult  his  British  patent  of  that  year)  and  by 
Dr.  Charles  William  Siemens  and  Mr.  Charles 


machine  is  rotated  between  the  poles  (or  in  the 
•field")  of  an  electromagnet,  a  weak  current  is 
set  op  in  the  coil  due  to  residual  magnetism  in 
the  iron  of  the  electromagnet,  and  that  if  the 
circuit  of  the  armature  be  connected  with  the 
circuit  of  the  electromagnet,  the  weak  current 
developed  in  the  armature  increases  (he  mag- 
netism in  the  field.  This  further  increases  the 
magnetic  lines  of  force  in  which  the  armature 
rotates,  which  still  further  increases  the  current 
in  the  electromagnet,  thereby  producing  a  corre- 
sponding increase  in  the  field  magnetism,  and 
so  on,  until  the  maximum  electromotive  force 
which  the  machine  is  capable  of  developing  is 
reached.  By  means  of  this  principle  the  dynamo 
machine  develops  its  own  magnetic  field,  thereby 
much  increasing  its  efficiency  and  economical 
operation.  Not  by  any  means,  however,  was  the 
dynamo  electric  machine  perfected  at  the  time 
mentioned.  In  1860  an  important  improvement 
had  been  made  by  Dr.  Antonio  Pacinotti  of  Pisa 
who  devised  the  first  electric  machine  with  a 
ring  armature.  This  machine  was  first  used  as 
an  electric  motor,  but  afterward  as  a  generator 
of  electricity.  The  discovery  of  the  principle 
of  the  reversibility  of  the  dynamo  electric  ma- 
chine (variously  attributed  to  Walenn  1860; 
Padnotti  1864;  Fontaine,  Gramme  1873;  Deprez 
I6S1,  and  others)  whereby  it  may  be  used  as  an 
electric  motor  or  as  a  generator  of  electricity 
has  been  tenhed  one  of  the  greatest  discoveries 
of  the  19th  century.  In  1872  the  drum  armature 
was  devised  by  Heflfner-Altneck.  This  machine 
in  a  modified  form  was  subsequently  known  as 
the  Siemens  dynamo.  These  machines  were 
presently  followed  by  the  Schuckert,  Gulcher, 
Fein,  Brush,  Hochhausen,  Eidison  and  the 
dynamo  machines  of  numerous  other  inventors. 

In  the  early  days  of  dynamo  machine  con- 
struction the  machines  were  mainly  arranged  as 
direct  current  generators,  and  perhaps  (he  most 
important  application  of  such  machines  at  that 
time  was  in  electro-plating,  for  which  purpose 
machines  of  low  voltage  and  large  current 
strength  were  employed.  (See  Electric  Direct 
CtniRENT).  Beginning  about  1887  alternating 
current  generators  came  into  extensive  oper- 
ation and  the  commercial  development  of  the 
transformer,  by  means  of  which  currents  of 
low  voltage  and  high  current  strength  are 
transformed  to  currents  of  high  voltage  and 
low  current  strength,  and  vice-versa,  in  time 
revolutionized  the  transmission  of  electric 
power  to  long  distances.  Likewise  the  introducf 
tion  of  the  rotary  converter  (in  connection  with 
the  "step-down'  transformer)  whidi  converta 
alternating  currents  into  direct  currents  (and 
vice-versa)  has  effected  large  economiel.  in  tfoa 
operation  of  electric  power  systems.  See  Elko* 
mc  Altexnatinc  Cubbent  Machinest. 

Before  the  introduction  of  dynamo  electric 
machines,  voltaic,  or  primary,  batteries  were 
extensively  used  for  electro-plating  and  in  teleg- 
raphy, liiere  are  two  distinct  types  of  voltaic 
ceils,  namely,  the  "open*  and  the  'closed,*  or 
■constant,*  type.  The  open  type  in  brief  is  that 
type  which  operated  on  closed  circuit  becomes, 
after  a  short  time,  polarieed;  that  is,  gases  are 
liberated  in  the  cell  whicii  settle  on  the  negative 
plate  and  establish  a  resistance  that  reduces  the 
current  strength.  After  a  brief  interval  of  open 
circuit  these  g^ses  are  eliminated  or  absorbed 

le   cell    is   ag  '  '      ' 

Qoscd  circuit  cells  a 


'8l^ 


I7B 


BIACTRICITY.  ITS    HISTORY  AHD  PROOBKM 


in  the  cells  are  absorbed  as  quick])^  as  liberated 
and  heoce  the  output  of  the  cell  is  practically 
uniform.  The  Lcdanchi  and  Daniell  cells,  re- 
spectively, arc  familiar  examples  of  the  "open* 
and  "closed"  type  of  voltaic  cell.  The  *open' 
cells  arc  used  very  extensively  at  present,  espe- 
cially in  the  dry  cell  form,  and  in  aaniui' 
cialor  and  other  open  circuit  signal  sys- 
tems. Batteries  of  the  Daniell  or  "gravity* 
type  were  employed  almost  generally  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  as  the  source  of  elec- 
tromotive force  in  telegraphy  before  the  dynamo 
machine  became  available,  and  still  are  largely 
used  for  this  service  or  as  'local'  celU.  Bat- 
teries of  the  ''gravity^  and  the  Edison -Lalande 
types  are  still  much  used  in  "closed  circuit* 
systems. 

The  possibility  of  obtaining  the  electric  cur- 
rent in  large  quantities,  and  economically,  by 
means  of  dynamo  electric  machines  gave  im- 
petus to  the  development  of  incandescent  and 
arc  lighting.  Until  these  machines  had  attained 
a  commercial  basis  voltaic  batteries  were  the 
only  available  source  of  current  for  electric 
lighting  and  power.  The  cost  of  these  bat- 
teries, however,  and  the  difHculties  of  main- 
taining them  in  rdjable  operation  were  pro- 
hibitory of  their  use  for  practical  lighting  pur- 
poses. The  date  of  the  employment  of  arc  and 
incandescent  lamps  may  be  set  at  about  1S77. 
Even  in  1880,  however,  but  little  headway  had 
been  made  toward  the  general  use  of  these 
illuminanls;  the  rapid  subsequent  growth  of 
this  industry  is  a.  matter  of  general  Jmowledge. 
(See  Electkic  Lichtinc).  The  employment  of 
Storage  batteries  (q.v.),  which  were  originally 
termed  secondary  batteries  or  accumulators,  be- 
gan about  1879.  Such  batteries  are  now  utilised 
on  a  lar^  scale  as  auxiliaries  to  the  dynamo 
machine  in  electric  power-houses  and  substa- 
tions, in  electric  automobiles  and  in  immense 
twmbers  in  automobile  ignition  and  starting 
systems,  also  in  fire  alarm  telegraphy  and  other 
Signal  systems. 

In  1871  the  electric  tele^ph  had  grown  to 
large  pr<^rtions  and  was  in  use  in  every  civ- 
ilized country  in  the  world,  its  lines  forming  a 
network  in  all  directions  over  the  surface  of 
the  land.  The  system  most  generally  in  use  was 
die  dectromagnetic  telegraph  due  lo  S.  F.  B. 
Morse  of  New  York,  or  modifications  of  his 
system.  (See  TEt.ECBAFH).  Submarine  cables 
(see  Oble)  connecting  the  Eastern  and  West- 
em  hemispheres  were  also  in  successful  oper- 
ation at  that  time.  When,  however,  at  the 
present  day  (1918)  one  views  the  vast  applica- 
tions of  electricity  to  electric  light,  electric  rail- 
ways, electric  power  and  other  purposes  (all  it 
may  be  repeated  made  possible  and  practicable 
by  the  perfection  of  the  dynamo  machine),  it 
is  difficult  to  believe  that  no  longer  ago  than 
1871  the  author  of  a  book  published  in  that 
year,  in  referring  to  the  state  of  the  art  of  ap- 

Jlied  electricity  at  that  lime,  could  have  truth-^ 
ully  written :  "The  most  important  and 
remarkable  of  the  uses  which  have  been  made 
of  electricity  consists  in  its  application  to  tele- 
graph purposes"  (Miller's  'Magnetism  and 
Electric.ty,'  p.  460).  The  statement  was,  how- 
ever, quite  accurate  and  perhaps  the  time  could 
have  been  carried  forward  to  the  year  1876 
without  material  modification  of  the  remarks. 
In  that  year  the  telephone  (q.v.),  due  to  Alex- 
ander Graham  Bell   (q.v.),  was  invented,  but 


it  was  not  until  several  years  thereafter  that  it$ 
commercial  employment  began  in  earnest.  Since 
that  time  also  the  sister  branches  of  electricity 
just  mentioned  have  advanced  and  are  advanc- 
ing with  such  gigantic  Strides  in.  every  direc- 
tion that  it  is  dijncult  to  place  a  Umit  upcm  their 
progress.  For  a  more  adequate  account  of  the 
use  of  electricity  in  the  arts  and  industries  see 
Electuou.  Manufactubing  Industry. 

In  1864  James  Qerk  Uaxwell  of  Edinburgh 
announced  his  electromagnetic  theory  of  li^t, 
which  was  perhaps  the  greatest  single  step  in 
the  world's  knowledge  of  dectricity.  (Consult 
Maxwell's  'Electricity  and  Uagnetistn,'  Vol. 
II,  Chap.  xx>.  As  already  noted  herein  Fara- 
day, and  before  him,  Ampjxe  and  others,  had 
inklings  that  the  luniiniferous  ether  of  space 
was  also  the  medium  for  electric  action.  It 
was  known  by  calculation  and  experiment  that 
the  velodty  of  electricity  was  approximately 
186,000  miles  per  second;  that  is,  equal  to  the 
vdocity  of  li^t,  wUch  in  itscU  suggests  the 
idea  of  a  relationship  between  electricity  and 
■li^t."  A  number  of  the  earlier  philosophers 
or  mathematicians,  as  Maxwdl  terms  them,  of 
the  I9th  century,  held  the  view  that  electromag* 
netic  phenomena  were  explainable  by  action  at 
a  distance,  Maxwdl,  following  Faraday,  con- 
tended that  the  seat  of  the  pheixnnena  was  in 
the  medium.  The  methods  of  the  mathemati- 
cians in  arriving  at  their  results  were  synthetical 
while  Faraday's  methods  were  atialvtical.  Fara- 
day in  his  mmd's  eye  lan  lines  of  force  travers- 
ing all  space  where  the  mathematicians  saw 
centres  of  force  attracting  at  a  distance.  Fara- 
day sou^t  the  seat  of  the  phenomena  in  real 
actions  going  on  in  the  medium;  they  were 
satisfied  that  they  had  found  it  in  a  power  of 
action  at  a  distance  on  the  dectric  fluids  (Max- 
well's 'Electricity  and  Magnetism,'  preface). 

Both  of  these  methods,  as  Marwdl  points 
out,  had  succeeded  in  explaining  the  propaga- 
tion of  light  as  an  dectromagnetic  phenomenon 
while  at  the  same  time  the  fundamental  conct\>- 
tions  of  what  the  quantities  concerned  are,  radi- 
cally differed,  llie  mathematicians  assumed 
that  insulators  were  barriers  to  electric  cur- 
rents ;  that,  for  instance,  in  a  Leyden  jar  or 
electric  condenser  the  dectridty  was  accumu- 
lated at  one  plate  and  that  by  some  occult  ac- 
tion at  a  distance  electridty  of  an  opposite  kind 
was  attracted  to  the  other  plate.  Maxwell,  look- 
ing further  than  Faraday,  reasoned  that  if  light 
is  an  electromagnetic  phenomenon  and  is  trans- 
missible throu^  didcctrics  such  as  glass,  the 
phenomenon  must  be  in  the  nature  of  electro- 
magnetic currents  in  the  dielectrics.  He  there- 
fore contended  that  in  the  charging  of  a  con- 
denser, for  instance,  the  action  did  not  stop  at 
the  insulator,  but  that  the  ^splacement*  cur- 
rents are  set  up  in  the  insulating  medium,  which 
currents  continue  until  the  resisting  force  of  the 
medium  eipials  that  of  the  charging  force.  In  a 
dosed  circuit  conductor  an  electric  current  is 
also  a  displacement  of  electricity.  The  con- 
ductor offers  a  certain  resistance,  akin  to  fric- 
tion, to  the  displacement,  and  beat  is  devdoped 
in  the  conductor,  proportional  as  already  stated 
herein  to  the  square  of  the  current,  wh'ch  cur- 
rent flows  as  long  as  the  impelling  electric  force 
continues.  This  resistance  may  be  likened  to 
that  met  with  by  a  ship  as  in  its  progress  it 
displaces  the  water.  'The  resistance  of  the 
didectric  is  of  a  different  nature  and  has  been 


BLSCTRICITY,  ITS   HISTORY  AND  PROGRESS 


17» 


compared  to  the  compression  of  mnltitudes  of 
springs,  which,  under  compression,  yield  with 
an  increasing  hack  pressure,  up  to  a  point  where 
the  total  back  pressure  equals  the  initial  pres- 
sure. When  the  initial  pressure  is  withdrawn 
the  cner^  expended  in  compressing  the 
*sprinRs'>  is  returned  to  the  circuit,  concurrently 
with  the  return  of  the  springs  to  their  original 
condition,  this  producing  a  reaction  in  the  op- 
posite direction.  Consequently  the  current  due 
to  the  displacement  of  electricity  in  a  con- 
ductor may  be  continuous,  while  the  displace- 
ment currents  in  a  dielectric  are  momentary 
and,  in  a  circuit  or  medium  which  contains  but 
little  resistance  compared  with  cajracity  or  in- 
ductance reaction,  the  currents  of  discharge  are 
of  an  oscillatory  or  alternating  nature.  (See 
Oscnj^TiNc  Cubhent;  Telegraphy,  Wna- 
less).  Maxwell  extended  this  view  of  displace- 
ment currents  in  dielectrics  to  the  ether  of  free 
space.  Assuming  light  to  be  the  manifestation 
of  alterations  of  electric  currents  in  the  ether, 
and  vibrating  at  the  rate  of  light  vibrations, 
these  vibrations  by  induction  set  up  correspond- 
ing vibrations  in  adjoining  portions  of  the 
ether,  and  in  this  way  the  undulations  corre- 
sponding to  those  of  li^ht  are  propagated  as  an 
electromagnetic  effect  in  the  ether.  Uaxwell's 
electromagnetic  theory  of  lig^t  obviously  in- 
volved the  existence  of  electric  waves  in  free 
space,  and  his  followers  set  themselves  the  task 
of  experimentally  demonstrating  the  truth  of 
the  theory.  This  honor  was  reserved  for  Prof. 
H.  Hertz,  who  in  1887  in  a  series  of  experi- 
ments proved  the  actual  existence  of  such 
waves.  The  discovery  of  electric  waves  in 
space  naturally  led  to  the  discovery  and  intro- 
duction in  the  closing  years  of  the  J9th  century, 
of  wireless  telegraphy  (q.v.),  various  systems 
of  which  are  now  in  successful  use  on  ship- 
board, lighthouses  and  shore  and  inland  stations 
throughout  the  wortt^  by  means  of  which  in- 
telligence b  transmitted  across  the  widest 
oceans  and  large  parts  of  continents. 

In  1891  notable  additions  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  phenomena  of  high  frequency  and  high 
potential  current  were  contributed  by  Nikola 
Tesia  (q.v.).  (Consult  <Proc.  Am.  Inst.  Et. 
Engrs.,'  1901),  Amongst  the  novel  experi- 
ments performed  by  Tesla  was  to  take  in  his 
hand  a  glass  tube  from  which  the  air  had  been 
exhausted,  then  bringing  his  body  into  contact 
with  a  wire  carrying  currents  of  high  potential, 
the  tube  was  suffused  with  a  pleasing  bright 
glow.  Another  experiment  was  to  ^sp  a  bulb 
that  was  suspended  from  a  single  wire  attached 
to  a  high  polenlial,  high  frcquenc_y  current  cir- 
cuit, wnen  a  platinum  button  within  the  bulb 
was  brought  to  vivid  incandescence,  the  experi- 
menter at  this  time  standing  on  an  insulating 
platform.  The  frequency  and  potential  in- 
volved in  the  experiments  made  by  Tesla  at 
this  time  were  of  the  order  of  one  or  more 
million  cycles  and  volts.  For  further  informa- 
tion relative  to  these  experiments  the  reader 
may  be  referred  to  Testa's  'Experiments  with 
Alternate  Currents  of  High  Potential  and  High 
Frenuency. ' 

The  place  of  electricity  in  leading  np  to  the 
discovery  of  those  beautiful  phenomena  of 
the  Crookes  Tube  (due  to  Sir  William 
Crookes),  tii..  Cathode  rays  (consult  'Proc. 
British  Association,'  1879),  and  later  to  (be 
discovery    of     Roentgen     or     X-rays     (q.T.), 


must  not  be  overlooked,  since  without  electric- 
ity as  the  excitant  of  the  tube  the  ^scoveiy 
of  the  rays  might  have  lieen  postponed  in- 
definitely. 

It  has  been  noted  herein  that  Dr.  William 
Gilbert  was  termed  the  founder  of  electrical 
science.  This  must,  however,  be  regarded  as  a 
comparative  Statement.  Up  to  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century,  indeed  up  to  about  1870,  elec- 
trical science  was,  it  mxy  be  said,  a  sealed  book 
to  the  majority  of  electrical  workers.  Prior  to 
this  time  a  number  of  handbooks  had  been 
published  on  electricity  and  magnetism,  notably 
Aug.  de  La  Rive's  exhaustive  'Treatise  on 
Electricity.>  1851  and  (in  the  French)  1835; 
Beer's  'Einleitung  in  die  Elect rostatik,|  Wiedc- 
ttiann's  'Galvanismus,'  and  Reiss'  'Reibungsal- 
elektricitat.'  But  these  works  consisted  in  the 
main  in  details  of  experiments  with  electricity 
and  magnetism,  and  but  little  with  the  laws  and 
facts  of  those  phenomena.  About  this  time 
Fleeming  Jenkin's  work  on  'Electricity  and 
Magnetism*  and  Clerk  Maxwell's  'Treatise  on 
Electricity  and  Magnetism'  were  published. 
These  books  were  departures  from  ttie  beaten 
path.  As  Jenkin  states  in  the  preface  to  his 
work  the  science  of  the  schools  was  so  dissim- 
ilar from  that  of  the  practical  electrician  that 
it  was  quite  impossible  to  give  students  suffi- 
cient, or  even  approximately  sufficient,  text- 
books. A  student  he  said  might  have  mastered 
De  la  Rive's  large  and  valuable  treatise  and  yet 
feel  as  if  in  an  unknown  country  and  listening 
to  an  unknown  tongue  in  the  company  of  prac- 
tical men.  As  another  writer  ha$  said,  with  the 
coming  of  Jenkin's  and  Maxwell's  books  all  im- 
pediments in  the  war  of  electrical  students 
were  removed,  "the  full  meaning  of  Ohm's  law 
becomes  clear;  electromotive  force,  difference 
of  potential,  resistance,  current,  capacity,  lines 
of  force,  magnetization  and  ciiemical  affinity 
were  measurable,  and  could  be  reasoned  about, 
and  calculations  could  be  made  about  them  with 
as  much  certainty  as  calculations  in  dynamics* 
(Introduction  to  'Electricity  in  the  Service  of 
Man').  Since  that  time  also  the  real  science 
of  electricity  has  rapidly  advanced.  Various 
units  of  electricity  and  magnetism  have  been 
adopted  and  named  by  representatives  of  the 
electrical  engineering  institutes  of  the  worli 
which  units  and  names  have  been  confirmed  and 
legalized  by  the  governments  of  the  United 
States  and  other  countries.  Thus  the  Volt, 
from  the  Italian  Volta,  has  been  adopted  as  Ae 
practical  unit  of  electromotive  force,  the  Ohm, 
from_  the  enunciator  of  Ohm's  law,  as  the 
practical  unit  of  resistance;  the  Ampere,  after 
the  eminent  French  scientist  of  (hat  name,  as 
the  practical  unit  of  current  strength,  the  Henry 
as  the  practical  tinit  of  inditctatiee,  after  Joseph 
Henry  and  in  recognition  of  his  early  and  im- 
portant experimental  work  in  mtittial  induction. 
See  Elecimcal  Units;  Electbical  Trans. 

The  theories  regarding  electricity  are  also 
undencoing  change.  Indeed  it  may  with  truth 
be  said  that  the  trend  of  all  scientific  investiga' 
tion  now  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  matter  in 
its  final  analysis  is  ekctncal  in  its  nature — in 
fact  is  electricity;  the  theory  upon  which  this 
view  is  based  being  termed  the  electronic  the- 
ory, or  the  electric  theory  of  matter.  See 
Elcciwiit. 

This  theory  (or  better,  hypothesis)  in  s 
word  assumes  that  the  atom  of  itiattcr,  ■    '  ~ 


.lOogle 


180 


EtECTRICITY,  ITS    HISTOKY   AND    PROOSSSS 


from  beins  indivisible,  as  assumed  under  the 
older  theories,  is  made  up  of  smaller  bodies 
termed  electrons,  that  these  electrons  are 
electrical  in  their  nature,  and  consequently 
all  matter  ultimately  is  electrical,  the  atoms 
of  the  different  elements  of  matter  con- 
sisting of  a  certain  number  of  electrons,  thus, 
700  in  the  hydrogen  atom  and  11.200  in  the 
oxygen  atom.  This  theory  of  matter  though  of 
comparatively  recent  origin  in  several  of  its  im- 
portant features  is  not  altogether  one  of  a  day, 
nor  Is  it  due  to  the  researches  of  one  man  or 
to  the  conception  of  one  mind.  Thus,  as  re- 
gards the  view  that  the  atom  is  not  an  indi- 
visible particle  of  matter,  but  is  made  up  of 
numerous  electrons,  many  scientists  have  for 
};ear5  held  that  all  the  elements  are  modifica- 
tions of  a  single  hypothetical  substance,  protyle, 
'the  undifferentiated  material  of  the  universe* 
Nor  is  the  theory  entirely  new  in  its  assump- 
tion that  all  matMr  is  electrical.  Faraday, 
Weber,  Helmholtj;,  Oifford  and  others  had 
glimpses  of  this  view ;  and  the  experimental 
■work  of  Zeeman,  Goldstein,  Croofecs,  J.  J. 
Thomson  and  others  had  greatly  strengthened 
this  view.  Over  35  years  ago  Weber  predicted 
that  electrical  phenomena  were  due  to  the  exist- 
ence of  electrical  atoms,  the  influence  of  which 
on  one  another  depended  on  their  position  and 
relative  accelerations  and  velocities.  Hclmholti 
and  others  also  contended  that  the  existence  of 
electrical  atoms  followed  from  Faraday's  laws 
of  eleelrolysis,  and  lohnstone  Stoncy,  to  whom 
is  due  the  term  "electron,*  showed  that  each 
chemical  ion  of  the  decomposed  electrolj*e  car- 
ries a  definite  and  constant  quantity  of  electric- 
ity, and  inasmuch  as  these  charged  ions  are 
separated  on  the  electrodes  as  neutral  sub- 
stances there  must  be  an  instant,  however  brief, 
when  the  charges  must  be  capable  of  existing 
separately  as  electrical  atoms ;  while  in  1887, 
Oifford  (q.v.)  wrote:  'There  is  great  reason 
to  believe  that  every  material  atom  carries  upon 
it  a  small  electric  current,  if  it  does  not  wholly 
consist  of  this  current.* 

Whether  the  electronic  theory  will  survive 
or  will  in  turn  be  displaced  t^  some  more 
suitable  theory  remains  for  the  future  to  de- 
termine. In  the  meantime,  be  that  as  it  may, 
the  practical  application  of  electricity  will  go 
on  apace.  It  is  an  every  day  swing  of  laymen 
that  electricity  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy.  This  re- 
mark causes  technical  men  to  smile,  for 
"electricity*  is  already  a  most  prodigious  infant. 
But  in  the  sense  that  we  may  only  be  on  the 
threshold  of  the  possible  utilizations  of  this 
most  wonderful  of  nature's  agents,  the 
remark  is  periiaps  true.  Predictions  that  were 
with  diffidence  made  in  the  closing  decade  oi 
last  century  to  the  effect  fliat  within  100  yean 
of  that  time  jKopie  would  probably  speak  to 
one  another  without  artificial  means  of  com- 
munication; that  wires  would  be  laid  along 
every  street  and  tapped  into  every  house  as  gas 
pipes  were  then,  lor  lighting  and  power  pur- 
poses, have  been  for  a  decade  facts  accom- 
Elished.  What  the  next  20  years  shall 
ring  forth  with  regard  to  the  applications  of 
dectricity  none  can  telt.  Twenty  years  ago  it 
-would  have  been  difficult  to  find  one  steam  rail- 
road engineer  willing  to  admit  that  application 
of  electric  traction  to  steam  railroads  was  a 
posubility.    To-day  much  has  been  done  in  this 


direction  in  the  improvement  of  railroad  termi- 
nal facilities,  and  It  is  now  difficult  to  find  one 
steam  railroad  engineer  who  will  deny  that  in 
20  years  hence  all  the  important  steam  railroads 
of  this  country  may  not  be  operated  electrically. 
In  other  directions  the  progress  of  events  as  to 
the  utilization  of  electric  power  may  be  ex- 
pected to  be  equally  rapid.  In  every  part  of  the 
world  the  ^wer  of  falUng  water,  nature's  per- 
petual motion  machine,  which  has  been  eoing 
to  waste  since  the  world  began,  is  now  oeit^ 
converted  into  electricity  and  transmitted  by 
wire  hundreds  of  miles  to  points  where  it  is 
usefully  and  economically  employed.  (See 
Electric  TRANSMissiotf  of  Enekcy).  But  the 
extensive  utilization  of  falling  water  will  not 
be  limited  to  natural  water  falls.  Iii  hiwdreds 
of  places  where  a  fall  of  40  to  400  feet  extends 
over  10  to  50  miles,  and  where  in  the  aggregate 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  horse  power,  by  suit- 
able hydraulic  methods,  are  available,  this  power 
will  be  usefully  employed,  thereby  in  large 
measure  conserving  the  limited  quantity  of 
the  world's  coal.  It  has  for  instance  been  pro- 
posed to  dam  Niagara  River  at  the  foot  of  the 
gorge  whereby  another  source  of  water  power 
equal  to  that  at  the  present  falls  would  be  avaU- 
abje.  The  Jehlun  River  in  Kashmir,  India,  too, 
has  a  fall  of  2,480  feet  in  SO  miles  with  a  mini- 
mum flow  of  30,000  gallons  per  second,  and  a 
beginning  has  been  made  to  develop  the  1,000- 
000  electric  horse  power  here  representeid,  x 
considerable  portion  of  which  it  is  proposed  to 
utilize  in  the  production  of  nitrate  of  lime  for 
fertiliKr  purposes,  by  combining  by  means  oi 
powerful  electric  currents  the  limestone  that 
abounds  in  this  region  with  the  nitrogen  of  the 
air,  a  combination  which  Danish  engineers  hare 
shown  to  be  commercially  ^ssible,  and  which 


the  farm  lands  of  America  and  other  countries. 
Within  10  or  20  years  also  that  dream  of  Ihc 
electrical  engineer,  the  direct  production  of 
electricity  from  coal  without  the  intervention  of 
the  steam  engine  with  its  wasteful  methods, 
may  be  realized.  Other  means,  now  unknown, 
of  developing  electricity  may  be  wrested  from 
nature's  storehouse.  Indeed  in  view  of  the  past 
progress  of  electricity,  and  especially  in  view  of 
Its  marvelous  progress  in  the  last  two  decades, 
theoretically  and  practically,  it  requires  no 
great  exercise  of  the  imagination  to  conceive 
that  the  time  may  not  be  far  distant  when  the 
universal  artificial  source  of  the  world's  heat, 
light  and  power,  will  be  electricity,  and  that 
what  isnow  only  surmise  as  to  the  sameness  of 
electricity  and  matter  will  be  demons tm ted 
beyond  reasonable  doubL  Not  only  will  wire- 
less telegraphy  be  more  perfected  than  at 
present,  but  wireless  telephony,  and  'seeing  by 
electricity^  to  a  distance,  may  all  be  practicallj- 
accomplished.  Indeed,  it  is  not  even  beyond  the 
possibilities  that  the  transference  of  thought 
directly  from  brain  to  brain  -with  the  ether  as 
the  medium  —  the  suggestion  of  which  is  now 
regarded  as  the  vagarv  of  a  disordered  imagina- 
tion—  may  then  also  be  realiied.  In  short  our 
successors  of  25  or  30  years  hence  may  wonder 
at  our  obtuseness  in  not  f>ercetving  the  obvious- 
ness of  things  which  to  Aem  may  then  be  self- 
evident,  virtually  as  we  now  marvel  at  tbe 
simplicity  of  our  cleverest  ancestors  in  so  loag 


BLBCTRICITY,  ATM OSPHBRIC —ELECTRICITY,   CAUSE   OF   DEATH      Ul 


fuGnr  to  rctogmze  the  identity  of  frictional, 
animal,  and  voltaic  electricity,  or  the  more  sim- 
ple fact  that  the  wind,  by  uiem  regarded  as  a 
irfienomenon,  is  merely  air  in  motjon. 


ELECTRICITY,  Atmoapberic  Experi- 
ments have  shown  that  there  is  always  free 
electricity  in  the  atmosphere,  which  is  some- 
times negative  and  sometimes  positive,  but  most 
([eneraSy  positive,  and  the  intensin  oi  this  free 
uectridty  is  gfeater  in  the  middle  of  the  day 
thu)  at  morotng  or  night  and  is  greater  in  win* 
ler  than  in  summer.  In  fine  weacher  the  poten- 
tial increases  with  altitude  at  the  rate,  accord- 
iag  to  some  wiitcrs,  of  about  30  volts  per  foot. 
To  delect  the  presence  of  free  electricity  in  the 
air  a  pointed  metal  rod  projecting  into  the  air 
several  feet  and  connected  at  its  lower  end  to 
a  gold  leaf  electroscope  may  be  used.  When 
this  rod  b  projected  into  the  air  a  few  feet  the 
kaves  diverge.  Kites  and  ballaon  have  also 
been  used  to  detect  and,  so  to  speak,  draw  down 
the  free  electricity  of  the  air.  The  origin  of 
abmosf^eric  electricity  ia  still  unknown.  Some 
physicists  have  ascribed  it  to  the  friction  of  the 
air  upon  the  grouniL  others  to  the  gradual 
oxidation  of  plant  and  animal  life,  others  again 
to  evaporation,  to  induction  from  the  sun,  and 
to  differences  of  temperatnre.  Most  autbori- 
des  are  agreed,  however,  that  whatever  may 
be  the  origin  of  free  electricity  in  the  atmos- 
phere the  electricity  of  enormous  voltages  that 
disrupts  the  air  and  produces  the  phenomena 
of  li^tDJng  (q.v.)  is  due  to  the  condensation 
of  the  watery  vapor  forming  the  clouds;  each 
minute  vapor  drop  as  it  moves  throu^  die  air 
collecting  u[>on  its^  surface  a  certain 


decrease  in  the  total  surface  exposed  the  elec- 
tric potential  rises  ontil  it  overcomes  the  resist- 
ing power  of  the  air.  This  remark  will  be  more 
clearly  understood  when  it  is  considered  that 
with  a  given  charge  of  electricity  its  potential 
rises^  as  the  electrical  capacity  of  the  object 
holding  the  charge  is  decreased,  which  is  the 
case  when  the  minute  vapor  drops  coalesce  into 
lancer  drops.  The  simtlarity  of  lightning  to 
the  electricity  developed  by  an  electrical 
machine  was  demonstrated  by  Franklin  in  his 
memorable  kite  experiments. 

Saint  Elmo's  iire  (q.v.)  b  another  phase  of 
atmospheric  electricity  tobe  considered  in  this 
connection.  It  is  otherwise  known  as  the  fire 
of  Saint  Elias,  of  Saint  Clara,  of  Saint  Nicho- 
las and  of  Helena,  as  well  as  composite,  com- 
posant  or  corposant  (that  i^  corpus  fattcium). 
The  phenomenon  is  oDserveo,  usually  during  a 
thunder  storm,  at  the  tops  of  trees,  spires,  etc., 
or  on  the  beads  of  animals,  as  a  brush  or  star 
of  light. 

ELECTRICITY,  Cause  of  Deatti  hy.  As 
is  well  known,  one  of  the  moat  impor- 
tant safeguards  of  the  hnman  body  against 
the  passaRC  of  electrical  currents  through  it  is 
its  high  degree  of  resistance.  This  degree  of 
resistance,  however,  is  subject  to  a  considerable 
amount  of  variation.  If  the  skin  is  diy  the  re- 
sistance is  from  5  to  20  times  as  great  m  when 


die  sldn  is  wet.  From  what  is  known  of  the 
amoimt  of  electrical  current  necessary  to  cause 
death  in  man,  itia  probable  that  1,600  volts  of 
electromotive  force,  of  a  continuous  current 
is  sufficient  to  bring  about  this  end^  and  that 
an  alternating  current  of  half  this  voltage 
would  probably  be  fatal  In  fact,  the  general 
deduction  has  been  drawn  from  the  experiments 
conducted  in  electrocution  work  at  the  Sing 
Sing  prison,  that  no  human  body  can  withstand 
an  alternating  current  of  1,500  volts,  and  300 
has  produced  death,  while  for  the  continuous 
Current  it  may  be  necessary  that  over  3,000  volts 
may  be  required  to  bring  about  fatal  results. 
Some  of  the  minor  injuries  due  to  li^tning  and 
electricity  are  severe  bums,  paralysis  of  some 
of  the  muscles,  deafness,  loss  of  smell  and  taste, 
hysterical  phenomena,  traumatic  neuroses.  Oc- 
casionally blindness  has  resulted,  also  insanities 
of  the  maniacal  type  have  been  known  to  occur. 
following  lightning  stroke.  As  to  the  cause  of 
death  by  lightning  and  electricity,  modem  re- 
search has  shown  that  there  are  marked  changes 
in  the  blood  vessels  of  a  hemorrhagic  type,  and 
minute  alterations  in  the  nerve  cells,  but  these 
seem  to  be  secondary  to  the  physiological  action 
that  the  electrical  current  has  upon  the  fibres 
of  the  heart  muscle.  The  electrical  shock 
brings  about  a  condition  of  delirium  or  fibril- 
lary contraction  of  the  heart  muscle,  causing  a 
Stoppage  of  that  organ.  This  theory  of  the 
cause  of  death  at  present  has  the  largest  num- 
ber of  adherents. 

As  to  what  can  be  done  for  the  treatment 
of  electrical  shocks,  medical  science  b  still 
somewhat  in  doubt  For  all  practical  purposes, 
death,  when  it  takes  place,  is  instantaneous. 
The  evidence  derived  from  non-tatal  cases  a 
of  great  interest  In  these,  personal  experience 
has  shown  that  a  number  of  individuals  who 
have  been  rendered  unconscious  have  recognized 
in  the  brief  moments  of  consciousness  the  ex- 
perience of  a  strange  sensation.  Recoveries 
from  the  shock  of  electricity  or  lightning  whidi 
have  been  severe  enough  to  bring  about  imcon- 
sciousness  are  very  commotL  As  to  the  border 
lines  which  separate  the  recoverable  from  die 
fatal  cases  it  seems  difficult  to  determine. 
Promptness  in  the  treatment  is  imperative.  Ex- 
ternal heat  to  the  body,  artificial  respiration 
and  cardiac  stimulants  should  be  used  simulta- 
neously. It  is  of  importance  to  remember  that 
the  body  of  a  patient  in  contact  with  live  wires 
must  not  be  touched  by  the  rescuer  with  naked 
hands,  but  should  be  dragged  away  by  his 
clothing,  or  removed  from  contact  with  the 
earth  &  slipping  a  board  under  him,  thus  to 
break  the  connection  with  the  live  wires.  Live 
wires  may  also  be  raised  by  a  stick  and  thus 
take  the  body  out  of  the  circuit.  Artificial 
respiration  (q.v.)  by  the  Sylvester  method  or 
by  means  of  the  Gibbon's  pimip  should  be  per- 
formed and  the  body  should  be  surrounded  by 
hot  bottles  or  bricks,  and  rubbed,  and  suitable 
cardiac  stimulants  ^ould  be  utilized,  ligec- 
tions  of  large  quantities  of  hot  salt  solution 
into  the  rectum  may  be  of  service  and  occa- 
sionally it  may  be  necessary  to  infuse  normal 
salt  solution  directly  into  the  veins.  Efforts  at 
artificial  respiration  should  not  be  discontinued 
under  from  three  to  six  hours.  Consult  Jellitf^ 
'Peterson  and  Maynes  Textbook  of  Legal 
Uediciiw  and  Toxicology.' 


oogle 


BLSCTRICITY,  CONTACT— ELECTRICITY.  PRICTIONAI. 


ELBCTRICITY,  Contact  Theory  of,  a 
dieoTy  which  assumes  that  the  electrunottvc 
force  of  a  voltaic  cell,  and  perhaps  the  electric- 
i^  produced  by  friction,  is  due  to  the  difference 
ot  potential  assumed  Dy  two  dissimilar  sub- 
Mances  when  placed  in  contact. 


This  may  be  proved  very  easily,  by  a  simple 
apparatus  devised  by  Faraday.  An  insulated 
spherical  conductor  has  two  hemispherical  cups 
carefully  fitted  to  it,  each  attached  to  an  insu- 
lating handle.  The  conductor  and  its  covering 
are  charged  with  electrici^,  the  cups  are  then 
removed  and  the  conductor  is  brought  near  an 
electroscope.  No  divergence  of  the  leaves  oc- 
curs, indicating  that  none  of  the  electricity  has 
passed  into  the  conductor.    If  the  conductor 


itself  equally  o 


e  surface 


_ the 

the  electric  fluid 


surface.    We  may 

to  surround  the  conductor  _._  __  _..  __ 

form  depth.    It  the  conductor  be  a  brass 


cone,  the  density  is  greatest  at  the  apex,  

the  sharper  the  apex  the  greater  the  densilv. 
Hence  the  remarkable  effect  of  a  pointed  boi^ 
in  dissipating  an  electric  charge. 

ELECTRICITY,  Dinipatlon  of.  The 
gradual  loss  of  electricity  from  a  charged  body 
surrounded  by  non-conductors  whidi  taltes 
place  by  means  of  them  is  called  dissipation  of 
the  electric  charge,  A  charged  conductor,  for 
instance,  supported  on  a  glass  pillar,  slowly 
loses  its  electricity.  This  is  due  partly  to  the 
creeping  of  the  electric!^  along  the  surface  of 
the  glass,  which,  even  if  it  be  free  from  dust  and 
dirt,  is  seldom  absolutely  free  from  an  invisible 
film  of  moisture;  and  partly  to  the  air  that  sur- 
rounds the  insulated  conductor,  the  electrified 
body  charging  the  particles  of  air  with  similar 
electricity  and  then  repelling  them,  by  which 
means  a  gradual  loss  of  charge  occurs.  Ex- 
periments extending  over  a  ^riod  of  several 
years  show  that  this  dissipation  of  electricihr 
does  not  take  place  in  a  vacuum.  Coulomb 
made  a  careful  investigation  into  the  laws  of 
<Ussipation,  t^  which  he  was  able  to  allow  for 
it  in  cases  where  he  could  not  arrange  bis  cx- 

Kriments  so  as  to  be  undisturbed  by  it,  Cou- 
nb  was  led  by  his  experiments  to  abandon 
the  use  of  glass  as  a  support  for  his  conductors 
whenever  it  was  possible,  employing  instead 
thin  stems  of  shellac,  and  sometimes  suspending 
small  electrified  bodies  by  well-dried  silk  fibres. 
He  found  that  the  amount  of  loss  in  a  given 
time  by  means  of  the  particles  of  air  diminishes 
as  the  charge  possessed  by  the  conductor  gets 
weaker  and  weaker,  the  losses  in  st»ccessive 
equal  intervals  of  time  being  in  geometrical 
progression, 

ELBCTRICITY,  Experimental  Researchea 
In,  by  Michael  Faraday  (1839-55).  A  monu- 
mental work  in  the  literature  of  science ;  not 
merely  recording  the  results  of  experiment  in 
what  Tyndall  called  'a  career  of  discovery  un- 
paralleled in  the  history  of  pure  experimental 


science,*  but  enricbii^  the  record  with  thoufl^ts, 
and  clothing  it  in  many  passages  in  a  style 
worthy  of  exceptional  recognition.  In  devising 
and  executing  exfieritncnts  for  passing  beyODd 
the  limits  of  existing  knowledge,  in  a  field  the 
most  difficult  ever  allcmpfed  by  research,  Fara- 
day showed  a  genius  and  achieved  a  success, 
marking  him  as  a  thinker  not  less  than  an  ob- 
server of  the  first  order.  In  strength  and 
sureness  of  inu^natton,  penetrating  the  secrets 
of  force  in  nature,  and  putting  the  finger  of 
exact  demonstration  upon  them,  he  was  a 
Shakespeare  of  researca,  the  story  of  whose 
work  has  a  permanent  interest  He  made  elec- 
tricity, in  one  of  its  manifestations,  explain 
magnetism.  He  showed  to  demonstration  that 
chemical  action  is  purely  electrical,  and  that  to 
electricity  the  atoms  of  matter  owe  diose  prop- 
erties which  constitute  than  elements  in  nature. 
In  langu^^  of  lofty  prophetic  conception  he 
more  than  suggested  that  the  physical  secret 
of  livine  things,  the  animal  ana  the  plant,  is 
electrical.  He  i^rticularly  dwelt  on  the  amount 
of  electricity  forming  the  charge  carried  by  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  which  is  the  active  agent  in 
combustion  and  the  supporter  of  life  in  both 
animals  and  plants,  and  only  stopped  short  of 
definitely  pronouncing  vitality  electrical.  He 
ni^ed  very  strongly  as  a  belief^,  to  i^ich  no 
test  of  experiment  could  be  applied,  that  gravi- 
tation is  by  electrical  agency,  and  that  in  fact 
the  last  word  of  discovery  and  demonstration 
in  i^ysics  will  show  that  electricity  is  the  uni- 
versal agency  in  nature.  And  among  his  far- 
rcachine  applications  of  thought  guided  by  new  | 

knowledge  was  his  rejection  of  Ae  idea  of 
'action  at  a  distance,'  in  the  manner  of  'attrac-  | 

tion."    If  a  bo4f  is  moved,  it  is  not  by  a  mys-  ' 

terious  pull,  but  by  a  push.  The  moving  force 
carries  It    These  ideas  outran  the  power  of  i 

science  to  immediately  understand  and  accept 
But  Maxwell,  Hertz  and  Helmholtz  have  led 
the  way  after  Faraday,  to  the  extent  that  his  ' 

electriral  explanation  of  light  is  now  fully  ac- 
cepted. Fifteen  yeara  after  his  death,  the  great- 
est of  his  successors  in  physics,  Helmholti  of 
Berlin,  said  in  a  Faraday  lecture  in  London, 
that  the  later  advances  in  electrical  science  had 
more  than  confirmed  Faraday's  conclusions,  and 
that  English  science  had  made  a  mistake  in 
not  accepting  them  as  its  point  of  departure 
for  new  research.    See  Light. 

ELECTRICITY,  Frictitmal.  It  was  an  ob- 
scrvalion  made  by  the  Greek  philosopher  Thales, 
600  years  before  the  Christian  era,  that,  v4ien 
amber  was  rubbed,  it  acouired  the  property  of 
attracting  lig^t  bodies.  The  cause  of  this  at- 
tractive power  was  assigned  to  a  principle  to 
which  the  name  of  ■electrici^  was  given  — 
derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  amber.  When 
a  piece  ot  wax  is  rubbed  on  the  coatsleeve,  an 
attractive  power  is  awakened  in  it;  it  is  capable  ' 

of  attracting  smalt  pieces  of  light  paper  or  pai^ 
ticles  of  sawdust.    Taking  a  warm  glass  tube  ' 

closed  at  one  end,  and  rubbing  it  with  silk,  the  . 

same  thing  is  Toanifested,     It  is  observed  also  | 

that  after  contact  with  the  wax  or  tutie,  the  light 
bodies  fall  away,  being  seemingly  repelled.  If 
a  stick  of  sealing-wax  be  rubbed  with  flannel 
and  then  balanced  on  a  paper  loop  suspended  by 
a  silk  thread  and  the  knudde  be  presoited  to  it. 
the  wax  will  in  like  manner  ftJlow  the  hand. 


UACTftlClTY  PftOII  HEAT— ELBCTKO-SrOLOOY 


We  have,  therefore,  die  lact  that  an  electrified 
body  attracts  or  is  attracted  by  an  unelectrified 
body.  Another  experiment  of  a  simple  char- 
acter may  be  mentioned.  Take  a  piece  of  warm 
brovm  paper  or  sheet  of  foolscap,  place  it  upon 
a  warm  board  and  mb  it  well  over  with  a  piece 
of  iodia-rubber,  —  it  clinn  to  the  board;  or  re- 
move it  from  the  board  and  apply  it  to  the 
wall  of  the  room,  anii  it  adheres  to  the  wall  and 
remains  in  its  position  till  its  electricity  is  dis~ 
sipated.  Observation  of  these  phenomena  led 
to  the  development  of  the  dectric  machine 
<q-v.>. 

ELECTRICITY  PROM  HEAT.  The  de- 
riving of  electricity  directly  from  the  application 
of  beat  is  interesting,  though  it  has  not  proven 
of  commercial  valne.  Two  different  metals  in 
contact  usually  show  a  difference  of  potential. 
This  difference  is  most  marked  in  Ae  case 
of  bismuth  and  antimony.  When  bars  of  these 
metals  are  soldered  together  at  one  end  and  the 
opposite  ends  connected  by  a  copper  wire,  and 
a  name  is  applied  to  the  point  of  junction  a 
slight  electric  current  is  set  up,  flowing  through 
the  closed  circuit  thus  formed.  The  cooling  of 
the  point  of  junction  also  sets  up  a  current.  Ad 
apparatus  made  on  this  principle  is  called  a 
thermo-electric  couple,  and  a  series  of  such 
couples,  arranged  to  work  together,  is  called  a 
thermopile;  a  still  larger  aggregation  of  thermo- 
electric couples  arranged  in  rings  superimposed 
has  been  styled  a  thermo-electric  generator. 
Witfi  any  of  these  contrivances  the  current  ob- 
tained is  so  minnte  as  to  serve  no  purpose 
except  experiment.  The  thermopile  is  valued 
for  experimental  purposes  because  of  the  great 
constancy  obtainable  with  a  very  sH^t  current. 
Iron  is  not  a  good  melal  to  use  in  a  thermopile, 
because  at  certain  temperatures  its  potential 
coincides  with  nearly  all  other  metals,  so  that 
there  would  be  no  current  when  that  tempera- 
ture was  reached. 

Pyroclectricity  is  not  to  be  confused  with 
thermo-electricity  because  of  the  ^milariiy  of 
name.  It  treats  of  the  phenomena  of  electric 
poAarity  In  minerals  oa  being  heated  or  cooled. 
The  quality  of  pyroclectricity  is  best  shown  in 
loamaline,  a  crystal  of  which  on  being  heated 
from  about  10°  to  ISO*  C  displays  positive  elec- 
trification at  one  end  and  negative  at  the  other ; 
but  on  cooling  the  polarity  is  reversed  and  the 
positive  and  negative  ends  change  places.  Twin 
crystals  of  quartz  also  show  the  phenomena  and 
ether  crystals  in  a  lesser  degree. 

ELECTRICITY    IH    MEDICINE.     See 

El-ECTBOTH  ERA  PEU^ICS. 

ELECTRICITY     IN     MINING.       See 

UlNBS  AND  UirtlNG. 

ELECTRICS    and     HON-ELBCTRICS. 

The  chief  work  of  the  earliest  experimenters 
in  electricity  was  to  divide  bodies  into  electrics. 


could  not  so  excite.  These  names  were  given 
the  two  classes  hy  Gilbert  of  Colchester  (I60D). 
But  Du  Fay  fl733-4S>  showed  that  electrics  arc 
identical  with  non-conductors,  and  non-electrics 
with  conductors;  and  that  the  reason  why  non- 
declrics  did  not  exhitnt  excitement  by  friction 
was  that  the  electricity  was  conducted  away 
from  them  as  fast  as  it  was  produced.  The  dis- 
tinction was  thus  broken  down. 


ELECTRO-BIOLOGY,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  electric  currents  developed  in  living 
or^nisms;  also  the  departmcift  of  knowledge 
which  treats  of  the  influence  or  control  over  the 
feelings,  thoughts  and  actions  of  a  mesmerized 
person.  Very  simple  powers  of  observation 
show  that  the  ntotitms  of  a  man's  body  are  under 
the  direction  of  his  will.  He  puts  forth  his 
hand  because  he  wills  to  do  so;  he  walks 
through  volition,  even  thouRh  his  mind  be  occu- 
pied with  other  things;  and  talks  or  is  silent  as 
his  will  directs.  It  follows  that  there  i^  some 
method  by  which  the  will  communicates  with 
the  physical  mechanism  of  that  wonderful  ma- 
chine the  human  body.  Through  anatomy  we 
team  that  the  muscles  do  the  work,  and  that 
the  nerves  guide  the  muscles,  and  that  the  nerves 
all  proceed  from  or  centre  in  the  brain. 
Through  chiropractic  we  learn  to  plot  the  paths 
of  the  nerves  tfargu^  the  body,  and  discover 
when  their  office  is  interfered  with.  Through 
phrenology  we  learn  that  certain  classes  of 
nerves  connect  with  certain  portions  of  the 
brain,  and  thus  certain  brain  areas  are  identified 
with  certain  jdiysicat,  mental  and  moral  capaci- 
ties. 

But  the  thing  we  ouuiot  demonstrate — be- 
ouse  we  cannot  see  it — is  just  how  the  will 
connects  with  a  portion  of  the  brain  and  sends 
out  its  order,  which  we  know  travels  through 
the  nerves  to  the  muscles.  Therefore  wc  have 
to  theorize  as  to  how  this  is  done,  and  the  best 
theory  appears  lo  he  the  electric  or  magnetic 
theory,  that  that  which  Hesmer  called  'animal 
magnetism*  is  the  medium  of  exchange.  This 
is  not  meant  as  an  endorsement  of  all  that  Mes- 
mer  said  and  did — far  from  it  —  but  simply 
diat  the  force,  process  or  thing  used  and  little 
understood  by  Mesmer  is  the  same  force 
process  or  tlung  diat  translates  a  man's  will 
into  brain  action.  The  problem  is  eltKidated  dy 
a  study  of  hypnotism  and  mediumistic  control. 
It  "Trill  be  remembered  that  mesmerism  and 
hypnotism  have  been  identified  as  based  on  the 
same  natural  laws,  and  that  all  authorities  on 
the  subject  an  in  agreement  diat  in  hypnotism 
one  person's  will  is  replaced  by  another  person's. 
The  subject  (or  victim)  of  a  hypnotist  surren- 
ders his  will  to  the  hypnotist,  to  the  degree  in 
which  he  is  brought  under  the  influence  of 
hypnosis.  This  is  why  the  subject  obeys  the 
commands  of  the  hypnotist,  even  when  told  to 
do  ridiculous  and  absurd  things.  The  hypnotist 
has  got  control  of  the  subject's  ^magnetism* 
for  the  time  being,  and  he  is  helpless,  a  mere 
puppet  or  slave  of  his  hypnotist's  will.  This  is 
logical  and  rational,  and  for  a  fuller  exposition 
of  the  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  arti- 
cle on  Hytnotisk.  Mesmer  apparently  was 
right  in  his  assumption  that  by  mesmeric  passes 
he  gained  control  of  his  patient's  magnetism. 
His  theory  was  that  there  existed  'a  fluid 
universally  diffused,  continuous,  and  naturally 
susceptible  of  receiving,  propagating  and  com- 
municating all  motor  disturbances.*  (Binet  and 
Fere,  'Animal  Magnetism,'  p.  S.)  This  is  ex-  ■ 
actly  the  sort  of  fluid  that  meets  the  require- 
ments of  transmitting  one's  will  to  one's  brain 
and  nerves;  but  to-day  we  do  not  use  the  word 
•fluid,'  rather  *ether*  to  express  the  medium 


8l^ 


1S4 


EI,ECTSO<BIU>MZB—  BLECTJROCHSMIOAJ.    BQUIVALVNTS 


tfaroitgfi  whidi  electnchy,  magnetism,  X-rays 
and  similar  manifestations  arc  believed  to  travel 
Mesmer  considered  thai  the  human  body  was 
charged  with  this  magnetism  much  as  the  earth 
ia  charged  with  electricity,  and  the  theory  stands 
analysis.  He  called  it  'animal  ma^etism,* 
wtiidi  is  here  used  as  the  most  familiar  term, 
diough  it  miriit  better  be  termed  "physical  mag- 
netism.^ That  animals  have  it  as  well  as 
humans  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  animals  can 
be  hypnotized.  Away  back  in  1646  Father 
Athanasius  Kirchner  described  his  hypnotizing- 
of  poultry,  and  later  this  became  a  fashionable 
pastime  in  France.  In  1872  Czermak  repeated 
his  experiments,  and  also  hypnotized  birds,  rab- 
bits, salamanders  and  crabs. 

Whether  this  animal  magnetism  is  identical 
with  animal  electricity,  or -whether  —  as  is  more 
probable  —  it  is  a  separate  form  of  soinc  hiifher 
etheric  vibration  than  electricity,  is  interesting, 
.  but  not  all-important,  and  appears  never  to  have 
been  demonstrated.  The  vital  fact  of  interest 
in  electro- biology  is  that  the  human  organism 
is  virtually  a  vitalized  dynamo,  that  gathers 
diarge  from  the  air  breathed,  and  which  gives 
off  enerc-  through  the  muscles  tmder  the  Mfec- 
tlon  of  ffie  will.  Electrical  engineers  commonly 
make  this  comparison,  being  struck  with  the 
similarity  of  the  human  organism  with  the  elec- 
tric dynamo.  And  the  fact  that  the  human 
organism  gets  its  charge  of  magnetism  through 
the  air  breathed  suggests  that  human  magnetism 
is  either  universal  in  space  or  at  least  existent 
in  both  the  air  and  water  in  which  men  and 
fishes  live. 

Another  proof  of  the  reality  of  this  thing 
we  call  "animal  magnetism"  is  furnished  by 
spiritualistic  or  medJumistic  phenomena.  The 
'animal  magnetism*  is  believed  to  be  the  cause 
of  the  'aura,*  of  which  evet?  student  has  read, 
but  which  few  have  seen.  Spiritualistic  mediums 
often  speak  of  witnessing  an  individual's  aura, 
but  this  evidence  will  satisfy  only  those  who 
believe  in  mediumship.  To  actually  see  the  anra 
or  evidence  of  human  magnetism  this  experi- 
ment is  suggested :  Arrange  a  perfectly  bUck 
background  and  place  a  large,  strong  man  about 
five  feet  in  front  of  it,  at  dusk  or  twilight.  Take 
a  position  20  to  40  feet  away,  and  gaze  steadily 
on  the  scarcely  visible  form  of  the  man.  When 
Ibe  conditions  stid  distances  are  ri^t  anyone 
of  good  sight  will  see  a  faint  radiance  or  aum 
emanating  from  and  outlining  the  man  on  the 
black  baiiground.  It  is  claimed  that  the  more 
moral  the  man  the  brighter  the  anra,  and  that 
this  is  why  the  old  masters  painted  auras  about 
the  heads  of  pictures  of  saints  and  especially  of 
Jesus  Christ.  Another  evidence  of  the  reality 
of  this  magnetism  comes  from  the  spiritualistic 
mediums.  They  claim  that  the  work  of  medium- 
ship  is  extremely  exhausting,  and  deprives  them 
of  their  magnetism,  and  that  this  is  why  they 
cannot  give  genuine  exhibitions  ad  libitum  as 
wsitors  may  demand.  And  many  who  have 
kvestigated  mediumship  are  convinced  that  this 

The  term  electro -biology  was  coined  about 
1850  to  describe  the  relationship  between  elec- 
tricity and  life.  We  do  not  know  what 
electricity  is,  and  we  do  not  know  what  life  is; 
we  have  to  judge  of  both  by  their  manifesta- 
tions.   We  know  little  of  the  nature  and  nothing 


of  the  origin  of  either,  although  some  scientific 
men  and  some  theologians  are  apt  to  be  dog- 
matic in  asserting  that  this  or  that  must  be  or 
cannot  be  possible.  But  we  do  knom  that 
through  some  tnediitw  the  will  contix>ls  man's 
sensory  organism  and  physical  functions,  and  we 
choose  to  call  this  thing  'animal  magnetisai,*  as 
Mesmer  called  it,  and  to  consider  it  of  the  nature 
of  electricity.  Reasoning  analogously,  that  as 
the  wireless  telegraph  conveys  a  certain  vibra- 
tion which  may  be  picked  up  by  an  instrument 
hundreds  of  miles  away  throu^  etheric  vibra- 


which  many  call  thought- vibrations,  a 
them  through  the  etheric  magnetism  that  im- 
bues all  men  and  animals,  and  perhaps  all 
nature.  But  ordinarily  these  vibrations  are 
picked  up  and  responded  to  only  by  the  organism 
of  the  man  who  sends  them  out,  presumablv 
because  his  magnetic  vibrations  harmonize  wita 
his  physical  body.  It  is  also  logical  to  reason 
that  this  sort  of  maiqietism  exists  everywhere, 
as  we  suppose  electricity  pervades  the  universe, 
and  that  the  phenomena  of  telepathy  or  thought- 
transference,  and  mind-reading,  are  explainable 
through  harmonic  vibrations  of  the  ether  which 
this  magnetism  permeates  and  pervades.  Clair- 
voyage  and  ciairaudience  likely  are  closely 
related,  so  that  in  solving  the  problem  of 
physical    magnetism    probably    these    will    also 

It  is  slated  in  ^The  Great  Psychologica! 
Crime'  (p.  178)  that  'animal  magnetism  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  development  of  me- 
diumship,* and  that  'the  room  in  which  the 
sittings  are  held  must  become  thoroughly  mag- 
netized with  the  animal  magnetism  of  the 
controlling  intelligences.'  The  reader  who  cares 
to  pursue  the  subject  further  should  consult  this 
book.  . 

Charles  H.  CocHBAKb. 
ELBCTRO-BRONZE.     See  ELEcntOFUT- 

INC. 

ELECTROCHEMICAL  B  Q  U  I  V  A  - 
LBNTS.  The  general  principles  of  electro- 
chemistry (q.v.)  and  especially  Faraday's  laws 
(q.v.)  have  shown  us  a  definite  quantitative  re- 
lation between  the  amount  of  electricity  passing 
in  a  given  electrolysis,  and  the  amount  of  de- 
composition resulting.  According  to  Farada^a 
laws,  the  amount  of  taxy  given  element  which 
will  be  deposited  b^  a  given  amount  of  current 
is  directly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  cur- 
rent passing,  and  to  thechcmically  equivalent 
weight  of  the  element  in  question.  Quanti- 
tatively, it  requires  96,500  coulombs  of  electricity 
(ampere-seconds)  to  deposit  a  chemically  equiv- 
alent weight  of  any  substance ;  or,  to  put  it  in  a 
more  practical  viiy,  it  requires  96,500  coulombs 
to  make  a  unit  change  of  valence  of  a  gram- 
atom  of  any  substance.  From  this  numerical 
relation  one  can  then  calculate  the  weight  of 
any  element  that  will  be  deposited  by_  a  unit 
amount  of  current  in  a  unit  time.  This  is  called 
the  Electrochemical  Equivalent  of  the  dement 
For  scientific  purposes  it  is  usually  stated  in 
grams  per  coulomb  or  per  amiere-hour ;  for 
commercial  use  larger  units  are  convenient,  such 
as  kilograms  or  pounds  per  ampere-day,  or  per 
1,000  ampere-hours. 


lyGoot^Ie 


BLBCTROCHBHICAL    INDUSTRIE 


t«B 


)  table  of  the  electrochemical 


equivalents  of  tfae 

1  13  4  s 

Ekmeat  Symbol       migbt  Valence  lUiipera-liour 

AJaminium A]  27.1  3  0.33702 

Antiinaar Sb  120.2  3  1.494S 

AjWdic Ai  74.96  3  o!9322i 

5  0.  S5932 

Buinin Ba  137.37  2  2.3625 

Bitmuth Bi  20S,0  3  2.Sg67 

S  1.3320 

Broiniae Br  79.92  1  2.9817 

Cadmiam Cd  112  40  2  2  0976 

Cklchun C»  40.07  2  0.74747 

Chlorine. CI  35.46  I  t.3229 

Chromiiun Ct  52.0  2  0  97001 

3  0.6466T 

CotMk Co  58.97  2  1.1000 

3  0.73335 

Copper Ca  63.37  1  2.3717 

2  I.1S3R 

PtaorJM F  19.0  1  0, 70813 

Gold Au  197.2  I  7.3572 

3  2  4524 

Hrdrosen H  l.OOB         1  0.0376066 

Iodine I  126.92  1  4  7351 

lion Pe  56. H  2  1.0416 

3  0  69443 
Laul Pb            207.20          2  3.8651 

4  I  9326 

UthiniR -U  6,94  1  0.25892 

Mijanlum Mg  24.32  2  0  45367 

Muiflaiwce Mn  54.93  2  1.0247 

Mereiuy.    Ha  2D0.6  1  3.7420 

MalrbdcDiun K  96.0  3  1.1939 

Nickel Ni  58.68  2  10946 

KiUosnl N  14.01  3  oil74Z3 

5  0  lOlSf 
OiyBBD O                16.00          2  0  29847 

4  0.14923 
Ptuaphanu P                31.04          3  0.38601 

5  0.23161 
PUtinum Pt             195.2             4  1.8206 

Selenium..'.'.',  iii!     Se  .  79^2  4  0^73870 

.lilicsD Si  28.3  4  0.2639S 

ailvTsr V  107-88  1  4  02480 

liodiDm Kk  23.00  1  0.85SO9 

litrontium 8r  87.63  2  1.6347 

Solphur 8  32.06  4  0.29903 

THlurium T»  127.5  I  2.3784 

4  1.1892 

6  0. 79280 
Tin 9n            I1B.7             2  2.2142 

4  1.1071 

TiUniiUB Ti  48.1  4  0-44863 

TunBtBD W  184.0  6  1, 1441 

Ur»nmm V  238.2  6  1.4811 

Vuadiiun V  51.0  5  0.38054 

Zinc Za  65.37  2  1.1194 

These  values  arc  taken  from  'Dectrochemi- 
cai  Equ-valents'  by  Heririg  and  Getman  (New 
York    1917). 

G.  A.  RousH, 
Assistant  Secretary,  American  Electrochemical 
Society. 
BLBCTROCHBMICAL  INDUSTRIES. 
Hectrocbemistiy  may  be  defined  as  that  branch 
□f  chemistry  relatir^  to  the  cariying  out  of 
chemical  reactions  by  the  means  of  or  with 
the  assistance  of  electriciiy.  The  word  electro- 
diemical  as  here  used  includes  the  processes  of 
electrometallurgy,  the  production  and  treat- 
ment of  metals  by  means  of  electricityj  there 
bdng  no  §ceneric  term  covering  both  subjects. 

The  production  or  furtherance  of  chemical 
action  by  means  of  electrical  energy  may  be 
secured  in  three  ways:  (I)  By  electrolysas  — 
ihe  action  of  an  electric  current  upon  a  dionical 
compouTKl  in  solution  or  in  a  fuwd  condition; 
(2)  by  electrothermal  action  —  the  production 
of  chemical  changes  by  electrically  generated 
heat ;  (3)  by  the  discharge  of  electncity  through 
gases. 


The  lai^est  employment  of  electrolysis  is  in 
the  production  and  refinement  of  metals,  par- 
ticularly aluminum  and  copper;  but  it  is  also 
used  extensively  in  the  preparation  of  a  targe 
number  of  chemical  compounds  of  widely  var^ 
ing  character. 

In  most  cases  a  substance  obtained  by  elec- 
trolysis may  be  prepared  also  by  a  strictly  chem- 
ical process.  The  choice  of  methods  then  be- 
comes simply  one  of  cost.  An  example  in 
point  is  the  manufacture  of  metallic  sodium: 
originally  discovered  by  (he  electrolysis  of 
caustic  soda,  it  was  for  many  years  made  com- 
mercially by  the  reduction  of  sodium  carbonate 
with  carbon,  or  of  caustic  soda  by  a  mixture 
of  iron  and  carbon ;  more  recently  the  electro- 
lytic process  has  replaced  the  chemical  methods, 
because  it  is  cheaper.  In  other  cases  certain 
products  of  electrochemical  action  have  not  yet . 
been  made  by  any  other  process. 

A  gi;eat  saving  of  heat  is  found  in  most 
electrothermal  processes,  due'  to  the  fact  that 
the  electrically  generated  heat  is  applied  inside 
the  container,  where  it  is  effectively  employe^ 
no  heat  being  wasted  in  healing  tne  contents 
through  the  walls  of  the  container,  as  in  com- 
bustion processes.  But  even  When  produced 
by  the  cheapest  water  power,  electric  heat  costs 
several  times  more  than  neat  produced  by  the 
combustion  of  coalj  so  that  wher;  large  quan- 
tities of  heat  are  needed  at  only  moderate  tem- 
peratures, the  combustion  processes  are  usually 

We  shall  here  consider  the  chief  electro- 
chemical industries  that  have  thus  far  attained 
commercial  importance. 

Copper.— The  process  of  refining  copper 
electrolyfically  consists  in  the  transfer  of  cop- 
per from  the  anode  to  the  cathode,,  by  the 
selective  action  of  the  electric  current,  and  in 
leaving  the  impurities  behind  dissolved  in  the 
electrolyte,  or  in  the  form  of  slime  or  seidi- 
menL  The  material  at  present  subjected  to 
profitable  electrolyie  refining  is  crude  copper 
containing  from  w  to  98  ^er  cent  pure  copper, 
and  varjing  amounts  of  silver,  gold,  platinum, 
palladium,  nickel,  iron,  arsenic,  antimony,  sul- 
phar.  etc.  This  crude  copper  is  obtained  from 
various  copper  ores  by  smelting  and  is  cast  in 
copper  molds  into  anode  plates,  which  arc  about 
three  feet  square  and  one  to  two  inches  thick, 
weighing  250  to  500  pounds.  The  cathode 
plates  are  of  elect rolytically  refined  copper, 
practically  the  same  in  length  and  width  as  the 
anodes,  but  only  1/32  to  1/16  inch  thick.  The 
electrolyte,  or  bath,  in  which  the  plates  are  sus- 
pended, is  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  just 
short  of  saturation,  with  enough  suli^iuric  acid 
to  prevent  the  separation  of  hydrated  cupric 
oxide,  but  not  enough  to  cause  hydrogen  in- 
stead of  copper  to  be  separated  at  Vie  cathode; 
the  proportions  are  about  3-4  per  cent  of  cooper 
as  sulphate  and  10-13  per  cent  of  free  sulphuric 
arid.  When  silver  19  present  in  the  anode  a 
little  salt  or  hydrochloric  add  is  added  to  the 
electrolyte.  The  bath  is  fc^t  at  a  temperature 
of  about  -W-tSO"  C.  (lOO-l-tO"  K).  The  contain- 
ing tanks  are  of  wood,  usually  lined  with  sheet 
lead  or  carefully  coated  with  a  pitch  compound, 
and  of  such  dimensions  that  a  distance  of  fron- 
l.S  to  2  inches  eorists  between  the  faces  of 
the  plates.  In  some  cases  the  plates  are  ar- 
ranged in  series  and  in  otjiers  in  parallel  or 
*      the    series    systcn   the    anodes. 


180 


BLECTROOHBUICAL    INDUSTRIES 


nhich  are  tnudi  smaller  than  in  the  multiple 
system,  are  suspended  in  the  electrolyte  from 
one-half  to  three-fourths  of  »n  inch  apart,  and 
only  the  end  ones  in  the  series  are  connected 
with  the  poles  of  the  generator.  With  this  ar- 
rangement the  copper  dissolved  from  the  inner 
face  of  the  first  anode  is  deposited  on  the 
nearer  face  of  the  second  plate;  the  farther 
face  of  the  second  plate  is  dissolved  and  depos- 
ited on  the  nearer  face  of  the  third  plate  — 
and  so  on  throughout  the  series.  When  the 
anodes  are  nearly  exhausted  the  pure  copper 
deposits  are  removed  from  the  tank  and  the 
undissolved  remnants  of  anode  stripped  from 
the  back  of  the  cathodes. 

The  series  arrangement  has  the  advantage 
of  requiring  electrical  connections  to  be  made 
at  the  first  and  last  plates  only,  whereas  the 
parallel  system  requires  a  connection  at  every 
plate;  but  in  the  series  system  the  leakage  of 
current  due  to  the  short-circuiting  action  of 
the  sediment  and  sides  of  the  tank  is  from  10 
to  20  per  cent,  so  that  the  parallel  system  is 
more  generally  used.  The  connections  between 
the  various  plates  and  the  circuit  in  the  parallel 
systems  are  made  by  copper  rods,  which  are 
run  at  two  different  levels  along  die  edges  of 
the  tanks,  one  bar  for  each  set  of  plates.  In 
some  instances  these  rods  are  of  the  inverted 
V  shape,  so  that  the  edges  will  cut  through  any 
corrosion  which  may  Happen  to  form  at  the 
points  of  contact.  The  vats  are  arranged,  with 
respect  to  each  other,  so  that  each  is  accessible 
from  all  sides  and  free  circulation  of  the  elec' 
trolyte  is  possible.  This  circulation  is  some- 
times obtained  by  blowing  a  stream  of  air 
through  the  electrolyse,  but  more  frequently  by 
arranging  the  vats  in  steps,  and  piping  so  that 
the  electrolyte  may  pass  from  the  top  of  one 
vat  to  the  bottom  of  the  next,  by  the  action  of 
gravity.  This  maintains  a  uniform  density  of 
dectrolyte,  which  is  necesjaty  for  the  prober 
formation  of  the  deposit.  The  electromotive 
force  required  is  from  0.2  to  0,4  volt  per  tank, 
with  a  current  density  of  15  to  20  amperes  per 
square  foot  of  cathode  plate  surface.  The 
individual  vats  are  connected  in  series  so  that 
the  total  voltage  may  be  approximately  the  same 
aa  that  which  the  generator  fumi^es,  being 
usually  110  volts.  One  ampere  of  current  de- 
posits on  the  cathode  only  about  one  ounce  of 
relined  copper  in  24  hours,  and  the  current 
density  must  be  kept  below  40  amperes  per 
square  foot  to  avoid  mushrooming  and  conse- 
quent short-circuiting.  In  practice  from  400  to 
500  ampere-hours  are  required  per  pound  of 
copper  deposited,  the  theoretical  amount  ac- 
cording to  Faraday's  law  being  only  386.2  am- 
pere-hours. The  loss  varies  from  4  to  20  per 
cent  according  to  the  sjrslem   employed. 

The  main  product  of  refining  is  commercial 
cathodes,  which  are  sometimes  shipped  to  con- 
sumers, but  more  frequently  cast  into  wire-bars. 
ingots,  cakes  or  slabs  of  standard  dimensions 
and  weight  They  usually  assay  from  99.66  to 
99.94  per  cent  pure  copper.  The  yield  in  com- 
mercial cathodes  is  from  97  to  99  per  cent 
of  the  anodes  treated,  excluding  the  anode  scrap 
which  varies  in  weight  from  /  to  15  per  cent 
of  the  ori^nal  anode  in  i»ra11el  plants,  but 
this  scrap  is  not  a  loss  as  it  is  collected  and 
recast  into  anode  plates.  Besides  electrolytic 
copper  most  plants  secure  gold,  silver,  platintim 


and  palladium  from  the  slimos,  and  sonetifnes 
selemum,  tellaritun  and  other  rarer  metals. 
Nickel  salts  are  usually  recovered  from  the 
soluticHis. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  10  electrolytic 
copper  refineries  with  a  total  capacity  of 
2,780,000,000  pounds  per  year;  one  refinery 
in  Canada  with  a  capacity  of  14,000,000  pounds 
per  year.  The  actual  production  in  1917  was 
about  2,300,000.000  pounds,  repre  sea  ting  approxi- 
mately 74  per  cent  of  the  entire  world  s  produc- 
tion of  copper  for  the  year.  Or,  deducting 
from  the  total  production  the  amount  that  does 
not  require  refining,  about  275,0001000  pounds 
from  Michigan,  the  United  States,  prodilction 
amounts  to  over  81  per  cent  of  the  total  pro- 
duction of  refined  copper.  The  other  19  per 
cent  is  produced  in  a  number  of  plants  of  com- 
paratively small  capacity  in  England,  Wales 
and  Continental  Europe. 

Alnminnm.—  Practically  the  whole  output 
of  this  metal  for  the  entire  world  is  now  pro- 
duced elect  rolytically.  The  only  process  used 
on  a  large  scale  is  that  invented  independently 
in  1886  by  Charles  U.  Hall  in  the  United  States 
and  by  Paul  L.  T,  Heroult  in  France.  This 
process  consists  in  electrolyzing:  alumina  dis- 
solved in  a  fused  bath  of  cryolite.  The  alum- 
ina is  obtained  from  the  mineral  bauxite  which 
occurs  abundantly  in  Arkansas,  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama and  Tennessee.  The  natural  material, 
being  a  hyd rated  alumina  containing  siUca, 
iron  and  titanium,  must  be  treated  in  order  to 
drive  off  the  water  and  eliminate  the  impurities. 
This  is  accomplished  by  a  chemical  process.  In 
practice  it  requires  about  two  pounds  of  alum- 
ina for  each  pound  of  aluminum  produced.  The 
flux  or  bath  in  which  the  alumina  is  dissolved 
consists  of  ciyolite,  a  natural  double  fluoride 
of  aluminum  and  sodium  (AlFt6NaF)  found 
in  Greenland.  This  is  melted  in  a  lar^e  carbon- 
lined,  sheet-iron  tank  which  constitutes  the 
negative  electrode,  a  ^roup  of  suspended  carbon 
rods  forming  the  positive  electrode.  A  current 
of  several  thousand  amperes  at  six  to  seven 
volls  is  used.  Only  a  portion  of  this  voltage 
is  required  to  decompose  the  alumina,  the  b^- 
ance  amounting  to  about  tour  to  five  volts  rejy- 
resents  the  heat  required  to  keep  the  bath 
melted.  The  passape  of  the  current  causes  the 
aluminum  to  deposit  on  the  bottom  of  the'  tank 
as  a  fused  metal,  whence  it  is  drawn  off  period- 
ically. The  oxygen  set  free  combines  with  the 
carbon  of  the  positive  electrodes  and  passes  off 
as  carbonic  oxide.  The  reaction  is  AlnO,+3C— 
2A1+3CO.  About  one  pound  of  carbon  is  con- 
sumed for  one  pound  of  aluminum  produccdL 
An  excess  of  alumina  is  kept  floating  on  the 
bath  so  that  it  is  saturated  at  all  times.  Ac- 
cording to  Faraday's  law  the  weight  of  alumi- 
num deposited  hy  1,000  amperes  is  0.743  pound 
per  hour.  The  actual  yield  of  metal  l^  the 
Hall  process  is  about  85  per  cent  of  this  theo- 
retical amount.  The  metal  when  drawn  from 
the  tanks  is  cast  into  rough  ingots  which  are 
afterward  remelted  and  converted  into  com- 
mercial shapes,  such  as  sheets,  rods,  wires,  etc 
The  United  States  in  1917  produced  about 
180,000,000  pounds  of  aluminum,  which  was 
alMUt  two-thirds  the  total  production  of  the 
vforld.  Before  the  European  War  the  share  of 
the  United  States  in  the  total  production  vm 


jyGoot^Ic 


ELECTRO-CHEMICAL  IHDUSTRT 


1  EleeTrolTtlG  proccM  of  copnr-refinJiii,  ihowmf  tuka  flUed  with  *  tohitiiHi  ot  copper  mljAitB  ud  coataiainc  ihectt 

of  copIMt  conoKted  to  the  IcmlBiiU  of  ■  leDciBtor 
1  CailiBc  ildt  of  ■  fdiniteo  ilwirini  copper  modn  plued  ndiiltr  on  ■  Cluk  culiof  nucliln* 


.yGooi^le 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


SLSCTROCHEHICAX    INDUSTRIES 


isr 


_s,  and  its  generation  as  a  vapor,  due 

to  its  boiling  point  being  at  930°  C.  (1700°  F,> 
present  difficulties  which  offer  an  unusually 
Open  field  for  success  to  an  electrode  method 
of  reduction.  Several  processes  are  in  usei. 
They  all  provide  for  the  preUminary  roasting 
of  tlie  ore  —  which  is  essentially  lead  sulphide, 
line  sulphide  and  gangue~-at  a  low  red  heat, 
so  as  to  convert  the  sulpliides  into  oxides  and 
sulphates.  The  roasted  ore  is  then  treated  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the  zinc  being  dissolved  ai 
sulphate,  leaving  the  lead  sulphate  as  an  in- 
soluble residue  to  be  smelted  by  the  usual  dry 
methods.  Most  of  the  silver  present  remains 
with  the  lead,  a  small  portion  passing  into  solu- 
tion with  the  zinc.  It  is  in  fact  the  recovered 
silver  that  sometimes  makes  the  process  profit- 
able. It  is  necessary  to  free  the  zinc  solution 
from  iron,  copper  and  other  foreign  metals  —  a 
matter  of  considerable  difficulty.  When  suf- 
ficiently purified,  the  zinc  sulphate  is  elcetro- 
lyzed,  the  anodes  beinf[  of  lead,  and  the 
cathodes  thin  sheets  of  zinc.  The  operation  is 
in  reality  a  reduction  of  the  sulphate,  in  no 
sense  a  refining  process.  As  the  reduction 
proceeds  the  electrolyte  becomes  more  and  more 
acid,  and  when  hydrogen  in  quantity  is  evolved 
at  the  cathodes,  the  electrolyte  is  nm  oS,  and 
used  again  to  leach  roasted  ore. 

Lead. —  The  electrolytic  refining  of  lead  has 
never  been  as  widely  applied  as  in  the  caae  of 
copper,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  operation  ii 
more  expensive  in  comparison  with  the  low 
price  of  the  metal,  and  that  the  ordinary .  fur- 
nace-refined lead  of  commerce  is  99.98  per  cent 
pure.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  lead  carries 
valuable  impurities  that  are  not  readily  re- 
covered by  furnace  methods,  and  the  process  of 
electrolytic  refining  is  resorted  to.  The  prin- 
ciples involved  are  the  same  as  for  copper,  the 
impure  lead  being  used  as  anode  in  a  solution  of 
lead  fluosilicate  as  electrolyte.  The  cathode  is 
a  rolled  sheet  of  pure  lead.  The  electrolyte 
ordinarily  carries  60  to  70  grams  of  lead  per 
litre,  as  fluosilicate,  and  80  grams  of  freebydro- 
fluosilicic  acid  Lead  normally  tends  to  give 
a  fine  crystalline  deposit,  but  by  the  addition  of 
0.1  per  cent  of  gelatin  to  the  electrolyte,  this 
is  changed  to  a  smooth,  coherent  deposit. 
The  temperature  has  no  effect  on  the  deposit, 
but  the  current  used  is  sufficient  to  maintain 
the  bath  at  about  30°  C  (86°  F.).  The  current 
densihr  used  is  12-16  amperes  per  square  foot, 
and  the  vol[ag;e  per  tank  is  0.3O-O.38.  Tanks 
are  arranged  m  series  with  the  electrodes  in 
each  tank  in  multiple.  The  purity  of  the  re- 
fined lead  is  about  99.995  per  cent 

Silver. —  The  parting  of  the  gold  and  silver 
when  the  silver  is  in  excess,  or  the  refining  of 
auriferous  silver,  is  also  carried  on  by  an 
electrochemical  process.  In  this  process  the 
electrodes  are  arranged  horizontally,  the  anodes 
above  and  separated  from  the  cathode  by  a 
porous  diaphragm.  The  cathode  is  a  thin  sheet 
of  silver  formed  into  an  endless  belt  which 
travels  horizontally  below  the  series  of  anodes. 
The  upper  surface  of  the  belt  is  smeared  with 
graphite  to  prevent  a  close  adherence  of  the 
crystals  of  deposited  silver.  These  crystals  are 
brushed  off  at  the  end  of  the  tank  upon  a  con- 
veyor-belt and  removed  at  once  from  the 
electrolyte.  Another  modificadon  has  a  horizon- 


tal graphite  plate  for  calhod^  from  which  the 
silver  crystals  are  removed  by  hand  with  a 
scraper.  The  electrolyte  carries  1  to  3  per 
cent  of  silver,  4  lo  6  per  cent  of  copper,  and 
one~tentb  of  I  per  cent  of  free  nitric  acid.  A 
certain  amount  of  the  acid  is  consumed  in  dis- 
solving the  copper  present  in  the  silver — about 
one  and  one-half  pounds  to  each  1,000  ounces 
of  silver  treated 

Gold.— The  electrolytic  process  has  been 
used  in  the  recovery  of  gold  from  its  solution  in 
potassium  cyanide,  after  cyanide  extraction. 
The  cyanide  liquor  is  electrolyzed  between  iron 
anodes  and  sheet  lead  cathodes,  using  low  cur- 
rent density.  Chemical  precipitation  of  the 
gold,  usii^  zinc  or  aluminum  is  usually  pre- 
ferred, however.'  In  addition  to  this  recovery 
process,  electrolytic  refining  is  practised  lo  a 
considerable  extent.  The  crude  gold  is  used  as 
the  anode,  in  a  solution  of  gold  chloride  with 
hydrochloric  acid  as  the  electrolyte.  The 
cathode  is  a  thin  sheet  of  pure  gold  A  cur- 
rent density  of  90  amperes  per  square  foot  at 
a  low  voltage  (say  1  volt)  is  employed.  The 
pold  is  depositea  in  crystalline  form,  leaving  the 
impurities  in  the  anode  as  a  sludge,  or  dissolved 
in  the  electrolyte. 

Antimony. — Antimony  has  been  produced 
by  an  electrochemical  process,  but  never  on  any 
extended  scale.  One  process  consists  in  leach- 
ing the  sulphide  ore  with  sodium  sulphide,  and 
extracting  the  dissolved  antimony  from  the  solu- 
tion by  electrolysis,  using  iron  cathodes,  from 


e-tenth  of  an  inch.  The  electrolyzing  cell  is 
separated  into  two  compartments  by  a  porous 
diaphragm,  the  anode  being  carbon  in  a  solu- 
tion of  30<Lum  chloride.  The  chlorine  from  the 
anode  compartment  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  bleaching  powder,  and  the  exhausted  sodium 
sulphide  from  the  cathode  compartment  is  used 
to  leach  more  ore.  One  method  of  working  up 
the  slimes  from  the  electrolytic  lead-refining 
process  gives  a  sodium  sulphide  solution  carry- 
ing antimony,  which  is  treated  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  refine 
antimony  in  both  sulphide  and  fluoride  solu- 

NickeL — While  the  electrolytic  processes 
have  not  proved  available  for  the  commercial 
winning  of  metallic  nickel  from  its  ores,  itJ 
electrolytic  refining  Is  successfully  accomplished, 
though  the  details  of  the  process  employed  arc 
guarded  as  a  trade  secret.  As  is  welt  known, 
electroplating  with  nickel  is  simple  and  easy. 
When,  however,  a  thicker  deposition  is  at- 
tempted, the  metal  scales  off  of  the  cathode  in 
thin  Hakes  which  cannot  be  collected  and  melted 
into  in^ts  at  a  commercial  profit  The  tend- 
ency of  any  iron  and  cobalt  present  in  the 
crude  nickel  to  be  deposited  on  the  cathode 
aloni^  with  the  nickel  is  a  serious  drawback  — 
and  incidentally  compels  attention  to  the  fact 
that  elect roiytically  deposited  metal  is  not  nece^ 
sarily  pure.  It  has  been  proved  by  experiment 
that  nickel  may  be  thus  deposited  in  thick  plates 
if  the  operation  is  conducted  with  a  hot  electro- 
lyte—in the  neighborhood  of  65°  C.  (150°  F.) 
—  and  with  a  comparatively  high  current  den- 
sity. Difficulty  is  experienced  under  these  con- 
ditions with  the  evolution  of  h>[drogen  from  the 
cathode,  causing  pitting  of  its  surface.  An' 
indirect  method  of  refining  nickel  by  electro- 


■8l^ 


1«8 


BLBCTKOCHBHtCAL    INSUSTKIBS 


lysis  consists  in  the  deposition  of  Its  principal 
impurity  (say  copper),  the  release  of  other  im- 
purities (S3y  silver  and  platinum)  in  the  anode 
sludge,  leaving  the  pure  nickel  in  solution 
in   the   electrolyte,   from   which  it   is   then   de- 

Calcinm.-- The  production  of  metallic  cal- 
diun  by  electrolysis  may  be  accomplished 
economically  by  using  fused  calcium  chloride 
as  the  electrolyte.  The  prindpal  process  used 
in  this  country  is  that  of  Seward  and  von 
Kugelgen.  The  cell  consists  of  a  circular  iron 
box  through  the  bottom  of  which  projects  a 
conical  iron  cathode,  insulated  from  the  box. 
The  anode  is  a  carbon  lining,  also  insulated 
from  the  box.  Above  the  cathode  at  the  level 
of  the  bath  is  a  water-cooled  collecting  ring 
within  which  the  metal  collects,  it  being  lighter 
than  the  bath.  By  the  time  the  collectms  rine 
is  full  of  metal  the  top  layer  is  soUdifieo,  ana 
Oie  solid  metal  is  gradually  lifted  up  through 
the  ring  by  a  hook,  the  freshly  collected  metal 
building  on  underneath  as  it  solidifies,  thus 
making  a  stick  or  rod  of  metaL 

MagneKum.^  Being,  like  aluminum,  reduc- 
ible with  difficulty  by  ordinary  furnace  methods, 
ma^esium  is  prepared  almost  solely  by  electro- 
lysis. The  raw  material  used  is  "carcallile,* 
Uie  double  chloridt.  of  magnesium  and  potas- 
sium. The  operation  is  carried  on  in  a  cylin- 
drical steel  box,  which  is  made  the  cathode  by 
suitable  electrical  connections.  The  anode  is 
of  carbon,  and  it  is  enclosed  in  ft  porcelain 
cylinder  open  at  the  bottom  and  with  slotted 
sides,  and  having  a  tube  at  the  top  for  the 
escape  of  the  chlorine  gas  set  free  at  the  anode. 
The  charge  of  camalUte  is  kept  in  a  fused 
condition  Dy  heat  applied  externally  to  the  steel 
box.  All  oxygen  is  excluded  from  the  appara- 
tus by  the  introduction  of  some  other  f;as 
(usually  nitrogen)  into  die  space  above  the 
dectrolyte.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  oxidizing  of  the  metallic  ma^esium, 
which  rises  and  noats  on  the  surface  of  the 
electrolyte.  A  tendency  of  the  globules  of 
magnesium  to  gather  a  film  of  oxide  sufficient 
to  prevent  coalescence  is  overcome  by  the  addi- 
tion of  fluorspar  (calcium  fluoride)  to  the 
molten  mass.  While  the  metal  thus  obtaitied 
is  not  strictly  pure,  it  Is  sufficiently  so  to  be 
available  for  all  commercial  purposes. 

Sod'iun. —  Formerly  secured  hy  chemical 
methods  at  very  high  temperatures,  the  world's 
supidy  of  sodium  is  now  produced  wholly  by 
electrolysis.  The  operation  according  to  the 
Castner  process  is  conducted  in  a  cylindrical 
steel  crucible  so  placed  in  a  flue  that  the  body  of 
it  can  be  heated  while  the  inverted  neck, 
through  which  the  cathode  enters  from  below, 
remains  cooL  The  electrolyte  used  is  caustic 
soda.  The  anode  is  iron,  cylindrical  in  farm, 
with  vertical  slits  which  allow  the  free  flow  of 
tfje  electrolyte :  it  surrounds  the  upper  end  of 
the  cathode,  a  cylinder  of  wire  gauze  hanging 
between  from  the  collecling  chamber  above. 
As  the  operation  proceeds,  molten  metallic 
sodium  is  released  at  the  cathode  and  rises  to 
float_oti_.the  surface  of  the  caustic  soda,  being 
guided  l^  the  wire  gauze,  which  it  cannot  pass 
owing  to  its  high  surface  tension.  In  the  col- 
lecting chamber  the  metal  is  protected  by  Ihe 
hydrogen  also  set  free  at  the  cathode,  and  is 
drawn  ofl  at  intervals  through  a  trap. 


The  Seward  and  von  Kugelgen  process  uses 
an  electrolyte  of  fused  sodium  chloride,  the 
melting  point  of  which  has  been  reduced  l^  the 
addition  of  other  salts  less  readily  decomposed 
by  the  current 

Potassiiuu. —  There  is  little  commerdal  de- 
mand for  metallic  potassium.  Its  production, 
however,  is  entirely  practicable  by  tne  Castner 
process  described  for  sodium,  using  caustic 
potash  as  the  dectrolyte. 

Electro  pUting  and  Electrotjrping. —  Elec- 
troplating is  the  art  of  covering  a  metallic  sur- 
face with  an  adherent,  electrodeposited  coating 
of  the  same  or  some  other  metal,  the  form  of 
the  original  surface  being  retained.  The  metal 
coating  may  be  added  purely  for  decorative 
purposes,  or  because  of  its  superior  resistance 
to  wear  or  corrosion.  Electrotyping  is  the  art 
of  reproducing  the  form  of  an  obieet  by  electro- 
deposition  of  a  metal,  usually  copper,  in  a  cast 
or  molded  impresjion  of  the  original  object. 
For  further  details  of  these  processes,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  under  these 
separate  headings. 

CtUBtic  So«L— The  production  of  caustic 
soda<NaOH}  and  chlorine  (O)  by  the  electro- 
lysis of  a  solution  of  common  salt  (NaQ)  is 
readily  realiied  experimentally  (NaCl  +  HiO 
—  NaOH  +  a  -f-  H),  but  its  successful  accom- 
pliriunent  on  a  commercial  basis  is  difficult  be- 
cause of  the  secondary  reactions  which  take 
place,  forming^  a  mixed  product  of  caustic,  salt, 
and  hypochlorite  of  soda.  These  difficulties  are 
avoided  by  separating  the  caastic  soda  that  is 
formed,  either  by  a  porous  diaphragm,  by  draw- 
ing it  off  as  soon  as  formed,  or  by  absorbing 
the  sodium  deposited  in  mercury  or  melted  lead. 

The  most  prominent  system  for  the  electro- 
lytic production  of  caustic  soda  and  chlorine 
from  common  salt  is  the  Castner-Kellner  proc- 
ess. The  Castner  process  employed  in  this 
country  at  Niagara  Falls  is  as  follows :  The 
electrolytic  tank  conusts  of  a  slate  box,  4  feet 
long,  4  feet  wide  and  6  inches  deep,  the  joints 
being  set  in  nihber  cement  Two  slate  parti- 
tions reaching  wldiin  1/16  inch  of  the  bottom 
(under  which  are  grooves)  divide  the  cell  into 
d»ree  compartments,  each  IS  inches  by  4  feet, 
sealed  from  each  other  by  a  layer  of  mercury 
covering  the  bottom  of  the  tank  to  a  consider- 
able depth.  The  two  outside  chambers  through 
which  the  britte  is  passed  are  provided  with 
graphite  anodes.  These  compartments  are  pro- 
vided with  gas-right  covers  and  exhaust  pipes 
of  rubber  and  lead,  to  lead  the  chlorine  away. 
The  central  compartment  has  an  iron  cathode, 
of  20  upright  strips,  and  is  filled  with  pure 
water  above  the  mercury.  Whenever  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  water  rises  to  126,  from 
its  absorption  of  caustic  soda,  it  is  drawn  off 
and  fresh  water  supplied.  The  liberated  hydro- 
gen is  led  from  this  chamber  by  means  of  pipes 
and  used  as  a  fuel  for  the  concentration  of  the 
caustic.  The  tank  is  pivoted  at  one  end  on  a 
knife  blade  and  rests  at  the  other  on  an  eccen- 
tric which  raises  and  lowers  that  end  of  the 
tank  about  half  an  inch  every  minute  and  causes 
a  circulation  of  the  mercury  between  the  outer 
and  middle  compartments.  The  current  passes 
into  the  outer  chambers,  splits  up  the  sodium 
chloride  (common  salt.  NaC!)  into  sodium  and 
chlorine  (Na  and  CD,  the  latter  is  liberated 
at  the  graphite  anodes  and  passes  through  the 
exhaust  pipe  to  the  absorption  chambers  where 


n.BCTROCHBHICAL    INDUSTRIES 


IBS 


it  combines  with  slacked  lim«  to  form  bl«acbinK 
powder.  The  sodium  combines  with  the  mer- 
cury forminE  sodium  amalgam,  which  by  the 
rockitiR  of  the  tank  passes  to  the  center  diam- 
ber,  where  it  serves  as  the  anode,  and  combines 
with  the  water  to  form  caustic  soda  (NaOH) 
and  hydrogen  (H),  which  appears  at  the  iron 
cathode.  Each  of  these  tanks  uses  630  amperes 
at  4,3  volts.  The  theoretical  voltage  reqnired 
is  but  2.3,  the  remainder  being  utilized  in  over- 
coming the  ohmic  resistance  of  the  electrolyte 
'  and  in  keeping  it  warm.  The  output  of  this 
process  per  horse  power  per  day  is  12  pounds 
of  caustic  and  30  pounds  of  bleaching  powder 
for  each  cell.  The  product  contains  from  97 
to  99  per  cent  caustic,  1  to  2  per  cent  sodium 
carbonate,  0.3  to  0.8  per  cent  of  sodium  chloride, 
and  traces  of  sodium  sulphate  and  sodium  sili- 
cate. A  number  of  other  processes  have  been  de~ 
ve loped  for  the  electrolysis  of  sah  sohitions  for 
the  production  of  alkali  and  chlorine,  all  based 
more  or  less  on  the  same  general  principles  as 
those  ntiltxed  in  the  Castner  process. 

The  Acker  process,  which  was  formerly  nsed 
at  Niagara  Falls,  bat  whkh  has  been  discontin- 
ued, obtained  caustic  soda  and  chlorine  using 
molten  lead  in  place  of  mercury  as  a  cathode, 
insed  salt  instead  of  brine  as  rtie  electrolyte,  and 
operated  at  a  temperature  of  850'  C.  (1S60'  F.). 
The  containing'  tank  was  a  cast-iron  vessel  5 
feet  long,  2  feet  wide  and  1  foot  deep,  the 
wdes  above  the  molten  lead  being  covered  with 
magnesia  so  that  the  current  must  pass  from 
the  graphite  anodes  to  the  lead  which  acted  as 
the  catnode.  At  one  end  of  the  tank  was  a 
small  compartment  separated  from  the  re- 
mainder of  flie  vessel  Iw-  a  partition  dipping 
into  the  lead  to  such  a  depth  that  nothing  but 
this  fused  lead  can  pass  from  one  compart- 
ment to  llie  other.  In  the  smaller  compartment 
the  lead  was  subjected  to  a  stream  of  steam, 
v-hich  decomposed  the  lead-sodium  alloy  with 
the  formation  of  NaOH  and  hydrogen  and  at 
the  same  time  kept  the  alloy  in  circulation.  At 
intervals  the  caustic,  which  was  in  a  fused 
stat^  was  drawn  oft  and  allowed  to  solidify, 
thus  avoidii^  the  evaporation  of  water  which 
is  necessary  in  the  C^tner-KeJlner  procesa 
The  current  employed  per  vessel  in  the  Adcer 
process  was  210O  amperes-  at  from  6  to  7 
Volta,  of  which  energy  54  per  cent  is  used  in 
chemical  action,  and  tne  ronainder  in  maintain- 
ing the  temperature.  The  output  of  each  was 
550  jiounda  of  caustic  soda  and  450  ponnds  of 
chlorine  in  24  hours. 

Chlorine, — Ail  processes  nuking  caustic  soda 
from  salt  at  the  same  time  produce  chlorine  gas 
at  the  anode.    In  some  cases  this  is  absoibed  in 


The  liquid  chlorine  is  shipped  in  pressure  tanks 
for  chemical  purposes  and  for  water  purifica- 
tion. One  of  the  most  striking  uses  to  which  it 
has  been  pnt  is  as  one  of  the  poison  gases  used 
at  the  front  in  trench  warfare.  Hundreds  of 
Ions  of  gas  have  been  used  in  a  single  attack. 

HTpocfaloiitea. — Another  electrochemical  ia- 
dustry  that  is  widely  distributed  throu^out  the 
country  is  the  manufacture  of  hypochlorite  for 
bleachmg  purposes.  For  some  time  the  use  of 
hypochlorite  as  a  bleach  was  confined  to  large 
installations  where  an  enormous  quantity  of 
bleaching  liquor  was  demanded  even-  day,  e.g., 
in  the  manufacture  of  paper  pnlp.    Now  tq-po- 


chlorite  plants  are  installed  in  small  units,  pro- 
ducing only  a  few  ^lons  of  bleach  a  day  for 
use  in  laundries.  The  types  of  cell  used  in 
hypochlorite  manufacture  vary  widely,  but  are 
all  alike  in  that  they  must  have  unattackable 
electrodes  of  some  kind,  usually  either  graphite 
or  platinum.  Many  of  the  different  types  of 
cells  have  a  number  of  electrodes  in  series,  acting 
as  bipolar  electrodes.  The  electrolyte  used  is  a 
IS  to  16  per  cent  solution  of  common  salt,  NaCI. 
The  efficiency  of  the  operation  in  practice 
usually  amounts  to  only  about  20  to  25  per  cent, 
but  the  simplicity  and  ease  of  working  of  the 
process  commend  it  in  spite  of  its  low  enern 
efficiency.  The  minimum  rei^uirement  is  1.27 
kilowatt  hours  for  the  production  of  1  kilogram 
of  active  chlorine,  while  actual  practice  requires 
6  to  7  kilowatt  hours. 

Potaaainm  Chlorate  is  produced  electro- 
chemically  in  considerable  quantities,  both  here 
and  abroad.  The  Gibbs  process,  used  at  Niagara 
Falls,  consists  in  the  electrolysis  of  potassium 
chloride  solution,  aaing  a  copper  or  iron  cathode 
and  a  platinum  anode.  The  current  density  is 
high,  being  500  an^res  per  square  foot  of 
anode.  Each  cell  uses  about  four  volts,  of 
wfaidi  1.4  is  required  to  convert  chloride  to 
chlorate,  and  the  remainder  produces  the  heat 
tfiat  mamtains  the  electrolyte  at  from  50°  to  70" 
C  (125°  to  160°  F.),  which  is  necessary  for  the 
proper  reaction.  The  whole  commercial  supply 
»  thus  prodticed.  Percfalorates  aremade  by  elrc- 
trolyztng  chlorates  at  low  temperatures  in  the 
same  type  of  cell. 

Hydrogen  and  Oxygea. — One  of  the  most 
widely  distributed  of  the  electrochemical  indus- 
tries, but  one  that  is  usually  installed  in  fairly 
small  units,  is  the  electrolysis  of  water  for  ttie 
production  of  hydrogen  or  oxygen,  or  both. 
When  only  one  of  the  gases  is  req^oired  it  is 
often  more  economical  to  produce  it  by  some 
other  method,  but  if  both  gases  are  needed,  it  Is 
better  to  use  an  electrochemical  method,  and 
often  the  comlitioas  are  Buch  that  the  single  gas 
lean  be  produced  advantageously  by  the  electro- 
chemical method. 

Apparatus  for  the  commercial  electrolysis  of 
water  uses  as  electrolyte  a  solution  either  of 
suli^ric  add  (HiSOi),  or  one  of  the  alkaUes 
(NaOH  or  KOH).  With  the  alkalies  the  cells 
are  usually  constructed  of  iron,  and  with  the 
add,  they  must  be  lined  with  lead,  whatever  the 
body  of  the  cdl  may  be.  With  the  alkaline  solu- 
tions, a  concentration  of  10  to  25  per  cent  is 
Dsed,  and  with  add,  20  to  30  per  cent.  The 
volta^^  needed  to  force  a  current  throngfa  such 
a  cell  is  com^sed  of  three  factors  —  the  voltage 
of  decomposition  of  the  water,  the  ventage  nec- 
essary to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  cell, 
and  the  volt^e  necessary  to  overcome  the  re- 
sistance of  the  gas  layers  on  the  electrodes, 
sometimes  known  as  ■overvoltagc.*  The  sul- 
phuric acid  solution  has  a  much  better  con- 
ductivity than  the  alkaline  solutions,  but  the 
resistance  of  the  gas  films  is  greater  on  lead 
than  on  iron,  so  that  on  the  whole,  cells  using 
alkaline  solutions  have  a  tower  working  voltage 
than  those  using  acid.  The  current  efficiency 
In  either  case  can  be  made  to  approach  100  per 
cent. 

The  total  voltage  required  for  the  cells  ts 
2.3  to  3,6  volts.  The  energy  requirement  for  one 
cubre  meter  of  mixed  gases  is  3,7  to  5,9  kilowatt 
hours,  the  alkaline  cells  giving  the  lower  figure. 


8l^ 


100 


BLBCTROCHEHICAL    INDUSTKIBe 


and  the  acid  cetis  the  higher.  In  the  acid  cells, 
lead  anodes  are  used,  which  peroxidiEE,  and  the 
presence  of  FbOi  causes  the  oxygen  to  contain 
some  ozone.  The  chlorides  in  the  alkaline  solu- 
tion allow  the  anodea,  usually  of  iron  or  nickel, 
to  be  slowly  attacked,  requiring  occasional  re- 
placement. The  pnri^  of  the  gasea  is  usually 
97  to  99  ytT  cent 

Electnc  Smettiac. —  One  of  the  earliest 
commercial  processes  in  electrochemistTy  was 
that  devised  by  £.  H.  and  A.  H.  Cowles  in  1684. 
A  mixture  of  about  two  parts  of  alumina,  one 
or  two  parts  of  granulated  copper  and  one  or 
two  parts  of  carbon  was  introduced  in  a  brick- 
work chamber.  Bundles  of  carbon  rods  inserted 
at  the  ends  formed  the  electrodes  between  which 
a  current  of  3,000  amperes  at  50  volts  was  main- 
tained. At  a  very  high  temperature  the  alumina 
was  reduced  (Al,0,-t-3C— 2A1 +3CO)  and 
the  resulting  aluminum  combined  with  the  cop- 
per to  form  aluminum  bronze.  This  was  the 
forerunner  of  the  various  tjrpes  of  electro- 
theraial  operation  described  m  the  following 
paragraphs. 

Iron  and  Steel  can  be  produced  by  reducing  ' 
iron  ore  with  carbon  in  an  electric  furnace.  For 
example,  a  mixture  of  magnetite  and  carbon  can 
be  heated  by  passing  a  current  through  it,  as  in 
the  Cowles  aluminum  bronze  process,  by  passing 
the  current  through  a  carbon  core  in  contact 
with  the  material  as  in  the  carborundum  proc- 
ess ;  or  by  the  action  of  an  arc  as  in  the  carbide 
process.  The  reaction  is  simply  FciOi  -|-  4C  "■ 
3Fe  -t-4C0.  Pure  iron,  cast  iron  or  steel  may 
be  produced,  depending  upon  the  proportion  of 
carbon.  The  chief  advantages  are  the  directness 
of  the  process  and  the  fact  that  no  impurities 
(sulphur,  silicon,  etc.)  are  introduced  in  the 
fuel,  besides  a  considerable  savins  of  fuel  over 
the  ordtoarsr  steel  furnace.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  a  question  of  location,  whether  the  electric 
furnace  can  compete  in  economy  with  the  blast 
furnace,  the  Bessemer  converter,  and  the  open- 
hearth  furnace.  Pig  iron  has  bem  made  in  the 
electric  furnace  in  places  like  California  and 
Norway,  where  water  power  is  cheap  and  fuels 
expensive.  The  grade  of  iron  thus  produced 
is  equal  to  the  best  Swedish  charcoal  iron,  and 
commands  a  higher  price  than  ordinary  pig  iron. 

The  chief  utilization  of  the  electric  furnace 
in  the  iron  and  steel  industry,  however,  is  not 
in  the  direct  production  of  pig  iron  or  steel,  but 
in  the  conversion  of  low-grade  metal  from  the 
Bessemer  or  open-hearth  into  a  high-grade 
metal,  or  in  the  remeltin^  and  refining  of  scrap 
ateci  for  high-grade  castings.  Ordinary  metal 
from  the  Bessemer  converter  or  the  open-hearth 
furnace  can,  in  the  electric  steel  furnace,  be  con- 
verted into  metal  of  crucible  quality  or  better, 
at  a  lower  cost  than  crucible  steel,  and  in  large 
quantities,  up  to  25  tons  to  the  charge. 

Ferro-alloys. —  One  of  the  most  important 
developments    in   the    steel    industry   in    recent 

i rears  has  been  the  production  of  the  various  al- 
oy  steels,  —  steels  m  which  some  special  prop- 
erty is  secured  by  the  addition  of  some  other 
metal  to  the  simple  alloy  of  iron  and  carbon. 
The  simplest  way  to  produce  these  steels  is  by 
the  addition  to  ordinary  steel  of  the  proper 
amount  of  an  iron  alloy  carrying  a  high  per- 
centage of  the  metal  desired.  This  ferro-alloy 
is  usually,  though  not  always,  made  electrother- 
mally  by  the  reduction  by  carbon  in  an  electric 
furnace  of  an  oxide  of  the  metal,  in  contact  with 


metallic  iron  to  take  up  the  reduced  metaL 
Sometimes  a  reduction  is  made  of  a  mixture 
of  iron  oxide  and  the  oxide  of  the  metal  in 
question,  but  this  necessitates  the  supplying  of 
electric  energy  for  the  reduction  of  toe  iron,  as 
well  as  of  the  alloying  metal ;  and  the  iron  can 
usually  be  reduced  more  cheaply  by  other 
methods.  Under  these  conditions  the  reduction 
of  the  oxide  is  much  more  readily  acooro- 
^shed  than  if  there  were  no  iron  present,  since 
the  iron  considerably  reduces  the  melting  point 
of  the  resulting  mixture.  The  type  of  furnace  . 
used  varies  somewhat  with  the  metal  being  pro- 
duced, but  in  general  are  quite  similar  to  those 
used  for  the  production  of  calcium  carbide. 

The  alloys  that  are  made  in  this  way  are: 
ferromanganese,  ferrosilioon,  ferrochromium, 
ferronickel,  ferrotungsten,  ferromolybdenum, 
ferrovanadiimi,  and  ferro-nranium. 

Silicon  Carbide.-— Known  under  the  trade 
names  "cariwrundum,"  ■crystoloo,'  and  "exo- 
lon*  silicon  carbide  is  produced  in  large  quanti- 
ties by  the  process  invented  by  £.  G.  Adieson. 
It  is  formed  by  intenaely  heating  m  an  electric 
furnace  a  mixture  of  35  per  cent  of  ground 
coke,  52  per  cent  of  sand,  and  about  11  per 
cent  of  sawdust  and  2  per  cent  at  salt,  the 
yield  being  seven  or  ei^ht  tons  of  crystalline 
carborundum  and  a  considerable  amount  of  At 
amorphous  material.  The  furnaces  used  at 
Niagara  Falls  consist  of  simple  brick  hearths 
28  feet  long  and  II  feet  wide,  with  brick  walls 
at  each  end,  these  being  about  three  feet  thick 
and  six  or  eight  feet  higfe.  The  side  walls  are 
built  without  cement  or  mortar  to  allow  the 
escape  of  gases  and  because  they  have  to  be 
pulled  down  at  the  end  of  eadi  run  to  dis- 
charge the  furnace.  In  the  middle  of  each  of 
the  end  walls  there  are  iron  frames  holding 
together  a  large  carbon  electrode  built  up  from 
a  number  of  small  electrodes,  through  which 
the  current  is  led  to  a  core  about  two  feet  in 
diameter  composed  of  broken  coke  and  ex- 
tending the  entire  length  of  the  furnace.  This 
core_  is  raised  to  a  very  higji  temperature  by 
passing  througfi  it  an  alternating  current,  using 
abotit  1.600  kilowatts.  The  heat  from  the  <x>Te 
permeates  the  mass  and  converts  it  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  2,200*  C.  (4.100°F.>  for 
some  distance  around  the  core  into  silicon  car- 
bide. The  unchanged  material  on  the  outside 
is  worked  over  in  rfie  next  charge.  The  coke 
of  the  core  is  converted  into  graphite.  The 
shell  of  carbide  is  broken  np  after  the  furnace 
has  cooled  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
grinding  wheels  and  other  forms  of  ^rasives. 
It  is  also  used  to  a  limited  extent  as  a  refac- 
tory  material,  since  it  is  stable  at  high  temper- 
atures and  is  a  good  oonductor  of  neat. 

SUozicon.— This  substance  is  an  oxygen- 
carbon -silicon  compound,  intermediate  between 
silica  and  carborundum.  It  is  formed  in  the 
electric  furnace  by  reducing  silica  with  carbon, 
but  not  carrying  the  reduction  so  far  as  with 
carborundum.  Siloxicon  is  an  exceedingly  re- 
tactory  material,  neutral  toward  both  add  and 
basic  slags,  and  infusible  and  insoluble  in  mdten 
metals.  It  is  used  as  a  furnace  lining,  cither 
made  into  bricks  or  as  a  protective  wash  with 
sodium  silicate. 

Silicon. — The  production  of  metallic  silicon 
(90  to  95  per  cent  pure)  has  been  accomplished 
by  the  extension  of  the  principles  used  in  the 
production  of  silicon  carbide  and  ferro- silicon. 


BipCTROCHEMICAl.    INDUSTRIXS 


let 


It  is  made  in  an  arc  funuce  consuming:  1,200 

to  1.500  horse  power,  having  two  electrodes 
dipping  down  into  the  charge,  consisting  of 
coke  a.nd  sand.  The  principal  impurities  are 
iron  and  aJtuninum,  with  some  carbon. 

Titanium  CiTtndc^^This  compound  can  be 
made  by  a  process  exactly  as  for  carborundum, 
but  snbstituting'  the  mineral  rutile  (titanium 
oxjde)  for  the  sand  qE  the  charge.  Made  into 
electrodes  for  arc  lights,  titanium  carbide  civee 
twice  the  light  given  by  carbon  electrodes. 

Calcium  Carbidev— The  earliest  of  the  large 
electric  furnace  industries  to  be  established  was 
the  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide.  It  is  made 
in  the  electric  furnace  by  the  interaction  of 
lime,  CaO,  and  carbon,  usually  in  lh«  form  oi 
coke  or  anthracite  coal.  Charcoal  can  be  used, 
and  in  fact,  on  account  of  its  purity,  is  the  most 
desirable  of  the  three,  but  is  always  more  ex- 
pensive. The  raw  materials  should  be  as  pure 
as  possibte.  in  order  to  prevent  the  collection 
of  mipurities  In  the  product.  Phosphorus  and 
arsenic  are  particularly  to  be  avoided  as  imr 
Iiuril.es,  and  sulphur  is  also  undesirable.  The 
lime  and  fuel,  coarsely  crushed,  are  mixed  and 
charged  into  the  furnace,  where  they  are  heated 
to  the  reaction  temperature  mainly  by  the  direct 
action  of  the  arc 

The  furnaces  for  the  manufacture  of  carbide 
are  all  of  the  arc  type  and  only  a  smaUportion  of 
the  beating  is  done  by  resistance.  They  may 
turn  out  the  carbide  either  in  solid  blocks  or  as 
a  liquid,  to  be  tapped  out  as  collected.  For- 
merly the  furnaces  were  of  the  block  type,  but 
now  many  are  going  over  to  the  tapping 
furnaces. 

The  earliest  form  of  furnace  consisted  of 
an  electrode  suspended  in  a  car,  which  served 
as  the  other  electrode  and  as  a  container  for 
the  carbide.  This  form  of  furnace  was  small 
and  of  low  efHciency,  100  to  200  kilowatts  at 
^0  to  70  volts,  with  a  power  consumption  of 
6  to  7  kilowatt  hours  per  kilogram  ot  85  per 
cent  carbide,  an  efficiency  of  only  40  per  cent 
The  losses  of  raw  materials  were  also  high. 

The  modification  of  the  block  furnace  for 
continuous  operation,  the  solidLfied  material 
being  drawn  away  from,  underneath  the  work- 
ing tone  of  the  furnace,  made  possible  a  de- 
crease in  power  consumption  to  4.5  kilowatt 
hours  per  kilogram  of  carbide.  The  size  of 
the  furnace  was  also  increased  up  to  375 
kilowatts. 

Tapping  furnaces  are  much  larger,  up  to 
1,200  to  1,400  kilowatts  and  have  a  power  con- 
sumption of  4.2  to  4.5  kilowatt  hours  per  kilo- 
gram of  carbide.  One  ton  of  product  requires 
900  kilograms  of  lime  and  600  kilograms  of 
anthracite  coal. 

Three-phase  carbide  furnaces  have  been 
built  up  to  3,000  kilowatts  per  phase,  or  9.000 
kilowatts  per  furnace.  This  proved  to  be  the 
limit  in  furnace  extension  for  single  units,  as 
ihe  handling  of  larger  currents  at  the  electrodes 
gave  excessive  heat  and  volatilized  the  charge. 
A  unit  of  double  this  size  was  conslructed  by 
including  two  three-phase  electrode  systems  in 
one  furnace  jacket.  This  gives  an  18,000  kilo- 
watt furnace  with  6  electrodes,  each  electrode 
carrying  up  to  45,000  amperes.  A  furnace  of 
this  size  will  produce  carbide  with  a  power 
consumption  of  4  to  42  kilowatt  hours  per 
kilogram.    Using  charcoal  as  a  source  of  car- 


bon, fhepower  consumption  can  be  cut  as  low 
as  3.8  kilowatt  hours  per  kilogram,  equivalent 
to  about  69  per  cent  eificiency,  but  the  extra 
cost  of  the  charcoal  over  that  of  the  coal  will 
probably  overbalance  the  extra  saving  in  power. 

Cyaaunide.—A  large  portion  of  the  calcium 
carbide  now  made  is  for  use  as  a  raw  material 
for  the  manufacture  of  calcium  cyanamide. 
The  carbide  after  being  finely  ground  is  heated 
to  temperature  of  about  1,000'^  C.  (1.830°  F.) 
in  a  special  type  of  electric  furnace,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  pure  nitrogen.  The  nitrogen  combines 
with  the  carbide  forming  CaCNi.  This  formula 
calls  for  35  per  cent  of  nitrogen  in  the  product, 
but  since  the  carbide  is  never  entirely  pure  and 
since  it  is  not  entirely  converted,  the  resulting 
product  carries  about  20  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 

The  process  was  orginally  developed  for  the 
production  of  a  fertilizer  material  to  replace  the 
more  expensive  sodium  nitrate  or  ammonium 
sulphate,  but  processes  have  since  been  devel- 
oped for  the  conversion  of  the  nitrogen  of  the 
cyanamide  into  ammonia  and  for  the  oxidation 
of  the  ammonia  into  nitric  acid,  thus  providing 
a  means  for  tile  chemical  utilization  of  the 
nitrogen  of  the  air.  This  same  result  has  been 
secured  b^  the  direct  oxidation  processes  for 
atmospheric  nitrogen,  which  will  be  considered 
later. 

Graphite— Artificial  graphite  was  first  con- 
sidered as  a  commercial  possibility  when  it  was 
noticed  that  in  the  carborundum  furnaces 
masses  of  graphite  frequently  resulted  from  the 
overheating  of  the  carborundum  in  the  center 
of  the  furnace,  the  carborundum  being  decom- 
posed and  the  silicon  volatilized,  leaving  the 
carbon  as  graphite.  The  process  was  then  car- 
ried on  with  the  intentional  overheating  of  the 
entire  charge,  with  the  result  that  it  was  con- 
verted into  graphite.  It  was  eventually  found 
that  all  carbides  decompose  with  the  formation 
of  graphite  and  the  volatilization  of  the  metal, 
and  that  it  was  not  necessary  to  make  up  a 
carborundum  charge  to  secure  graphite,  but 
that  any  carbonaceous  material  could  be  graphi- 
tized  that  carried  a  uniform  mixture  of  metal- 
lic oxides,  ior  cxaimile,  coke  or  anthracite  coal. 
The  next  step  was  the  graphitization  of  molded 
carbon  materials,  particularly  electrodes^  it  be- 
ing only  necessary  to  incorporate  uniformly 
throughout  the  body,  white  in  the  process  of 
manufacture,  a  small  percentage  of  some  metal- 
lic oxide,  preferably  FciOi,  this  being  largely 
volatilized  out  in  the  course  of  the  graphitiza- 
tion. The  amount  of  amorphous  grat^ite  pro- 
duced in  this  way  now  amounts  to  about  ten 
million  pounds  annually,  and  the  electrode 
material    graphitizcd    to    at    least    half    that 


Alumina.— Electrically  fused  alumina  under 
the  trade-names  of  'alundum"  and  ■aloxite*  is 
used  mainly  for  abrasive  purposes  and  to  a 
lesser  extent  as  a  refractory  material  mainly 
for  laboratory  apparatus.  The  process  consists 
in  fusing  down  pure  calcined  bauxite  in  an 
electric  furnace.  The  furnace  is  of  the  crucible 
type  with  two  electrodes  dipping  into  it.  When 
the  furnace  is  &lled  it  is  shut  down,  the  sides 
stripped  off  and  the  block  of  alumina,  weighing 
about  five  tons,  is  cooled  slowly  and  then  broken 
to  lump  form  for  shipment.  The  furnace  works 
at  110  volts  and  2,500  amperes,  consuming  275 
kilowatts.    The  energy  consumption  is  about  2.1 


.,ogle 


BLECTRbCHBMiCAL    ZHDUSTRIBB 


kilowatt  hours  p«r  Irilognun  of  alumina.  This 
is  about  half  the  power  requirement  for  car- 
borundum, but  the  raw  materia]  is  more  ex- 
pensive, so  that  the  product  is  a  trifle  more 
expensive  than  carborundum. 

Fused  Quartz.— Fused  silica  ware  is  now 
made  by  several  manufacturers,  and  almost  any 
libtipe  can  be  secured  that  is  made  in  glass,  pro- 
viding the  size  is  not  too  ereat.  The  price  of 
the  material  is  still  qu'te  high.  Pure  silica  is 
fused  in  a  small  electric  furnace  and  the  main 
diflicul'y  encountered  is  the  heating  of  the 
silica  to  a  suMcient  temperature  for  it  to  flow 
easily  (2,000°  C.  or  3,600*  F.)  without  excessive 
volatilization  and  without  the  silicon  combining 
with  the  carbon  electrodes  to  form  siloxicon  or 
silicon  carbide. 

Phosphorus, —  The  disadvantages  of  the  old 
chemical  methods  for  the  manufacture  of  phos- 
phorus were  considerable,  the  reduction  of  phos- 
phoric acid  or  a  phosphate  giving  a  very  low 
yield.  The  operation  is  now  carried  on  electro- 
thermally,  rnlucing  a  mixture  of  bone  ash, 
calcined  phosphate  rock  or  calcined  wavellite 
(AlPOi)  with  carbon  and  sand.  The  phos- 
phorus distils  off  and  is  collected  under  water, 
and  the  caldum  or  aluminum  silicate  slag  is 
drawn  off  intermittently.  The  yield  of  phos- 
phorus is  80  to  90  per  cent  and  the  furnace 
rctiuircs  11.6  kilowatt  hours  per  kilt^ram  of 
phosphorus. 

Carbon  Bisulphide. —  The  chemical  manu- 
facture of  this  substance  was  attended  with  con- 
siderable difficulty,  but  the  electrothermal  pro- 
duction works  very  easily,  and  one  plant  sup- 
plies the  entire  demand  of  this  continent.  A 
current  of  electricity  passing  through  a  granu- 
lar carbon  resistor  volatilizes  sulphur  to  vapor, 
which  passes  up  through  a  column  of  hot  char- 
coal above  the  resistor,  forming  CSi,  which  is 
drawn  off  from  the  top  of  the  furnace  and  con- 
densed. The  energy  consumption  is  about  l.IS 
kilowatt  hours  per  kilogram  of  CSi.  an  efficiency 
of  about  35  per  cent. 

NItTogett  Fumtion.— The  direct  oxidation 
of  the  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  for  the  pro- 
duction of  nitric  acid  and  ammonia  is  a  re- 
sult long  sought  by  numerous  investigators,  but 
it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  it  has  become 
a  commercial  possibility.  This  has  now  been 
accomplished  in  three  types  of  processes.  One 
of  these,  the  direct  combination  of  nitrogen 
with  hydrogen  to  form  ammonia,  is  more  chem- 
ical than  electrothermal,  and  so  does  not  con- 
cern us  here.  The  second  type  of  process  is  a 
more  or  less  indirect  conversion  Oi  the  nitro- 
gen, largely  electrothermal  in  character  and  is 
treated  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  on  Cal- 
cium Carbide  and  Cyanamide.  The  third 
type  of  process  is  the  direct  combination 
of  atmospheric  nitrogen  and  oxj^en  to  form 
nitrous  oxide  under  the  influence  of  a  htgh- 
tension  electric  discharge.  This  process  is  gen- 
erally known  as  the  arc  process,  while  the  pre- 
ceding   process    is    known    as    the    cyanamide 

The  arc  process,  while  a  very  interesting 
development  from  an  electrochemical  staniF 
point  and  as  the  pioneer  in  the  field,  cannot 
cope  with  the  cyanamide  process  either  in  cost 
of  operation  or  in  efficiency.  One  of  the 
simplest  forms  of  apparatus  and  at  the  same 
time  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  is  that  of 


Blrkeland  and  Eyde.  If  an  arc  is  struck  be- 
tween two  h.gh- tension  electrodes,  it  imme- 
diately tends  to  break  down  to  a  low-voltage 
arc,  at  a  high  current,  but  it  the  arc  is  placed 
between  two  powerful  electromagnets  the  elec- 
tromagnetic force  will  bend  the  arc  out  from 
the  line  of  the  electrodes,  in  a  semi-circular 
form.  As  the  arc  spreads  and  becomes  longer, 
the  current  drops  and  ihe  voltage  at  the  elec- 
trodes increases  and  soon  reaches  a  point 
where  a  second  arc  strikes  across  between  the 
electrodes  in  the  same  manner,  to  be  imme- 
diately followed  by  others  until  the  first  arc 
formed  reaches  such  a  length  that  the  voltage 
is  no  longer  able  to  sustain  it.  Since  an  alter- 
nating current  is  used,  the  succeeding  arcs 
form  on  opposite  sides  of  the  electrodes  and, 
with  proper  regulation,  maintain  a  circular  sheet 
of  fiame,  composed  of  a  series  of  arcs  progress- 
ing outward  till  they  are  extinguished  either  by 
becomine  too  long  to  be  maintained  by  the  volt- 
age available  or  by  the  reversal  of  the  electro- 
motive force  at  the  end  of  every  half  period  of 
the  alternating  current. 

This  disc  of  flame,  which  is  about  1.6  metres 
in  diameter,  is  enclosed  in  a  furnace  and  a 
current  of  air  is  forced  out  radially  on  each 
side  of  the  arc.  Furnaces  are  in  operation, 
taking  3,200  to  4,000  kilowatts  at  about  5,000 
volts,  of  which  3,300  to  3,900  volts  are  across 
the  arc,  the  remainder  being  the  drop  in  the 
series  inductances.  The  frequency  is  50  cycles, 
the  power  factor  is  66  to  68  per  cent  and  the 
current  9J0  amperes.  The  gas  from  the  fur- 
naces carries  1  to  1.2  per  cent  NO,  and  the  yield 
of  HNO,  is  about  67  grams  per  kilowatt  hour. 

The  Paulding  process  is  similar  in  princ.ple 
to  the  Birkeland-Eyde,  but  differs  in  applica- 
tion. Here  the  succession  of  arcs  is  produced 
not  by  magnetic  deflection  but  by  blowing  the 
blast  of  air  that  is  to  be  treated  between  the 
two  electrodes,  thus  accomplishing  the  same  end 
as  the  magnet  of  Birkeland  antf  Eyde,  except 
that  the  sheet  of  ftame  extends  on  one  side  of 
the  electrodes  only.  The  gas  from  the  Paulding 
furnace  is  somewhat  richer  than  that  from  the 
Birkeland'Eyde  furnace,  but  the  yields  are  some- 
what lower.  Each  furnace  contains  two  200- 
kilowatt  arcs  in  series,  at  4,000  volts,  taking  140 
amperes  at  a  power  factor  of  70  per  cent. 

In  coniparison  with  these  processes,  the 
Schonherr  process  is  of  interest,  this  being 
based  on  a  different  principle.  Both  the  Birke- 
land-Eyde and  the  Paulding  processes  recognize 
the  difficulty  of  maintaining  a  high-tension  arc, 
particularly  when  subjecteuto  a  current  of  air, 
and  so  means  are  provided  for  securing  a  ra^id 
succession  of  arcs  as  fast  as  they  are  extm- 
guished.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  arcs  are 
made  to  overlap,  so  several  exist  in  parallel  at 
the  same  time.  Schonherr,  however,  attacked 
the  problem  of  maintaining  a  stable  high-ten- 
sion, high-current  arc,  working  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  if  the  air  current  were  so  introduced 
that  it  did  not  deform  the  arc,  the  discharge 
could  be  maintained  in  a  stable  condition. 
Paulding  used  the  air  current,  at  right  angles 
to  the  arc,  to  draw  the  arc  out  to  a  greater 
length.  Schonherr  secured  the  same  result 
without  destroying  the  arc  by  introducing  the 
air  tangentially  from  all  sides  simultaneously  SO 
that  it  traveled  with  a  helical  motion  in  the 
direction  of  the  arc     This  neither  defonned 


.lOOgle 


BLBCTROCHBMICAt  8SSIB8~  BLfiCTRO CHEMISTRY 


IM 


the  are  nor  ovcreooled  it.  aRowine  it  to  bum 
quietly.  Workitig  on  this  pr.ndpfc,  the  com- 
mercial furnaces  designed  by  Hessberger  take 
700  to  750  kilowatts,  3,500  volts  and  290 
amperes  with  a  power  factor  of  66  per  cenL 
The  arc  carried  is  from  5  to  7  tnelres  (16  lb 
22  feet)  in  length.  The  Rases  carry  1.5  to  2 
per  cent  NO  and  the  yield  is  68  grams  HNO. 
per  kilowatt  hour. 

Ozone  is  a  polymerized  form  of  oxygen 
which  may  be  produced  by  a  silent  electrM^  w- 
charge  from  a  static  electric  machine,  induction 
coil  or  very  high  voltage  transformer,  through 
oxygen  or  air. 

It  has  powerfnt  oxidizing  and  bactericidal 
properties  and  is  extensively  used  in  -water  and 
air  purification. 

Other  Compounds. —  Many  other  com- 
pounds, too  nnmerons  to  describe,  are  tnsde  by 
electrochemical  processes  of  one  kind  or  an- 
other. For  details  of  the  principles  involved  in 
the  opF  rat  iocs  of  sudi.  proce^^es,  see  F.T.RTnto- 
CHEMiSTHY,  Electrolysis,  Electric  Furnaces 
and  Metallurgy.  For  details  on  individual 
subjects,  see  under  the  name  of  the  substance  in 
question. 

Bibliograpbjr— AUmand,  A.  J,,  'Applied 
Electrochem.fitry>  (London  1912)  ;  Borchers, 
W.,  'Electrometallurgy'  (New  York  1905); 
Loeh,  W.,  '  Electro-chemistry  of  Organic 
Compounds'  (New  York  1907) ;  McMillan,  W. 
G.,  and  Cooper,  W.  R.,  'Electro-Metallurgy' 
(London  1910) ;  Thompson,  M.  de  K.,  'Applied 
Electrochemistry>    (New    York    1911) ;    Watt, 


Metallurgical  and  Chemical  Engineering  (New 
York,  semi-monthly)  ;  Transactions  of  the 
American  Electrochemical  Society  (South 
Bethlehem,  Pa.,  semi-annually). 

G,  A.  RousH, 
Ataistant  Secretary  American  Eleetrockemical 

BLBCTROCHEMIGAL  SERIES,  the 
arrangement  of  the  chemical  elements  in  the 
order  of  their  ability  to  replace  one  another  in 

ELECTROCHEMICAL    SOCIETY, 

American.  The  American  Electrochemical 
Society  was  organized  3  April  1902,  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  the  objects  of  the  so- 
ciety, as  slated  in  its  constitution,  being 
the  advancement  of  the  theory  and  practice 
of  electrochemistry.  The  charter  members 
of  the  Society  nimibered  337,  while  the  member- 
ship at  (he  close  of  the  year  1917  was  about 
1.600.  Since  its  oi^nization,  the  Society  has 
held  two  meetings  each  year,  in  the  Spring  and 
Autumn,  for  the  presentation  and  discussion  of 
papers  on  electrochemical  subjects.  These 
meetings  have  been  distributed  as  follows: — 
New  York  city,  9;  Niagara  Falls,  4:  Atlantic 
City,  2;  Boston,  2;  Philadelphia,  2;  Pittsburgh, 
2;  Washington,  2;  and  one  each  in  Albain', 
N.  Y.;  Bethlehem,  Pa.;  Chicago,  HI.;  Detroit. 
Mich.;  Denver,  Colo.;  Ithaca.  N.  Y.;  Saint 
Louis,  Mo.;  San  Francisco  Cal;  Toronto,  Can. 
Since  the  membership  of  the  Society  includes 
practically  all  of  the  prominent  clecCrochemiits 
of  the  United  States,  as  well  as  many  in  for- 
eign countries,  the  Society  has  naturally  played 
an  active  part  in  scientific  developments  in  the 
years  since  its  organization. 

VOL.  10-    II 


ELECTROCHEMICAL   TELEQRAPH, 

a  telegraph  which  records  signals  upon  a  paper 
sheet  or  strip  moistened  with  a  chemical  sciu- 
tion,  which  is  decomposed  by  the  electric  cur- 
rent. See  TfXEGRAPHY  —  Chemical 'Automatic 
Telegraphs. 

ELECTROCHEMISTRY.  That  branch  of 
chemistry  which  treats  of  the  utilization  of  elec- 
trical ener^  to  facilitate  or  CArry  on  a  chenucal 
reaction  is  known  as  electrochemistry.  This  end 
may  be  accomplished  in  one  of  three  ways :  by 
electrolysis,  by  electrothermal  action,  or  by  the 
discharge  of  electricity  through  gases.  Con- 
versely, electrochemistry  also  includes  those  re- 
actions by  which  electricity  is  generated  by 
means  of  chemical  action.  It  was  the  Italian 
physicist  Alessandro  Volta  Co. v.),  a  professor 
m  the  University  of  Pavia,  who  first  discovered 
that  when  two  metals  and  a  liquid  are  combined 
in  a  circuit  an  electric  current  is  produced.  It 
was  also  Volta,  who,  for  the  first  time,  distin- 
guished between  the  two  classes  of  electrical 
conductors,  recognizing  the  difference  between 
metallic  conductors  and  electrolytic  conductors, 
which  is  the  foundation  of  all  electrolytic  work. 
Soon  after  this  he  established  what  has  been 
called  the  contact  electromotive  series,  which  is 
a  table  of  metallic  conductors  arranged  in  such 
order  that  if  any  two  of  them  be  connected 
with  each  other  and  also  with  an  electrolytic 
conductor,  an  electric  current  will  flow  throufdl 
the  liquid  from  the  meial  higher  in  the  series 
to  the  one  lower  in  the  series,  and  the  current 
increases  in  magnitude  the  farther  apart  die  two 
metals  are  in  the  series.  Following  this,  it  was 
discovered  by  Ritter,  that  the  order  of  the 
metals  in  this  series  was  the  same  as  the  previ- 
ously known  order  in  which  metals  replaced 
each  other  in  solutions  of  their  salts.  This  dis- 
covery was  the  first  bond  of  linkage  between 
the  newer  science  of  electricity  and  the  older 
one  of  chemistry,  and  marks  the  birth  of  our 
modem  electrochemistry.  Volta's  contact  elecr 
tromotive  series  soon  led  to  the  development  of 
the  voltaic  pile  (q.v.),  the  first  device  for  the 
generation  of  electric  current,  and  one  depends 
ent  entirely  on  electrochemical  principles.  In 
his  work  on  the  pile,  Volta  could  hardly  have 
failed  to  notice  the  formation  of  gas  bubbles 
on  the  metah  immersed  in  his  solutions,  and  the 
fact  that  he  makes  no  mention  of  these 
phenomena  ttidicates  that  he  did  not  appreciate 
the  significance  of  the  reactions  that  were  tak- 
ing place.  It  remained  for  Nicholson  and 
Cariisle  in  1800  to  record  the  formation  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  on  passing  the  electric 
■current  through  water.  In  the  study  of  the 
various  decompositions  it  vras  soon  noted  that 
there  was  a  formation  of  alkali  at  the  negative 
pole  in  the  .electrolysis  and  of  arid  at  the  posi- 
tive pole.  Following  up  these  observations  led 
to  the  discovery  by  Davy  in  1807  of  the  alkati 
metals,  sodium  and  potassium,  which  he 
separated  by  electrolysis  of  the  fused  hydrates, 
thus  laying  the  foundadon  for  the  development 
100  years  later  of  the  Castner  process  of  manu- 
facture of  metallic  sodium  on  a  commercial 
scale.  (See  Electbochbmical  Industries).  It 
was  Berrelius,  the  great  SwediUi  chemist,  wlio 
devised  the  first  theory  for  the  explanation  of  the 
nature  of  chemical  compounds,  based  upon  eleo- 
trochemical  observations.  The  Bendius  'h-ytrr 
donnnated  this  new    sciencf    and    the    parent 


■8l^ 


ELBCTROCHSHISTRY 


e  of  chemistry  ai  well  for  thany  decades, 


but  in  turn  was  supplanted  b^  other  theories. 
Durins  its  lifetime,  however,  it  served  as  thi 
basis  for  an  enormous  amount  of  valuable  dis- 


n  and  research.  According  to  the  Berze- 
lius  theory,  chemical  atoms  behave  similarly  to 
a  magnet,  having  a  positive  and  negative  ^le, 
but  in  the  case  of  some  elements  the  positive 
pole  is  much  the  stronger  d£  the  two  and  in 
others  the  negative  pole  is  the  stionger.  Con- 
sequently the  atom  behaves  in  accordance  with 
the  character  of  the  predominating  pole,  and 
the  positive  or  negative  character  of  the  pre- 
dommating  pole  of  the  atoms,  and  its  relative 
strength,  determine  the  chemical  character  of 
the  element.  Atoms  of  an  electropositive  char- 
acter can  then  combine  with  those  of  electro- 
negative character,  in  proportions  determined 
by  their  relative  strength,  thus  neutralizLng 
each  other  more  or  less,  but  not  necessarily 
completely.  If  complete  neutralization  does 
not  result  from  the  first  combination  the  result 
is  a  compound  which  is  more  or  less  electro- 
positive or  electronegative,  depending  on  which 
charge  predominates,  and  compounds  of  this 
kind  of  opposite  polarity  can  still  further  com- 
bine for  more  complete  neutralization.  Com- 
binations of  certain  elements  thus  gave  com- 
pounds of  an  acid  character  while  others  gave 
compounds  of  a  basic  character,  and  these  com- 
bine to  form  salt^  which,  if  not  completely 
neutralized,  can  still  further  combine  to  fonn 
double  salts. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  Berzelius 
theory,  no  great  progress  was  made  along  elec- 
trochemical lines  until  about  1835,  when  Fara- 
day announced  his  discovery  of  what  are  now 
known  as  Faraday's  laws,  which  will  be  dis- 
cussed later.  Faraday  received  his  taste  for 
scientific  work  and  the  training  that  led  up  to 
it  while  serving  as  a  helper  in  the  laboratory 
of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  and  Davy  is  said  to 
have  once  replied,  in  answer  to  a  question,  that 
bis  most  important  scientific  discovery  was 
Michael  Faraday.  Besides  the  laws  governing 
the  quantitative  relations  of  electrochemical 
reactions,  we  also  owe  to  Faraday  our  system 
of  electrochemical  ttomendaturc.  To  explain 
the  reactions  taking  place  he  assumed  the  pas- 
sage of  tlte  electricity  to  be  associated  with  the 
movement  in  the  solution  of  particles  of  mat- 
ter which  he  called  ions;  the  poles  themselves 
were  in  general  termed  rierlrodcs,  the  positive 
pole  being  the  anode  and  the  negative  pole  the 
cathode;  the  ions  that  moved  to  the  positive 
pole  were  anions,  and  those  moving  toward  the 
negative  pole  were  cathions;  the  solution  un-. 
dergoing  decomposition  was  the  electrolyte, 
that  surrounding  the  anode  being  the  anolyte, 
and  that  surrounding  the  cathode  the  catholyte; 
the  process  of  decomposition  was  called  electro- 
lysis. 

When  the  decomposition  of  water  was  first 
noticed,  an  explanation  was  sought  for  the  si- 
multaneous appearance  of  hydrogen  at  one  elec- 
trode and  of  oxygen  at  the  other.  In  1305 
Grotthus  proposed  a  theory  to  explain  the 
mechanism  of  the  conduction  of  the  electric 
current  through  the  solution  and  opened  the 
discussion  of  a  problem  for  whidi  we  still  have 
no  entirely  satisfactory  solution.  According  to 
die  Grotthus  theory,  the  current  charges  one 
electrode  positively  and  the  other  negatively, 


and  these  charged  surfaces  in  turn  act  on  the 
molecules  of  water  in  such  a  way  that  the  hy- 
drogen of  the  water  becomes  positively  charged 
and  the  oxygen  negatively  diarged.  The  at- 
traction of  the  negative  pole  for  the  positively 
charged  hydrogen  and  of  the  positive  pole  for 
the  negatively  charged  oxygen  then  causes  the 
molecules  to  arrange  themselves  as  shown  in  A 
of  Fig.  1.    If  the  charge  on  the  two  electrode* 


E|)  E3  O  S3  ^  E^  C3 

3E3EBEBESE3E9C 


FlG.    1. 

is  then  suflictent,  the  atoms  a  and  a'  have  their 
charges  neutralized  at  the  electrode  and  become 
free  gas;  the  atoms  b  and  b'  then  recotnbine 
with  c  and  c'  and  so  on  (hroughout  the  line, 
forming  new  molecules  of  water,  as  in  B,  which 
then,  under  the  continued  influence  of  the  cur- 
rent, will  reorient  themselves  as  before  and  the 
whole  process  is  repeated  This  theory  hdd 
its  own  for  about  50  years,  but  as  the  science 
developed,  imperfections  were  discovered  that 
made  it  no  longer  tenable,  and  it  was  eventually 
replaced  by  the  Oausius  theory.  Clausius  as- 
sumed that  the  positive  and  negative  portions 
of  the  molecule  in  the  electrolyte  were  not 
firmly  combined  with  each  other,  but  wer«  in  a 
state  of  continuous  vibration,  which  if  it  became 
vigorous  enough  would  cause  the  positive  part 
of  one  molecule  to  come  within  the  sphere  of 
influence  of  the  negative  part  of  another  mole- 
cule, with  which  it  would  unite,  the  negative 
and  positive  particles  thus  left  temporarily  free 
in  turn  soon  come  within  the  sphere  of  other 
appositely  charged  particles  with  which  to  unite, 
so  that  there  would  be  going  on  through  the 
solution  all  the  time  a  continuous  interchange 
between  the  particles.  But  -when  an  electric 
current  is  sent  through  the  solution,  a  force  is 
generated  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the 
current  and  the  vibration  and 'exchange  is  no 
longer  irre^lar,  and  in  all  directions,  but  is 
intensified  m  the  direction  of  the  current  flow, 
thus  causing  a  movement  of  positive  particles 
toward  the  negative  pole,  and  vice  versa. 

The  Grotthus  idea  of  fixed  ions  was  thus 
replaced  by  the  vibrating  ions  of  Gausius,  and 
this  in  turn,  some  30  years  later,  was  replaced 
by  the  Arrhenius  theory  of  free  ions.  This 
theory  has  probably  given  a  greater  impulse  to 
electrochemical  research  and  has,  directly  and 
indirectly,  been  an  aid  to  more  discoveries  than 
any  other  conception  in  the  field  of  electro- 
chemistry. The  Arrhenius  theory,  or  as  it  is 
frequently  called,  the  electrolytic  dissociation 
theory  (see  Solutions)  was  based  on  the  a»- 
sumption  that  when  an  add,  base  or  salt  was 
dissolved,  yielding  a  solution  that  was  a  con- 
ductor of  electricity,  the  molecules  of  the  dis- 
solved substance  were  by  the  act  of  solution  4e- 


BLBCTROCHJBHiaTRY 


IM 


composed  into  lart-molcculo,  or  ions,  Al  any 
finite  concentnUioB  the  solution  will  still  con- 
tain a.  certain  amount  oi  undissociated  m^erial, 
and  only  at  infiaite  dilution  is  the  substance 
completely  dissociated  into  ions.  These  disso- 
ciated ions  are  positively  and  negatively  charged, 
and  it  is  the  ions  that  act  as  carriers  of  the 
current,  the  conductivity  of  the  solution  being 
dependent  on  the  degree  of  dissociatioD  of  the 
dissolved  substance. 

The  discrepancies  that  constantly  craped 
out  in  the  development  of  the  details  of  the  Ax- 
rhenius  theory  led  up  lo  what  is  known  as  the 
Hydrate  theory,  which  assumes  that  part  of  the 
water  present  in  the  solution  is  comoined  with 
the  dissolved  substance,  thus  leaving  as  free 
solvent  only  a  portion  ot  the  total  amount  pres- 
ent, which  from  a  concentration  standpoint 
would  bring  about  the  same  results  as  the  as- 
sumption according  to  the  Arrhenius  theory  of 
an  increase  of  the  ultimate  particles  in  the  solu- 
tion by  dissociation.  And  this  idea,  in  turn, 
becomes  ihe  Solvate  theory  when  its  jtrinciples 
are  extended  f  roo^  aqueous  to  all  solutions,  both 
aqueoos  and  non-aqueous.  This  Solvate  theory, 
supplementing  the  Arrhenius  theory,  extends 
the  latter  from  its  former  constricted  field  of 
(lilute  solutions  to  a  theory  of  solutions  in  gen- 
eral. There  are  still,  however,  many  points 
that  need  further  development,  particularly  with 
regard  to  the  exact  relation  between  dissocia- 
tion and  solvatioiL 

If  the  law  of  conservation  of  energy 
holds,  there  must  necessarily  be  a  direct 
relation  between  electrical  energy  and  chemi- 
cal energy  on  the  one  hand  and  heat 
energy  on  the  other.  This  brings  us  first  to  the 
discussion  of  Faraday's  laws  (q.v.),  two  of  the 
most  fundamental  statements  in  natural  sci- 
ence. Faraday's  first  law  specifies  that  the 
amount  of  chemical  action  produced  by  an  elec- 
tric current  in  a  circuit  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  quantity  of  electricity  which  passes 
through  the  circuit  The  second  law  specifies 
that  the  quantities  of  different  substances 
which  are  produced  hy  the  same  amount  of  elec- 
tricity passing  are  directly  proportional  to  the 


ent  of  the  concentration  or  temperature  of  Ihe 
solution,  the  size  or  distance  apart  of  the  elec- 
trodes, and  all  other  conditions.  These  laws 
hold  with  great  exactness  not  only  for  ordinary 
aqueous  solutions,  but  also  for  non-aqueous 
solutions  and  for  fused  salts.  The  quantity  of 
electricity    that    is     necessary    to    deposit   the 


unit  quantity  is  known  as  a  Faraday,  after  its 
discoverer.  Another,  and  possibly  better,  way 
of  stating  this  is  to  say  that  one  Faraday  of 
electricity,  96,500  coulombs,  is  required  to  make 
a  unit  change  in  valence  of  any  element  or  rad- 
ical. One  Faraday  then  will  deposit  as  metal 
56/3  grams  of  iron  from  a  solution  of  ferric 
iron  (a  change  of  three  valences)  or  it  will 
reduce  56  grams  of  iron  from  ferric  to  ferrous, 
a  change  of  one  valence.  This  holds  lequally 
well  whether  it  is  a  decrease  of  valence  accom- 
pan^ng  a  chemical  reduction,  or  whether  it  is 
an  ini^rease  of  valence  accompanying  an  oxida- 
tion. The  fact  that  96.500  coulombs  will  de- 
posit one  chemical  equivalent  of  an  element 
makes  it  possible  to  calculate  from  this  rcla- 


=0.0003294  grams  of  copper.    These 


tior  the  amount  of  any  element  that  would  be 
deposited  by  any  ^ven  amount  of  current  Ac- 
cording to  this,  one  coulomb  should   deposit 

^^  =-=0.000010446    grams    of     hydrogen    or 

63,37 
2x96,500 

values  are  known  as  the  electrochemical  equiv- 
aUnts  (q.v.)  and  can  readily  be  calculated  for 
any  material.  The  ampere-second  values  are 
usually  used  for  scientific  work,  but  for  practi- 
cal work  in  the  plant,  lai^r  units  for  the 
ampere  hour  or  ampere  <^y  may  be  used. 
Faraday's  laws  refer  only  to  quantities  of  elec- 
tricity involved  in  bringing  about  certain 
changes,  but  say  nothing  about  the  quantities  of 
electrical  energy  necessary  for  the  change.  To 
arrive  at  values  for  the  energy  involved,  we 
must  consider  not  only  the  quantity  factor  of 
the  current  used,  but  also  the  intensity  factor. 
In  other  words,  Faraday's  laws  deal  with  am- 
pere changes,  while  the  energy  involved  is  con- 
cerned with  amperes  X  volts,  or  watts. 

An  chemical  reactions  can  be  compared 
from  an  energy  standpoint  on  the  basis  of  the 
thermochemical  changes  accompanying  the  re- 

1  calorie=^.186  watt  seconds 
1  watt  second^l  coulomb  X  1  volt 
or  1  volt-coulomb=0.2389  calorie. 
Then    1    volt-Faraday— 0.2389  X  96.500-' 
23,034  calories.     Any  given  reaction   involving 
«ne  Faraday  will  then   require  as  many  volU 
as  the  beat  balance  of  the  reaction  will  contain 
23,054.    For  example,  the  heat  of  formation  of 
water  is  69,000  calories,  and   to   decompose  it 
an  cqtuvalent  amount  of  eneiyy  must  be  sup- 
plied.    A  molecule  of  water,  HiO,  includes  two 
chemical  equivalents,  so  per  chemical  equivalent, 
there  must  be   supplied  34^00  calones.    The 
voltage    required    for  the   decomposition  will 
34.50O„ 
23,054"" 

position  of  one  molecular  weight  (18  grams) 
of  water  then  by  electrical  energy  would  require 
2  X  96i54O=193,08O  ampere  seconds  of  electricity 
1.  r  1  JO       I.  193,080   X    1.49 

at  a  voltage  of  1.49  volts,  or      3^00  x  1000 

— O.08  kilowatt  hours  of  electrical  energy. 

This  same  principle  can  be  applied  to  die 
calculation  of  the  electromotive  force  of  pri- 
mary or  secondary  batteries  (qv.)  wnen 
applied  to  the  thermochemical  balance  of  the 
chemical  reaction  that  takes  place  in  the  cell 
The  chemical  reaction  in  the  Daniell  celt  is 

Zn+CuSO.— ZnSO.+Ca 
The  heat  of  formation  in  dilute  solution  of 
CuSO.  is  197,500  cal.  and  of  ZnSO.  is  248,000 
cal..  leaving  an  excess  of  248.000— 197, 50t>- 
50,500  cal.  for  two  Faradays,  or  25,250  cal.  for 
23.250 


then 


-149S  volts.    The  decom- 


jj  Qg^  —  1.094  volts  supplied  by 
L  charging  a  lead   stor^e 


one  Faraday. 
theceH. 

The   reaction 
battery  is 

2  PbSO.+2H.O=PbO,+Pb-l-2  H,SO. 

215,700  2(69,000)  63,400  2(210,2)0) 

This  reaction  shows  a  deficit  of  569/WO— 473,- 

800-^5,600  cal.  for  1  PbO.  (two  Faradays)  or 


8l^ 


KLECTROCHBMISTBY 


47^  cal.  for 

.       47,800       

qiiue  ^,\t,  =•  2.073  volta 


Faraday.    It  will  then  re- 
charge   the  cell, 


23,054 

and  since  the  reaction  is  reversible,  when  once 
charged,   it   will  be  capable  of   generating  the 
same  voltage. 

Of    the   phenomena    accompanying   electrol- 
ysis with   unattackable   electrodes,   two   of   the 
most  interesting  are  polarization  and  over-vol- 
t^e.    With  electrolyses  that  are  more  or  less 
reversible,  it  may  be  noted  that  after  the  pas- 
sage of  the  current  has  caused  some  decompo- 
sition, there  is  a  tendency  for  recombination  of 
the  materials  present  at  the  electrodes.     If  the 
current  is  stopped,  it  will  be  noted  that  for  a 
short  time  there  will  be  generated  a  small  cur- 
rent in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  of  the 
current  originally  imposed.     This  is  known  as 
the  polarization  current  and  the  voltage  gener- 
atitig  it  is  known  as  the  polarisation  voltage. 
This  polarization  voltage,  being  in  the  reverse 
direction  from  the  voltage  causing  the  original 
electrolysis,  will  reduce  the  electromotive  force 
on  the  cell,  and  the  current  passing.    In  an 
electrolysis  involving  the  separation  of  a  free 
gas  on  an  unattacked  electrode,  it  is  well  known 
that  the  voltage  required  for  decomposition  is 
greater  than  that  calculated  from  the  heat  of 
formation.     This    excess    of    voltage    required 
over  the   theoretical   is   called  over-voltage,  or 
more    recently,    gas    voltage.    These    voltages 
vary  widely  for  various  metals  and  an  explana- 
tion of   the   differences  has  long  been   sought 
Recent  investigations  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
differences  are  mechanical  rather  than  chem- 
ical.       Calorimetric    measurements    show    that 
the  !  ....  .. 

as  chemical  work  is  the  eqniva)< 
mal  decomposition  voltage  for  the  i  .  .  ._ 
ing  place,  and  that  the  over-voltage  appears  in 
the  solution  as  heat.  This  would  indicate  that 
the  nature  of  the  over-voltage  was  mechanical, 
and  the  probable  explanation  is  that  it  repre- 
sents the  amount  of  energy  necessary  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  film  of  gas  on  the 
electrode.  The  gas  as  first  formed  on  the 
electrode  is  a  thin  film  over  the  entire  surface, 
and  then  as  the  amount  of  gas  increases  sur- 
face tension  begins  to  act  to  form  the  film  into 
bubbles  of  gas  which  detach  themselves  from 
the  electrode  and  escape  from  the  solution. 
The  amount  of  energy  necessary  to  force  the 
current  through  this  gas  film  over  the  surface 
of  the  electrode  will  of  course  increase  with 
the  thickness  of  the  film,  and  in  turn  the  thick- 
ness of  the  (^1m  will  be  dependent  on  the  ease 
with  which  the  gas  mechanically  separates 
itself  from  the  surface  of  the  electrode.  This 
will  naturally  vary  with  the  material  of  the 
electrode  and  with  the  condition  of  its  surface. 
When  the  products  of  an  electrolysis  are  stable 
and  can  be  removed  from  the  cell  in  the  form 
in  which  they  were  deposited,  there  is  no  reac- 
tion taking  place  except  the  electrolytic  decom- 
position itself  and  this  is  said  to  be  a  primary 
reaction.  In  many  eases,  however,  the  products 
of  electrolysis  undergo  further  reaction  and 
appear  in  some  Other  form  than  that  in  which 
they  were  originally  deposited.  In  this  case  the 
reaction  is  said  to  be  secondary.  These  sec- 
ondary reactions  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  depending  on  whether  the  prodticts 
of    decomposition    react   on    the   material    of 


the  electrodes,  or  whether  they  react  on 
the  electrolyte.  If  desired,  each  of  these 
classes  can  be  still  further  subdivided  into  two 
classes,  the  first  as  to  whether  the  action  is  on 
the  cathode  or  on  the  anode,  and  the  second 
as  to  whether  the  action  is  on  the  catholyte  or 
anolyte.  For  example,  if  a  solution  of  sodium 
sulphate  were  electrolyied  the  primary  reaction 
would  result  in  the  deposition  of  metallic 
sodium  on  the  cathode  and  of  the  SOi  radical 
on  the  anode.  The  sodium  would  then  react 
with  the  water  in  the  electrolyte  with  the  for- 
mation of  NaOH  and  hydrogen,  while  the  SO, 
would  react  with  the  water,  forming  HiSOt  and 
oxygen.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  solution  of 
NaCl  were  electrolysed  with  a  mercury  cathode 
and  a  silver  anode  the  sodium  set  free  at  the 
cathode  would  react  on  it  with  the  formation  of 
an  amalgam,  and  Ae  chlorine  set  free  at  the 
anode  would  combine  with  it  with  the  forma- 
tion of  AgCl.  Since  the  electrolysis  of  the 
water  of  an  aqueous  solution  results  in  the 
formation  of  hydrogen  at  the  cathode  and  of 
oxygen  at  the  anode,  we  can.  have  in  the  solu- 
tion as  the  result  of  secondary  reaction  either  a 
reducing  or  an  oxidizing  action  by  using  condi- 
tions which  favor  the  absorption  in  the  solu- 
tion of  whichever  is  desired  A  large  electrode 
and  a  low  current  density  favor  the  absorption 
of  the  gas  in  the  nascent  condition  as  fast  as 
formed,  while  a  small  electrode  and  a  h'gh  cur- 
rent density  tend  to  cause  the  throwing  off  of 
the  gas  as  free  bubbles  almost  as  fast  as 
formed  and  with  only  a  limited  opportunity  for 
absorption.  Low  current  density  at  the  cathode 
and  high  at  the  anode  will  then  give  a  strong 
reducing  action,  while  high  density  at  the 
cathode  and  low  at  the  anode  will  give  strong 
oxidizing  action.  For  further  discussion  of  the 
phenomena  accompanying  the  passa^  of  a  cur- 
rent of  electricity  through  a  solution,  see  the 
article  on  Electrolysis. 

In  electrothermal  applications  it  is  the 
heating  action  of  the  current  that  is  sought 
rather  than  its  chemical  action  at  the  electrodes 
during  electrolysis.  An  apparatus  for  the 
utilization  of  the  heating  action  of  the  cur- 
rent for  carrjdng  on  a  high-temperature  re- 
action is  known  as  an  electric  furnace.  In 
case  the  combined  action  of  the  high  tempera- 
ture and  the  chemical  action  of  the  current  are 
both  used,  the  apparatus  is  called  an  electro- 
lytic furnace.  In  the  formei^  as  a  matter  of 
convenience  and  economy  in  handling  the  cur- 
rent, alternating  current  is  usually  used ;  in  the 
latter,  since  electrolysis  is  sought,  direct  current 
is  a  necessity.  Sec  Electric  Fijpnaces  and 
Electrochemical  Indcstries. 

Many  of  our  present  day  commercial  opera- 
tions require  temperatures  hij;her  than  are  at- 
tainable from  the  combustion  of  a  fuel,  and 
for  operations  of  this  kind  electric  heating  is  a 
necessity.  In  many  other  cases  it  has  been 
found  more  -  economical  to  substitute  electric 
heating  for  combustion  heating.  The  particu- 
lar economy  in  electric  heating^  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  heat  is  generated  within  the  charge 
being  heated  and  does  not  have  to  be  forced 
through  the  refractory  wall  of  the  container 
which,  on  account  of  its  low  conductivity,  im- 
po-ies  a  heavy  loss  in  efficiency.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible to  sectire  certain   electrochemical   effects 


SLJBCTROCHRONOGRAPH—  ELBCTKOLYSIS 


197 


of  this  kind  are  the  conversion  of  ox^en,  Oi, 
into  ozone,  Oi,  and  the  oxidation  of  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen  to  nitric  acid.  (See  Electbo- 
CHEMicAL  Industries).  Both  of  these  reactions 
were  first  noted  in  the  early  years  of  electrical 
development,  the  former  by  Van  Marum  in 
1785,  and  the  latter  by  Priestly  in  1779,  but  in 
both  cases  nothing  was  done  in  the  way  of 
study  or  development  of  the  reactions  until 
many  years  later,  mainly  within  the  last  30 
years. 

Bibliograpby. —  Alltnand,  A.  J.,  'Applied 
Electrochemistry)  (New  York  1912) ;  Jones, 
H.  C.  'Outlines  of  Physical  Chemistry'  (New 
York  1915)  and  'The  Theory  of  Solutions' 
(New  York  1917) ;  Le  Blattc,  M.,  'Textbook  of 
Electrochemistry'  (New  York  1916)  ;  Thomp- 
son, M.  deK.,  'Applied  Electrochemistry'  (New 
York  1914) ;  'Transactions  of  the  American 
Electrochemical  Society' (Bethlehem,  Pa.,  semi- 
annually). 

G.  A.  RousH, 
Assistant  Secretary,  American  Electrochemical 
Society. 

BLECTROCHSONOGRAPH.  See  Chko- 

-NOSOOPE. 

BLBCTROCIDES,  the  amber  islands  of 
Greek  mythology,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Eridanus.  The  name  was  applied  also  to  the 
.  islands  on  the  northem  coast  of  Europe. 

ELECTROCULTURE  OF  PLANTS, 
the  employment  of  electric  light  in  agri- 
culture and  horticulture.  It  was  determined 
at  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  of 
Coraell  University  and  of  West  Virginia, 
in  experiments  made  with  the  arc  and  the 
incandescent  lights,  respectively,  that  cer- 
tain crops  are  forwarded  by  the  light.  The 
most  remarkable  instance  is  that  of  lettuce, 
which  was  brought  to  maturity  in  from  5  to  10 
days  earlier  than  other  plants  grown  in  the 
same  house  and  under  otherwise  identical  con- 
ditions. This  discovery  has  led  to  the  com- 
mercial application  of  the  arc  U^ht,  if  not  of 
the  incandescent  also,  to  the  forcing  of  lettuce 
under  glass  in  several  of  the  larger  New  Eng- 
land forcing  houses,  with  the  result  that  a  gam 
o£  about  three  weeks'  time  is  calculated  upon 
for  the  season,  thus  enabling  the  gardener  to 
devote  bis  benches  to  one  more  crop  than 
formerly  or  to  follow  his  lettuce  crops  with 
cucumbers,  the  favorite  successor,  much  earlier 
than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  Several 
flower  crops,  such  as  Easier  lilies  and  sweet- 
pease,  have  been  experimented  upon,  with  the 
result  that  they  were  forced  into  bloom  several 
days  in  advance  of  others  grown  without  the 
stimulDs.  In  such  cases  the  plants  are  always 
grown  without  the  light  until  within  about  a 
month  of  maturity,  when  the  li^  is  applied  for 
about  half  the  night.  It  has  been  found  that 
unless  the  light  pass  through  a  glass  globe  or 

Kne  there  is  a  noticeable  "scorching"  of  tiie 
liage  or  flower.  It  is  concluded  that  this  is 
due  to  the  action  of  the  ultra-violet  rays  of  the 
spectrum  rays,  which  do  not  pass  through  the 
glass.  Consult  various  bulletins  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts, Hatch,  Cornell  Universihr  and  West 
Virginia  Experiment  stations.  See  Electric 
Vegetable  Gabdfotwc, 

ELECTROCUTION,  capital  punishment 
hy  the  agency  of  electricity.  See  &.ECTwcmr, 
Cause  of  Death  by. 


ELECTRODE  (Greek,  hodos,  "a  way"),  a 
term  introduced  by  Faraday  to  denote  the  con- 
ductors by  which  electriaty  cither  enters  or 
leaves  an  electrolytic  bath  or  solution.  He 
termed  the  electrode  by  which  the  current  en- 
ters the  bath,  the  anode  (positive  terminaj),  and 
the  electrode  hy  which  the  current  leaves,  the 
cathode,  sometimes  spelled  kathode  (negative 
terminal).  The  terms  anode  and  cathode  have 
been  introduced  generally  in  metallurgical  prac- 
tice, and  also  in  connection  with  Crooke's  tubes 
and  X-ray  work,  and  the  term  electrode  has 
become  common  in  the  more  extended  sense  of 
signifying  either  of  the  terminals  of  an  electric 
source,  instrument  or  electrolytic  iKith  or  cell. 

ELBCTRODKPOSITION.  See  Eleciho- 
cheuistsy;  Electkoplattng. 

ELECTRODYNAMIC  INDUCTION. 
See  Induction. 

ELECTRODYNAMICS,  that  branch  of 
electrical  science  which  treats  of  Hit  attractions 
and  repulsions  exhibited  between  wires  or  other 
conductors  along  which  currents  are  passing. 
If  two  wires  are  parallel  they  will  attract  eadi 
other  when  currents  are  passing  the  same  way 
along  them  both  and  will  repel  each  other  wbea 
the  currents  are  opposite.  If  the  wires  are  in- 
clined to  each  other  at  any  anf^e  there  is  not 
only  an  attraction  or  repulsion  but  a  still  more 
marked  tendency  to  rotation  which  is  not  satis- 
fied until  the  wires  have  become  parallel  and 
the  currents  flow  in  the  same  direction  along 
them  both.  When  there  are  only  two  straight 
wires  these  forces  are  feeble  and  retiuire  deli- 
cate apparatus  for  their  exhibition,  but  by  em- 
ploying coils  of  wire  the  forces  are  multiplied 
and  an  instrument  constructed  on  this  principle 
called  the  electrodyoamometer  has  been  much 
employed  for  the  measurement  of  currents.  The 
basic  principles  of  electrodynamics  were  dis- 
covered by  Ampere  in  1821  by  many  ingenious 
experiments,  the  results  of  which  he  expounded 
in  a  series  of  statements  known  to  this  day  at 
Ampere's  Laws. 

ELECTRODYNAHOMETER.  See 

Dynamomeiehs  ;  Ei^ectrical  Measuking  In- 
struments. 

ELECTROKINETICS.  See  Electric  Di- 
RBCF  Current;  Electric  Alternating  Current 
Machinery  ;  ELECTWaTY. 

ELECTROLYSIS.  With  respect  to  their 
ability  to  conduct  electricity,  all  substances  are 
divided  into  the  two  genera!  classes,  conductors 
and  non-conductors;  there  is,  however,  no  hard 
and  fast  boundary  line  between  the  two,  but  a 
more  or  less  gradual  merging  from  one  into 
the  other.  The  conductors  are  again  divided 
into  two  classes,  those  which  conduct  the  cur- 
rent without  anv  apparent  decomposition  and 
those  in  which  the  conduction  k  invariably  ac- 
companied by  decomposition.  In  this  latter 
class,  the  conduction  of  the  current  with  con- 
comitant decomposition  is  called  electrolysis, 
and  the  liquid  subjected  to  decomposition  is 
termed  the  electrolyte.  These  arc  the  names 
originally  proposed  by  Faraday.  True  electrol- 
ysis is  almost  entirely  confined  to  liquids.  Evi- 
dences of  electrolysis  have  been  found,  how- 
ever, in  a  few  cases  in  solids  and  similar  phe- 
nomena have  been  observed  in  connection  with 
high-tension  discharges  through  gases.  A  large 
number  of  liquids,  particularly  of  organic  na- 


■  c?!^ 


106 


SLBCTKOLT8I8—  ELBCTROHAONSTISM 


tuTc,    fall    in    the    class    of    non-conductors. 
Water,  and  a  number  of  othfrr  liquids  of  inor- 

Bnic  oriein  are  a] so  non-conductors  when  care- 
lly  punfied.  Liquids  that  conduct  without  de- 
composition are  limited  to  liquid  metals.  Liquids 
that  conduct  with  decomposition  — thai  is, 
electToIj^es^  may  be  a  pure  liquid,  a  fused  salt, 
or  a  solution,  either  aqueous  or  non-aqueous. 
In  the  case  of  solutions  the  conductivity  is  not 
necessarily  dependent  on  the  conductivity  of  the 
constituents  of  the  solution,  but  may  be  a  prop- 
erty of  the  solution  itself.  A  solution  of  one 
non-conductor  in  another  may  give  a  scdution 
of  good  conductivity. 

Also,  in  the  case  of  a  solution,  the  decom- 
position caused  by  the  electrolysis  may  affect 
the  solvent  or  the  solute  or  both,  and  may  vary 
with  the  conditions  of  electrolysis..  If  the  con- 
stituents of  the  solute  are  obtained  directly  at 
the  anode  and  cathode,  the  reaction  is  said  to 
be  A  primary  one;  but  if  for  any  reason,  these 
constituents  react  on  either  the  electrodes  or 
the  solution,  die  reaction  is  said  to  be  secondary. 
(See  Electkocremistvy).  Primary  reactions 
are  dependent  only  on  the  amount  of  current 
acting,  and  are  not  subject  to  modification  by 
physical  conditions  (see  Fakaday's  Laws),  but 
secondary  reactions  may  be  modified  by  tem- 
perature, concentration,  current  density  and 
other  physical  conditions  and  in  this  type  of 
reaction  with  its  various  modifications  lie  many 
of  the  possibilities  in  the  field  of  industrial 
electrochemistry.  (See  Electrochemical  In- 
dustries). The  problem  of  the  mechanism  of 
electrolysis  is  one  that  has  attracted  more  at- 
tention than  any  other  in  the  field  of  electro- 
dtemistry.  A  brief  discussion  of  the  early  his- 
tory and  the  present  status  of  this  problem  will 
be  found  in  the  article  on  Electrochemistry. 
This  question  is  also  closely  related  to,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  dependent  on,  the  problem  of 
the  nature  of  solutions,^  and  a  furmer  discus- 
sion of  the  principles  involved  will  be  found 
in  the  article  on  SoLunoirs. 

G.  A.  RoiTSH, 
Aisistant  Secretary,  America*  EUctrochemieal 

Soeiely. 

ELECTROLYSIS  OF  GAS  AND 
WATER  MAINS.  In  the  system  of  street 
railway  traction  in  which  an  overhead  troUev 
wire  is  employed,  with  direct  current,  in  which 
the  tracks  are  utilised  as  a  return  circuit  for 
the  current  to  the  power-house,  it  has  been 
found  that  damage  nas  almost  invariably  en- 
sued to  the  gas  and  water  mains  adjacent  to 
the  tracks,  from  electrolysis.  This  is  due  pri- 
marily to  the  electric  current  leaving  the  tracks 
and  following  the  gas  or  water  mains  for  some 
distance.  At  the  points  where  the  current 
leaves  these  pipes  to  return  to  the  tracks  or  to 
tfie  power-house,  if  the  soil  is  damp  and  con- 
tains soluble  chlorides  of  magnesium,  sodium 
or  potassium,  the  current  sets  free  acids  or 
chlorine  which  attack  the  iron  of  the  pipes; 
the  rapidi^  and  extent  of  the  damage  done 
diereby  beinfr  dependent  upon  the  strength  of 
the  current,  the  duration  of  its  application  and 
the  constituents  of  the  soil.  The  electrolytic 
action  results  in  'pitting*  the  pipes,  and  burst- 
ing of  water  pipes  and  leakage  of  gas  pipes  is 
not  uncommon  from  this  cause.  fSee  illustra- 
tion). Experiments  have  shown  that  with  as  low 
a  potential  as  O.S  volt  and  a  current  of  0.03 


ampere,  noticeable  electrolysis  of  an  iron  pipe 
has  occurred  in  sand  moistened  with  sea  water. 
Pipes  on  which  the  difference  of  potential  was 
found  to  be  about  six  volts  have  burst  in  a  few 
years.  To  prevent  electrolysis  due  to  this  cause 
greater  precautions  are  now  taken,  and  with 
considerable  success,  to  preserve  die  continuity 


Elictrolyticallr  Pi 


Pip.. 


of  the  rails  by  bonding,  welding  them  in  situ  by 
electricity  by  providing  sei>aratc  metallic  re- 
turn circuits  and  by  connecting  the  water  and 
gas  mains  by  means  of  heavy  copper  wire  at 
places  where  the  current  would  otherwise  re- 
turn to  the  tracks  via  the  earth. 


composition  is  called  an  electrolyte.  It  may_  be 
either  a  pure  liquid,  a  fused  salt  or  a  solution, 
aqueous  or  non-aqueous.  In  the  case  of  a  so^ 
lution,  the  decomposition  may  involve  the  so- 
lute, the  solvent,  or  both.  iTie  name  is  often 
incorrectly  applied  to  designate  a  salt  which 
when  dissolvea  in  water  will  form  a  c<Hiducting . 
solution. 

ELBCTROUAGNETIC  INDUCTION. 
See  iNDOcnoK. 

ELECTROMAGNETISM.  The  art  or 
process  of  magnetizing  by  means  of  an  electric 
current^  as  distinguished  from  so-called  natural 
magnetism  as  in  the  lodestone,  or  transient 
magnetism,  as  established  in  a  wrougbt-iron 
bar.  A  magnet  not  only  attracts  steel  and  iron 
in  a  less  degree,  but  cobalt,  nickel,  manganese, 
cerium  and  chromium.  Hans  Christian  Oer- 
sted (g.v.)  is  credited  witb  being  the  first  to 
recognize  the  identity  of  magnetic  and  electric 
phenomena.  In  1820  he  observed  that  wires 
connecting  the  poles  of  3.  voltaic  pile  affected 
the  magnetic  needle.  In  1821  he  wrote  a  long 
paper  on  electro-magnetism.  Arago,  Ampere. 
Davy  and  Faraday  all  studied  and  contributea 
to  knowledge  of  uie  phenomena.  In  1S25  Wil- 
liam Sturgeon  of  Woolwich,  England,  began 
to  experiment.  His  two  first  electro-magnets 
were  made  in  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe  and  a 
straight  bar.  The  former  was  made  of  a  bent 
rod  of  iron  one  foot  in  length  and  half  an  indi 
thicl^  around  which  A  bare  copper  wire  was 
wound  18  times,  the  iron  having  been  previously 
covered  with  varnish  to  insulate  the  wire  from 
the  Iron.  The  current  was  supplied  by  one 
hrge  primary  cell.  This  magnet  was  able  to 
sustain  a  weight  of  nine  pounds,  tiiou^  weigh- 
ing itself  only  seven  ounces.  Smsequently 
Sturgeon  constructed  a  horseshore  electro- 
magnet 18  inches  in  length,  2^  inches  thidc 
ana  wound  with  980  feet  of  copper  wire  one- 
twelfth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  wbidi  upheld 
1,386  pounds.  In  1831  Joseph  Henry  made 
electromagnets  for  both  Yale  and  Princeton 
universities  that  lifted  3,000  pounds.  Large 
electroma^ets  are  now  usea  in  foundries 
and  machine  shops  of  a  capacity  of  12  or  more 

The  phenomena  of  electro-magnetism  may 
be  briefly  described  as  follows :  It  is  known  that 


BtJCCTROUSTALLUROy^  BLECTROMSTER 


when  iron  filings  are  atrtwn  over  a  cardboard 
or  glass,  if  a  bar  or  horseshoe  ma^et  be  placed 
under  the  cardboard  the  filings  will  tend  to  ar- 
range  themselves  symmetrically  when  the  card- 
board is  lap^.  This  is  due  to  magnetic  Mnes 
of  force  which  are  assumed  to  flow  from  the 
north  to  the  south  pole  of  the  magnet,  and 
the  iron  filings,  becoming  tempo r>rily  magnet- 
iied  by  these  magnetic  lines  of  force,  tend  to 
set  themselves  parallel  thereto.  Similarly, 
when  an  electric  current  flows  in  a  wire  (elec- 
tro) tnagneitc  lines  of  force  surround  the  wire 
in  circles  or  hoops  which  increase  in  density 
with  the  strength  of  the  current  It  is  known 
diat  iron  is  a  much  better  conductor  of  mag- 
netic lines  of  force  (or  magncttEm)  than  air, 
in  the  ratio  of  1  to  100  or  150,  depending  on 
the  quality  or  'permeability"  of  the  iron. 
Hence  when  the  wire  is  made  in  the  form  of  a 
coil  into  which  is  inserted  a  soft  iron  bar,  the 
magnetic  fines  of  force,  so  to  speak,  use  ttie 
'it  and  the  latter  becomes  .a  mag- 


bar  o£  soft  iron,  around  which  a  copper  wire 
is  coiled  in  spirals,  beginning  at  one  extremity 
and  extending  to  the  other.  If  the  iron  core 
is  placed  in  this  position  n,  and  windinir  be- 
gins at  the  lower  left  side,  turning  the  wire 
aroond  clockwise,  the  south  pole  of  the  mag- 
netic will  be  at  the  starting  point  on  the  left. 

The  space  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet  or 
wherever  its  magnetic  lines  of  force  extend,  or 
in  the  space  around  a  wire  conveying  a  current 
of  electricity,  is  termed  a  magnetic  'field.*  The 
substances  through  which  the  lines  of  force 
pass,  including  the  iron  of  the  magnet,  consti- 
tute the  magnetic  circuit.  The  expression  num- 
ber of  lines  of  force  per  square  centimeter  in 
the  material,  is  at  present  nsed  as  a  measure  of 
magnetic  density.  The  total  number  of  lines 
of  force  if]  a  m^neiic  circuit  is  termed  the 
magnetic  fiur,  and  is  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  total  cross- sectional  area  of  the  field  in 
square  centimeters  by  the  density  of  a  square 
centimeters  of  the  circuit.  The  magneto  motive 
force  (that  is,  the  force  that,  as  it  were,  drives 
the  lines  of  force  through  the  circuit)  is  equal 
to  the  product  of  the  strength  of  current  in 
amperes  in  the  coil  try  the  number  of  convolu- 
tions of  the  coil.  This  is  also  tenned  the  am- 
fere  turns.  The  magnetic  flux  may  fie  increased 
oy  increasing  the  magneto  motive  force  or  by 
decreasing  the  resistance  (termed  the  reluc- 
tance')  of  the  magnetic  circuit.  Hence  the  re- 
lation of  the  foregoing  terms  to  one  another  is 
analogous  to  that  between  electromotive  force, 
resistance  and  current,  in  an  electrical  circuit, 
and  may  be  expressed  by  the  equation : 

Magnetic  flux  = 

It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  reluctance 
o'f  a  magnetic  circuit  containing  iron  is  not  a 
constant,  but  increases  in  other  words,  its  per- 
meability to  magnetization  decreases,  after  a 
certain  degree  of  magnetization,  which  is 
tenned  saturation,  has  been  reached. 

Electro^ma^ets  are  extensively  used  in 
electric  bells,  in  telegraph  and  telephone  appa- 
ratus, in  dynamo  machines,  electric  motors 
(•J-v),  and  for  many  other  purposes.    See  Elec- 

lUC  MACHmESY. 


BLBCTROHETALLUSGY.  That  branch 
of  electrical  science  that  deals  with  the  reduc- 
tion or  refining  of  metals  by  cleclTical  proc- 
esses, including  electrolysis  (o.v.)  or  decompo- 
sition of  chemical  compounds  by  electricity; 
electro-deposition,  or  the  depositing  of  metals 
in  solution  by  an  electric  current  (see  Elect»o- 
chemistky);  and  the  fusing  of  metals  in  the 
electric  furnace  (q.v.).  The  electric  current  b 
capable  of  performing  the  entire  work  of  re- 
ducing a  metal  from  its  ore,  but  in  practice 
this  is  usually  too  expensive,  and  it  is  used 
only  where  there  is  a  commercial  ^in.  The 
first  important  amplication  of  electricity  in  the 
separation  of  a  metal  was  to  aluminum,  which 
industry  is  based  wholly  on  electrical  proc- 
esses. (See  Aluminuu).  In  copper  refining, 
electricity  has  become  more  and  more  import- 
ant, owing  to  the  purity  of  the  product  whit^ 
is  valued  -commercially.  There  is  increasing 
use  of  electrometallurgy  in  the  production  of 
gold,  silver,  zinc  and  the  ferro-alloys.  It  may  be 
used  also  for  separating  and  refining  platinum, 
lead,  nickel,  tin,  bismuth,  cadmium,  etc.,  in  fact 
all  the  metals.  A  perusal  of  the  article  on 
Electric  Furnace  will  afford  the  student  a 
clear  idea  of  the  methods  of  electrometalluq^. 
Various  electrolytic  processes  are  also  outlined 
under  Coppeb  ;  Gold,-  Zinc,  etc.  See  also  Elec- 
TBOLYSts;  Metallubcv. 

ELECTROMSTBR,  an  instrument  for 
determining  ddfference  of  electrostatic  poten- 
tial (or  electric  charge)  between  two  charged 
conductors.  The  electroscope  (g.v.)  and  Cou- 
lomb's torsion  balance  are  pnmitive  forms. 
The  attracted' disc  electrometer  was  designed  by 
Volta  and  developed  by  Snow-Harris.  It  con- 
sists of  a  battery  or  Leyden  jar  to  the  wires  of 
which  is  attached  a  horizontal  disc.  A  bal- 
ance is  placed  close  bj^,  having  on  one  end  of 
the  beam  a  disc  which  is  positioned  a  short  dis- 
tance above  the  disc  connected  with  the  jar, 
the  other  end  of  the  beam  a  pan  for 


containing  small  weights.  In  this  r 
degree  of  force  that  will  pull  the  two  oiscs  lO- 
geu>er  is  weighed  in  ounces  or  pounds.  To 
secure  a  correct  result  it  was  foimd  necessary 
to  place  a  guard  ring  around  the  upper  disc, 
and  this  later  form  was  named  the  absol^ite 
electrometer.  Through  this  mechanism  it  was 
demonstrated  that  the  attraction  between  the 
discs  at  different  distances  varied  as  the  square 
of  the  difference  of  potential.  Lord  Kelvin 
constructed  an  electrometer  located  in  the  in- 
terior of  a  Leyden  jar,  and  employing  the  tor- 
sion of  a  wire  to  measure  the  difference  of  po- 
tential. This  invention  was  outclassed  bter 
b^  his  quadrant  electrometer,  lliis  was  de- 
signed to  measure  the  electrostatic  charge  by 
the  attraction  of  quadrants  of  metal  of  loiown 
attractive  force  on  a  very  light  aluminum  needle. 
He  hung  a  paddle-shaped  aluminum  foil  needle, 
enclosed  in  a  box,  between  the  four  insidated 
metal  quadrants.  Opposite  quadrants  were  con- 
nected by  platinum  wires.  TTie  difference  of  po- 
tential when  connected  with  one  pair  of  quad- 
rants or  the  other  pair  was  mad^  use  of  to  de- 
flect the  needle,  and  a  mirror  and  light  beit)( 
provided,  the  needle  threw  a  spot  of  light  on  a 
scale.  It  was  found  necessary  to  provide  the  in- 
strument with  a  ' replenish er*  to  preserve  the 
diarge  of  the  Leyden  jar.  The  quadrant  elec- 
trometer was  so  much  more  delicate  in  its  meas- 


BLBCTROIIOTIVB   PORCB~  BLBCTROH  TRBOSY 


that  it  st^erscded  the  cruder  muni- 
ments, and  being  later  improved  by  Dolezalek 
and  others  became  a  standard  imtruinent  See 
Elbctsic  Mejssuiung  Instruments. 

BLBCTROMOTIVE  FORCE.  Electric 
pressure  or  voltage,  equivalent  to  difference  of 
potential;  the  force  that  causes  electricity  to 
flow  along  a  conductor:  commonly  abbrevtaied 
E.M.F.  The  force  which  gives  rise  to  an  elec- 
tric current  is  called  electromotive  force  and 
is  comparable  with  the  force  exerted  by  water 
under  pressure  or  'head,"  lesulting  from  water 
seeking  its  level.  In  a  somewhat  similar  way, 
electricity  seeks  a  balance.  When  a  conductor 
is  earthed,  that  is  connected  with  the  earth,  the 
electric  potential  becomes  the  same  as  the 
earth's,  balance  is  restored  and  there  is  no 
flow  of  current  and  no  electrical  manifestation, 
the  electromotive  force  being  at  lero. 

BLECTROHOTOGRAPH,  a  hame  ^ven 
to  a  peculiar  telephone  receiver  invented  by 
Edison  and  constructed  virtually  as  follows : 
A  short  metal  strip,  fastened  at  one  end  to  the 
centre  of  a  mica  diaphragm,  rests  on  a  rotating 
cylinder,  the  surface  of  which  is  composed  of 
moist  gypsum  impregnated  with  mercuric  ace- 
tate and  potash.  The  strip  and  cylinder  are 
placed  in  series  in  a  telepho  '  ''  "" 
ariatio: 

the  strip  and  the  cylinder  varies  directly  with 
the  current  When  the  current  is  weak  the 
strip  is  drawn  along  in  the  direction  of  the  cyl- 
inder's rotation  against  the  natural  tension  of 
the  mica  diaphragm.  When  the  ctirrent  in- 
creases, the  strip  slips  back  in  response  to  the 
pull  of  the  diaphragm  and  in  this  way  the  dia- 
phragm is  set  into  vibrations  corresponding  to 
those  set  up  by  the  telephone  transmitter.  An 
explanation  of  this  phenomena  is  that  the  cur- 
rent electrolytically  sets  free  a  thin  layer  of 
gas  between  the  cylinder  and  strip,  reducing 
me  natural  friction. 

ELECTRON  THEORY  or  CORPUS- 
CULAR THEORY.  The  physical  theory  that 
the  atoms  of  bodies  are  composite  systems, 
consisting  in  part  (at  least)  of  corpuscles  of  a 
Still  hi^er  order  of  minuteness.  The  theory 
has  heretofore  concerned  itself  mainly  with 
the  study  of  one  special  form  of  corpuscle, 
which  is  exceedingly  prominent  in  sub-atomic 
phenomena,  and  which  appears  to  constitute  a 
sort  of  basic  and  omnipresent  structural  element 
in  the  architecture  of  material  atoms  of  all 
kinds,  inasmuch  as  it  has  identically  the  same 
properties  in  every  respect,  whatever  the  land  of 
matter  from  which  it  is  obtained.  These  funda- 
mental corpuscles  usually  occur  in  combination 
with  structural  elements  of  other  kinds  to  form 
the  atoms,  but  they  are  also,  capable  of  existing 
in  the  free  state,  and  fhey  can  be  isolated  by 
suitable  experimental  means.  Each  corpuscle 
carries  a  certain  definite  and  constant  charge  of 
negative  electricity,  which  is  the  same  for  all 
of  them ;  and  many  authorities  believe  that  the 
corpuscles  are,  in  fact,  mere  isolated,  disem- 
bodied electric  charges.  Whether  this  be  so  or 
not,  experimental  evidence  indicates  that  the 
charge  associated  with  a  corpuscle  has  one 
definite  value,  and  that  it  is  incapable  of  varia- 
tion. An  atom  is  supposed  to  consist  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  these  negative  corpuscles,  asso- 
ciated in  scmie  definite  way  with  a  positively- 


electrified  nucleus, —  there  being,  uonBally,  jast 
enmigb  of  the  negative  corpuscles  present  to 
neutrolize  the  effects  of  the  positive  electrifica' 
ticm  of  the  nucleus.  According  to  this  view, 
bodies  acquire  poshive  charges  by  losing  some 
of  their  negative  corpnsdes,  and  acquire  ne^- 
tive  chafes  by  picking  up  additional  negative 
corpuscles.  If  this  hypothesis  be  correct,  it  b 
evident  that  communicating  an  electric  diarge 

the  other  hand,  essenliatly  discontinuous,  and 
consists  in  adding  to  the  i>ody  (or  subtracting 
from  it)  a  number  of  definite  (though  exceed- 
ingly small)  units  of  electricity,—  being  rouRhly 
analogous  to  filling  (or  emptying)  a  barrel  bj 
means  of  a  bucket,  instead  of  by  the  nse  of  a 
hose.  Uoreover,  the  belief  that  the  charging 
process  is  essentially  diseontinuons  is  no  longer 
based  upon  theory  alone,  for  Uillikan  has  ob- 
tained direct  ejqteriineDtal  evidence  of  such 
discontinuity,  in  connection  with  chaises  coni- 
munica^ed  to  inl  drops  by  friction. 

It  happens  that  the  investigation  of  the  posi- 
tive nucleus  of  the  atom  is  more  difficult  than 
the  investigation  of  the  nef^tive  corpuscles 
that  are  normally  associated  with  this  niKlein, — 
or  perhaps  it  would  be  more  accurate  to  say 
that  the  experimental  methods  thus  far  devised 
are  mainly  applicable  to  the  study  of  the 
n^^tive  corpuscle.  Under  certain  circum- 
stances atoms  can  lose  positive  charges  as  well 
as  losing  or  gaining  ne^tive  ones;  but  the  loss 
of  a  positive  charge  appears  to  involve  a  fimda- 
mental  change  of  some  kind  in  the  nature  ol 
the  atom.  (See  Molecular  Thhoby.)  That 
there  is  protnbly  an  exceedingly  important  dif- 
ference between  positive  and  negative  electric- 
i^  is  plainly  indicated  by  the  fact  that  no  pou- 
tive  charge  has  yet  been  demonstrably  observed 
in  connection  with  a  mass  smaller  than  that  of 
the  hydrogen  atom,  while  negative  charges  (ai 
will  presently  appear)  are  Imown  to  occur  in 
connection  with  masses  far  more  minute  than 
this. 

The  definite  charge  carried  by  the  negative 
corpuscle  appears  to  be  identical  in  magnitude 
wim  the  charge  carried  by  the  hydrogen  ion 
(or  any  other  monovalent  ion),  in  electrolysis. 
For  this  charge  Dr.  G.  Johnstone  Stoney,  as 
long  ago  as  1891,  proposed  the  name  'electron* 
(Lord  Kelvin  preferred  "electrion,*  hut  his  sug- 

Kstion  has  not  been  followed)  ;  and  this  name 
s  been  applied  quite  generally,  in  recent  years, 
to  the  negative  corpuscles  themselves,  instead 
of  being  restricted  to  the  electric  charges  that 
they  bear.  Present  practice  among  authoritative 
writers,  however,  is  toward  the  restoration  of 
the  word  "electron*  to  its  original  sense  as  the 
name  of  a  definite  quantity  (or  unit)  of  electric- 
ity, and  toward  the  adoption  of  J.  J.  Thom- 
son's original  name,  *corpuscle'  or  "negative 
corpuscle,"  for  the  actual  particle  that  bears 
(or  consists  of)  a  charge  of  one  electron  of 
negative  electricity.  In  the  present  article  we 
shall  follow  the  tendency  here  noted,  and  shall 
call  the  particle  itself  a  "corpuscle*  or  "negative 
corpusde,"  and  the  charge  that  It  bears  an 
■electron*  or  'negative  electron.* 

The  corpuscular  theory  of  matter  has  been 
developed  m  many  directions,  and  its  bearing 
upon  the  varied  phenomena  of  physics  has  been 
extensively  investigated  by  both  mathematical 
and  experimental  methods.  To  indicate  all  its 
bearings  and  relations  would  require  a  volume. 


SLBCTKON   THEORY 


aoi. 


aad  tbe  present  article  will  tberefore  be  de- 
voted to  an  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the 
cxirpuscular  theoiy,  and  to  an  account  of  the 
ntunerical  results  that  have  been  obtained  in 
studying  the  mass,  (Jurge,  speed  and  size  of 
the  negative  corpuscle.  Further  data  concern- 
ing the  application  of  the  corpuscular  theory 
to  spcciAc  physical  phenomena  may  be  had 
from  the  references,  given  below. 

The  corpuscular  uieory  of  matter,  in  its 
modern  sense,  originated  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  the  disdiarge  of  electricity  throu^ 
rarefied  ^ses.  Previous  to  the  experimental 
investigation  of  this  subject  it  was  customary  to 
regard  positive  and  negative  electricity  as  being 
of  the  same  general  nature,  but  dj^ering  from 
each  other  somewhat  as  a  right-handed  helix  or 
spiral  difTers  from  a  left-handed  one,  or  (more 
accurately)  as  a  positive  number  cUfFeis  from  a 
negative  one.  The  study  of  vacuum-tube  phe- 
nomena indicated^  however,  that  there  is  a  far 
more  profound  difference  Inan  this  between  die 
two  kinds  of  electricity.  Il  was  shown  by  the 
.  researches  of  Pliicker,  Hittorf,  Crookes  and 
others  that  when  electricity  is  passed  through 
a  tube  containing  air  or  any  other  gas  in  an  ex- 
tremely rarefied  condition,  the  discharge  from 
the  negative  electrode  (or  'cathode')  is  wholly 
different  from  the  discharge  that  takes  place  at 
the  positive  electrode  {or  "anode").  The  nega- 
tive discharge  (when  the  vacuum  in  the  tube  is 
high   enough)    takes  place   along  straight   lines 


and  the  phenomena  observed  at  the  positive 
electrode  are  allogelher  different  and  tar  less 
striking. 

The  negative  discharge  that  proceeds  from 
the  cathode  (or  negative  electrode)  at  right 
angles  to  its  surface,  in  a  'vacuum  tube,*  is 
called  the  'cathode  ray.*  and  soecial  attention 
was  naturally  paid  to  this  ray,  in  an  effort- to 
discover  its  nature:  The  most  strikin^y  ohvi- 
ous  fact  about  it  is,  that  it  excites  a  vivid  fluor- 
escence in  the  glass  wall  of  the  tube,  where  it 
Strikes  it.  Hittorf.  in  18W,  showed  that  a  solid 
object,  placed  in  the  course  of  the  ray,  inter- 
cepts it  and  casts  a  shadow,  its  outline  being 
plainly  visible  because  there  is  no  fluorescence 
CM1  the  part  of  the  tube  Aat  is  shielded  by  tbe 
obstacle.  Crookes,  following  Hittorf,  tocjc  up 
the  study  of  vacuum  phenomena  in  a  fascinat- 
ing  and  masteriy  way  and  obtained  mai^  re- 
turn that  were  not  only  beautiful  and  stnking, 
but  also  exoeedingly  suggestive  and  sbmulating 
to  further  tnqniry.  By  {Hacing  a  very  light  pao- 
dle-wheel  in  tbe  tube,  so  that  its  naddJes  were 
widiin  the  cathode  stream  (or  ray)  on  one  side, 
and  out  of  it  on  the  other  side,  he  obtained 
mechanical  rotatoiiy  effects.  By  giving  the 
nc^tive  electrode  a  concave  form,  and  thereby 
bnnging  the  cathode  ray  to  a  focus  at  a  t>oint 
within  the  tube,  he  showed  that  marked  heat- 
bg  effects  could  be  produced  by  it.  Tliese  (rfie- 
Domena,  together  with  many  othBTS  that  were 
observed,  suggested  that  the  cathode  ray  con- 
nsts  of  a  stream  of  material  particles,  nega- 
tively electrified  by  contact  with  the  cathode 
and  then  repelled  from  the  cathode  on  account 
of  the  charge  they  have  acquired.  This  h^-l  in 
fact  been  itrongly  urged  by  Varley  (in  1871), 
and  very  liketjr  by  others  also,  as  it  was  a 


cathode  ray  was  quite  generally  believed  to  be 
due  to  some  form  of  wave-like  disturbance  in 
the  ether,  and  this  view  was  held  by  Goldstein, 
who  first  introduced,  in  1876,  the  name  "Ka- 
thode nstrahlen,*  or  'cathode  rays").  One  dif- 
liculty  was,  to  identify  the  nature  of  tbe 
charged  particles  that  were  thus  repelled. 
There  were  reasons  for  believing  tliat  they  arc 
not  ordinary  molecules  or  atoms.  It  was  known, 
for  example,  that  when  an  electrically-chargea 
liquid  is  evaporated,  the  vapor  does  not  carry 
away  the  electrical  charge  with  it.  and  this  ap- 
peared to  indicate  that  the  individual  atoms  or 
molecules  of  a  gas  cannot  be  separately  electri- 
fied. Moreover,  if  the  cathode  ray  consists 
merely  of  efcctritied  molecules,  it  was  hard  to 
understand  why  the  effects  that  were  observed 
in  connection  with  the  cathode  were  not  also 
manifested  in  connection  with  tbe  anode,  or 
positive  electrode.  Crookes,  as  a  result  of  his 
researches,  concluded  tlial  the  projectile  the- 
ory for  charged-particle  theory)  of  the  cathode 
ray  is  correct,  but  as  he  fully  realized  the  dif- 
ficulties in  the  way  of  that  theory,  he  announced 
his  belief  that  in  vacuum-tube  phenomena  we 
are  dealing  with  matter  in  a  previously  unknown 
state,  which  he  called  the  'radiant  state.*  Il  is 
fair  to  say  that  his  views  appeared  to  physicists 
in  general  as  rather  too  mystical,  though  the 
eminence  and  ability  of  their  author  ensured 
them  a  respectful  reception. 

Following  the  experiments  of  Crookes  there 
was  a  lull  in  the  activity  with  which  the  phe- 
nomena of  vacuum  tubes  were  studied,  but  in- 
tense interest  in  the  subject  was  again  aroused 
by  two  exceedingly  striking  discoveries.  Len- 
ard,  in  1894,  showed  that  Oie  cathode  ray  can 
be  made  to  emei^e  front  the  tube  and  pass  into . 
the  outside  air  of  the  laboratory,  if  a  'win- 
dow* of  very  thin  aluminum  (instead  of 
glass)  is  provided  at  the  point  at  which  the 
cathode  ray  strikes  the  tube.  Two  years  later 
(namely  in  1896)  Rontgen  discovered  that  a 
previously  unknown  form  of  radiation  is  emit- 
ted from  the  point  at  which  the  cadiode  ray 
strikes  gainst  the  tube,  or  against  any  other 
solid  obstacle.  The  prospective  usefulness  of 
the  Rontgen  rays  (or  "X-raya")  to  the  surgeon 
gave  them  an  intense  practical  interest,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  interest  that  they  had  for  purely 
physical  reasons;  and  from  Hiis  time  onward 
the  9tu(^  of  tbe  electric  discharge  was  prose" 
cuted  with  renewed  vigor  and  earnestness,  and 
b^  a  large  number  of  physicists  —  further 
stimulation  being  presently  added  by  the  dis- 
covery of  radioactivity  (1896)  and  of  polonium 
and  radium  (1898).  Exceedingly  prominent 
among  the  physicists  who  took  up  the  study 
of  the  cathode  discharge  at  about  this  time  was 
Sir  J.  J.  Thomson.  Beginning  his  researches 
by  investigating  the  general  phenomena  attend- 
ing the  passage  of  electricity  through  gases, 
and  guided  by  a  wonderful  scientific  imagina- 
tion, supplemented  by  a  profound  knowledge  of 
mathematics  and  marked  experimental  skill,  he 
established  the  soundness  of  Crookes'  views, 
generalized  them  amazin^y,  developed  a  new 
■corpuscular  theoiy"  of  matter  and  placed  that 
theory  on  a  firm  foundation. 

It  is  not  passible,  in  the  present  article,  to 
give  more  than  a  superficial  idea  of  the  way  in 
which  the  reality  and  general  properties  of  the 
negative  corpuscle  have  been  established.  The 
strength  of  the  cori»iscular  theory  lies  in  the 


,5le 


9M 


KLECTRON  THEORY 


fact  that  It  lias  been  tested  from  many  ansles. 

and  that  the  results  obtained  by  approaching  it 
from  the  most  diverse  viewpoints  nave,  in  the 
main,  harmonized  wilh  one  another  astonish- 
ingly. Doubts  that  may  be  felt  with  regard  to 
the  legitimacy  of  the  assumptions  made  in  any 
one  Hne  of  investigation  tend  to  lose  their  force 
when  confronted  by  cumulative  evidence  from 
widely  different  sources.  It  is  true  that  incon- 
sistencies and  other  difficulties  have  developed 
here  and  there  in  connection  with  the  corpus- 
ctilar  theory,  but  that  could  only  be  expected, 
because  the  entire  subject  is  still  new,  and 
proercss  in  the  application  of  the  theory  has 
doubtless  been  retarded  and  distorted  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  by  the  persistence  of  certain  of 
Olir  older  conceptions  and  postulates  that  are 
no  longer  defensible,  but  to  which  we  still  cling 
because  we  have  not  yet  learned  wherein  our 
error  lies.  In  the  main,  the  data  that  have  been 
obtained  are  singularly  consistent.  Moreover, 
the  corpuscular  theory  has  proved  to  be  ex- 
traordinarily rich  in  its  su^estiveness,  and  has 
ted  to  many  lines  of  investigation  that  have 
been  fniitful  and  productive  of  good  results. 
This  alone  would  justify  us  in  folfowiiw  it  still 
further,  to  see  where  it  will  ultimately  lead. 

Prominent  among  the  quantities  that  we 
should  like  to  determine  in  connection  with  the 
negative  corpuscles  of  which  we  may  for  the 
time  bejni;  assume  the  cathode  ray  to  consist, 
are  the  following:  (1)  The  mass  (m)  of  a 
corpuscle,  (2)  the  electric  charge  (e)  that  it 
bears,  and  (3)  the  speed  («)  with  which  the 
corpuscle  is  moving  under  ^ven  conditions. 
Let  us  sec  how  these  magnitudes  were  first 
,  obtained : 

It  has  long  been  known,  from  the  general 
theory  of  electricity,  that  a  charged  particle, 
when  moving  in  a  magnetic  field  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  lines  of  magnetic  force,  is  de- 
iiected  so  that  it  tends  to  describe  a  circular  arc 
{instead  of  a  straight  line),  in  a  plane  perneft- 
dicular  to  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  lines. 
It  is,  in  fact,  a  simple  matter  to  show  that  when 
the  ehaiged  particle  is  moving  freely  in  space, 
its  char^  per  unit  of  mass  (denoted  in  symbols 

by   the   ratio  — )  bears  to  its  velocity  the  same 

ratio  that  the  reciprocal  of  the  radius  of  the 
circle  in  which  it  moves  bears  to  the  intensity 
of  the  magnetic  field  that  causes  the  path  to  be 
circular.  Now  it  is  easy  enough  to  subject  tlie 
cathode  ray  to  the  action  of  a  magnetic  field, 
and  the  deflection  of  the  cathode  ray  thus  pro- 
duced is  quite  marked  even  when  the  field  is 
not  very  strong.  The  radius  of  the  circular  arc 
that  is  described  by  the  ray  in  a  field  of  known 
strength  is  also  measurable  without  any  siiedal 
difficulty,  and  hence  we  can  detennine,  with  a 

fair  degree  of  precision,  the  ratio  of    —  to  «. 

This,  however,  is  only  one  step  in  the  solution 
of  the  problem,  for  wc  do  not  yet  know  either 

—  or  u,  separately,  Some  experimenters, 
aituming   that   the   ratio    —    of   the  charge  on 

the  particle  to  the  mass  of  the  particle  is  the 
same  in  the  cathode  ray  as  it  is  in  the  case  of 


the  ions  that  are  involved  in  electrolysis,  sub- 
stituted this  value  and  then  proceeded  to  deter- 
mine, by  means  of  the  experiment  just  cited. 
the  value  of  u, —  that  is,  the  speed  of  the  par- 
ticles in  the  cathode  ray.  By  this  means  a 
value  of  u  was  obtained  that  was  not  greatly 
different  from  the  speeds  "appropriate  to  atoms 
of  matter.*    This  result  was  illusory,  however, 

because  the  fundamental   assumption    that    — 

is  the  same  In  the  cathode  beam  as  it  is  in  elec- 
trolysis was  wholly  gratuitous,  and  was  also, 
as  the  event  proved,  entirely  wrong. 

Wiechen  succeeded  in  measuring  the  speed 
of  the  cathode-ray  particles  directly,  by  means 
of  an  exceedingly  ingenious  apparatus,  which, 
although  it  is  apparently  incapable  of  giving 
results  of  any  high  order  of  precision,  is  at 
least  competent  to  show  the  order  of  magni- 
tude of  the  speed,  and  hence  to  chedc  the  va- 
lid'ty  of    assuming   that  it   is  similar   to   the 

ordinary  molecular  speed,  or  that  the  ratio  — 
in  the  cathode-ray  particles  is  the  same  as  it  is 
in  the  ions  that  are  concerned  in  electrolysis. 
His  method  depends  upon  the  deflection  of  the 
cathode  ray  by  a  magnetic  field,  but  he  used  two 
ma^etizing  coils,  energized  by  a  rapidly  alter- 
nating current  having  a  period  commensurate 
wilh  the  time  required  by  the  cathode-ray  par- 
ticles to  traverse  a  considerable  length  of  the 
tube.  The  cathode  was  placed  at  one  end  of 
the  tube  and  at  the  other  end  was  a  fluorescent 
screen,  which,  by  its  luminosity,  showed  where 
the  ray  came  in  contact  with  it.  Between  the 
cathode  and  the  fluorescent  screen  two  dia- 
phragms were  placed,  so  that  the  ray  was 
wholly  intercepted  except  for  a  small  part  that 
could  pass  through  a  central  perforation  in  each 
diaphragm.  The  first  magnetizing  coil  was 
placed  between  the  cathode  and  the  first  dia- 
phragm, and  as  the  alternating  magnetic  field 


that  it  produced  varied,   the  cathode  i 


!  the 


first  diaphragm.  The  apparatus  was  so  adjusted 
that  the  ray  passed  throu^  the  opening  in  this 
diaphragm  only  when  the  magnetic  field  pro- 
duced by  the  coil  was  at  its  maximum  in  one 
particular  phase  —  the  oscillating  beam  beii^ 
then  at  the  extreme  end  of  (say)  its  upward 
swing.  At  this  moment  the  ray  would  pass 
through  the  opening  in  the  first  diaphragm, 
proceed  down  the  tube  to  the  second  dianhraimi. 
pass  through  the  central  opening  i 


beyond  —  the  alteratioi 
magnetic  field  being  so  rapid  that  the  spot  ap- 
peared steady,  although  the  illumination  vaa 
really  intermittent,  because  the  cathode  ray, 
since  it  could  pass  the  first  dia4>hra(|m  only 
Trfien  at  the  extreme  upward  part  of  its  peri- 
odic sway,  traveled  down  the  tube  in  a  series 
of  spurts  or  pulsations.  The  second  magnetie- 
ing  coil  was  placed  at  or  just  beyond  die  sec- 
ond diaphragm,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  certain 
special  adjustment  or  relation  (to  which  we 
shall  presently  refer)  the  alternating  magnetic 
field  produced  by  this  second  coil,  acting  upon 
the  cathode  ray  as  It  missed  the  second  tfia- 
phragm,  would  again  deflect  it,  and  cause  it  to 
impinge  upon  the  fluorttcnt  screen  abovfi  or 


ELECTRON   THEORY 


aoe 


bdow  the  ipot  at  which  it  would  strike  if  the 
■econd  coil  were  absent  or  inactive.  It  is  evi- 
dent, however,  that  if  the  magnetic  field  of  the 
icooiid  coil  were  always  iti  the  zero  phase  when 
the  cathode-ray  pnlsatioa  reached  it,  there 
would  be  no  second  deflection  produced,  and 
the  huninous  spot  on  the  screen  would  occi^iy 
the  same  position  that  it  would  have  if  the  sec- 
ond coil  were  absent.  With  the  apparatus  dis> 
posed  as  described,  it  was  known  that  the 
magnetic  field  of  the  first  coil  was  at  its  maxi- 
mum  phase  when  the  cathode  ray  passed 
tbrotigh  the  first  diaphragm,  and  (if  the  sec- 
ond ooil  did  not  displace  the  luminous  spot  ou 
the  screen)  it  was  also  known  that  the  magnetic 
field  of  the  second  coU  was  at  its  zero  idiase 
when  the  cathode-ray  pulsation  reached  the 
secood  diaphragm.  In  performing  the  actual 
«}>eriment  the  two  magnetizing  coils  were 
made  identically  alilce  and  were  placed  in  the 
drcuit  in  parallel  and  with  symmetrically' 
arranged  leads,  so  that  the  phase  of  the  current 
at  any  given  instant  would  be  the  same  in  each. 
The  magnetizing  current  was  furnished  by  a 
modified  Tesla  high-frequency  coil,  provided 
with  a  pair  of  condensers  of  known  capacihr; 
and  from  the  known  electrical  constants  the 
frequency  of  the  magnetic  oscillations  in  the 
two  fields  could  be  calculated.  The  experiment 
then  consisted  in  determining  the  shortest  dis- 
tance by  which  the  two  m^^etising  coils  could 
be  separated,  consistently  with  the  second  one 
having  no  effect.  (We  say  the  *shoriest  dis- 
tance* because  it  is  evident  from  the  nature 
of  wave-motion  that  a  similar  cero  effect  would 
be  observed  whenever  the  time  of  transit  of  the 
cathode  ray  from  one  field  to  the  other  hap- 
pened to  be  one-fourth,  three- fourths,  five- 
fourths  or  any  odd  number  of  fourths,  of 
ibe  time  of  a  cgmplcle  period  of  the  current  in 
the  ma^etiiing  coils).  In  one  nweriment  this 
least  distance  was  found  to  be  39  centimeters, 
and  the  number  of  complete  oscillations  of  the 
magnetic  field,  from  either  coil,  was  found  to 
be  32,000.000  per  second.  Hence  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  cathode  beam  to  travel  39  centi- 
meters, iu  this  case,  was  the  128.000,000th  part 
of  a  second.  Therefore  its  speed  was  4,992,- 
000,(XX)  centimeters  per  second  —  or,  to  express 
it  in  the  usual  way.  and  lo  as  high  a  degree  of 
predsioo  as  the  oata  will  warrant,  5.0  X  10* 
centimeters  per  second.  (The  tymbol  Vf  stands 
for  the  ninth  power  of  10.  In  the  same  way 
1&— '  stands  for  the  reciprocal  of  the  ninth  power 
of  10.  A  notation  of  this  kind  is  in  common 
use  in  physics  for  expressing  targe  numbers,  as 
it  avoids  the  use  of  long  rows  of  ciphers,  which 
are  not  only  confusing  to  the  eye  but  are  also 
likely  to  lead  to  error  from  misreading,  or  from 
the  accidental  addition  or  omission  of  ciphers 
in  copying  or  printing).  It  is  evident  from  the 
foregoing  result  that  die  speed  of  the  cathode- 
ray  corpuscles  is  of  an  entirely  different  order 
of  magnitude  from  the  usual  speed  of  trans- 
lation of  gas  molecules.  The  average  molecular 
speed  in  hydrogen  gas,  for  exam^e,  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure  and  at  the  temperature  of  melt- 
mg  ice,  is  only  about  17  X  10*  centimeters  per 
second.  On  the  other  hand,  the  velocity  of 
light  in  a  vacuum,  is  about  3  X  10"  centimetera 
per  second,  so  that  the  velocity  of  the  cathode- 
ny  particles,  in  this  experiment,  was  about  one- 
tixdi  of  that  of  light,  or  about  30,000  times  as 


great  as  the  speed  of  tnuutation  of  hydrogen 
molecules.  It  should  be  understood  that  no 
great  degree  of  accuracy  is  claimed  for  the 
particular  numerical  result  just  quoted,  and 
It  should  also  be  understood  that  the  speed  of 
the  cathode- ray  particles  varies  considerably 
with  the  degree  of  exhaustion  in  the  lube,  and 
with  the  intensity  of  the  electric  field  in  the 
vidnity  of  the  cathode.  It  is  evident,  however, 
(1)  that  we  are  here  dealing  with  speeds  eu- 
tirely  transcending  anything  previously  known 
in  coimection  with  the  translator/  motion  of 
matter,  and  (Z)  that  Crookes  was  in  all  proba- 
bility right  when  he  expressed  the  view  that 
cathode-r:w'  phenomena  bring  us  in  touch  with 
matter  (if  indeed  these  particles  are  'matter* 
in  the  ordinary  sense)  in  a  very  different  state 
from  any  with  whidi  we  have  had  previous 
experience.     . 

As  might  be  expected,  a  lar^  number  of 
experimenters  turned  their  attention  to  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  nature  and  properties  of 
these  cathode-ray  particles  or  ne^tive  cor- 
puscles, and  many  exceedingly  difficult,  beauti- 
ful and  ingenious  lines  of  research  were  earned 
out  in  this  direction.  One  of  the  most  interest- 
ing was  Sir  J.  J.  Thompson's  detertuination  of 
the  speed  of  translation  of  the  corpuscles  in  the 
cathode  ray,  by  a  method  wholly  diiTerent  from 
ibat  of  Wiechert.  By  the  aid  of  a  magnet  he 
deflected  the  cathode  stream  so  that  for  a 
definite  time  it  entered  an  insulated  hollow 
vessel  that  was  connected  with  an  electrometer, 
which  served  to  measure  the  aggregate  electri- 
cal charge  of  the  entering  corpusdes.  Inside 
the  vessel  the  beam  impinged  upon  a  delicate 
thermoelectric  couple  of  known  thermal  capac- 
ity, by  means  of  which  the  total  kinetic  energy 
of  the  torrout  of  corpusdes  could  be  detennlood 
(in  the  form  of  heat).  The  curvature  of  the 
beam,  outside  the  dosed  vessel  and  under  the 
influence  of  the  magnetic  field,  was  observed  at 
the  same  time.  If  ^  is  the  number  of  corpus- 
des entering  die  dosed  vessel  in  a  given  time, 
and  e  is  the  negative  electrical  charge  on  each 
one  of  them,  men  Ne  is  the  total  aggregate 
diarge  on  all  the  iV  corpusdes  taken  together. 
This  was  one  of  the  quantities  measured.  Let 
us  represent  it  by  Q  and  write  J2  "^  ^'- 
Again,  if  w  is  the  velod^  of  the  partides  (as- 
simied  to  be  the  same  tor  all)  and  m  is  the 
mass  of  any  one  of  them,  the  lonetic  energy  of 
each  corpusde  will  be  Imu*,  and  the  total  aggre- 
gate kinetic  energy  of  the  N  corpusdes  that 
entered  the  enclosure  will  be  iNmu'.  TbiS 
quantity,  which  we  will  denote  t^  ^  (so  that 
(*' -=  iAffttu") ,  was  given  by  the  thermoelectric 
couple.  Finally,  if  H  is  the  intensify  of  the 
magnetic  field  (in  dectromagnetic  units)  and  r 
is  the  radius  of  curvature  of  the  cathode  beam 
where  it  traverses  this  field,  we  have,  from 
general  electrical  prindples,  the  relation  mu^ 
tier.  We  find  that  it  is  possible,  from  these 
three  equations,  to  eliminate  N  and  to  find  Uhe 


values  of  « 


—  >  te^>ectively.    In  fact,   we 


have  » 


aW 


2W 


=g^and— =  ^^qj^  When  the  experi- 
ment was  performed  and  the  observed  values 
of  the  measured  quantities  were  substituted  on 
the  right-hand  side  of  each  equation,  the  value 
of  the  speed,  u,  proved  to  be  about  10,000  miles 


BLBCTRON   TRBORY 


(or  iJi  X  iff  centimeters)  per  second  The 
value  simultaneously  found  for  —  (or  the  elec- 
trical diacge  of  a  corpuscle,  per  unit  of  its 
mass)  was  about  Iff,  the  mass  being  supposed 
to  be  measured  in  grammes,  and  the  electric 
charge  expressed  in  absolute  electromagnetic 
units.  According  to  this  result,  the  charge  of 
the  negative  cdrpuscle,  per  unit  of  mass,  is 
about  ihe  thousandth  part  of  the  charge  ob- 
served on  the  hydrogen  atom,  per  unit  of  mass 
in  ordinary  electrolysis. 

It  was,  of  course,  highly  important  to  con- 
firm these  extraordinary  results  in  as  many 
ways  as  possible.  Another  method  that  sug- 
gested itself  for  determining  the  Speed  o£ 
cathode-ray  corpuscles  depends  upon  the  fact 
that  a  static  electric  field  tends  to  deflect  a 
moving  electrified  particle  and  cause  it  to  de- 
scribe a  curved  are  — circular  or  parabolic,  ac- 
cording to  the  conditions  of  the  experiment. 
By  subjecting  the  cathode  ray,  simultaneously, 
to  a  static  electric  field  of  intensity  E  and  to  a 
magnetic  field  of  intensity  H,  it  is  possible,  if 


t  fulfil 


e  properly  related,  to  cause  the  two  fields  to 
neutralize  each  other,  so  far  as  the  deflection 
of  the  cathode  ray  is  concerned.  An  application 
of  the  principles  of  theoretical  electricity  shows 
that  if  the  deflection  of  the  ray  is  I  ' 
the  two  fields  acting  on  its  particles 
the  relation 

E~Hu. 

from  which  we  obtain  the  very  simple  result, 

_E 

In  other  words,  if  we  find,  by  experiment,  a 
combined  magnetic  and  electrostatic  field  in 
which  the  cathode  ray  remains  sensibly  straight, 
the  velocity  of  the  particles  of  the  ray  may  be 
found  at  once  by  merely  dividing  the  strength 
of  the  observed  magnetic  field  by  the  strength 
of  the  observed  electric  field.  The  actual  ap- 
plication of  this  method  involves  special  diffi- 
culties, but  J.  J.  Thomson  overcame  them  all, 
and  obtained  numerical  results  indicating  that 
the  velocity  u  lay  between  3  X  Itf  and  2  X  Iff 
centimeters  per  second ;  and  this,  combined  with 
the  result  obtained  by  applying  the  equation 
»ntt  =  Wer,  which  holds  when  the  magnetic 
field  acts  alone  (r  being  then  the  radius  of 
curvature  of  the  cathode  ray),  led  to  the  fur- 
ther conclusion  that  the  value  of  —  lies  between 

0.7  X  10'  and  0.9  X  Iff,  if  m  is  measured  in 
grammes    and    e    in    absolute    electromagnetic 

ll  should  not  be  inferred  that  all  our  in- 
formation with  regard  to  the  negative  corpuscle 
is  obtained  from  the  study  of  the  cathode  ray, 
because  this  is  far  from  being  the  case.  Ac- 
cording to  the  views  at  present  held,  the  nega- 
tive corpuscle  plays  a  leading  part  in  many 
physical  phenomena,  and  the  study  of  various 
other  departments  of  physics  has  led  to  con- 
firmatory conclusions  with  regard  to  the  prop- 
erties of  these  corpuscles.  The  Zeeman  effect, 
for  example,   affords  a   means  of   determining 


barmoity  with  determinations  obtained  from  tibe 
cathode  ray.  The  Zeeman  effect,  in  its  simplest 
form,  consists  in  the  doubling  of  the  spectral 
Uqc*  of  substances,  when  the  radiating  soorce, 
from  which  the  light  giving  the  spectrum  pro- 
ceeds, is  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  powerful 
magnetic  field,  in  wlucfa  the  lines  of  force  arc 
parallel  to  the  direction  of  radiation.  There  is 
much  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  clearing  up  our 
ideas  of  the  mechanism  by  which  radiation  is 
effected  (see  RAniATiON  and  Moleculak  The- 
mly),  but  for  the  moment  let  us  assume  that 
light-waves  originate  in  the  disturbances  pro- 
duced in  the  ether  by  negative  corpusdes  exe- 
cuting orbital  motions  within  the  atoms  of  the 
radiating  substance.  The  planes  in  which  the 
corpuscles  perform  these  orbital  motions  will, 
in  general,  be  distributed  equally  in  all  possible 
positions,  and  the  projections  of  (heir  orbits 
upon  any  selected  fundamental  reference  plane 
will  be  described,  by  the  corresponding  projec- 
tions of  the  corpuscles  themselves,  equally  tn 
a  clockwise  and  a  counter-clockwise  d.rectioii. 
Now  if  the  radiating  source  be  subjected  to  a 
strong  magnetic  field,  the  lines  of  force  of 
which  are  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  ray 
tmder  consideration,  the  speed  of  the  respec- 
tive corpuscles  will  be  differently  affected,  ac- 
cording as  their  projections  are  revolving 
clockwise  or  counter-clockwise,  in  their  orUts 
as  projected  upon  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
lines  of  force.  Those  that  are  revolving  in  one 
direction  will  be  accelerated  and  those  that 
arc  revolving  in  the  opposite  d.rection  will  be 
retarded,  in  accordance  with  known  principles 
in  the  theory  of  electricity  and  magnetism.  But 
a  difference  in  the  periods  of  revolution  of  the 
corpuscles  will  mean  a  difference  in  the  wave- 
length of  the  emitted  light,  and  hence  if  the 
magnetic  field  is  sufficiently  intense,  it  will  cause 
B  visible  separation  of  the  spectral  lines  into 
doublets.  Lorentz,  baaing  his  calculation  upon 
considerations  of  this  kind,  has  shown  that  if 
T  is  the  ori^nal  period  of  the  undisturbed 
vibration  causing  any  given  spectral  line,  and  t 
is  the  difference  in  period  corresponding  to  the 
two  components  into  which  the  line  is  res^ved 
by  means  of  the  magnetic  field,  w«  have 

ffr> 


(=•  - 


4ir 


the  I 


and  gives   results  diat  : 


where  r,  m  and  H  have  the  same  significance 
as  above,  and  ir  —  3.14159.  .  .  .  With  the 
exception  of  e  and  m,  all  these  quantities  are 
either  known  or  obtainable  by  direct  observa- 
tion ;  and  hence  the  equation  affords  us  an  inde- 
pendent means  of  detennining  the  ratio  of  e 
to  m.    Upon  performing  the  experiment  Zeeman 

found  values  of  —  ranging  from  1.4  X  10'  to 

1.8X10',  which  agrees  fair^  well  with  the  re- 
sults previously  obtained  from  the  study  of 
the  cathode  ray. 

Other  methods,  based  upon  the  action  of 
ultraviolet  light,  and  upon  radioactivity  and 
phenomena  of  various  other  kiitds.  have  been 
used  for  determining  this  ratio,  and  from  the 
general  agreement  among  the  results  obtained 
by  different  methods  and  different  experiment- 
ers, it  has  become  evident  that  althnuf^  the 
velocity  with  which  the  corpuscles  move  de- 
pends upon  the  circumstances  under  whidi  titey 


BLBerROH  THEORY 


are   liberated   or   set   in    motion,   the    electric 

charge  of  a  corpuscle  per  unit  of  its  mass,—  i 

is  always  the  same,  no  matter  what  the  condi- 
tion of  the  corpuscle  is,  or  from  what  source 
it  is  obtained.  It  is  evidence  of  tliis  kind  that 
has  led  physicists  to  condude  that  the  negative 
corpuscle  is  a  fundamental  and  omnipresent 
constituent  of  matter  of  every  kind.    The  best 

value  of  —  that  has  been  obtaiaed  up  to  the 

present  time  is  certainly  Bucherer's.    He  found 

~  =1.767  X  ICP. 

if  m  is  measured  in  grammes  and  e  in  absolute 
electromagnetic  units.     This  is  believed  to  be 

correct  to  within  about  one-half  of  1  per  cent. 
It  applies  only  to  slowly-moving  corpuscles, 
however,  because,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  the 
apparent   mass   of   a   corpuscle   increases   with 


value  of  —  is  5299  X  10",  if  the  electric  charge 

is  expressed  in  absolute  electrostatic  units.) 

The  fact  that  the  ratio  —    is  nearly  2,000 

times  as  great  as  the  charge  per  unit  mass 
observed  in  connection  with  the  hydrogen 
atom  in  electrolysis  shows,  most  conclusively, 
that  one  of  two  things  must  be  true :  Either 
(1)  the  charge  on  the  negative  corpuscle  is 
far  greater  than  the  charge  accompanying  an 
ion  in  electrolj^sis,  or  (2)  the  mass  of  a  nega- 
tive corpuscle  is  far  less  tlian  the  mass  of  any 
ion  or  atom  previously  known  to  us.  Of 
course  these  may  both  be  true,  but  certainly 
one  of  them  is  true,  and  as  soon  as  this  fact 
was  recognized,  it  was  also  recognieed  that  the 
discovery  of  die  negative  corpuscle  was  an 
event  of  fundamental  importance  in  the  history 
of  physics. 

In  order  to  find  out  which  alternative  must 
be  adopted,  J.  J.  Thomson  undertook  to  de- 
termine the  electric  charge  on  a  single  corpus- 
cle—  and  hence  also  the  mass  of  the  corpuscle, 
since  the  ratio  of  the  two  was  known.  More 
accurate  values  of  these  quantities  have  since 
been  obtained  liy  other  means,  but  Thomson, 
It  should  be  remembered,  was  a  pioneer  in  a 
new  field,  and  the  work  that  he  did  in  solving 

"lably  been  called  by  Sir 

_^_  .  ._  of  the  most  brilliant 
things  recently  done  in  experimental  physics.* 
We  can  only  outline  his  method  in  a  rough 
way.  It  depends  (1)  on  the  fact,  discovered 
by  Aitken  in  1880,  that  condensation  of 
aqueous  vapor  in  air  does  not  occur,  even  when 
the  air  is  supersaturated,  unless  there  are  nuclei 
oJf  some  sort  for  the  mist-particles  to  form 
about ;  (2)  on  the  fact,  demonstrated  by  Lord 
Kelvin  in  1870,  that  the  surface  tension  of 
small  droplets  of  water,  suspended  in  the  air, 
tends  to  cause  evaporation  even  though  the 
degree  of  saturation  is  enough  to  cause  con- 
densation OR  a  water-sarface  that  is  Hat,  or 
that  has  a  large  radius  of  curvature ;  (3)  on 
the  fact,  announced  by  J.  \.  Thomson  himself 
in  1888,  -that  the  electrification  of  such  a  drop- 


let tends  to  neutralize  the  effect  of  the  surface 
t<msion,  so  that  condensation  can  take  place  an 
a  water  droplet,  or  on  any  other  curved  sur- 
face of  exceedingly  short  radius,  if  this  droplet 
or  surface  is  electrified,  even  though  no  such 
condensation  could  take  place  in  the  absence  of 
the  electrification;  (4)  on  the  investigation,  by 
Sir  George  Stokes  in  1849,  of  the  limiting  speed 
it  which  small  spherical  bodies  will  fall,  by 
their  ovim  wei^t,  through  a  fluid  of  known 
viscosity;  and  (5)  on  the  method  devised  by 
Mr.  C.  T,  R.  Wilson,  in  1887,  for  precipitating, 
by     adiabatic     expansion,     a     definitely-known 

?tiantity  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  form  of  mist, 
rotn  saturated  air. 
Thomson's  experiment  consisted  (1)  in 
partially  ionizing,  in  a  closed  vessel  and  by 
means  of  X-rays  or  ultra-violet  light,  air  con- 
taining a  suitable  quantity  of  water  vapor: 
(2)  in  causing  the  deposition  of  droplets  of 
mist,  by  Wilson's  method  of  quick  adiabatic 
expansion,  about  the  ions  thus  set  free;  (3) 
in  observing  the  rate  at  ^ich  the  mist  thus 
formed  subSdes  —  a  process  which  really  con- 
sists in  the  falling  of  the  individual  droplets 
through  the  air;  (4)  in  calculating,  t^  means 
of  Stokes'  formula,  the  diameter  (and  subse- 
quently die  weight)  of  the  spherical  droplets 
constituting  the  mist'—  this  being  made  possible 
ly  the  fact  that  he  knew  the  viscosity  of  the 
air  and  had  observed  the  rate  of  fall  of  the 
droplets;  (5)  in  calculating  the  total  mass  (or 
weight)  of  water  precipitated,  in  accordance 
with  Wilson's  method,  from  the  known  degree 
of  expansion  of  the  air;  and  (6)  in  dividing  the 
total  weight  of  predoitated  water  by  the  weight 
of  a  single  droplet,  and  thereby  determining  the 
number  of  droplets.  The  number  of  droplets 
produced,  bein^  assumed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
number  of  available  ions  about  which  condensa- 
tion was  theoretically  possible,  the  experiment 
manifestly  gave  the  total  number,  JV,  of  the 
ions  present  in  each  cubic  centimeter  of  the 
air,  under  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  ex- 
perimental apparatus.  In  one  experiment  N 
was  found  to  be  30,000. 

The  total  aggregate  diarge  of  the  ions  was 
determined  by  means  of  a  pair  of  parallel 
metallic  plates  in  the  vessel  in  which  the  mist 
was  produced  —  one  of  them  being  insulated 
and  connected  with  an  electrometer.  If  the 
space  between  the  plates  contained  positive  ions, 
for  example,  then  by  suddenly  Ammunicating 
a  strong  positive  d^rge  to  the  non -insulated 
plate  these  ions  could  be  quickly  repelled  against 
the  insulated  plate,  to  which  they  would  give 
up  their  charges;  and  the  aggregate  charge 
that  they  were  carrying  could  then  be  measured 
by  the  electrometer.  By  means  of  this  princi- 
ple the  total  charge  on  the  ions  in  a  cubic  centi- 
meter of  the  air  in  the  mist-chamber  was  de- 
termined ;  and  by  dividing  this  total  charge  by 
N.  the  number  of  ions  in  a  cubic  centimeter 
ot  the  air.  the  charge  on  one  individual  ion 
became  known. 

The  char^  on  each  ion  was  assumed  to  be 
due  to  the  excess  or  defect  of  one  electron, 
and  hence  the  experiment  gave  an  estimate  of 
the  charge,  e,  associated  with  each  corpuscle. 
The  value  of  e  at  first  obtained  by  Thon»- 
son  in  this  way  ranged  from  5.5  X  10^'°  to 
a4  X  10-"  electrostatic  units,  and  be  adopted 
6.5  X  llh-»  as  the  concluded  value.    In  1903  he 


V.Google 


BLBCTKON   THBOSV 


Kblished  a  later  detenniiiation  of  «,  obtained 
following  the  same  general  plan  as  before 
but  with  certa.n  improvEments  in  technique, 
and  gave  the   value  e^SAX  I0-". 

Beautiful  and  ingenious  as  this  determina- 
tion of  the  charge  on  the  individual  corpuscle 
was,  the  method  was  open  to  certain  criticisms, 
inasmudi  as  it  involved  certain  assumptiixis 
which  had  not  been  shown  to  be  valid,  and 
which,  in  fact,  were  only  approximately  true. 
They  were  near  enough  to  Uie  tnith  for  the 
method  to  yield  a  rough  estiouite  of  the  value  of 
e,  but  they  were  too  imperfect  to  provide  us 
with  an  actnirate  and  dependable  determination. 
It  was  not  known,  for  example,  that  Stokes' 
formula  for  the  rate  of  fall  of  spheres  in  a 
viscous  fluid  would  apply  with  sufficient  ac- 
curacy in  the  case  of  droplets  of  the  exceed- 
ingly small  size  here  under  consideration.  Nor 
was  it  known  that  every  ion  actually  did  sur- 
round itself  by  a  liquid  droplet,  nor  that  there 
were  no  droplets  containing  more  than  one 
ion.  Nor  did  the  n.ethod  make  allowance  for 
the  effect  of  differences  in  the  sixes  of  the 
droplets,  nor  for  possible  evaporation  from 
their  surfaces  after  they  were  formed.  It  is 
not  possible,  in  the  present  place,  to  discuss 
these  various  points,  but  it  must  suffice  to  say 
that  they  have  all  received  the  most  careful 
consideration  in  later  researches,  and  Prof. 
R.  A.  Millikan,  of  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago, has  recently  been  able  to  publish  a 
dennitive  and  probably  very  accurate  value 
of  e,  obtained  by  a  method  which  apparently 
leaves  Uttle  to  be  desired  on  the  score  of 
soundness  or  of  experimental  excellence.  It 
does  not  detract  in  any  way  from  the  admira- 
tion that  we  must  feel  for  Thomson's  original 
work,  to  sa^  that  Miltlkan's  research  was  still 
more  ingenious  and  beautiful.  He  succeeded 
in  trapping  single  corpuscles,  and  in  measuring 
the  value  of  Oie  'electron*  directly;  and  the 
account  of  his  work  that  he  gives  in  his  book, 
'The  Electron,^  is  extremely  fascinating. 

Mitllkan's  fundamental  idea  was  exceedingly 


mental  skill  and  patient  labor.  A  tiny  spherical 
droplet  of  oil  was  electrified  and  caused  to  take 
up  a  position,  suspended  in  the  air,  between 
two  horizontal  metallic  plates  that  could  be 
electrified  or  grounded,  at  will.  The  drop  was 
strongly  illulhinated  from  two  opposite  sides, 
and  was  observed  by  means  of  a  telescope  di- 
rected at  right  angles  to  the  light-rays.  It 
appeared,  in  the  field  of  the  telescope,  'like  a 
bright  star  against  a  black  background,'  The 
drop  was  first  allowed  to  fall  freely  through 
a  k^Dwn  distance  (approximately  equal  to  half 
a  centimeter  or  one-fifth  of  an  inch),  the 
limits  of  which  were  marked  by  a  pair  of 
cross-hairs  in  the  telescope.  The  time  of  fall 
through  this  distance,  in  one  set  of  experiments, 
was  about  13  seconds.  Before  the  drop  reached 
the  lower  metallic  plate,  both  plates  were  elec- 
trified by  connecting  them  to  the  terminals  of  a 
battery  having  a  total  electromotive  force  of 
from  5,000  to  10,000  voUs,  the  charge  of  (he 
tower  plate  having  the  same  sign  as  the  elec- 
trification on  the  oil  drop.  When  the  experi- 
ment was  rightly  conducted,  the  drop  (already 
carrying  an  electric  charge)  would  begin  to 
rise,  under  the  influence  of  the  electric  field  to 


which  it  was  ei^sed,  and  the  time  required 
for  it  to  make  its  upward  journey  from  the 
lower  crosa-hair  of  the  telescope  to  the  upper 
one  was  noted.  Before  it  reached  the  upper 
plate  the  electric  field  would  be  destroyed  by 
grounding  the  metal  plates.  The.  drop  would 
then  fall  again,  and  the  time  of  its  descent 
from  the  upper  cross-hair  to  the  lower  one  was 
once  more  observed,  and  so  the  experiment 
proceeded  —  keeping  the  droplet  always  in  the 
air,  and  continually  recording  the  times  of  its 
ascent  and  descent.  (A  single  drop  could  thus 
be  kept  under  constant  observation  for  hours.) 
The  size  of  the  drop  was  determined  from  the 
measured  time  of  its  fall  by  means  of  a  modi- 
fied form  of  Stokes'  formula  for  the  descent 
of  small  spheres  in  viscous  media  —  the  original 
formula  having  been  studied  with  great  care 
(especially  by  Dr.  H.  D.  Arnold)  with  refer- 
ence to  its  accuracy  in  connection  with  droplets 
of  the  size  used  in  these  experiments.  The 
diameter  of  the  droplet  being  known,  its  weight 
was  readily  ascertained,  because  the  density  of 
the  oil  of  which  it  was  composed  was  known. 
Then  from  a  knowledge  of  the  weight  of  the 
drop,  and  of  the  time  of  its  downward  passa^ 
under  the  influence  of  gravity  and  of  its 
upward  passage  tmder  the  influence  of  the 
known  electric  field,  it  was  easy  to  cal- 
culate the  dectric  charge  on  the  drop. 
An  ingenious  means  was  provided  for  chang- 
ing the  electrification  of  the  drop  at  will, 
and  in  either  direction,  by  ionizing  the  air 
between  the  plates  by  means  of  an  X-ray 
discharge,  and  then  throwing  ions  against  the 
drop  by  electric  repulsion.  The  original  posi- 
tive elcctrificadon  of  the  drop  was  reduced 
every  time  a  negative  ion  was  taken  in,  and 
increased  every  time  a  positive  ion  was  re- 
ceived. After  a  positive  ion  had  been  taken 
in,  the  iipward  journey  would  be  performed 
more  quickly  than  before,  and  the  inclusion 
of  a  negative  ion  would  cause  a  correspond- 
ing slowing  of  the  upward  motion.  It  was 
found  to  be  quite  possible  to  determine,  from 
the  circumstances  of  the  motion,  the  number 
(as  well  as  the  sign)  of  the  ions  thus  entering 
the  drop;  and  by  calculating  the  electric  charges 
for  all  the  different  upward  journeys  tiiat  were 
observed,  it  became  evident  that  tnese  various 
charges  either  showed  no  change,  or  differed 
from  one  another  either  by  a  certain  coitstant 
quantity,  or  by  a  low  multiple  of  that  quantity. 
It  was  even  found  that  the  original  cfaai^  of 
the  droplet  was  also  an  apparently  exact 
multiple  of  this  same  quantity.  The  doctrine 
that  electrification  is  a  discontinuous  process, 
and  that  it  consists  in  adding  to  a  body  (or 
subtracting  from  it)  a  certain  number  of 
small-stzea  yet  finite  and  equal  chaises,  or 
"electrons,*  thereby  received  an  exceedingly 
striking  and  definite  confirmation ;  and  the  data 
availaUe  made  it  quite  easy  to  calculate  the 
magnitude  pf  this  elementary  unit  cbarf^e.  After 
several  years  of  study  and  observation,  cul- 
minating in  two  years  of  work  with  a  special 
apparatus  constructed  with  exceeding  care,  the 
final  conclusion  was,  that  the  charge  on  the 
electron  is  invariably  <  =  4.774X10-"  abso- 
lute electrostatic  units;  and  Millikan  believes 
(apparently  with  good  grounds)  that  the  un- 
certainty in  this  result  is  not  greater  than  the 
thousandth  part  of  its  own  magnitude.     (Tlw 


-gle 


BLSCTROH   THBORY 


oorrespoofng  value  of  the  charge,  in  absolntg 
electromagnetic  units  is  f— 1.592  X  10-*>. 

Millikan  obtained  his  oil  drop  by  perforating 
the  upi>er  of  the  two  metallic  plates  by  means 
of  a  minute  pinhole,  and  then  sending  a  tine 
spray  of  the  oil  into  the  space  above  die  phtte, 
by  blowing  a  pufF  of  air  through  an  atomiier. 
In  the  course  of  time  one  of  the  droplets  of 
the  spray  would  fall  through  the  pinhole  into 
■he  region  between  the  plates,  and  the  experi- 
ment could  be  started.  The  friction  to  which 
the  oil  was  subjected  in  the  atomizer  electrified 
the  droplets  of  spray  positively,  and,  as  has 
been  stated  above,  the  charge  communicated 
to  the  droplet  in  this  way  was  always  found 
to  be  an  exact  multiple  of  the  value  given 
above.  This  fact  is  highly  interesting,  because 
here  we  have,  for  the  first  time,  direct  evidence 
that  an  electric  char^  communicated  to  a  body 
by  friction  consists  in  an  excess  or  deficit  of  a 
definite,  finite  number  of  electrons.  In  one  ex- 
periment, for  example,  the  positive  charge  com- 
municated to  the  droplet  by  the  initial  friction 
of  the  atomizer  was  found  to  correspond  to 
a  loss  (or  deficiency)  of  nine  negative  electrons. 

Millikan  varied  his  drop-experiments  in 
many  ways,  using  numerous  substances  (in- 
cluding mercury)  for  the  drops,  and  experi- 
menting with  drops  of  widely  oitferent  sizes, 
and  with  various  gases  between  his  electrified 
plates;  and  he  concludes  that  "the  apparent 
value  of  the  electron  is  not  in  general  a  func- 
tion of  the  gas  in  which  the  particle  falls,  of 
the  materials  used,  or  of  the  radius  of  the  drop 
on  which  it  is  caught.'  In  other  words,  he 
strikingly  confirmed  the  theory  that  the  negative 
corpuscle  has  an  actual,  pnysical  existence, 
apart  from  the  existence  of  the  kinds  of  matter 
heretofore  contemplated  by  the  chemist. 

The  determination  of  the  mass  m  of  a  free, 
slowly-moving    negative    corpuscle   is   an    easy 

matter  after  —  and   e  have  been   separately 

determined;    for  we  have  the  simple  relation 

■^+L^  =  „f  With  Millitan's  value  of  e  and 

Bucfaerer's   value  ■  of  —  (both   expressed    in 

teTm.s  of  absolute  electrostatic  units)  we  have 
«t— (4.774  X  10-»)  +  (S299  X  10")=0.901 
X  10-"  giammes. 

(It  may  be  shown,  from  this,  that  it  would 
require  ISiS  slowly-moving  negative  corpuscles, 
to  have  a  combined  mass  equal  to  the  mass  of 
one   hydrogen   atom.) 

We  do  not  yet  know  the  shape  of  the 
nc^tive  corpuscle,  nor  do  we  positively  know 
that  the  word  "shape*  has  any  deiintte  mean- 
ing when  applied  to  it.  Larmor,  for  purposes 
of  discussion,  assumed  the  corpuscle  to  be  a 
mathematical  point  endowed  with  a  finite  charge 
of  electricity,  which  creates  a  ceriain  type  of 
strain  in  the  surrounding  ether;  but  the  pre- 
vailing crinception  (in  which  Larmor  would 
doubtless  concur)  is  that  the  actual,  physical 
corpuscle  has  some  kind  of  spatial  extension, 
thou^  it  may  not  have  definite  boundaries. 
Nicholson,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Physical 
Soelety  of  London  in  October  1917,  sug^ted 
that  the  corpuscle  is  a  r^on  of  strain  m  the 
ether,  the  strain  being  intense  in  the  immediate 


vicinity  of  a  certain  central  point,  and  diminish' 
ing  with  extreme  rapidly  as  we  pass  away 
from  that  point.  According  to  this  view  the 
corpuscle  would  have  no  definite  boundaries, 
and  therefore  (in  a  strict  sense)  no  definite 
shape,  though  on  account  of  the  intense  localiza- 
tion  of  the  region  in  which  the  strain  is  really 
significant,  we  might  treat  the  corpuscle  for 
most  pui^ses  almost  as  though  it  were  a 
mathematical  point.  If  we  desired  to  assign 
a  'radius'  to  such  a  corpuscle,  we  should  have 
(o  define  the  radius  arbitrarily,  either  as  ex- 
tending to  a  region  where  the  strain  is  some 
definite  fraction  of  the  maximum  central  Strain, 
or  in  some  other  way. 

In  the  absence  of  data  concerning  the  shape 
of  the  negative  corpuscle,  it  is  natural  to  try, 
first,  the  simplest  assumption  we  can  make  with 
regard  to  it  and  to  see  how  well  this  fits  such 
facts  as  we  have.  The  simplest  shape,  from  a 
mathematical  standpoint,  is  a  sphere;  and  we 
find  that  the  three  best-known  theories  as  to 
the  shape  of  the  negative  corpiiscle  assume  it 
to  be  spherical,  at  all  events  wnen  it  is  at  rest. 

(1)  Abraham  considers  the  corpuscle  to  be 
rigid  and  spherical  at  all  times,  whether  it  is 
moving  rapidly  or  at  resL 

(2)  Lorentz  considers  it  to  be  spherical  when 
at  rest,  but  assumes  that  when  it  moves  it  be- 
comes transformed  into  an  ellipsoid  of  revolu- 
tion with  its  equatorial  radius  unchanged,  but 
with  its  polar  radius  (which  is  parallel  to  the 
direction  of  the  motion)  shortened  to  r  V- 1 — j^ 
where  r  is  the  original  radius  and  x  is  the  ratio 
that  the  s^ed  of  the  corpuscle  bears  to  the 
speed  of  light. 

(3)  Bucherer  and  Langevin  also  consider 
,  the  corpuscle  to  be  spherical  when  at  rest  and 

assume  that  when  it  is  in  motion  it  takes  the 
form  of  an  ellipsoid  of  revolution  with  its  polar 
radius  shortened  and  directed  parallel  to  the 
motion ;  but  they  assume  that  the  polar  radiut 
becomes  r(\—it*)^  and  that  the  equatorial 
radii  are  increased  in  consequence  of  the  mo- 
tion,  so  that  each  becomes  equal  to  r<  1  —  *") — ', 
where  r  and  x  have  the  same  significance  as 
before.  (It  is  to  be  observed  that  these  rela- 
tions of  Bucherer-  and  Langevin  leave  the  vot- 
ume  of  the  corpuscle  unchanged,  whatever  the 
speed  may  be). 

Each  of  these  conceptions  has  something  in 
its  favor,  and  each  has  something  against  it, 
but  they  should  all  be  re^rded  merely  as  con- 
venient mathematical  fictions  for  the  present  — 
fictions  that  are  worth  considering  because  they 
may  serve  to  suggest  further  researches  when 
their  consequences  are  investigated.  The  ex- 
periments of  Kaufmann  (to  which  reference 
will  presently  be  made)  aopear  to  be  incompat- 
ible with  Lorentz's  conception  of  the  corpuscle, 
while  the  theory  of  relativity  suggests  that 
those  of  Abraham  and  of  Bucherer  and  Lange- 
vin are  untenable. 

The  general  theory  of  electricity,  as  applied 


teresting  topic  in  connection  with  the  negative- 
corpuscle, —  namely,  that  its  apparent  mass  is 
doubtless  in  some  measure  of  electrical  origin, 
and  that  it  is  quite  within  the  twunds  of  possi- 
bility that  it  IS  wholly  electrical.  Sir  J.  J. 
Thomson  pointed  out,  as  long  ago  as  1881.  that 
a  moving  body  (for  example,  a  sphere)  po>- 


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ELECTRON   THEORY 


sesses  a  somewhat  greater  apparent  inertia,  or 
mass,  when  it  is  electrically  charged  than  it  does 
when  it  is  not  charged.  ( 'Recent  Researches  in 
Electricity  and  Magnetisn^,'  p.  2L.)  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  charged  body  has  Fara- 
day ^tubes  of  force"  radiating  from  it,  and  these 
tubes  are  supposed  to  carry  a  certain  amount 
of  ether  along  with  them  and  to  encounter  a 
sort  of  hydrooyoamic  resistance  from  the  sur- 
rounding ether.  This  resistance  is  not  analo- 
gous to  friction,  however.  It  does  not  neces- 
sarily entail  any  dissipation  of  energy,  but  has 
the  general  effect  (when  considered  mathemat- 
ically) of  increasing  the  apparent  mass  of  the 
charged  body.  Thomson  Uiowed,  for  example, 
that  a  sphere  having  a  radius  of  r  centimeters, 
and  bearing  an  eleclric  charge  of  e  absolute 
electromagnetic   units,   has   an  apparent   mass 

equal  to/m  +  y  —  Igrammes,  if  it  is  station- 
ary or  moving  with  a  speed  that  is  sraallin 
comparison  with  the  speed  of  light;  m  being 
its  mass,  in  grammes,  when  the  electric  charge 
is  absent. 

When  a  charged  sphere  is  caused  to  move 
with  greater  and  greater  speed,  the  Faraday 
tubes  of  force  shift  their  positions  in  relation 
to  it,  and  Heavlside  showed  fin  18R9)  that  as 
the  speed  increases,  each  lube,  whatever  its 
original  direction,  will   be  displaced  more  and 


In  other  words,  if  we  call  the  diameter 
that  coincides  with  the  direction  of  motion  of 
the  sphere  its  "polar  axis,"  the  tubes  of  force 
that  radiate  from  the  sphere  will  crowd  closer 
and  closer  toward  the  equatorial  plane,  the 
faster  the  sphere  moves.  Moreover,  the  shift- . 
ing  of  each  tube  (according  to  Heaviside's 
analysis)  will  ta\w  place  in  such  a  way  that 
the  orieinal  distance  of  every  point  in  the  tube 
from  the  equatorial  plane  will  be  _ reduced  by 
the  motion  in  the  proportion  of  V  V — f*  to  V, 
where  v  is  the  speed  of  the  sphere,  and  V  is 
the  speed  of  light.  (It  is  to  be  observed,  in 
particular,  that  the  tubes  approach  the  equa- 
torial plane  in  the  same  way,  whether  they  lie 
in  front  of  it  or  behind  it,  as  the  sphere  moves 
through  space). 

Now  the  effect  of  the  ether  upon  a  Faraday 
tube  is  very  different  when  the  tube  is  moving 
endwise  than  when  the  tube  is  moving  side~ 
wir*  (or  perpendicularly  to  its  own  length")  ; 
and  in  consequence  of  this  fact  the  part  of  the 
apparent  mass  that  is  due  to  the  electrification 
kicreases  when  the  speed  of  the  sphere  becomes 
great  enough  for  the  equatorial  crowding  of 
the  tubes  of  force  to  become  significant,  it  is 
not  possible  to  deal  with  this  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject more  than  superficially  in  the  present  arti- 
cle, but  it  should  be  specially  noted  that  mathe> 
matical  analysis  has  shown  (1)  [hat  owing  to 
the  existence  of  the  Faraday  tubes  of  force  that 
Stretch  out  into  the  ether  from  an  electrified 
body,  that  body,  whether  its  charge  be  positive 
or  negative  and  whether  it  be  stationary  or  in 
.motion,  has  an  apparent  mass  greater  than  the 
mass  it  has  when  die  charge  is  absent;  (2)  that 
owing  to  the  crowding  of  the  Faraday  tubes 
toward  the  equatorial  region  when  the  speed 
of  the  body  Increases,  the  apparent  mass  of  the 
body  increases  as  the  speed  increases ;  (3)  that 
at  any  ordinary  speed  this  increase  in  apparent 


mass  is  insignificant  and  does  not  bave  to  be 
reckoned  with;  but  f4)  that  it  becomes  sig- 
nificant as  soon  as  tne  body  attains  a  speed 
Sual  to  a  few  tenths  of  the  speed  of  light,  and 
.  )  the  apparent  mass  increases  with  extreme 
rapidity  as  the  speed  approndbes  closely  to  the 
speed  of  light,  and  (6)  it  would  become  infinite 
if  that  speed  were  fully  attained. 

Now  until  the  ■  last  few  years  this  rather 
striking  conclusion  was  of  academic  interest 
only  and  it  had  no  practical  bearing  because 
we  could  not  produce  any  such  prodigious 
speedy  in  electrified  bodies,  as  were  necessary 
in  order  to  give  rise  to  any  sensible  increase 
in  their  apparent  mass.  When,  however,  it  was 
discovered  that  the  negative  corpuscles  in  high 
vacuum  tubes  are  moving  with  s^eds  compara- 
ble with  (though  always  materially  less  than) 
the  speed  of  light,  the  conclusions  summarized 
above  began  to  nave  an  important  practical 
bearing  and  jihysicists  asked  themselves  whether 
any  increase  in  the  apparent  mass  of  these  cor- 
puscles could  be  detected,  that  could  be  as^gned 
to  the  causes  indicated  —  that  is,  whether  any 
experimental  evidence  could  be  adduced,  to 
show  that  the  apparent  mass  of  a  swiftly-mov- 
ing electrified  particle  increases  with  the  speed 
with  which  the  particle  is  traveling.  The  ques- 
tion became  far  more  interesting  and  import- 
ant when  it  was  shown  that  the  so-called  "beta 
rays*  emitted  by  radium  are  identical  with  the 
negatively  electrified  corpuscles  observed  in 
vacuum  tubes,  because  the  speed  of  these  beta 
particles  has  been  found  to  be  as  high  as  from 
95  to  97  per  cent  of  chat  of  light  in  some  cases, 
and  hence  they  should  show  a  marked  increase 
of  apparent  mass,  if  the  previous  theoretical 
conclusions  about  the  effect  of  speed  upon  mass 

Partly  with  the  object  of  testing  this  point, 
and  partly  with  the  broader  idea  of  gaining  a 
general  insight  into  the  nature  of  mass  and  in- 
ertia and  into  the  constitution  of  the  negative 
corpuscle,  W.  Kaufmann,  of  Gottingcn,  under- 
took to  determine  the  ratio  of  charge  to  mass 
for  these  rapidly-moving  particles,  at  various 
speeds.  An  interesting  semi-popular  account 
of  his  best-known  experuncnts  will  be  found  in 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge's  'Electrons.'  (For  the  origi- 
nal papers,  see  Comptes  rendus,  13  Oct.  I9(S! 
Physikalische  Zeitschrift,  4,  1902-03.  p.  5S; 
Amtalen  der  Physik,  Vol.  XIX,  1906),  The 
method  employed  by  Kaufmann  was  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  one  outlined  above  for  determin- 
ing the  speed  of  cathode-ray  corpuscles  by 
subjecting  the  particles  simultaneously  to  mag- 
netic and  electrostatic  fields  of  force,  except 
that  Kaufmann  made  use  of  a  stream  cf  beta 


deflect  each  corpuscle  toward  (say)  the  north, 
while  the  electric  fieldj  instead  of  being  dis- 
posed so  as  to  neutralize  this  effect,  was  ar- 
ranged so  that  it  tended  to  deflect  the  corpuscle 
(say)    toward   the   east.     The   stream   of  beta 

E articles  impinged  against  a  photografdiic  plate 
1  such  a  way  ttett  a  small,  round,  tingle  spot 
was  registered  upon  it  when  neither  field  was 
active.  When  the  magnetic  field  alone  was  ex- 
cited, the  spot  would  have  been  merely  di5> 
placed  toward  the  north  if  the  beta  particles 
all  had  the  same  speed;  but  inasmuch  as  they 
had  a  great  variety  of  speeds,  it  was  drawn  out 
into  a  straight  line,  cxtendit^c  in  a  noflh^iMl- 


.lOogle 


ELECTRON  THEORY 


aoo 


south  direction.  Similarly,  the  electric  field, 
\.hen  acting  alone,  caused  it  to  be  drawn  out 
nto  a.  straight  line  extending  in  an  east-and- 
ncst  direction.  In  the  actual  expeiimcut,  with 
iMth  fields  acting  at  once,  the  tine  ibat  was  ob- 
^'CTved  wu  a  curve;  and  irMn  a  study  of  the 
jhape  and  position  of  this  curvi;  it  was  found 
M  be  possible  to  determine,  sc^iately,  the  ve- 
ocity,  «,  of  the  particles  impinging  upon  aay 

jlven  part  of  it,  and  the  ratio  —  for   these 

ame  particles.  If  it  )s  aiMiraed  (in  accordance 
with  all  the  other  evidence  that  we  have)  that 
c  remains  invariable,  the  data  thus  obtained 
show  the  relation  between  the  mass,  m,  of  a 
negative  particle  and  the  speed,  »,  with  which 
the  particle  ia  moving. 

The  relation  between  speed  and  mass,  as  re- 
vealed  by  these  experiments,  was  very  marked. 
For  example,  at  the  highest  speed  observed 
(which  was  about  97  per  cent  of  that  of  light) 
the  apparent  mass  of  a  corpuscle  was  found  to 
be  a^ut  three  times  as  great  as  the  mass  of 
the  same   corpuscle  when   at  rest. 

Kaufmarns  experiments  provide  us  with 
means  of  testing,  to  a  certain  extent,  theories 
of  the  constitution  of  the  negative  corpuscle, 
Inasmuch  as  for  every  theoiy  concenung  the 
general  nature  of  the  corpuscle  there  will  be  a 
correspond'ng  law  of  variation  of  mass  with 
speed.  This  was  recognized  immediately,  and 
was,  in  fact,  largely  what  led  to  the  making  of 
the  experiments  to  which  we  have  just  re- 
ferred. A  curious  fact  that  has  to  be  reckoned 
viih,  in  applying  tests  of  ihia  kind  to  the  ob- 
servational data.  IS,  that  every  negative-corpuscle 
theory  yet  proposed  indicates  that  the  mass  of  a 
body  moving  at  high  speed  is  a  vector  quantity 
—  that  is.  that  the  mass  of  the  body,  as  meas- 
ured in  the  direction  of  the  motion  (i.e.,  the 
so-called  iongitudinnl  mass)  is  different  from 
the  mass  of  tne  same  body  as  measured  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  of  the  motion  (i.e.,  dif- 
ferent from  the  so-called  transversal  mass) . 
It  is  the  transversal  mass,  as  Abraham  pointed 
out  in  1902,  with  which  we  have  to  deal  in  dis- 
cussing experiments  such  as  Kaufmann's. 

If  R  is  the  ratio  that  the  speed  of  a  given 
negative  corpuscle  bears  to  the  speed  of  light 
when  the  electrical  part  of  the  transversal  mass 
of  the  corpuscle  is  m,  and  if  m*  is  the  electrical 
part  of  the  mass  of  this  same  corpuscle  when 
It  is  at  rest,  then  for  m  -^  im«  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing; values  for  the  respective  theories  of 
negative-corpuscle   structure   mentioned   above; 

3     >    M+«*.--/i+Ji\ 


obtain  a  certain  amount  of  informalian  with 
regard  to  the  jiroportion  of  *electrical  mass"  to 
'real  mass"  in  a  corpuscle ;  for  the  experi- 
mental data  reveal  the  law  in  accordance  with 
which  the  total  mass  varies  with  speed,  while 
the  theory  of  the  nature  and  constitution  of  the 
corpuscle  yields  a  formula  showing  merely  how 
the  electrical  part  of  the  mass  varies.  If  there 
is  a  "real  mass"  to  the  corpuscle,  we  may  there- 
fore reasonably  hope,  by  comparing  experiment 
with  good  theory,  definitely  to  solve  this  ques- 
tion of  the  quantitative  relation  between  the 
two  kinds  of  mass.  Kaufmann,  soon  after  his 
original  experiments  were  made,  believed  that 
they  indicated  that  only  a  fraction  of  the  total 
mass  is  dectric;.but  he  had  not  then  taken  ac- 
count of  the  diflerence  (nolxd  above)  between 
longitudinal  and  transversal  mass.  Later,  when 
due  allowance  was  made  for  this  difference,  he 
came  to  the  concluGion  that  most  and  perhaps 
a.i  of  the  mass  it  electric;  and  there  is  a 
growing  tendency  among  physicists  not  only  to 
accept  this  view  with  regard  to  negative  cov- 
puscles,  but  also  to  generalize  it  broadly,  and 
to  assume  (at  least  tentatively)  that  mass, 
wherever  it  is  found,  is  exdusivelv  electrical  in 
nature  and  due  to  the  motion,  wimin  the  atoms 
of  botues,  of  electrified  corpnscles  moving  with 
great  speeds.  This  conception  is  as  fascinat- 
ing as  It  is  revoltitionary.  Many  of  its  advo- 
cates, however,  overlook  the  fact  that  even  if 
this  should  prove  to  be  the  case,  we  have  "ex- 
^ained*  mass  only  by  ahifting  it  to  the  ether, 
which,  at  the  same  time,  we  should  apparently 
have  to  conceive  as  a  medium  far  denser  than 


-^1  J-fortheAbraham 


theory; 


-  for  the  Lorentz  theory;  and 


for  the  Bucherer-Langevin  theory 


(1  -R")'^. 

When  the  several  hypotheses  as  to  the  con- 
stitution of  the  negative  corpuscle  are  judged 
by  compariiw  diese  formulas  with  Kaufmann's 
experimentardata,  it  appears  (Ij  that  the  Lc>- 
rentz  corpuscle,  which  is  the  only  one  of  the 
three  that  conforms  with  the  theon'  of  rela- 
tivi^,  does  not  fit  the  data  at  all  well;  and  (2) 
that  the  experimental  evidence  agrees  quite 
well  widi  either  the  Abraham  or  the  Bucherer- 
Langevin  corpuscle. 

From  experiments  of  this  nature  we  may 


Ue  world  of  direct  experience. 

Before  attempting  to  estimate  the  tixe  of  a 
negative  corpuscle,  it  is  netessaiy  cleariy  to 
imderstand  mat  we  have  no  way,  as  yet,  to 
determine  the  dimensions  of  corpuscles,  if  we 
assume  that  the  mass  that  they  possess  is  only 
partially  electrical  and  that  the  rest  of  it  ts 
mass  in  the  usual  or  non-electrical  sense.  If, 
however,  we  assume  that  the  mass  is  wholly  of 
electrical  origin,  we  can  easily  obtain  an  esti- 
mate of  the  size  of  the  corpuscle.  The  value 
that  we  obtain  will  depend  in  some  measure 
upon  the  views  that  we  hold  with  regard  to  the 
shape  of  the  corpuscle;  but  if,  for  present  pnr- 
poses,  we  consider  it  to  be  spherical,  the  esti- 
mate of  size  obtained  will  probaUy  be  of  the 
right  general  order  of  magnitude,  even  if  the 
spherical  ^ape  ultimately  proves  to  be  nnten- 
aole,  so  far  as  concerns  the  relation  of  the 
negative  corpuscle  to  phenomena  in  general 

To  obtain  the  desired  estimate  of  size  (in 
conformity  with  the  assumptions  here  outlined) 
we  mav  make  use  of  the  expression  gyiva  bjr 
J.  J.  Thomson,  and  already  quoted  above,  for 
the  electrical  mass  of  a  slowly-movini;  elect»- 
fied  sphere.  Thus  if  m  is  the  mass  of  the 
(stationary  or  slowly^moving)  corpuscle  ili 
grammes,  r  its  radius  in  centimetera  and  e  its 
charge  in  absolute  electromagnetic  units,  -we 
have 

2     «»  2     ^ 

Heiice,  with  the  valnes  given  above  tor  *  and 
In   other  words   if    10.000,000,000,000   negative 


8l^ 


BLECTROOPTICS—  BLBCTKOPLATINQ 


corpuscles  were  placed  in  a  Hdc  and  just  touch- 
ins  oiie  another,  they  would  make  a  row  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  long.  (An  equal  number  of 
oranges,    each    three    inches    in    diameter    and 

f  laced  in  a  row  in  like  manner,  would  reach 
rom  the  sun  to  the  orbit  of  Jupiter).  Atoms 
differ  in  size,  but  in  a  rough  and  general  way  it 
may  be  said  that  it  would  require  somettung 
like  100,000  negative  corpuscles,  placed  in  a 
straight  line  and  in  contact  with  one  another, 
to  reach  across  the  diameter  of  an  atom. 


been  applied,  in  one  form  or  another.  ._ 

explanation  of  the  mechanism  of  many  phe- 
nomena, such  as  radiation.  X-rays,  radioactiv- 
ity, and  electrical  and  thermal  conducttML  It 
has  also  been  pressed  into  service  to  explain 
chemical  affinity  and  valency  and  to  elucidate 
the  structure  of  atoms  and  molecules.  It  has 
proved  to  be  a  fruitful  conception,  and  some 
modification  of  it  will  no  doubt  remain  with  us, 
as  a  permanent  addition  to  our  physical  the- 
ories. It  should  be  recognized,  however,  that 
when,  in  discussing  particles  so  exceedingly 
Bmalj,  we  apply  the  general  physical  and  me- 
chanical laws  and  principles  that  we  have  de- 
duced from  observation  in  our  grosser  world 
of  experience,  we  are  very  likely  committing 
a  serious  error — an  error  which,  though  it  will 
no  doubt  be  corrected  in  the  course  of  time, 
may. be  blindinat  us,  meanwhile,  to  some  vety 
large  facts.  Many  of  the  'laws'  that  apply 
to  larger  masses  of  matter  are  probably  statis- 
tical laws,  due  to  the  averaging  of  many  mil- 
-lions  of  separate  events  that  do  not  individu- 
ally follow  these  laws.  That  the  properties  of 
the  negative  corpuscle  are  far  different  from 
those    that    we   have    heretofore    assigned    to 


corpuscles.  In  a  general  way,  however,  it  may 
be  said  that  we  have  made  progress  enough  in 
the  study  of  the  negative  corpuscle  to  have  it 
become  a  real  thing  to  us  —  oral  least  a  symbol 
of  a  real  thing;  and  J,  J.  Thomson  has  well 
said  that  although  the  negative  corpuscle  is  a 
recent  discovery,  we  already  know  more  about 
it  than  we  do  about  the  atom.  See  also  Ei.ec- 
•TKicirv;  MoLEcuLAB  Theohy;  Radiation;  Ra- 
dioactivity. 

Bibliography.— A  creditable  and  interesting 
popular  accoimt  of  the  negative  corpuscle  and 
its  various  relations  is  given  in  E.  E.  Foumier 
d'Albe's  'Electron  Theory,'  though  the  numer- 
ical data  therein  given  have  now  been  largely 


tboritative  review  of  the  relation  of  the  corpus- 
cular theory  to  physical  phenomena  in  general 


'The    Corpuscular   Theory   of    Matter,' 


Electrical  Theory';  Loifee,  'Electrons';  Lar- 
mor,  'Aether  and  Matter';  Millikan,  'The 
Electron';  Comstock  and  Truland.  'The 
Nature  of  Matter  and  Electricity' -  Bucherer, 
'Malhematische  Einfuhrung  in  die  Elektroncn- 
theorie' ;  Abraham,  'Theorie  der  Elektriiitat' 
<Vol.  ID. 

Allan  D.  Ristben,  Ph,D. 


ELECTROOPTICS.  a  branch  of  elec- 
trical science  treatiag  of  the  relation  of  elec- 
tricity to  light.    See  Light. 

ELBCTROPHORUS.    See  Electuc  Ma- 

CtllM& 

BLECTROPHOTO   MICROGRAPHY, 

the  art  of  t^iotog^phiiig,  by  means  of  the  elec- 
trie  light,  certain  objects  magnified  by  the 
microscope. 

ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY.    See  Pho- 

TOCBAPHY. 

ELECTROPLATING,  the  art  of  plating 
or  coverins  solid  objects  with  a  coating  of 
metal  by  electro-deposition.  This  is  the  most 
common  method  of  applying  silver  or  gold  plate 
for  ornament,  or  copper  or  nickel  plate,  as  for 
rendering  an  article  more  durable.  Given  a 
solution  of  the  salts  of  a  metal,  say,  for  in- 
stance, sulphate  of  cojiper  (the  constituents  of 
which  are  sulphuric  acid  and  copper  oxide),  in 
which  are  immersed  a  copper  plate  connected 
with  the  positive  pole  of  a  source  of  electro- 
motive force  and  a  metal  plate  comiectcd  with 
the  negative  pole ;  when  an  electric  current  is 
passed  through  the  solution  an  action  takes 
place  which  may  be  described  as  follows :  First, 
the  salt  is  decomposed  into  sulphuric  acid  and 
oxide  of  copper.  At  the  same  time  a  portion 
of  the  water  of  the  solution  is  also  (^composed. 
setting  free  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  The  oxygen 
of  the  oxide  of  copper  is  drawn  to  the  negative 
pole,  where  it  unites  with  a  portion  of  the 
hydro^n  just  freed,  forming  water,  and  the 
metallic  copper  thus  set  free  is  deposited  nni- 
foimly  on  the  negative  metal  plate.  Simul- 
taneously with  this  action  sulphuric  acid  and 
oxygen  arrive  at  the  positive  plate,  where  the 
oxreen  unites  with  a  particle  of  the  copper 
plate,  forming  oxide  of  copper,  with  which  the 
sulphuric  combines,  forming  sulphate  of  cop- 
per; which  process  is  continued  as  long  as 
there  is  any  metal  left  in  the  positive  plate.  For 
each  atom  of  copper  thus  dissolved  at  the  posi- 
tive plate  another  is  set  free  at  the  negative 
plate.  Actions  analogous  to  these  underlie  all 
electroplating  and  electrotyping  operations.  If 
it  is  desired  to  deposit  nickel,  silver,  gold  or 
other  metal  on  the  object,  sahs  of  those  metals 
instead  of  copper  will  be  used  in  the  solution 
or  halh,  as  it  is  termed. 

Silver  is  the  easiest  metal  to  use  in  plating. 
one  ampere  of  current  depositing  4,02  grams 
of  metal  per  hour;  with  the  same  current  copper 
deposits  1,17  and  nickel  1.09  grams  per  hour. 
If  10  baths  arc  worked  in  series  of  eight  hours  a 
day,  depositing  each  10  pounds  of  copper,  they 
will  require  4,830  amperes  of  current  all  the 
time ;  and  with  copper  anodes  the  pressure  will 
be  about  16  volts  for  the  10  baths. 

The  art  of  electropladng  is  extensively 
practised  The  current  for  the  decorai>osition 
of  the  electrolyte,  in  solution,  is  usually  sup- 
I^ied  by  cominuoua-current  dynamo  machines 
which  arc  specially  designed  to  ^ve  large  cur- 
rents at  low  electromotive  force,  rarely  exceed- 
ing three  to  five  volts.  Sufficient  electromotive 
force  must  be  provided  to  decompose  die  solo- 
tion,  but  the  amount  of  chemical  dccom[>ositioti 
depends  altogether  on,  and  is  proportional  to, 
the  rate  or  amperage  of  the  current.  If  too 
high  electromotive  force  is  empk>y«d  die  platinfi: 
is  uneven  and  granular.  Storage  or  primary 
batteries  may  also  be  used  for  this  purpose, 


SLBCTROPNEITHATIC  BLOCK  SYSTBU  —  EZ.ECTR08T ATICS 


au 


and  are  so  used  for  planting  on  a  small  scale. 
Much  care  and  special  knowledge  is  required 
to  obtain  the  best  results  in  electroplating;.  The 
process  is  begun  by  thorougUy  cleaninK,  as  by 
pidding  and  scouring  the  article  to  be  plated 
to  remove  all  trace  of  oxide  or  other  impurity 
from  its  surface.  In  Che  case,  for  instance,  of 
^old,  silver  or  nickel  plating  the  bath  or  solu- 
tion employed  by  some  elcctroplaters  consists 
of  100  parts  water,  10  of  cyanide  of  potassium 
and  1  of  the  cyanide  of  gold,  silver  or  nickel, 
as  the  case  may  be.  Plates  of  either  of  these 
metals  are  suspended  in  the  bath  as  the  positive 
pole,  while  the  article  to  be  plated  is  suspended 
m  the  bath  as  the  negative  pole.  When  the 
plattT^  has  proceeded  to  the  desired  depth  or 
thickness  the  articles  are  taken  out  and  bur- 
nished Such  parts  of  the  article  as  it  may  not 
be  desired  to  plate  are  covered  with  grease,  oil 
or  wax.  When  non-metallic  articles  are  to  be 
plated  they  are  first  given  a  coating  of  wax, 
over  which  is  laid  a  film  of  powdered  plum- 
bago, upon  which  the  plating  then  takes  place. 

ELECTROPNEUMATIC  BLOCK 

SYSTEM.    See  Block  Signal  System. 

ELECTROPOION.  a  mixture  of  sulphuric 
acid,  bichromate  of  potash  and  water  used  as 
the  liquid  for  batteries  in  which  zinc  and  carbon 
are  the  poles.    See  Electric  BATTEny. 

BLECTROPYROMBTER.     See  Pyxou- 

BLBCTR08C0FE,  an  instrument  for  de~ 
tecting  or  determining  the  presence  of  elec- 
tricity upon  a  conductor,  and  showing  whether 
it  is  positive  or  negative.  It  has  many  forms, 
of  which  the  simplest  consists  of  pith  balls 
hanging  from  silk  threads  in  a  dry,  closed  glass 
case.  On  conlactins  with  an  electrified  body 
the  piths  are  excited  and  swing  apart  In  the 
gola  leaf  electrometer  there  is  a  wide-mouthed 
vial  stoppered  with  a  cork,  through  the  centre 
of  which  a  metal  rod  passes  into  the  middle  of 
the  vial.  There  is  a  brass  knob  at  the  top  of 
this  rod  and  its  lower  end  is  bent  or  hooked 
to  support  a  narrow  strip  of  gold 'foil,  which 
is  folded  in  equal  lengths  over  die  hook.  When 
a  rubbed  glass  rod  is  brought  near  the  brass 
knob,  negative  electricity  is  attracted  and  posi- 
tive electricity  is  repelled  to  the  gold  leaves, 
which  diverge  by  reason  of  the  repulsion  of  the 
simitar  electricity  on  the  leaves.  To  show  the 
kind  of  electricity  with  which  the  leaves  are 
dialed,  or  with  which  another  body  may  be 
charged,  a  finger  is  placed  on  the  brass  knob 
while  yet  the  glass  rod  is  near  it.  This  allows 
the  positive  electricity  to  escape.  When  next 
the  finger  and  then  the  rod  are  removed  the 
negative  electricity  is  dispersed  over  the  gold 
leaf  system  and  Uie  leaves  again  diverge.  If 
now.  while  the  leaves  are  chat^d  with  negative 
electricity,  a  negatively  chat^d  rod  be  brought 
near  the  knob,  the  leaves  tend  to  divci^  itill 
farther.  If  a  positively  charged  rod  is  used 
the  negative  electricity  in  the  leaves  is  at- 
tracted and  the  leaves  tend  to  collapse. 

Electroscopes  of  this  general  type  are  now 
utilized,  on  account  of  their  great  stisceptibility 
to  the  presence  of  electricity,  to  detect  and 
measure  the  radioactivity  of  weakly  radiating 
substances  like  uranium  and  thorium,  advantage 
being  taken  of  the  ioniring  properties  of  suoi 
substances  by  which  the  particles  of  gases  be- 
come carriers  of  electric  charges  proportional 


to  the  radioactivity  of  the  substances.  For  this 
purpose  the  gold  leaf  nrstem  is  placed  in 
metallic  connection  with  the  upper  plate  of  a 
small  air  condenser,  on  the  lower  plate  of  which 
is  spread  a  layer  of  the  radioactive  material 
A  source  of  electromotive  force  is  connected 
with  the  lower  plate  and  the  movement  of  the 
gold  leaf  is  noted  As  the  rate  and  extent  of 
this  movement  vary  with  the  radioactivity  of 
the  substance,  comparisons  can  be  readily  made 
of  different  substances  or  with  a  standard.  See 
Electrostatics;  Electbometeb. 

ELECTROSMBLTING.      See    Elecixo- 

CHEMICAL  INDUSTKIES. 

ELECTROSTATICS,  that  branch  of  elec- 
trical science  dealing  with  electricity  at  rest,  or 
static;  opposed  to  electrodynanucs,  which  deals 
with  electricity  as  a  force,  in  action.  In  the 
period  of  early  research  the  electrical  phe- 
nomena produced  by  friction  came  to  be  called 
static  electricity,  and  it  has  been  convenient  to 
retain  the  nomenclature,  although  it  is  recog- 
nized that  all  divisional  names  of  electricity  are 
arbitrary,  for  in  all  of  them  we  deal  with  the 


terms  free  dectricity  and  atmospheric  electricity 
(q.v.)-  Vfere  formerly  much  used  to  describe  the 
electricity  which  we  recognize  as  resident  in  the 
air  and  clouds  above  us;  but  to-day  the  term 
static  electricity  is  the  one  most  commonly 
employed  to  describe  that  drawn  from  the  at- 
mosphere on  a  kite-string;  or  that  which  a 


causes  the  sheets  to  adhere  to  each  other;  or 
to  electrification  in  a  driving  belt  caused,  by 
M>me  accidental  rubbing  in  the  course  of'  its 

The  first  discoveries  regarding  electridty 
were  regarding  its  static  qualities.  In  die 
handling  of  amber,  which  is  a  fossilized  vege- 
table resin,  it  was  found  to  display  peculiar 
phenomena  when  rubbed,  attracting  light  par- 
ticles of  matter.  This  phenoinena  came  to  be 
called  electric,  after  Greek  elektron,  the  name 
for  amber.  Later  glass  was  found  to  display 
similar  yet  opposite  phenomena  on  being  rubbed 
and  there  arose  the  terms  'vitreous*  and  "resin- 
ous* electricity,  for  the  sort  produced  by  rub- 
bing glass  or  amber  respectively,  and  which 
have  since  been  identified  as  simply  positive 
and  negative  electricity.  It  was  also  learned 
that  there  is  always  a  balance  maintained  be- 
tween positive  and  negative  dectricity,  and 
that  the  devdopment  of  a  given  amount  of  one 
means  an  equivalent  amount  of  the  other.  For 
a  fuller  description  of  the  development  of 
knowledge  regarding  frictional  electridty  which 
we  now  call  static  electricity,  see  the  article  on 
Electric  Machine 

An  understanding  of  induction  is  essential  to 
an  appreciation  of  static  electricity.  Static  in- 
duction is  the  production  of  an  electrical  charge 


o- 


ei9 


BLBCTROTAXIS  —  BLBCTSOTHBSAP^UTICS 


charged,  as  indicated  by  the  sign  +,  then  on 
being  brought  near  to  another  body  b,  the  near 
end  of  b  will  become  negatively  charged,  bs 
indicated  by  the  minus  sign  — ,  and  the  far  end 
positively  +.  By  touching  b  with  the  finger 
the  electricity  may  be  drawn  off,  or  "earthed* 
or  "grounded,"  passing  through  the  body  of 
the  toucher  to  the  earth  if  he  is  not  insulated. 
The  electrophorus  is  the  simplest  device  for 
illustrating  this  principle  and  is  described  under 
Electric  Macuine.  But  it  should  be  under- 
stood that  the  current  producible  by  a  static 
electric  machine  does  not  differ  iiom  that  of 
a  battery  or  a  dynamo,  except  that  it  is  naturally 
and  usually  much  less  in  quantity,  being  a  primi- 
tive form  of  apparatus.  From  these  early  ex- 
periments it  was  demonstrated  that  every  body 
positively  charged  repelled  another  body  of 
positive  charge;  and  any  negatively  charged 
body  repelled  another  negatively  charged  body, 
while  attracting  a  positively  tdiarged  Dody.  It 
was  soon  apparent,  however,  that  the  forces  of 
attraction  and  repulsion  varied  greatly  when  the 
bodies  were  exposed  in  some  other  medium  than 
the  ordinary  atmospheric  air.  The  word  di- 
electric wa.9  coined  to  express  the  material 
medium  in  which  a  body  statically  charged  was 
located,  and  the  term  has  been  extended  by 
common  consent  to  mean  anv  non-conductor,  as 
glass  or  mica.  A  static  machine  was  sometimes 
termed  a  dielectric  machine,  and  the  transmit- 
ting of  electric  forces  by  induction  instead  of 
conduction  was  dielectric;  while  the  power  of 
a  dielectric  to  resist  stress  caused  by  induction 
across  it,  as  measured  by  difference  of  potential 
necessary  (o  break  ihrongh  in  a  violent  dis- 
ruptive discharge,  was  denominated  dielectric 
strength. 

Referring  again  to  the  positively  charged 
circle  a,  let  tt  represent  a  sphere.  The  electric 
charges  it  has  been  detennined  by  various  ex- 
periments, are  on  the  outside  surface  of  the 
sphere  and  not  inside.  This  is  apparent  in  the 
case  of  a  cylinder  open  at  the  ends  throu([h 
which  something  may  be  passed;  and  also  m 
the  transferring  of  a  chares  on  a  globe  by 
enclosing  it  with  larger  hemispheres.  If  an 
electroscope  be  covered  by  a  wire  cage  and 
insulated  below  a  charge  may  be  brought  near 
or  in  actual  contact  without  an^  disturbance  of 
the  sensitive  mechanism  of  the  instrument.  The 
surface  being  the  thing  affected,  it  becomes  ap- 
parent that  if  one  wishes  to  increase  the 
capacity  of  a  conductor,  as  a  troHcy-wirc,  the 
simple  way  is  to  increase  its  surface,  as  by 
making  it  twice  as  thick.  Capacity  may  also  be 
increased  by  filling  the  space  through  which  the 
lines  of  force  tend  to  pass  with  some  dielectric 
other  than  air,  as  with  petroleum,  mica  or  glass. 
Large  quantities  of  mica  are  so  used  in  elec- 
trical machinery. 

To  measure  the  force  of  electricity  obtained 
.  in  primitive  electric  experiments  a  delicate  in- 
strument was  necessary,  and  Coulomb  Invented 
the  torsion  balance,  using  a  needle  suspended 
at  the  centre  of  its  gravitjf  by  a  very  fine  wire 
or  silk  thread,  etc.  A  minute  electrical  force 
of  repulsion  allowed  to  operate  against  one  end 
of  the  needle  so  as  to  twbt  the  thread  was 
tbpretore  measurable  as  a  mechanical  force. 
This  principle  is  used  in  the  torsion  electrometer 
and  various  other  instruments.  Experimenting 
with  a  torsion  balance.  Coulomb  demonstrated 
that  the  transfer  of  statical  electricity  by  in- 


duction involved  an  expenditure  of  forc^  the 
force  varying  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  of  the  centre  of  the  bodies  afiected. 
See  Electuc  Machinb — Static  Electric  Indue- 
tioM  Machine  and  ELSCTROTHESAPEtJTics,  where 
various  static  machines  are  described  and 
illustrated. 


BLECTROTHBRAPEUTICS,     or     the 

treatment  of  disease  by  electricity,  began  to  be 
a  science  with  the  work  of  Duchenne  of  Bou- 
logne. Working  chiefly  with  a  faradic  current 
he  determined  ttie  motor  points  of  the  various 
muscles  or  the  places  upon  the  skin  where  the 
application  of  the  current  produces  contrac- 
tion of  the  individual  muscles.  And  for  a  long 
time  the  testing  and  treatment  of  paralysed 
muscles  was  the  principal  function  of  the  elec- 
trotherapculist.  The  bumitig  and  sometimes  fa- 
tal effect  of  lightning  had  always  been  known 
and  our  countryman  Benjamin  Franklin  had 
charged  a  Leyden  jar  with  electricity  collected 
from  the  clouds  dunng  a  thunder  storm.  Frank- 
lin, after  whom  static  electricity  is.  denominated 
Franklinic  electricity,  was  among  the  first  to  ex- 
periment with  the  shocks  and  muscular  contrac- 
tions produced  by  static  electricity. 

One  of  the  types  of  electricitv  employed 
in  electrotherapeutics  and  electrodiagnosis  is 
Galvanic  or  Voltaic  electricity  or  Ifae  constant 
direct  current  This  is  obtained  from  a  voltaic 
battery  or  frwn  a  storage  battery,  or  from  the 
direct  current  electric  light  circuit  (suitably 
controlled)  or  from  the  altematiug  current 
electric  light  circuit  employed  to  actuate  a  motor 
generator  of  direct  current. 

For  various  purposes  the  strength  of  the  cur- 
rent may  be  regulated  in  the  case  of  a  battery 
by  selecting  the  proper  number  of  cells,  and  in 
the  case  ofthe  otier  sources  of  voltaic  currents 
by  rheostats  or  variable  resistances  placed  in 
the  path  of  the  current  or  by  volt  controllers. 
The  latter  regulate  the  voltage  at  the  terminals 
applied  to. the  body  by  offering  the  current  a 
side  path  of  variable  resistance  through  which 
a  greater  or  less  part  of  the  current  may  pass. 
A  mllliaraperemeter  to  show  the  strength  of 
current  traversinK  the  patient  is  essential.  For 
many  purposes  the  current  should  have  such 
or  such  a  strength;  and  for  all  kinds  of  electro- 
diagnosis  we  must  be  able  to  determine  the 
strength  of  current  required  to  i>roduce  certain 
physiolo^al  effects.  Conducting  cords  or 
flexible  insulated  wires  pass  from  the  control 
table  to  electrodes  in  contact  with  the  patient. 
The  simplest  example  is  a  flat  metal  disk  cov- 
ered with  fabric  wet  with  a  dilute  solution  of 
bicarbonate  of  sodium,  preferable  to  salt  which 
discolors  the  metal,  and  provided  with  an  in- 
sulated handle.  Some  odier  electrodes  are  a 
needle  in  an  insulated  handle;  a  carbon  plate 
covered  with  a  wet  pad  in  a  non-conducting 
tray  partly  filled  with  bicarbosate  of  sodium 
solution;  a  metal  plate  in  an  insulated  bath- 
tub of  water;  a  metal  sheet  thickly  covered 
with  damp  clay;  or  a  bare  metal  cylinder  which 
may  be  grasped  in  the  hand.  The  galvanic  or 
voltaic  current  is  a  b'potar  application,  passing 
throuifh  the  patii^t's  body  between  two  senarale 
electrodes,  one  the  anode  from  the  positive  and 
the  other  the  cathode  from  the  negative  pole 
of  the  battery  or  other  generator.     A  switch 


BLBGTROTHSRAPEUTICS 


is  essential  for  tnrning  the  current  on  or  off. 
A  pole  changer  alters  the  polarity  of  the  elec- 
trodes by  changing  the  connections  at  the  con- 
trol table  by  simply  turning  a  switch.  A  pole 
detector  is  a  necessary  apparatus  and  a  con- 
venient  one  contains  a  colorless  liquid  which 
cbangec  to  red  at  the  negative  terminal. 

SBecta  of  tb*  OBlvanic  Cnrrent.— One 
important  effect  is  muscular  contraction.  This 
does  not  occur  during  the  uniform  passage 
of  the  cnrrenl,  but  at  the  moment  of  any  great 
variation  in  the  strength  of  the  current,  as  when 
a  strong  current  is  suddenly  turned  on  or  oft. 
If  the  current  were  gradually  increased  from 
zero  to  the  same  maximum,  no  muscular  con- 
traction would  result.  In  electrodiagnosis  one 
electrode  is  called  the  indifferent  one  and  is 
pbced  at  some  place  remote  from  the  region 


(Pion  '  Medical  Bkctricity,'  cfnrtMr  W.  B.  Saundn*  ft  Co.) 

under  examination.  The  other,  active,  electrode 
is  applied  lo  the  skin  either  over  the  nerve  at 
ibe  place  where  the  nerve  is  nearest  the  sur- 
face, or  over  the  muscle  at  the  place  where  the 
motor  nerve  enters  the  muscle.  These  two 
places  are  called  the  motor  points  tor  the  nerve 
and  muscle  respectively,  because  at  these  the 
application  of  electricity  is  most  eSeciive  in 
producing  muscular  contraction.  Figure  1  from 
a  standard  text-book  is  a  chart  of  the  motor 
points  in  the  arm  and  is  used  as  a  guide  in  elec- 
trodiaenosis  or  treatment.  The  threshold  of 
excitability  is  the  weakest  strength  of  current 
which  when  suddenly  turned  on  or  off  will  cause 
ttniscnlar  contraction.  The  rtaclion  of  degen- 
eration  takes  place  in  many  cases  of  paralysis 


and  inditaies  a  degeneratior 


t  the  substance 


of  the  motor  neuron  itself.  It  occurs  in  polio- 
myelitis, labioglossopharyngeal  paralysis,  and 
paralysis  accompanied  by  lesions  of  the  motor 
roots  or  of  the  motor  nerves.  In  its  complete 
form  there  is  (I)  abolition  of  galvanic  and 
faradic  excitability  of  the  nerve;  (2)  abolition 
of  the  -faradic  excitability  of  the  muscle;  (3) 
hyper  or  hypoexdl ability  of  the  muscle  with  or 
without  inversion  of  the  normal  formula, 
Ca  C  C  >  C  C;  (normally  cathode  closure 
contracture  exceeds  the  anode,  positive,  closure 
contracture)  but  the  miiscular  contraction  is 
slow  instead  of  the  normal  sharp  jerk.  The 
presence  of  the  reaction  of  degeneration  shows 
ithat  nerves  are  affected  and  to  what  extent; 
and  the  return  to  a  normal  reaction  indicates 
progress  toward  recovery  of  voluntary  muscu- 
lar power. 

The  auditory  reactions  lo  the  appli- 
cation of  electricity  form  a  very  delicate 
and  important  means  of  the  diagnosis. 
,  of  lesions  in  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear. 
For  example,  (hlc  of  the  normal  re- 
actions is  obtained  when  an  electrode  is 
placed  in  front  of  the  tragus  of  each 
ear  and  a  galvanic  current  is  applied. 
The  patient  feels  dizzy  and  the  outside 
world  seems  -  to  be  moving  toward  the 
cathode  and  the  head  is  inclined  toward 
the  anode.  He  may  see  sparks  before 
the  eyes  and  hear  a  noise  in  the  ears, 
and  if  the  current  is  quite  strong  there 
is  nystagmus  or  oscillation  of  the  eye- 
balls. 

A  sensation  of  taste  accompanies  any 
application  inside  the  mouth  and  often 
i„^        applications  to  other  parts  of  the  face. 
The  heating   effect   of   electricity   is 
well  known  but   suitable   galvanic  cur- 
rents are  so  weak  that  the  sensation  of 
warmth  or  even  the   reddening  of   the 
'  skin   in  contact  with   the   electrode   is 

usually  due  to  electrolysis  and  not  to 
the  fricttonal  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  the  current.  Very  heavy  galvanic 
cnrrents  of  over  100  milliaraperes,  ap- 
•  plied  inside  the  uterus  in  the  Apostoli 

treatment   for  fibroid  tumors,   did  pro- 
^^  duce  a  great  deal  of  heat  but  treatment 
"^^^  by  radiotherapy  (X-ray  and  radium)  is 
now  more  usual. 

Oalvano-cautery. — Instruments 
which  are  Connected  with  both  poles  of 
the  batlerv  so  that  no  curreni  passes 
through  tbe  patient,  are  arranged  so 
that  a  certain  part  becomes  red  hot 
owing  to  the  passage  of  a  heavy 
curreni  through  a  thin  metal  strip  in  the  same 
wav  that  the  filament  in  an  electric  light  bulb 
is  heated  by  tbe  passage  of  the  current.  Only 
the  portion  which  is  to  be  applied  to  the  diseased 
surface  becomes  appreciably  hot  because  the 
conducting  wires  are  larger  and  capable  of 
transmitting  the  current  with  less  resistance. 
Familiar  examples  of  galvano-cauterization  are 
in  the  treatment  of  growths  in  the  nose  and 

Electrolysis  is  an  effect  of  the  passage  of  a 
constant  current  through  an  electrolyte  such 
as  the  human  body.  A  chemical  compound  such 
as  water  is  separated  into  its  elements  such 
as  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
human  body  an  accumulation  of  sodium  hy- 
drate and  a  liberation  of  oxygen  t^ie  place  at 


8l^ 


BLBCntOTHERAPSUTICS 


the  negative  electrode  and  an  Mxiunulation  of 
hydrochloric  acid  and  a  liberation  of  oxygen 
at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  positive  cIk- 
trode.  If  the  ne^tive  electrode  is  a  fine  needle 
dirust  into  a  hair  follicle,  a  current  of  atxnit 
four  milliainperes  causes  a  liquefaction  of  the 
tissues  and  loosening  of  the  hair,  the  root  of 
which  may  be  pennanenlly  killed.  A  needle 
connected  with  the  positive  pole  of  the  battery 
would  stick  fast  and  could  not  be  withdrawn 
nntil  a  negative  current  had  been  turned  on 
for  a  short  time  to  loosen  it  by  liquefying  the 
tissue  around  it.  The  onodal  needle  has  a 
coagulating  effect.  Electrolysis  is  employed  also 
for  the  destruction  of  warts,  birth-marks  and 
keloids,  in  the  treatment  of  strictures  of  the 
urethra  and  cesophagus  and  such  lesions  as 
anthrax. 

For  most  of  these  cases  the  *indifFerent* 
electrode  is  a  sponge  electrode  held  in  the 
patient's  hand ;  but  for  a  more  extensive 
destruction  of  tissue,  needles  connected  with 
each  pole  of  the  generator  are  used  and  the 
needles  are  near  enough  together  for  all  the 
intervening  tissue  to  be  destroyed.  Rhy- 
nophyma,  a  bulbous  swelling  of  the  nose,  is  re- 
moved in  this  way. 

lontophoresia,  indnding  Cataphoreaii  and 
Anaphoreais. —  A  galvanic  current  tends  to 
separate  the  electrode  itself  or  the  solution 
with  which  it  is  moistened  into  ions  and  to 
carry  these  into  the  tissues,  iontophoresis. 
Metals  and  alkalis  are  carried  toward  the 
negative  electrode  or  cathode  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  these  tons  W  an  electric  current  is 
called  cataphoresis.  For  example  the  positive 
electrode  may  be  moistened  with  a  solution  of 
a  cocaine  salt  and  the  cocaine  will  penetrate  the 
tissues;  they  leave  the  anode  and  pass  toward 
the  cathode  but  their  anesthetic  effect  is  upon 
the  tissues  into  which  they  first  penetrate. 

Some  of  those  who  have  experimented  most 
with  iontophoresis  assert  that  it  is  a  more  re- 
liable way  of  administering  many  drugs,  than 
Jiving  them  either  by  the  stomach  or  hypo- 
ermically.  Two  rabbits  were  experimented 
u^n  by  Leduc,  as  in  Fig.  2.  Rabbit  A  died 
with  symptoms  of  strychnine  and  rabbit  B  of 


mated  with  mercury  and  cwmecttd  wi&  the 

Esitive  pole  while  the  patient  lies  upon  the 
■ge  indifferent  negative  electrode. 
Anaphoresis  or  the  introditctioa  of  acid 
radicals  which  the  current  carries  toward  the 
anode,  is  illustrated  by  the  introduction  of 
salicylic  ions  from  a  cathode  wet  with  a  solti- 
tion  of  sodium  salicylate,  in  rhetunAtiHu  and 
neuralgia. 

The  old  theory  about  the  use  of  electridty 
in  paralysis  was  that  the  involuntary  contrac- 
tions produced  by  the  abrupt  makes  and  breaks 
of  the  galvanic  current  and  especially  as  we 
shall  see  later  by  the  faradic  current,  tended 
to  maintain  the  nmrition  of  the  paralysed 
muscles  until  regeneration  of  the  nerve  took 
jdace.  Certainly  the  patient  and  friends  coidd 
see  that  something  was  happeniuK  during  the 
application.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  con- 
tractions accomplish  this  and  in  some  cases  of 
paralysis  it  is  thought  that  the  contracture  or 
permanent  shortening  of  some  muscles,  difficult 
or  impossible  to  overcome  by  manipulation,  may 
be  aggravated  by  electrical  treatment  of  a 
nature  to  produce  marked  muscular  movements. 
The  passage  of  the  galvanic  current  itself  has 
a  tendency  to  maintain  the  nutrition  of  the 
muscles  and  to  aid  in  the  regeneration  of  the 


nerves.  And  by  means  of  the  apparatus  in 
Fig.  3,  a  galvanic  current  sufficiently  strone  to 
produce  the  maximum  benefit  may  be  applied 


without  the  disadvantage  of  electrolysis  and 
possible  skin  irritation  at  the  electrodes  and 
especially  without  any  noticeable  muscular  con- 


Fic  1. 

cyanide  poisoning.  Two  other  rabbits  were 
subjected  to  the  same  experiment  except  that 
the  direction  of  the  current  was  reversed  so  that 
the  strychnine  ions  did  not  tend  to  enter  rabbit 
A,  nor  the  cy anions  the  rabbit  B,  and  neither 
was  poisoned. 

Another  example  of  cataphoresis  is  electric 
ionization  of  the  root  canals  of  devitalized 
teeth.  The  positive  active  electrode  may  be  a 
nnc  needle  moistened  with  a  solution  of  a  line 
salt  The  method  is  employed  to  remove  in- 
fection from  the  root  canal  and  the  area  of  the 
jaw  around  the  apex  of  the  root. 

Very  extensive  destruction  of  cancerous 
tissue  is  accomplished  by  the  introduction  of 
metallic  ions  from  large  snc  needles  amalga- 


This  current  is  a  slow  sinusoidal  current  or 
a  rythmically  varied  galvanic  current  increasing 
from  zero  to  a  certain  maximum,  18  or  20  mil- 
liamperes  in  one  direction ;  then  gradually  de- 
creasing to  zero;  then  changing  polarity  and 
gradually  increasing  to  18  or  20  tnilliamperes; 
then  gradually  decreasing  to  aero  where  the 
polarity  again  changes.  About  25  such  cycles 
occur  each  minute  under  the  influence  of  a 
variable  rheostat  and  pole  changer  actuated  by 
an  electric  motor.  This  type  of  current  is  use- 
ful in  paralysis  from  poliomyelitis  and  aiiaplejn 
and  also  as  a  general  tonic  u  many  debilitated 
conditions  and  also  in  cases  with  vertigo  from 
affections  of  the  cerebral  or  cerebellar  drcula- 

Another  effect  of  the  galvanic  current  is  to 
stimulate  the  secretion  of  glands.  Another  is 
to  promote  the  return  of  sensation  in  paralysis 
of  a  sensory  nerve.  Bv  its  sclerolvtic  effect  it 
aids  in  the  treatment  of  pleuritic  adhesions  and 


Iridty  has  a  sedative  or  calmintr  effect  valuable 
in  many  general  disorders  and  this  effect  is 
often  best  produced  by  hydroelectric  baths. 
Its  analgesic  effect  makes  it  valuable  in  the 
treatment  of  neuritis  and  neuralgia. 

Faradic  eUclricity  is  made  up  of  alternating 
currents  induced  in  a  coil  with  many  turns  of 
insulated  wire  surrounding  a  coil  with  few 
turns  of  wire  through  which  passes  a  current 
rapidly  made  and  broken  by  a  vibrating  inter- 
rupter. The  faradic  current  is  of  very  small 
electrical  quantity  as  measured  by  its  heatii^ 
effect  A  couple  of  dry  cells  may  supply  the 
current  for  a  portable  faradic  coil  hut  for  an 
office  equipment  the  electric  light  circuit  sml- 
ably  controlled  is  best  because  it  does  not  r^ 


BLECntOTHBRAFBUTICS 


216 


quire  renewal  and  aSords  also  power  for  the 
galvanic,  galvwaofanidic  and  sinasoidal  cur- 
rents. It  prodnccs  marked  muscular  coDtrac- 
lion  of  a  tetanic  type  continuous  daring  the 
entire  time  the  current  is  applied,  not  merely 
at  the  beginning  and  end  as  with  a  galvanic 
current. 

Two  electrodes  are  necessary  for  applying 
the  faradic  current;  one  of  which  may  be  at  an 
indifferent  place.  And  in  contrast  with  the 
^vanic  current  there  is  usually  no  dilTerence 
ID  the  effect  of  the  two  electro<les,  practically 


AppAratuB-  triLduaJly  and  rythmvcally  ■ 
0  polarity.     Testing  the  faradii 


lity  of 


J  muscle  or  nerve  is  an  important  part  of 
electrodiagnosis,  but,  as  explained  above,  the 
treatment  of  paralysis  through  involuntary 
muscular  movements  induced  by  faradic  stimu- 
lation is  not  always  best.  Faradic  currents 
from  a  secondary  coil  with  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  turns  and  a  slowly  vibrating 
intermpter,  are  more  effective  in  producing 
■nuscolar  contractions,  and  a  great  many  turns 
of  wire  in  the  coil  and  very  rapid  interruptions 
are  best  for  producing  a  sedative  effect  upon 
neuralgic  nerves. 

ITiere  are  several  other  effects  of  faradic 
electricity.  As  a  general  stimulant  it  is  osed 
in  debility  irom  any  cause.  As  an  exdto-motor, 


the  Bet^omi  method  is  used  for  the  treatment 
of  obesity  by  producing  marked  muscular  con- 
tractions without  any  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
patient.  Straps  or  weights  prevent  excessive 
movement  of  the  patienrs  limbs.  As  a  senson 
stimulant  it  is  used  in  sensory  paralysis.  It 
stimulates  the  secretion  of  riands.  It  is  re- 
vulsive  or  counted rritant  in  tbe  later  stages  of 
inflammatory  processes.  '  Lumbago  maj;  be 
treated  by  anilying  faradic  electricity  with  a 
dry  wire  brush  electrode.  It  is  exci to-nutritive 
and  tonic  as  a  hydrodectric  bath,  in  such  dis- 
eases as  gout,  diabetes,  obesity,  neurasthenia, 
convalescence  from  a  long  illness,  and  muscular 
atrophies.  And  the  same  baths  are  useful  in 
combating  various  toxiemias.  It  may  be  used 
as  a  sedative. 

The  same  conducting  cords  and  electrodes  ' 
may  tran»nit  to  the  patient  a  combination  of 
faradic  and  galvanic  current,  in  series;  the 
Dc  Watteviile  or  gt^voHO-faradic  current. 

Gahjono-faradie  or  De  Watteviile  currents 
are  applied  by  connecting  a  faradic  and  a  gal- 
vanic apparatus  in  series  with  a  conducting  cord 
leading  from  one  pole  of  each  to  the  diJterent 
parts  of  the  patient.  One  example  of  its  use 
is  in  the  treatment  of  spasmodic  constipation. 
Large  electrodes  are  over  the  abdomen  and 
back;  the  faradic  coil  has  msni^  turns  and  the  ' 
interruptions  are  rapid,  producing  very  slif^t 
mnsctiiar  contractions;  and  the  galvanic  current 
is  quite  a  strong  one,  pcrlli^M  30  milliamperei. 

Sinusoidal  currents  are  so  called  because  the 
graphic  curve  in  wtich  forward  motion  repre- 
sents time  and  np  or  down  motion  represents 
strength  and  direction  of  the  current  makes  a 
siiie  wave.  In  effect  it  is  an  alternating  current 
varying  gradually  as  described  in  one  of  the 
paragraphs  on  fjalvanic  electricity,  but  these 
gradual  altcmatians  may  be  of  any  desired 
number  up  to  1,800  per  minute.  The  ahemaling 
electric  light  current  is  a  sinusoidal  current  of 
1,800  cycles  per  minute  and  controlled  by  a 
suitable  rheostat  it  can  be  used  for  treatment. 
The  apparatus  previously  referred  to  and  shown 
in  Fig.  2  is  used  for  changing  the  direct  to 
a  sinusoidal  current  of  from  12  to  120  alterna- 
tions per  minute.  It  is  useful  as  a  local  and 
general  tonic  application  in  a  wide  range  of 
chronic  general  and  local  disease  characterised 
by  debility,  congestion,  motor  atony  and  pain. 
It  is  applied  from  the  same  kind  of  electrodes 
as  the  galvanic  current 

Statte  Blectrlc'tTv— Lightning  is  an  example 
of  a  dischar^  of  static  electricity  and  so  is 
the  spark  which  we  produce  by  shufBii^  our 
feet  on  the  woolen  carpet  as  we  cmss  the  room 
in  winter  and  ihMi  touch  another  person  or  a 
metallic  abject.  A  charge  of  static  electricity 
upon  a  hard  rubber  comb  rubbed  over  our  hair 
or  over  wool  or  fur  causes  the  comb  to  attract 
small  light  objects  to  it  By  suitable  means 
any  object  may  be  given  either  a  positive  or  a 
negative  static  charge.  Similar  diarges  repel 
each  other  and  unlike  charges  attract,  and  if 
the  charged  bodies  are  light  and  freely  move- 
able, they  will  come  together  in  the  latter  case 
and  the  two  charges  be  more  or  less  completely 
neutraliied  with  an  accompanying  discharge 
which  would  be  a  loud  spark  between  two  large 
metal  balls,  or  a  silent  and  almost  invisiUe 
brash  discharge  between  two  sharp  metal  points. 
Static  electricity  is  of  small  quantity  bvt  of 


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BLXCTK>THBRAPaaTZCS 


snch  faifcib  voltage  that  it  tends  to  escape  from 
a  charged  bodyj  in  fact  no  body  can  be  charRcd 
at  all  anieu  it  is  more  or  less  insulated.  Con- 
dcnserG  are  sheets  of  metal  separated  from 
contact  with  each  other  by  sheets  of  kIsss  or 
some  other  insulating  material.  One  meial  sheet 
is  charged  from  one  pole  of  a  static  machine 
and  the  other  is  charged  from  the  other  pole. 
Owing  to  the  great  attraction  which  charees 
of  the  two  opposite  polarities  have  for  each 
other,  when  in  such  dose  proximity  each  will 
receive  a  much  greater  durge  than  it  could 
contain  separately.  And  if  both  are  discon- 
nected from  the  source  of  electricity  the  two 
opposite  charges  are  actually  self  retaining,  so 
that  either  can  be  touched  by  a  conductor  with- 
out losing  its  charge ;  but  if  a  person  touches 
both  of  the  metal  coatings  *t  one  time  he  re- 
ceives a  loud  apaik.  Leyden  jars  with  a  dozen 
or  more  square  inches  of  condensing  surface 
are  charged  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  high 
tannon  electricity  from  a  static  madiine  and 
their  discharge  is  used  in  electrotherapy  under 
the  name  of  the  static  induced  current  A  single 
electrode  passes  to  the  patient  from  the  outer 
coating  of  a  Leyden  jar  whose  inner  coating  is 
connected  with  one  pole  of  the  static  machine. 
The  outer  coating  of  the  Leyden  jar  at  the 
other  ^ole  is  grounded  (has  a  metallic  connec- 
tion with  the  earth).  The  patient  need  not  be 
insulated.  The  distance  between  the  discharging 
rods  determines  the  voltage  and  consequently 
the  de^ee  of  effect  upon  the  patient  A  wide 
separation  of  the  discharging  rods  makes  the 
static  induced  current  suitable  only  for  the  am- 
plication of  sparks  which  are  powerfully  stimu- 
lant to  buth  striated  and  smooth  muscles  and 
to  all  other  tissues. 

Condcnsen  having  a  great  many  square 
inches  of  condensing  surface  interleaved  like 
a  bo<dc  may  be  charged  from  the  two  ooles  of 
a  galvanic  battery.  They  receive  a  very  large 
charge  at  3  low  voltage;  and  when  they  are 
disclurged  ihrou^  the  human  body  Aey  pro- 
duce marked  muscular  contraction.  Since  the 
edacity  of  the  condenser  and  the  voltage  to 
which  It  is  charged  can  be  regulated,  these  low 
tension  condenser  discharges  form  a  very  exact . 
means  of  electro  diagnosis.  They  may  be  used  for 
treatment  chiefly  of  paralysis,  and  for  some  of 
the  same  purposes  as  the  static  induced  curtent 

The  modem  static  machine,  also  called  an 
influence  machine,  has  its  initial  charge  pro- 
duced by  friction  upon  a  revolvtnR  glass  plate. 
This  is  communicated  lo  other  glass  or  mica 
or  fibre  plates  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  as 
they  revolve  the  mutual  attractions  of  positive 
and  negative  static  charge*  separated  bv  insulat- 
inK  disks,  result  in  the  acculnulat'on  of  very 
strong  charges  at  the  two  poles  of  the  machine. 

Static  insulation  or  the  static  bath  is  ap- 
plied by  connecting  one  pole  of  the  machine 
with  an  insulated  platform  upon  which  the 
patient  is  scaled.  A  static  breeze  is  a  silent, 
almost  invisible  discharge  from  a  metal  crown 
with  sharp  points  connected  with  one  pcde  of 
the  machine,  suspended  within  6  or  12  inches 
of  the  patient.  The  effect  is  increased  it  at  the 
same  time  the  patient  is  insulated  and  receiving 
a  static  bath  from  the  other  pole  of  the  ma- 
chine. Static  sparks  are  applied  by  bringing 
near  any  part  of  the  patient,  cither  clothed  or 
not,  a  metal  ball  havmg  an  insulating  handle 


and  connected  W  a  flexible      

pole  of  the  machine.  Her«,  again,  the  effect  is 
intensified  if  the  patient  is  insulated  and  receiv- 
ing a  static  bath  from  the  other  pole. 

The  static  induced  sparlc  is  described  in 
another  paragraph. 

The  Morton  wave  current  is  a  bipolar  appli- 
cation from  the  two  poles  of  the  machine  by 
two  wet  electrodes  which  make  a  very  perfect 
contact  with  tbu  patient  to  avoid  any  q>ai1[ 
efiect  The  patient  had  better  be  upon  an  in- 
sulated platform.  The  discharging  rods  of  the 
machine  are  onl^  a  fraction  of  an  inch  ^art 
The  greater  their  distance,  the  more  powerful 
and  even  intolerable  the  effect  becomes. 

Every  possible  connection  with  and  without 
Leyden  jars  has  been  used  in  treatment.  They 
afl  have  distinctive  names  but  the  arrangements 
described  are  the  most  important. 

Effect!  of  Static  Electricity.— A  single 
spark  produces  a  muscular  contraction  and  a 
sensation  of  local  shock  which  is  not  very  dis- 
agreeable. It  is  applied  by  striking  at  but  not 
touching  the  patient  with  the  insulated  metal 
ball  and  quickly  withdrawing  it ;  somewhat  the 
motion  ot  craddng  a  whip.  A  doien  separate 
loud  sparks  applied  along  the  spine  are  easily 
received  by  the  most  sensitive  patient.  But  it 
is  a  very  different  matter  when  the  ball  elec- 
trode is  held  near  the  skin  and  a  steady  stream 
of  sparks  is  applied  at  one  place.  That  is 
intolerable.  Static  sparks  are  used  as  a  general 
tonic  in  debilitated  states  and  as  a  counter- 
irritant  for  removing  any  old  inflammatory 
products.  They  are  not  suitable  for  electro- 
diagnosis  or  for  the  treatment  of  paralysis. 
The  static  bath  is  a  general  tonic  in  debilitated 
states  including  convalescence  from  illness  or 
operation  and  exhaustion  from  the  care  and 
anxiety  attendant  upon  the  illness  of  some  dear 
one.  It  is  excellent  in  neurasthenia  and  in 
insomnia.  It  is  frequently  combined  with  the 
static  head  breeze,  and,  except  for  insomnia, 
with  the  application  of  sparks  along  the  spine. 
The  static  mduced  current  has  effects  similar 
to  those  of  the  wave  current  but  less  useful. 

Morton's  wave  current  produces  a  succession 
of  muscular  contractions  which  should  be 
slight.  It  is  of  value  in  relieving  hyperemia  and 
swelling  and  pain,  and  is  used  in  (he  treatment 
of  a  great  many  chronic  conditions  in  which 
these  are  prominent  symptoms. 

High  FreauencT  Carrenta.—  When  a  con- 
denser is  discharged  by  touching  its  two  metal 
surfaces,  the  result  is  not  an  immediate  change 
to  an  uncharged  condition  in  each  metal  sur- 
face. Taking  the  surface  that  was  positively 
charged  we  find  that  its  charge  drops  not  only 
to  zero  but  to  a  certain  distance  on  the  nega- 
tive side  then  back  to  zero  and  a  certain  lesser 
distance  in  a  positive  direction  and  so  throu|^ 
thousands  of  oscillations  in  a  small  fraction  of 
a  second  it  comes  to  rest  at  zero.  The  oscilla- 
tions are  analogous  to  the  vibrations  of  a  piano 
wire  after  being  pulled  out  of  a  straight  tine 
and  released.  The  static  induced  current  is  the 
simplest  example  of  a  high  frequency  cnrrent 
but  the  discovery  of  the  D'Arsonval  current 
and  of  the  resonator  current  has  lately  added 
a  method  of  wonderful  value. 

The  D'Arsonval  current  may  be  obtained 
from  an  induction  coil,  static  machine  or  trans- 
former, capable  of  produong  ^arks  four  to 


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BLBCTSOTEUHIAPBUTICS 


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d^t  or  more  inches  long.  The  two  poles  are 
connected  with  [he  inner  coatings  of  two  Lcy- 
dni  jars  whose  outer  coatinfis  are  connected 
with  the  extremities  of  a  solenoid  or  c^indrical 
spiral  of  perhaps  20  turns  of  coarse  wire  about 
■^  inch  aparL  Conduciinff  cords  lead  to  the 
patient  front  each  of  the  extremities  of  the 
solenoid  or  from  any  two  turns  of  it.  Th! 
apiiaratus  btit  not  its  connection  with  the 
patient  is  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

The  inner  coatinf^  of  the  two  Leyden  jars 
are  oppositely  charged  and  are  connected  with 
the  terminals  of  a  spark  ^p  of  adjustable 
length  or  preferably,  an  adjustable  number  of 


charged  to  such  an  extent  that  a  (Uscbarge  of 
their  inner  coats  occurs  through  the  spark 
gap.  This  releases  the  opposite  dnrges  in  the 
outer  coatings  of  the  two  Leyden  jars  and 
their  high  frequency  discharge  passes  partly 
through  the  solenoid  and  partly  through  the 
parallel  path  formed  by  the  patient's  body. 

One  would  sumiose  that  with  each  dis- 
charge of  the  Leyden  jars  the  current  would 
almost  all  pass  through  the  solenoid  which  is  a 
relatively  short  length  of  thin  wire  whose 
resistance  measured  in  ohms  is  trifling  com" 
pared  with  that  of  the  human  body.  There  is 
however,  a  counter- electromotive  force  gene- 
rated in  a  coil  of  wire  at  the  making  ot  the 
current  which  adds  a  great  inductive  resistance 
to  the  passage  of  the  current  and  increases 
enormously  the  percentage  of  the  current  which 
will  pass  through  any  other  path  open  to  it 
The  current  passing  through  the  patient  may  be 
measured  by  a  hot  wire  milliamperemeter  and 
may  be  all  the  way  from  SO  to  1,000  or  more 
mi Ui ampere 3.  It  is  also  a  current  of  much 
higher  voltage  than  the  galvanic  and  the  fact 
that  it  does  not  cause  muscular  contraction  or 
a  shock  of  any  k'nd  is  due  to  its  very  rapid 
oscillations,  a  million  or  more  per  second 
The  motor  nerves  respond  actively  to  alterna- 
tions of  20  to  2,000  or  3,000  per  second  but  ar« 
inert  in  the  presence  of  much  higher  than 
5.000  oscillations  per  second.  The  oscillatory 
cnaracter  of  the  current  prevents  the  elec- 
trolysis which  would  render  a  constant  cur- 
rent of  I,0O0  mill  I  amperes  intolerable.  One 
principal  effect  of  the  passajge  of  the  D'Ar- 
sonval  current  through  the  tissues  is  the  pro- 
duction of  heat  in  the  tissues  themselves  by 
ohmic  resistance  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
production  of  heat  by  a  current  passing  through 
a  gal vano- cautery  wire  or  throuRh  the  filament 
of  an  electric  littht  bulb.  Whether  all  the 
other  effects  are  due  to  this  generation  of  heat 
or  whether  some  are  due  to  direct  stimulation 
of  (he  tissue  cells,  is  uncertain  but  the  effects 
themselves  are  of  the  greatest  value  in 
therapeutics.  lyArsonval  high  frequency  cur- 
rents of  moderate  milliampereage  may  be  ap- 
plied by  two  wel  electrodes  or  by  bare  metal 
electrodes;  or  by  one  glass  electrode  and  a 
glass  vacuum  bulb  or  by  autocondensation. 
Diathermy  (or  less  properly  called  thermopene- 
tration) is  simply  a  D'Arsonval  high  frequency 
current  of  very  creat  milliamocreage  tending 
consequently  to  produce  a  great  deal  of  heat  in 
the  tissues.  Two  melal  electrodes  may  he  ap- 
plied to  a  piece  of  raw  meat  and  after  the  cur- 
rent has  passed  through   for  some  time,  the 


meat  will  be  found  to  be  cooked  alt  the  way 
throuf^.  The  electrodes  themselves  do  not 
become  too  warm  to  he  touched  by  the  finger  — 
are  not  warm  at  all  until  contact  is  made  with 
the  meat.  This  is  the  underlvina;  principle  of 
the  Deforeti  Cold  Caultry  which  is  suited  to 
all  the  pnrposei  of  a  hot  metal  cautery. 


Fig.  4. — Hifih  freqimcy 


of  Aulocondensaiion.  One  conducting  wire 
passes  to  a  very  large  metal  surface  close  to 
the  patient's  body  but  separated  from  it  by  a 
thick  sheet  of  some  complete  and  impenetrable 
nonconductor  The  patient  may  hold  one  or 
more  metal  terminals  from  the  other  pole  of 
the  D'Arsonval  apparatus  or  may  be  in  close 
proximity  to  a  second  insulated  surface  charged 
from  the  other  pole.  During  the  api^icatlon 
currents  ot  high  frequency,  medium  tension 
and  hi|^  milliampereage  (about  1,000)  surge 
through  the  patient's  body.  The  application 
produces  very  little  sensation  except  a  slight 
warmth  and  no  shock  or  muscular  contraction. 
The  metal  terminal  must,  however,  be  grasped 
before  the  current  is  turned  on  and  not  re- 
leased during  the  flow  of  the  current.  Other- 
wise the  patient  wiil  receive  a  succession  of  ex- 
ceedingly hot  sparks. 

High  Frequency  Resonator  DiBChargM. — 


apparatus  for  this  puruosc.  "Tbe  outer  coat  of 
(Mie  of  the  two  Leyden  jars  is  connected  with 
the  end  of  a  wire  spiral  and  the  outer  coat  of 
the  other  with  some  part  of  the  spiral  between 
its  two  ends.  With  each  discharge  of  the  Ley- 
den jars,  a  current  passes  through  the  turns  of 
the  spiral  between  the  two  connections  and 
this  induces  a  current  passing  toward  the  free 
end  of  the  spiral  and  increasing  in  voltage 
until  from  its  terminal  a  long  spark  or  a  violet 
colored  eOluve  may  be  drawn ;  or  a  glass 
vacuum  electrode  may  be  used  to  ap^  this 
hiph  tension  high  frequency  current.  "The  ap- 
plication is  a  unipolar  one.  When  the  vacuum 
electrode  is  held  near  the  surface  of  the  body 
a  shower  of  sparks  passes  to  the  skin  and  this 
may  be  more  or  less  disagreeable.  This  spark 
effect  is  largely  avoided  bvkeepingthe electrode 
in  contact  with  the  surface.  But  even  then 
tiny  sparks  may  be  seen  passing  from  parts  of 
the  bulb  not  m  close  contact  with  Ac  sldn. 
These  are  not  disagreeable.    A   sensation  of 


.gle 


ELECTBONIC  STATE—  ELBCROTYPE 


wannth  is  produced  and  die  entire  ^^s  vacuum 
tube  becomes  heated  in  proportion  to  the 
strength  of  the  high  frequency  current.  The 
plass  stem  where  ttie  current  enters  from  the 
insulated  handle  and  the  surface  in  contact 
with  the  patient  are  hotter  than  other  parts  of 
the  electrode.  The  bulb  is  filled  with  a  violet 
and  ultraviolet  light.  The  latter  is  invisible 
but  its  presence  is  easily  demonstrated  by 
fluoresence  induced  in  Wiflemite.  It  doubtless 
is  partly  concerned  in  the  effect  produced  upon 
the  tissues. 


^      st^ 


Pig.  S. — Higb  frequency  RMOiutor. 


High  frequency  currents  have  little  or  no 
tendency  to  produce  muscular  contraction  and 
are  not  used  lot  elecirodiagnosis.  The  spark 
effect  is  useful  as  a  general  tonic,  to  stimulate 
sensory  nerves,  to  cause  constriction  of  blood 
vessels  locally  and  vasodilitation  generally. 
Sparks  applied  from  a  metal  point  held  close 
to  the  surface  have  a  counterirritant  or  a 
destructive  effect  depending  upon  the  strength 
of  the  current  and  the  lenj^  of  time  sparks 
are  applied  to  one  spot  without  intermission. 
D'Arsonva!  currents,  locally,  raise  the  tempera- 
ture and  increase  the  circulation,  increase  die 
activity  of  ^ands  and  are  a  sedative.  Autocon- 
densation  increases  the  production  of  heat  in 
the  body,  increases  the  urinary  solids  and  acts 
as  a  sedative.  And  especially  it  reduces  the 
blood  pressure  when  (hat  is  unnaturally  high. 
The  vacuum  electrode  actuated  bv  the  Oudin 
resonator  has  the  effect  of  heatinz  the  tissues 
and  promoting  cellular  activity  of  every  kind 
as  well  as  increasing  local  circulation.  It  is  a 
counterirritant  when  the  current  ts  strong  or  is 
so  reirulated  as  to  nroduce  considerable  spark 
effect  even  with  the  electrode  in  contact  with 
the  surface.  In  this  case  its  general  effect  is 
stimulating;  but  with  the  current  adjusted  to 
produce  very  little  spark  effect  and  a  great 
deal  of  warmth  from  the  vacuum  electrode  in 
contact  with  the  skin  it  has  a  sedative  effect,  and 
tends  to  reduce  unnatural  high  Mood  pressure. 

Some  of  the  conditions  treated  by  high 
frequency  applications  are  growths  varying 
from  warts  to  skin  cancers;  various  skin  dis- 
eases including  acne;  high  blood  pressure  and 


arteriosclerosis  or  hardening  of  the  arteries; 
rheumatism ;  gout ;  neuritis  and  neuralgia ; 
angina  pectoris;  hemorrhoids. 

Bibliography. — Consult  Gould  and  Pyle, 
'C^pec&  of  Medicine'  (Philadelphia  1912); 
Gutlteminot.  'Electricity  in  Hedicme'  (Kcw 
York  1906);  Jones,  'Medical  Electridty)  (6tfa 
ed.,  Philadelphia  1913);  Martin,  'Practical 
Electro-therapeutics'  (Saint  Lduis  1912) ; 
Neiswanger,  'Electro- therapeutical  Practice* 
(18th  ed,  Clhicaso  1912)  ;  Rockwell,  'Electricity 
in  Medicine'  (New  York  1904);  Tousey,  S., 
'Medical  Electricity  and  Roentgen  Rays' 
(Philadelphia  1910,  1915). 

SlNOAIB  TousEY,  M.D. 

Nevi  York  City. 

ELECTRONIC  STATE,  a  term  invented 
Iq"  Faraday  (q.v.)  to  designate  the  total  mag- 
netic flux  due  to  a  conductor  conveying  a 
current,  which  linked  with  any  secondary  cir- 
cuit in  ibe  field  or  even  with  itself.  By  careful 
experiment  he  proved  that  electromotive  forces 
set  up  in  conductors  by  the  induction  of  Other 
currents  in  the  field  were  caused  by  the  cutting 
lines  of  the  secondary  circuit.    See  ELecmcrrr. 

ELECTROTHERMAL  PROCESS,  the 
term  applied  to  electrometallurgic  operations  in 
which  electricity  is  employed  solely  as  a  heating 
agent,  to  distmguish  them  from  electrolytic 
processes.  In  special  electrothermal  processes, 
as  the  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide,  the 
mixture  of  substances  is  raised  by  the  electric 
current  to  the  temperature  at  which  the  chemical 
reaction  desired  will  take  place.  In  other 
electrothermal  processes  the  heat  is  applied  to 
produce  molecular  or  phvsical  changes,  as  in 
the  manufacture  of  graphite  from  gas-carbon 
or  coke.  The  continuous  current  only  can  be 
used  in  electrolytic  work,  whereas  an  alter- 
nating current  is  also  available  in  electrothermal 
work.     See  ELEcntoMrTALLUBGY. 

ELECTROTROPISM.  The  senutivenets 
of  plants  to  cultivation  by  electricity.  Sec 
Electroculturz'  of  Puivn. 

ELECTROTINT,  a  method  of  tracing 
drawing?,  etc.,  for  printing,  by  the  action  oF 
electricity  on  a  copper  plate.  The  design  is 
drawn  in  some  varnish  not  affected  by  acid  and 

Elated  in  an  electro-bath,  the  lines  being  thus 
roiight  out  in  relief. 
ELECTROTYPE,  a  metallic  copy,  made 
by  electro- deposition,  a  form  of  type,  a  "cut,* 
engraving,  etc.,  and  manufactured  into  proper 
shape  for  printing.  Wax  is  heated  in  a  kettle, 
poured  out  on  a  molding-case  and  placed  in  a 

?ress  to  receive  a  reverse  impression  of  the 
arm,  engraving,  etc.  The  face  of  the  wax 
mold  is  covered  with  plumbago  to  give  it  a 
conducting  surface  to  which  the  metal  will  ad- 


copper  (or  occasionally  nickel  or  iron)  and  both 
arc  placed  in  a  bath  of  sulphate  of  copper  in 
solution.  The  copper  is  deposited  on  tne  face 
of  the  mold  in  a  thin  film,  which  increases  in 
thickness  as  the  process  continues.  The  shell 
having  attained  the  thickness  of  a  stout  sheet 
of  paper  the  mold  is  removed  from  the  bath, 
the  shell  detached  and  strengthened  by  a  backing 
of  electrotype  metal,  this  being  a  composition 
of  lead,  tin  and  perhaps  a  little  antimony.  The 
electrotype  shell  being  washed  is  laid  face  down 


ELBGTRUM  —  BI.BHBHT 


SW 


oa  a  metal  surface  and  a  sheet  of  tin  foil  melted 
on  to  the  back,  after  which  the  backing  metal 
is  poured  on  in  a  molten  condition.  Afjer  cool- 
ing, the  electrotype  plate  goes  to  a  planer, 
shaver,  trimmer,  etc.,  until  reduced  to  the  proper 
fonn  tor  printing.  Later  it  is  remounted  on  a 
hase  of  wood  or  metal  lo  bring  it  to  the  same 
height  as  type,  that  it  may  be  printed  in  a  form 
with  type ;  or  sometimes  the  plate  is  curved  in 
a  bendmK  machine  for  rotary  printing.  For 
details  of  the  electric  bath  employed,  see  Elec- 
TKOCHCMiSTay.  When  the  copper  electrot]/pe  is 
faced  with  nickel  it  is  sometimes  called  nickel- 
type,  or  if  with  iron,  steeltype.  The  electrotype 
plate  has  almost  wholly  superseded  the  stereo- 
npe  for  book  and  miscellaneous  printing, 
tnough  the  stereotype  is  retained  for  rotary 
newspaper  printing. 

ELECTSUM,  a  substance  mentioned  by 
Greek  and  Latin  writers,  with  regard  to  the 
nature  of  which  there  has  been  much  discus- 
sioa  The  term  was  used  with  different  mean- 
ings^ it  originally  meant  gold,  and  was  then 
ajiphed  specially  to  native  gold,  containing  quan- 
tities of  silver,  copper  and  oliier  metals.  The 
term  employed  for  this  native  alloy  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  artificial  alloy  of  gold  and  silver, 
afterward  made,  and  was  also  afiplied  to  amber 
on  account  of  its  color  and  inferior  lustre.  The 
natural  alloy  occurring  in  Placer  County,  CaL, 
and  Humboldt  and  Nye  counties,  Nev.,  con- 
tains about  40  per  cent  of  silver.  It  is  the  prin- 
cipal mineral  in  the  ore  at  National,  Humboldt 
County,  Nev. 

ELEGY,  properly,  a  poem  of  moundng. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans,  however,  employed 
the  term  to  denote  a  poem  written  in  elegiac 
verse,  whatever  its  character.  This  elegiac  verse 
was  the  distich,  consisting  of  the  hexameter 
alternating  with  pentameter.  Catullus,  Proper- 
tius,  Tibullus  and  Ovid  were  masters  of  the 
elegiac  style.  In  modem  times  the  term  elegy 
is  usual^  applied  to  any  serious  piece  in  which 
a  tone  oi  melancholy  pervades  the  sentiments,  as 
in  Gray's  'Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Church- 
In  music,  the  term  is  used  lo  denote  a  sad 
or  suppressed  theme. 

ELEGY  WRITTEN  IN  A  COUNTRY 
CHURCHYARD,  a  poem  by  Thomas  Gray, 
often  said  to  be  the  most  popular  piece  of  verse 
in  the  language.  It  is  thought  to  have  been 
begun  at  Stoke-Poges  in  1742.  resumed  at 
Cambridge  in  1749  and  finished  at  Stoke  in 
June  of  the  next  year.  Gray  at  once  sent  a 
copy  to  his  friend  Horace  Walpole,  who 
showed  it  about  Early  in  February  1751  the 
poet  received  a  letter  from  the  editor  of  a 
magazine  announcing  the  intention  to  print  it. 
Gray  thereupon  through  Walpole  arranged  for 
its  puhlication  by  Dodsley  on  16  Feb.  1751.  Its 
success  was  instantaneous.  Eleven  editions  were 
published  in  speedy  succession,  translations  were 
made  into  Latin  and  into  numerous  modem 
languages,  and  parodies  and  imitations  flooded 
the  world.  Subsequent  reprintings,  especially 
in  anthologies,  have  secured  for  it  an  enormous 
circulation,  and,  although  it  has  not  escaoed  the 
disparagement  sure  to  be  vented  upon  what  is 
hackneyed,  it  has  retained  an  imparallcil  hold 
upon  public  affection.  It  would  be  a  rash  critic 
who  Miould  attempt  to  deny  classic  rank  to  Gray 
and  his  best-known  poem. 


Three  copies  exist  in  Gray's  handwriting, 
and  a  study  of  the  readings  and  the  siq>pre3sea 
staiuas,  as  well  as  of  the  poet's  borrowing  from 
himself  and  others,  is  a  valuable  exercise  for 
the  student  of  poetic  style.  Owing  to  the  almost 
flawless  felicity  of  the  diction  and  to  the  ad- 
mirable fitness  of  the  pentameter  quatrain  to 
the  purposes  for  which  it  was  employed,  there 
are  but  few  of  the  32  stanzas  that  do  not  yield 
some  memorable  phrase  or  line,  many  of  which 
have  become  stock  Quotations,  such  as  *The 
short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor,*  and  'Far 
from  the  madding  crowd's  ignoole  strife.* 

As  has  been  intimated,  the  'Elegy,'  throufid) 
its  own  popularity  due  to  its  own  excellence,  has 
contributed  to  its  own  decline  in  favor  among 
those  exigent  persons  who  feel  that  it  is  an 
offense  against  taste  to  praise  what  the  masses 
like.  A  moment's  thought,  however,  should 
convince  even  the  most  fastidious  that  the 
masses  are  right.  The  'Elc^>  is  not  profound, 
or  subtle,  or  exceptionally  imaginative,  or  full 
of  ravishing  surprises  in  phrase  and  cadence. 
Had  it  been  it  would  have  failed  of  its  purpose 
to  express  with  consummate  dignity  and  felicity 
the  thoughts  and  feelings  common  to  humanity 
in  the  presence  of  death  and  its  monuments. 
The  '£legy>  is  popular  because  the  honest  critic 
will  confess  that  he  could  not  improve  it 
if  he  would  and  because  the  average  reader 
has  never  thought  it  needed  improvemenL  It 
is  about  as  perfect  a  poem  of  pensive  melan- 
choly as  the  world  can  show,  and  if  all  its 
pre<tecessors  and  successors  in  the  so-called 
churchyard  poetry  were  lost  and  it  alone  pre- 
served it  would  suffice  to  voice  practically  all 
the  pertinent  reflections  and  emotions  connected 
with  "the  great  leveller.'  Consult  editions  of 
Gray's  poems  by  Gosse,  Rolfe,  Bradshaw, 
Phelps,  etc. 

WiLUAU  P.  Trent. 

ELEMENT,  in  chemistry,  a  primary  sub- 
stance that  cannot  be  decomposed  as  may 
be  done  with  compound  substances.  The 
different  substances  now  admitted  bv  chem- 
ists to  be  elements,  together  witn  those 
which  are  tentatively  assumed  to  be  so,  until 
further  evidence  is  accumulated,  number 
(1918)  82.  They  are  aluminum,  antimony, 
argon,  arsenic,  barium,  beryllium,  bismuth, 
boron,  bromine,  cadmium,  cxsium,  calcium,  car- 
bon, cerium,  chlorine,  chromium,  cobalt,  copper, 
dysprosium,  erbium,  europium,  fluorine,  gado- 
linium, gallium,  germanium,  ^Id.  helium,  hol- 
mium,  hydrogen,  indium,  iodine,  iridium,  iron, 
krypton,  lanthanum,  lead,  lithium,  lutecium, 
magnesium,  manganese,  mercury,  molybdenum, 
neo^mium,  neon,  nickel,  niobium,  niton,  nitro- 
gen, osmium,  oxygen,  palladium,  phosphorus, 
platinum,  potassium,  praseodymium,  radium, 
rhodium,  rubidium,  ruthenium,  samarium,  scan- 
dium, selenium,  silicon,  silver,  sodium,  stron- 
tium, sulphur,  tantalum,  tell  u  rim.  terbium, 
thallium,  thorium,  thulium,  tin,  titanium,  tung- 
sten, uranium,  vanadium,  xenon,  ytterbium, 
yitnum,  zinc  and  zirconium.  Whether  any  of 
these  apparently  elementary  substances  will  be 
proved  to  be  in  reality  compounds  cannot  be 
definitely  foretold  The  most  that  can  be  said 
is  that  up  to  the  present  time  no  force  has  been 
brought  to  bear  on  them  sufficient  to  disrupt 
the  atomic  attraction  which  holds  each  in  its 
individual    form.     Much  speculation  has  been 


ELBM&NTAL    SPIRITS  —  BLEHI 


indulged  in  concerning  the  fundamental  struc- 
tural differences  that  subsist  between  the  atoms 
of  the  different  elements,  but  no  universally 
acceptable  explanation  has  yet  been  offered  to 
account  for  Che  fact  that  the  thousands  of  com- 
pounds that  have  been  studied  are  all  composed 
of  so  small  a  number  of  essentially  different 
constituents.  The  alchemists  believed  that  every 
apparent  "element"  can  be  modified,  or  "trans- 
muted," into  every  other  one,  and  much  labor 
v^as  expended  in  the  effort  to  transmute  the 
baser  metals  into  the  "nobler*  or  more  valu-. 
able  ones.  We  now  know  that  the  problem  of 
transmutation,  if  it  is  capable  of  solution  at  all, 
is  at  any  rate  far  more  serious  than  it  was  be- 
lieved to  be  in  the  early  history  of  chemistry. 
But  there  are  numerous  indications  which  sug- 
gest a  relationship  among  the  substances  that 
are  now  accepted  as  elements,  and  it  may  yet 
prove  to  be  possible  to  transform  lead  into 
gold,  or  tin  into  platinum.  For  some  years 
past  Sir  William  Crookes  has  been  a  consist- 
ent advocate  of  the  theory  which  teaches  that 
all  matter  is  fundamentally  the  same,  and  he 
has  shown  that  some  of  the  "elements*  can  be 
resolved,  by  fractionation,  into  substances  which 
exhibit  spectra  that  differ  from  one  another  in 
a  martced  manner,  any  two  consecutive  members 
of  the  series  showing  close  similarity  in  their 
spectra,  while  the  extreme  members  of  the  series 
are  totally  dissimilar.  (Consult  his  lecture  be- 
fore the  Berlin  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry, 
entitled  'Modem  Views  on  Matter,*  in  Science 
for36  June  1903).  The  theory  of  matter  which 
is  in  favor  at  the  present  writing  teaches  that 
all  atoms  are  composed  of  electrons  (q.v.), 
which  are  all  alike,  but  which  are  grouped  to- 
gether in  various  wavs,  and  in  various  numbers, 
to  form  the  atoms  of  the  elements.  If  this  view 
stands  the  test  of  further  research  the  possi- 
bility of  transmuting  the  elements  into  one 
another  tnay  not  be  altoRcther  fanciful.  The 
element  radium  (q.v.),  which  appears  to  pos- 
sess the  singular  power  of  continuously  emitting 
streams  of  free  electrons,  occurs  in  nature  in 
certain  varieties  of  the  mineral  uramnilc.  It  is 
notable  that  the  inert  gas  helium  (ti-v.)  also 
occurs  in  this  same  mineral,  thoui^  it  appears 
to  be  present  in  the  free  state  and  never  in 
actual  cbemical  combination.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  we  are  here  face  to  face  with  a  real 
case  of  transmutation  of  elements,  the  electrons 
that  are  emitted  by  the  raitium  being  slowly  built 
up,  within  the  uraninite,  into  new  systems,  which 
are  nothing  less  than  atoms  of  helium.  See 
MoLEcui^R  Theory  ;  Pekiodic  Law  ;  RAriATiON ; 
Radiuu. 

ELEMENTAL  SPIRITS,  beings  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  popular  belief  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  presided  over  the  four  elements,  living 
in  and  ruliiw:  them.  The  elemental  spirits  of 
fire  were  called  salamanders;  those  of  water, 
undines;  those  of  the  air,  sylphs;  and'  those  of 
the  earth,  gnomes.  Paracelsus  wrote  a  treatise 
upon  them,  and  they  play  a  part  in  Pope's  'The 
l^pe  of  the  Lock.' 

ELEMENTS,  Conacioiifl.  As  is  the  case 
with  any  other  process  of  analysis,  the  analysis 
of  experience  must  disclose  certain  component 
factors  from  which  more  complicated  eicperi- 
enees  are  built,  and  these  are  called  conscious 
elements.  It  is  by  no  means  obvious  that  the 
psychical  fragments  which  form  the  elements 


in  the  psychology  of  the  present  day  are  not 
subject  to  further  fr^mentation,  nor,  for  the 
matter  of  that,  that  there  are  any  conscious  ele- 
ments whatever  insusceptible  to  further  frag- 
mentation. Furthermore,  the  subdivision  of  an 
experience  into  its  elements  does  not  exhaust 
its  analysis  any  more  than  the  analysis  of  a 
mosaic  is  exhausted  by  an  enumeration  of  the 
constituent  bits  of  stone.  Just  as  the  arrange- 
inenl  of  Ae  constituent  bits  of  stone  is  the  really 
vital  part  of  a  mosaic,  so  the  arrangement  of  the 
constituent  bits  of  wyierience  is  the  vital  part 
of  a  mental  state.  The  tentative  character  of 
conscious  elements  and  the  inadequacy  of  a 
psychologj'  which  confines  itself  to  cataloguing 
them  are  all  but  entirely  overlooked  by  j>erhaps 
the  majority  of  experimental  psychologists. 

The  general  consensus  of  opinion  among 
psychologists  is  that  the  structural  elnnents  — 
the  items  —  out  of  which  experience  at  any  one 
moment  is  built  arc  sensations  and  affections 
(qq.v.),  and  these  alone.  In  determining  what 
constitutes  a  single  sensation,  our  knowledge  of 
the  physiological  processes  of  the  sense-organs 
often  yields  us  indications  which  are  contra- 
dicted by  introspection,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
sensation  of  a  color,  which  does  not  show  npot) 
introspection  the  division  into  separate  liidit 
and  color  processes  which  ts  indicated  by  its 
physiology. 

There  is  not  so  much  agreement  as  to  Ae 
nature  of  the  simple  psychological  functions,  or 
temporal  sequences  of  psychological  units.  Stout 
assumes  that  the  simple  processes  are  cognition 
—  i.e.,  sentience,  simple  apprehension,  and  be- 
lief and  will  —  i.e.,  hedonic  tone  and  desire  or 
aversion.  Brentano  separates  ideation  or  aware- 
ness from  belief.  Wundt  regards  all  expert- 
ence  as  a  manifestation  of  the  volitional  process 
of  impulse,  which  involves  both  sensory  and 
affective  factors.  Consult  Brentano,  'Psychol- 
ogic'  f  Leipzig  1874)  ;  Stout,  'Analytic  Psychol- 


BLEHI,  as  commercially  used  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  an  oleo-resin  obtained  from  the  Cano- 
rium  iuzonUutH  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  also 
known  as  "Manila  elemi.*  As  found  in  the  mar- 
ket it  has  the  appearance  of  old  honey,  due  to 
admixture  with  extraneous  material,  but  when 

5tn'e  it  is  colorless,  and  has  a  pleasing  fragrance. 
t  is  a  mixture  of  resin  with  a  volatile  oil,  the 
resin  being  compound,  part  (61  per  cent)  amor- 
phous and  part  (25  per  cent)  crystalline;  the 
Utter  known  by  the  specific  name,  amyrin.  The 
amorphotis  resin  dissolves  in  cold  alcohol;  the 
crystalline  only  in  hot  alcohol.  The  hard  elemi, 
most  abundant  in  the  West  Indies,  is  obtained 
from  species  of  Bunera,  and  is  either  yellowish 
or  greenish,  sometimes  opaque  and  sometimes 
translucent,  has  a  fatty  lustre,  is  easily  pulver- 
ized and  very  fusible.  It  is  heavier  than  water, 
in  which  it  is  insoluble,  althoi^h  it  is  readily 
dissolved  in  eiflier  turpentine  or  alcohol.  The 
Oriental  elemi  of  ancient  times  was  the  African 
elemi,  an  extract  of  Bonvellia  Frereana  or  San- 
liriofis  balsamifera.  The  Mauritius  variety  is 
obtained  from  Caitarium  panicitlatum.  A  large 
part  of  the  elemi  of  commerce  is  produced  from 
trees  of  different  genera  of  the  same  family 
growing  in  troiHcal  America.    Brazilian  denit. 


jOOgIc 


Or  tMilmtf,  u  tbe  product  al  Jiyautttn  Cour- 
baril.  Uexicau  elemi,  now  rarely  found  in  com- 
merce, is  the  product  of  Amyrrit  ptumieri.  It 
was  fonnerl^  the  base  of  a  nigfaly  valued  lac- 
quer. Elemi  is  a  regular  constituent  of  spirit 
varnishes,  and  the  Manila  kind  is  used  in  plas- 
ters and  ointments,  and  in  the  preparation  of 
certain  hi^  grade  printing  inks.  In  Eastern 
countries  it  is  also  used  as  incense.  Its  active 
principle  is  a  volatile  oil  obtained  by  distillation. 

ELEPHANT,  the  largest  of  Iiring  land 
animals,  the  two  species  of  which  constitute 
the  family  Elephatttid<e,  of  the  sub-order  Pro- 
boscidea.  The  better-known  species  (Elephas  or 
Bvelephtu  maximus)  is  native  to  the  jungles  of 
India;  while  the  other  species  (EUphas  or 
Loxodon  afruaniu')   is  found  in  the  forests  of 

The  elephant  b  a  huge,  ungainly  creature 
with  an  enormously  heavy  body,  mounted  on 
four  short,  columnar  legs,  the  hinder  ones  bend- 
ing like  knees  when  he  lies  down,  as  he  doubles 
them  behind,  and  not  under  him;  his  tail  is 
long  and  tapered,  ending  in  a  bunch  of  coarie 
hair ;  otherwise  the  wrinkled  bluish-gray  hide  is 
quite  hairless.  His  head  is  large,  with  big  pendu- 
lous ears,  small  eyes,  and  a  nose,  prolonged 
into  a  proboscis  or  'trunk,*  which  reaches  to 
the  ground  when  he  stands  erect  The  average 
male  elephant  is  8  or  10  feet  high,  and  wei^s 
five  tons  or  more.  There  is  a  pigmy  race  of  the 
African  elephant,  however,  found  in  the  Kongo, 
which  is  not  over  seven  feet  in  heiji^L 
The  incisors  of  his  upper  jaw  are  pro- 
longed into  tusks,  which  are,  however,  less 
useful  to  bim,  as  weapons,  than  is  his 
trunk.  This  organ  enables  the  animal  to 
pick  up  things  from  the  ground,  and  to 
reach  fruits  or  leaves  many  feet  above  his  head, 
and  it  also  conveys  water  to  the  mouth.  Indeed, 
so  ^eat  is  the  tactile  sense  of  this  singularly 
flexible  proboscis  that  it  has  been  likened  to  a 
hand.  It  is  also  its  owner's  chief  weapon  of 
Offense  and  defense;  for  with  it  he  can  catdi  and 
crush  a  man  with  ease,  or  hurl  aside  the  tiger. 
The  nasal  bones  are  rudimentary,  to  give  room 
for  the  trunk.  The  powerful  muscles  of  the 
trunk  demand  a  large  surface  for  their  attach- 
mem;  and  accordingly  the  skull  is  very  large, 
and  yet  is  prevented  from  betn^  excessively 
heavy  by  the  presence  of  large  air  spaces  be- 
tween the  inner  and  outer  tables.  The  end  of 
the  trunk  forms  a  prehensile  organ  widi  two 
flaps  in  the  Indian  elephant,  one  in  the  African. 
The  tusks  are  not  present  m  all  elephants,  and 
vary  much  in  size.  They  lack  all  coating  of 
enamel.  The  digestive  system  is  typical  of  that 
of  the  herbivorous  animals  in  general,  except  for 
the  lon^,  narrow  form  of  the  stomach,  and  for 
a  peculiar  muscle  attached  to  the  gullet,  which 
renders  regurgitation  of  water  possible.  The 
female  has  a  single  pectoral  pair  of  mammae. 
Gestation  Easts  two  years,  and  the  young  are 
suckled  for  two  years  more.  The  age  which 
this  huge  creature  attains  is  proportionate  to  its 
site;  for  captive  specimens  have  been  known  to 
live  a  hundred  years,  and  scientists  believe  that, 
in  a  wild  state,  it  may  live  many  years  longer. 
The  Indian  elephant  (Elephas  asiaticus)  differs 
from  the  African  in  having  smaller  ears  and  a 
longer  head  with  concave  forehead  and  smaller 
eyes;  in  this  species,  also,  the  hind  feet  are 
often    live-faoofed,    whereas    in    the    African 


they  arc  never  more  than  four-hoofed,  though 
five  digits  are  always  present  in  botli  limbs. 
Though  the  two  species  present  some  differences 
as  to  dentition,  the  special  peculiarity  in  the 
structure  of  the  molars  is  common  to  both. 
These  teeth  are  of  great  site,  and  are  formed 
of  vertical  plates  of  dental  bone,  separately 
covered  with  enamel,  and  welded  together  by  a 
bony  "cement,"  so  that  each  tooth  looks  like  a 
number  of  teeth,  cemented  together.  In  both 
species,  also,  there  are  no  canine  teeth,  and  no 
incisors  in  the  lower  jaw ;  while  the  incisors  of 
the  upper  jaw  are  developed  into  tusks,  often 
weighing  150  to  200  pounds  each.  These  tuaks 
furnish  the  ivory  (q.v.)  which  is  so  much  es- 
teemed  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  Indian 
elephant  for  thousands  of  years  has  been  the 
servant  of  man.  From  the  earliest  ages  he  has 
borne  the  Oriental  warrior  into  battle,  has 
hauled  his  stores  and  ammunition,  and  has  even 
been  taught  to  wield  weapons.  ,  In  peace  be 
has  piled  logs  and  huge  blocks  of  stone  as  un- 
remittingly as  a  derrick,  and  has  been  the  main 
feature  m  the  processions  of  the  native  princes. 
In  these  last  and  always  spectacular  functions, 
the  elephant's  anklets,  saddlecloth  and  trappings 
are  often  encrusted  with  gold  and  jewels;  and 
the  prince  who  sits  in  tbe  canopied  howdah  on 
his  back  Is  not  more  gorgeously  attired  than 
bis  elephant  In  this  connection,  also,  the  al- 
binos of  the  elephant  are  p;rized  far  more  highly 
than  the  ordinary  sort;  in  Siam,  indeed,  the 
while  elephant  is  royal  and  venerated.  The 
catching  of  these  elephants  singly,  or  in  herds, 
is  by  no  means  an  easy  task.  In  former  yean 
they  were  caught  in  pitfalls,  but  this  practice 
has  been  abandoned,  because  the  creatures  were 
frequently  injured.  Modem  methods  are  varied. 
Sometimes  male  elephants  are  decoyed  by  tame 
females  trained  for  that  purpose,  until  they  are 
in  close  proximity  to  the  hunters.  These  en- 
tangle tbeir  unconscious  victim's  legs  in  stout 
ropes,  and  when,  eventually  he  finds  himself 
trapped,  he  fights  until  exhausted.  When,  how- 
ever, herds  are  hunted,  thn  are  driven  by  an 
ever  narrowing  circle  of  hunters  toward  the 
mouth  of  a  strongly  built  stockade,  or  "keddah.* 
When,  after  many  days,  surrounded  and  en- 
closed by  their  pursuers,  they  rush  into  the 
stockade,  the  great  gate  is  shut  upon  them. 
They  are  then  tamed  by  a  variety  of  methods, 
which  differ  as  the  stockades  do  according  to 
locality.  Once  caught,  the  elephant  is  easily 
trained,  a  few  monSis  being,  usually,  sufficient 
to  teach  him  all  he  needs  to  know.  Methods 
of  training  vary  in  detail ;  but  after  the  first 
severe  lessons,  the  trainer  usually  finds  getitle- 
ness  effective.  The  driver  or  mahout  sits  upon 
the  elephant's  neck  and  manages  him  by  words 
and  by  the  use  of  a  small  iron-pointed  stick. 
Once,  tamed,  elephants,  except  in  cases  where 
they  become  "bad,"  and  have  to  be  shot  like 
mad  dogs,  often  are  so  gentle  that  children  may 
be  trusted  to  play  with  them.  Besides  the  difFer- 
ences  between  the  two  species,  already  noted, 
the  African  elephant  is  not  as  amenable  to 
domestication  and  confinement  as  the  Asiati^ 
and  is  tbe  chief  source  of  tbe'world's  supply  at 
ivory.  Indeed,  the  African  elephant  generally 
succumbs  to  disease  and  dies  m  Confinement, 
while  the  only  change  noted  in  tbe  Asiatk  tmder 
the  same  circumstances  is  that  the  spetses  gen- 
erally does  not  breed  in  captivity.  The  African 
elephant  is  peculiar  in  that  the  great  tusks,  twice 


XLBPHAHT   HOUND  »SLBPHANT   SEAL 


u  large  as  those  of  the  Asiatic  species,  are 
praseot  in  both  male  and  female,  while  in  the 
Asiatic  species  they  are  found  only  in  the  male. 
Because  of  the  demand  for  these,  the  African 
natives  have  made  war  upon  the  female  as 
well  as  the  male,'  and  this  leads  naturally  to  a 
diminution  of  the  species,  as  the  number  of 
tusks  shipped  has  increased  rather  than  de- 
creased eaui  year.  The  African  elephant  is  now 
never  used  as  a  beast  of  burden,  though  in 
ancient  Egypt  he  may  have  been  so  utilized. 
Elephants  generally  live  in  large  herds,  each 
herd  led,  and  apparently  governed,  by  a  leader, 
usually  the  largest  of  the  party.  So  mariced 
a  family  resemblance  exists  between  members  of 
the  same  herd  that,  in  India  —  where  they  are 
classed  as  'high  caste*  and  'low  caste* — differ- 
ent herds  are  easily  distinguishable.  The  Afri- 
can elephants  live  in  mountainous  regions,  the 
Asiatic  ones  in  deep  forests,  whence  they  can 
issue  to  pl^  in  and  drink  of  the  waters  in 
which  they  nnd  so  much  enjoyment.  Here,  too, 
their  trunks  are  serviceable.  They  are  used 
to  squirt  wafer  over  the  creatures'  backs,  or  to 
spout  it,  playfully,  at  their  neighbors.  Elephants 
also  caress  each  other  by  means  of  their  trunks. 
The  anecdotes  illustrating  the  docility,  affection, 
sagacity,  irritability,  capnciousness  and  revenge* 
ful  spirit  of  the  elephant  are  innnmerable,  and 
may  he  found  in  various  well-known  books  on 
oatural  history.  The  natural  enemies  of  the 
ele^faan^  besides  man,  are  the  tiger  and  the 
rhmoceros,  and  the  nasal  horn  of  the  latter 
often  proves  a  more  formidable  weapon  than  the 
trunk  and  tUsks  of  the  elephant,  and  the  sight 
of  even  a  dead  tiger  is  said  to  be  enough  to  ex- 
cite most  elephants  into  a  transport  of  fury. 
Consult  Anderson,  "The  Lion  and  the  Elephant' 
(London  1873)  :  Homaday,  "Two  Years  in  the 
Jungle'  (New  York  1885);  Kipling,  J.  L., 
'Beast  and  Man  in  India'  (London  1891); 
Lydepper,  'The  Game  Animals  of  Africa'  (ib. 
1908)  ;  Neumann,  <EIephant  Hunting  in  East 
Equatorial  Africa'  (ib.  1898) ;  Sanderson,  'Wild 
Beasts  of  India*  (ih  1893)  ;  Selous,  <A  Hunter's 
Wanderings  in  Africa*   (ib.  1890). 

ELEPHANT  HOUND.  See  Mound 
BuiLOEKS  AND  Mounds. 

ELEPHANT,  Order  of  the,  an  ancient 
Danish  order  of  chivalry.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  instituted  about  the  end  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury by  Canute  VI  to  perpetuate  the  memorv  of 
a  Damsh  crusader  who  had  killed  an  elephant 
in  the  Holy  Land.  It  was  renewed  by  Christian 
I  in  1462,  and  placed  on  its  present  footing  in 
1693  by  Christian  V.  It  is  the  highest  of  the 
Danish  orders.  The  number  of  members,  not 
counting  those  of  the  royal  family,  is  restricted 
to  30.  rorei^  sovereigns  are  exempted  from 
these  restrictions.  The  fete  of  the  order  is 
held  on  t  January,  when  the  knights  meet  in 
the  chapel  of  the  order  in  the  castle  of  Fred- 
ericksburg, taking  rank  by  seniority  upon  seats 
over  which  are  suspended  their  arms  and  de- 
vices. The  insignia  of  the  order  are  an  enameled 
white  elephant,  with  a  negro  mahout,  bearing 
on  a  blue  housing,  bordered  with  gold  ana 
crossed  with  white,  a  sculptured  tower.  On 
state  occasions  the  elephant  is  worn  attached 
to  a  chain  composed  of  elephants  and  castles 
of  gold,  with  a  letter  D  in  ^o\A  to  represent 
Dania  (Denmark).  The  device  of  the  order 
is  Magtti  aiUmi  firetium. 


BUIPHANT-APPLB,  a  Ixrge  and  hud- 
some  East-Indian  tree  {Feroma  tUpkantum). 
It  bclongi  to  the  orange  family,  and  prodtlCCS  a 
Urge  gray-colored  fruit  with  a  very  hard  rind. 

ELEPHANT  BEETLE,  one  of  the  great 
cetonian  beetles  of  the  genus  Megasoma  of 
Central  and  South  America ;  especially  M. 
elebkas.  It  reaches  a  length  of  three  to  four 
indies,  and  is  black,  delicately  ^tted.  A  related 
spedea  (Af.  Iherjiles)  occurs  in  California. 

ELEPHANT  BUTTE  DAM,  the  largest 
of  the  government's  irrigation  projects,  located 
in  Sierra  County,  N.  mT,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  120  miles  above  the  point  where 
the  river  strikes  the  Mexican  border.  The  lake 
formed  by  this  dam  is  about  45  miles  long  and 
averages  1^  miles  in  width  submerging 
40,000  acres  and  storing  2,642292  acre-feet,  or 
862,200,000,000  gallons.  The  water  is  intended 
to  irrigate  183,000  acres  of  very  fertile  land  in 
the  Slates  of  New  Mexico  and  Texas  and  25,000 
acres  in  Mexico.  The  water  stored  is  sufficient 
to  irrigate  all  the  crops  which  can  be  grown  on 
this  acreage  for  two  years  in  case  there  should 
be  no  rainfall.  The  dam  is  of  cyclopean  con- 
crete. It  was  begun  in  1910  and  completed  in 
May  1916.  The  crest  is  1,310  feet  long  and  is 
305  feet  above  bed-rock  at  its  lowest  point, 
100  feet  below  the  bed  of  the  river.  At  its 
base  the  dam  is  215  feet  thidc  and  it  tapers  to 
18  feet  at  the  crest,  which  carries  a  permanent 
roadway.  The  masonry  content  of  the  structure 
is  608,000  cubic  yards,  making  it  die  third 
largest  dam  in  the  world  (see  Daus).  In  addi- 
tion to  the  irrigation  feature  it  is  eslimaied 
that  from  25,000  to  30,000  electric  horse  power 
can  be  delivered  at  El  Paso,  besides  the  many 
smaller  powers  which  will  be  developed  when 
the  high  level  canals  are  in  operatiop. 

ELEPHANT  FISH  CCallork-jmchtu  iMtart- 
itcus),  a  fish  of  the  sub-class  Ckimaroidea  or 
Holoce^ltali  (q.v.),  found  in  southern  seas, 
where  it  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  Idnd. 
The  name  alludes  to  the  prominent  projecting 
appendage  of  the  snout  The  young  remain 
until  an  advanced  stage  of  development  within 
the  remarkable  seaweed-like  homy  c^-cases. 
The  fish  attains  a  considerable  siie  and  n  mn^ 
times  eaten  in  New  Zealand. 

ELEPHANT  RIVER,  a  river  of  C^pe 
Colomr,  runnit^;  into  the  Allaniic  after  a  course 
of  140  miles. 

ELEPHANT  SEAL,  the  largest  of  the 
hair  seals  {Macrorkinui  leomnui),  usually  over 
20  feet  long,  with  a  circumference  of  12  feet 
around  the  thickest  part  of  the  chest  The 
female  is  much  smaller  than  the  male.  In  color 
this  seal  is  grayish ;  its  body  is  covered  with 
short  hair,  growing  in  patches,  which  ^ves  a 
spotted  look  to  the  animal.  The  head  is  pro- 
portionately large,  with  prominent  eyes  and 
thick  eyebrows;  the  whiskers  are  long;  and  the 
canine  teeth  are  so  large  as  to  form  heavy  tosks. 
The  nose  of  the  males  is  prolonged  into  a 
proboscis  about  a  foot  long,  which,  seeminizlr 
useless,  hangs  loosely  over  the  face.  When  thli 
is  dilated  it  gives  a  new  character  to  the  crea- 
ture's  voice.  This  species  has  been  almost  ex- 
terminated, owing  to  the  demand  for  its  c^l, 
though  less  than  a  century  ago  it  was  plentifnl 
in  the  southern  hemisphere.  The  skin  is  not 
valued  for  its  fur  and  the  fled)  i*  not  edible. 


ELEPHANT  BEETLE 


lyGoot^Ie 


.yGooi^le 


EIAPHANT-SHRBW—  ELEPHANTS 


Hie  herds  migrale  southward  in  summer  and 
northward  in  winter  lo  avoid  the  extremes  of 
temperature.  The  northern  elephant  seal  M.  tm- 
gaslirostris,  is  also  nearly  extinct,  being  confined 
to  the  island  of  Guadaloupe,  off  Lower  Califor- 
nia. Consult  Moseley,  'Notes  by  a  Naturalist 
on  the  Challenger*  (London  1879)  ;  Townsend, 
*The  Northern  Elephant  Seal'  {Zoologica, 
Vol.  I,  No.  8,  New  York  1912). 

ELEPHANT-SHREW,  the  typical  species 
Macroicelidet,  of  the  family  Maerosceltdidit, 
belonging  to  the  order  of  insect-eating  mam- 
mals. The  body,  in  general  appearance  and 
siie.  resembles  that  of  the  common  rat.  The 
popular  name  alludes  to  its  peculiar,  elongated 
nose,  which  looks  like  an  elephant's  trunk.  The 
hind  legs,  which  are  long  and  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  the  length  of  the  fore  legs,  lit  the 
animal  for  jumping,  giving  it  the  additional 
name  of  Jumping- shrew.  This  insect-eater  is 
confined  to  Africa.  It  moves  by  jumps,  lives 
on  the  sandy  plains,  makes  burrows  in  the  sand 
and  finds  its  prey  among  the  grass  and  bushes. 

ELEPHANTA.  SW-fSn'ta.  or  ELE- 
PHANT ISLE,  called  by  the  natives  Gharipur, 
a  small  island  in  the  Bay  of  Bombay,  seven 
miles  northeast  of  Bombay.  It  consists  of  two 
long  hills  and  an  intervening  valley.  It  is  cele- 
brated for  a  cave  temple  130  feet  long,  123 
broad  and  18  high,  supported  by  pillars  cut  out 
in  the  rock.  MaJiy  °'  these  were  cut  down  by 
the  Portugese.  There  are  36  columns  in  six 
rows  and  m  the  centre  is  a  gigantic  trimurti  or 
three-formed  god  — Brahma  the  creator  in  the 
middle,  with  Vishnu  the  preserver  on  one  side 
and  Siva  the  destroyer  on  the  other.  There  are 
other  pieces  of  sculpture  and  also  several  other 
rock-caves.  The  date  of  these  constructions  is 
not  known,  A  large  stone  elephant,  which  once 
stood  near  the  landing  place,  gave  name  to  the 
island.     Pop.  of  the  island  about  SOO. 

ELEPHANTIASIS,  properly  speaking,  a 
peculiar  and  rare  disease,  sporadic  or  endemic 
m  warm  climates,  and  characterized  by  a  chronic 
thickening  of  the  skin  and  the  underlving  tissues, 
usually  limited  to  a  definite  ar<a,  and  subsequent 
to  an  impairment  of  the  lym^adc  circulation. 
The  disease  is  of  great  antiquity  and  exhibits  a 
great  variety  of  forms,  by  reason  of  which  it 
has  received  a  large  number  of  names,  medical 
as  well  as  papular.  The  term  is  now  applied 
by  the  best  dermatologists  to  one  disease,  and 
not  to  several  as  heretofore.  Elephantiasis  ex- 
ists in  an  endemic  form  in  Africa,  India,  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America.  The  extra-contineutal  possesdotis  of 
the  United  Stales  bring  this  disease  in  their 
train.  The  endemic  form  of  the  disease  com- 
mences rapidly,  There  is  pain,  heat,  swelling 
and  temperature.  The  lymphatics  and  blood- 
vessels soon  become  in^Ived  and  the  part 
affected  seems  to  be  attacked  by  erysipelas.  In 
a  few  days  the  acute  symptoms  may  subside.  A 
recurrence  of  the  attack  leaTes  the  arm,  or  leg, 
or  scalp,  or  face,  or  genitals  somewhat  thicker, 
and  repeated  attacks  tnay  result  in  enormous 
deformities  of  the  afiected  parts.  In  the  most 
characteristic  cases  of  the  tropical  countries  tfaje 
diseaise  seems  to  be  due  to  a  blood  parasite,  the 
Fiiaria  sangHtnis  homiitis.  This  worm  gets  into 
the  blood,  at  times  throuf^  the  agencies  of 
mosquito  bites,  and  Modes  up  the  lyinphalk 
channels.    In  other  cases  the  disease  a  regarded 


as  a  form  of  chronic  erysipelas.  In  s  few  in- 
stances it  is  congenital.  The  treatment  will 
depend  largely  on  the  type  of  the  disease.  Rest 
in  bed,  elevation  of  the  limb,  quinine  for  the 
Fiiaria  and  prompt  medical  attendance  are  the 
essentials.    See   Filakiasis  ;    FarasitisU. 

ELEPHANTINE,  ei-cfin-lTne  (Arabic, 
Oietiret-eg-Zaher,  'isle  of  flowers"),  a  small 
island  in  the  Nile,  opposite  Assouan  (Sycne), 
remarkable  for  its  ruins.  The  island  is  almost 
covered  with  ruins  piled  up  on  each  other  — 
Egyptian,  Roman,  Saracen  and  Arabic  At  the 
bepnning  of  the  present  century  there  were  the 
remains  of  two  temples  in  Elephantine,  one  a 
very  interesting  one  built  by  Amunopfa  III. 
They  were  destroyed  in  1822  by  the  governor 
of  Assouan  in  order  to  obtain  stone  for  build- 
ing a  palace.  The  greater  part  of  the  Kilometer, 
mentioned  by  Strabo,  which  stood  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  island,  was  restored  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury. The  quay  built  of  blocks  taken  mostly 
from  older  monuments  is  from  Roman  times- 
Many  fragments  of  pottery  with  inscriptions  in 
Gredc  hsve  been  found,  some  of  these  being 
receipts  for  taxes. 

KLKPHA3ITINa  PAPYRI.  Elephantitie 
is  a  small  island  in  the  Upper  Nile  and  the 
most  southern  of  the  old  Egyptian  fortresses. 
In  the  ruins  of  a  small  city  which  was  on  the 
southetn  end  of  the  island  Aramaic  pai^  >n 
considerable  quantities  have  been  found.  These 
reveal  the  fact  that  soon  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadneizar  a  colony  of 
the  jews  found  their  way  to  the  southern 
frontier  of  ^ypt  In  them  is  mentioned  the 
house  of  Yahu  which  is  probably  Jehovah. 
Thcv  cover  the  period  extending  from  47!  B.C 
to  411  B.C.  and  bring  much  Itj^t  to  bear  on 
Jewish  customs  and  worship  of  the  times  of 
this  important  document.  One  cotitains  a  peti- 
tion for  the  restoration  of  the  house  of  Yahu 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  Egyptian  soldiers. 

ELEPHANTS,  Foesil.  The  present  gentis 
(or  genera)  ot  elephant  had  many  now  extinct 
representatives  in  the  Pleistocene.  Among  these 
the  best  known  is  the  hairy  mafnmotb  (q.v.) 
of  Siberia  and  northern  North  America.  The 
manmoth  was  smaller  than  the  largest  existing 
elephants,  but  a  similar  species,  Elephas  calumb\, 
ranging  over  the  entire  United  Slates,  equalled 
the  extant  species  in  size.  E.  imperator  from  the 
Southwest  stood  even  larger,  being  13  feet  htt^ 
at  the  shoulder.  Another  Pleistocene  elephant 
was  Mastodon  Americanus.  This  differed  from 
the  true  elephants  in  its  lower  skull  and  breast- 
like molar,  teeth,  of  which  several  were  in 
simultaneous  use  in  each  side  of  each  jaw.  The 
teeth  were  covered  with  enamel,  but  had  no 
cement  on  the  crowns.  Straight  traces  of  tusks 
remained  in  the  lower  jaw  of  the  males.  The 
Pliocene  beds  contain,  besides  several  species  of 
Hastodon,  the  genus  Sitgodon,  with  the  molar 
teeth  intermediate  in  character  between  those 
of  Elcfdias  and  of  Mastodon.  In  the  Miocene 
the  interesting  genus  GomphoUri%m  or  TetrOr 
beladon  is  found.  The  sknl)  resembles  diat  of 
Mastodon,  but  is  much  lower  and  flatter.  The 
mandibular  symphysis  is  prolonged  and  bears 
the  well-developed  tusks.  Upper  and  lower 
tusks  alike  are  relatively  short  and  banded  with 
enamel.  The  molars  have  four  cross-'ridges  in 
(he  later  forms,  three  in  the  eariier  <»e».  The 
height  al  the  shoulder  is  less  than  six  feet. 


V_l 


oogle 


Bl^BPHANT'S  BAK  — BUCU8XB 


The  body  and  limbs  have  their  present  structure. 
The  next  earlier  fonn  in  the  hne  of  ascent  was 
Paiaonuulodon  from  th;  lower  Oligocene  and 
Upper   Eocene  of   Egypt.     The   dentitic 


west  lo  Kansas,  and  is  abundant  in  all  the  region 
to  the  sduth.  Another  species  is  known  in  tiie 
Southern  States  as  tobacco-weed  and  devil's 
grandmother. 


fi  »  i    Both  lowtr  uid  upper  oA,  ELEUSIHE,  a-fi-si-nt  >  pn.:  ol  , 


^7 

were  very  short  and  banded  with  enamel. 
AH  the  grinders  were  in  use  together.  There 
was  probably  a  snout  more  or  less  like  that 
of  a  pig  instead  of  a  well -developed  trunk.  The 
lower  jaw  was  longer  than  the  upper.  The 
occipital  bones  extended  nearly  to  the  top  of 
the  parietals.  There  was  a  third  trochanter  on 
the  femur.  The  site  varied  between  that  of  a 
small  elephant  and  that  of  a  tapir.  There  is  a 
considerable  gap  between  Palttomaslodon  and 
any  known  ancestral  form,  but  it  appears  that 
MisrHherium  of  the  middle  Eocene  of  Egypt 
is  not  veiy  far  removed  from  its  line  of 
descent.     M<xritherium  has  the  denial  formula 


1  , 


n'-.    Both   first   and   third    upper 


2'     0' 

incisors  and  the  canines  are  very  poorly  de- 
veloped; the  second  upper  and  lower  indsors 
form  short  tusks.  The  mohui  are  quadrituber- 
cular.  The  skull  is  quite  unlike  that  of^Palseo- 
mastodon  and  I     ' 


.  cheek  bones.  The  cranial  capacity  is 
reiauvely  large.  There  appears  to  have  been 
only  a  very  slight  trace  of  a  trunk.    The  body 


iiially  like  (hat  of  the  elephants,  though 

less  specialised.  An  aberrant  oSshoot  of  the 
proboscidean  stock  is  characterized  by  the  dos- 
session  of  tusks  in  the  lower  jaw  only.  This 
offshoot,  containing  the  genus  Dinolherium,  is 
quite  tike  typical  elephants  in  its  body  and  limbs. 
The  tusks  point  downward  and  are  curved  to 
the  rear.  The  molars  resemble  those  of  the 
tapirs.  The  skull  is  low  and  flat  and  probably 
bore  a  trunk.  (See  Mamuotk;  Mastodon). 
Consult  Andrews,  C.  W.,  'Catalogue  of  Ter- 
tiary Vertebrala  of  the  Fayum,  Egypt*;  Scott, 
W.  B.,  'A  History  of  Land  Mammals  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere'  (New  York  1913). 

BLSPHAHT^-EAR,  a  name  freqnenthr 
given  lo  plants  of  the  genus  Begonia  (q.v.).  It 
IS  appliea  more  frequently  to  a  plant  bearing 
tbe  name  Caladium  esculentuiH. 

KLEPHANT'S-FOOT,  or  HOTTHN- 
TOTS-BEEAD  (Tesludinaria  elephanlifes). 
a  plant  of  the  yam  family  (Dioicoreacetc),  of 
which  the  rootstock  forms  a  large  fleshy  mass, 
curiously  tniocate,  or  somewhat  resembling  an 
elephant's  foot,  and  covered  with  a  soft,  corlq?, 
rough  and  cracked  bark,  recalling  the  shell  of  a 
tortoise,  whence  its  generic  name.  From  this 
springs  annually  a  climbing  stem,  which  bears 
the  leaves  and  flowers,  the  latter  being  small 
and  yellow.  The  stardby  rootstock  is  used  as 
food  by  the  Hottentots.  The  plant  is  not  tn- 
£re<pient  in  hothouses.  The  American  plants 
known  as  elephant's -foot  belong  to  the  genu« 
Elfplumtop»t  of  the  Asttraeea.  The  gemts 
comprises  16  species,  natives  of  troincal  or 
warm  regions.  Four  are  found  in  the  United 
States,  mostly  to  the  south  of  Delaware.  The 
best    known    is    the    Carolina    elephant's- foot 


by  E.  indica,  the  crab-grass  or  yard-gra.  , 
which  is  found  in  waste  places  all  over  North 
America  except  in  the  extreme  north,  natural- 
ized from  Asia  In  its  native  places  it  is  an  im- 
portant article  of  commerce.  E.  corocana,  ■ 
called  in  the  west  of  India  natchnee,  nagia, 
ragie  and  mand,  forms  a  principal  article  of 
diet  among  the  hill  people  of  the  western 
Ghauts  in  India.  It  is  cultivated  also  in  Japan. 
E.  siricia  is  also  uied  for  food. 

ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES,  festivals 
held  annually  at  Eleusis,  a  town  of  Attica,  in 
honor  of  ihe  goddess  Demeter,  or  Ceres,  the 
patroness  of  agriculture  and  procreative  power 
o£  nature.  According  to  the  Homeric  hymn 
to  Demeter,  the  festival  was  established  by  the 

Soddess  to  commemorate  the  hospitali^  of 
!infj  Celeus  of  Eleusis,  who  received  her  as  a 
wayfarer.  The  usual  opinion  is  that  they  were 
begun  by  Humolpus,  the  first  hcirophant,  1356 
B.C.  Great  secrecy  was  observed  in  the  cele- 
bration of  the  festivals,  consisting  of  the 
greater  and  lesser  mysteries.  The  greater  mys- 
teries were  celebrated  toward  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember and  the  first  of  October,  lasting  nine 
days.  The  lesser  mysteries  took  place  at  Agrz 
on  the  Ilissus  during  springtime.  It  was  a 
capital  offense  to  rcvui  any  of  tbe  rites.  They 
existed  about  IS  centuries  and  ceased  during 
the  invasion  of  Alaric,  In  39&  Consult  Pater, 
Walter,  'Greek  Studies;  Demeter  and  Proser- 
pina' ;  Cooper,  Jacob,  'The  Eleusinian  Mys- 
teries.'    See  MYSTESIE3, 

ELEUSIS,  &-l«'sIs.  a  mined  village  of  At- 
tioa,  hut  in  ancient  tttnei  a  dty  of  Greece,  12 
miles  from  Athens.  It  was  celdirated  as  the 
chief  seat  of  worship  of  Ceres  (Greek 
Demeter),  whose  temple  here  was  the  largest 
sacred  edifice  in  Greece.  The  (jredc  govern- 
ment began  here  an  elaborate  system  of  excava- 
tions in  the  year  1882,  with  the  result  that  many 
remarkable  ruins  have  been  discovered.  Even 
the  site  of  the  andent  temples  is  a  matter  of 
debate,  so  completely  have  they  vani^ed.  There 
are  not  wanting,  however,  ancient  remains, 
which  include  two  propylea,  a  sacred  woll^an 
andent  council  hall  and  small  temtries.  The 
great  hall  of  initiation  was  a  modest  strtictnre 
until  after  the  Persian  War  when  it  was 
greatly  enlarged,  first  by  cnttine  into  the  rode 
at  the  badq  and  later  by  constructing  another 


front  to  both,  and  during  the  Roman 
occupation  the  interior  was  made  into  one 
great  hall  178  feet  by  170,  with  seven  rows  of 
columns.  A  little  Albanian  village,  poor  and 
mean  looking,  called  Leosina,  stands  on  the  sUk 
of  what  was  once  powerful  Eleusis.  Contnlt 
Diehl,  'Excursions  In  Greece^;  Philios, 
'Eleusis,  ses  mystSres,  ses  ruines,  et  son  mosie' 
(Athens  1S96) :  Frazer,  'Pausanias>  (2d  ed., 
1913>.  For  a  plan  of  the  excavations,  consult 
Baedeker's  <Handbook  to  Greece'  <4th  Eaglidi 
ed.,  Leipzig  1909). 


>y  Google 


BLEUTHSRA  ~  ELEVATORS 


BLBUTHERA,  $-IO'th«-T9,  British  West 
Indies,  one  at  the  largest  of  the  B^iama 
Islands,  lying  east  of  Niissau,  near  New  Provi- 
dence, the  second  most  poputons  island  of  the 
group.  It  is,  like  most  of  the  islands  of  the 
group,  long  and  narrow,  its  length  being  about 
70  miles,  area  164  square  miles.  It  exceeds  the 
neighboring  isles  in  fertility,  and  produces  more 
oranges,  onions  and  pineapples  than  any.  Its 
chief  town  is  Governor's  Harbor  with  a  fort 
and  good  harbor.     Pop.  6,533. 

ELEUTHKRIA,  a-u-the'rii-»  (Gr.  tXnetpta, 
freedom),  among  the  ancient  Greeks  a  festival 
commemorative  of  deliverance  from  the  armies 
of  Xerxes.  It  was  instituted  after  the  battle 
of  Platiea  (479  b.c)  and  celebrated  annually  at 
that  place  in  the  month  Uaimacterion,  nearly 
corresponding  to  our  September.  At  the  dawn 
of  day  a  procession  marched  through  the  town, 
at  the  head  of  which  trumpeters  flew  the  sig- 
nal for  battle.  At  midday  a  chariot  was  driven 
toward  the  altar  crowned  with  myrtle  and  va- 
rious ^rlands  and  leading  behind  it  a  black 
bull.  In  front  of  the  alur  the  archon  of 
Platiea  immolated  the  bull  to  Jupiter  and  Mer- 
cury, eulogized  the  heroes  who  had  fallen  at 
PJataea  and  sprinkled  the  ground  with  wine. 
Every  fifth  year  these  sole 


ELEVATED  RAILWAYS.  See  Raii^ 
WAYS,  Elevated. 

ELEVATION,  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  act  of  lifting  up  by  the 
celebrating  priest  and  presenting  to  the  st^ht  of 
the  faithful  the  Host  and  the  Chalice  imme- 
diately after  the  consecration;  this  is  the  eleva- 
tion by  eminence.  There  is  both  in  the  Latin 
and  in  the  Greek  Church  liturgies  another  ele- 
vation shortly  bcfure  the  communion.  Prior  to 
the  promulgation  and  condemnation  of  the 
teaching  of  Berengarius  in  the  11th  century  the 
elevation  after  consecration  appears  to  have 
had  no  place  in  the  Latin  litur^;  but  from  the 
t>cg:nning  of  the  I2th  century,  when  this  cus- 
tom was  introduced,  it  spread  rapidly  and  be- 
came universal  and  obltgatonr.  It  was  the 
Church's  way  of  confessing  her  faith  in  the  truth 
of  transubstantiation,  attacked  by  Berengarius. 
In  the  Latin  Church  in  the  12th  century  began 
and  in  the  next  century  became  universal  the 
custom  of  ringing  a  small  bell  at  the  moment 
of  the  elevation,  as  is  the  present  usage.  But 
the  HnE^ng  of  the  great  bells  in  the  church 
steeples  and  towers  at  the  elevation  which  was 
pretty  general  in  the  13th  centuiy  is  now  not 
common. 

ELEVATION,  in  astronomy  and  geopraphy, 
means  generally  the  height  above  the  nonzon  of 
an  object  on  the  sphere,  measured  by  the  arc  of 
3  vertical  circle  through  it  and  the  zenitL  Thus, 
the  elevation  of  the  equator  is  the  arc  of  a 
meridian  intercepted  between  the  equator  and 
the  horizon  of  the  place.  The  elevation  of  the 
pole  is  the  complement  of  that  of  the  equator 
and  is  always  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place. 
The  elevation  of  a  star  or  any  other  point  is 
similarly  its  height  above  the  horizon,  and  is  a 
maximum  when  the  star  is  on  the  meridian.  In 
architecture  the  term  is  applied  to  a  geometrical 
delireation  of  th'  front  or  any  face  of  a  h'lMd- 
ing  in  wh^rh  all  the  parts  are  drawn  according 
to  the  scale  and  not  tbown  as  tiuj  wonld 


appear  in  perspective.  It  is  one  of  the  three 
desi^s  necessary  in  outlininjg  any  work  of 
architecture,  the  other  two  being  the  plan  and 
the  section. 

ELEVATORS.  The  modem  elevator  is 
a  direct  evolution  from  the  machine  which 
Elisba  G.  Otis  exhibited  in  1853  at  the  World's 
Fair  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  New  York  Hoists 
of  various  kinds  had  been  built  before  that 
time,  but  this  was  the  first  elevator  wherein 
provision  was  made  for  stopping  the  fall  of  the 
car  ID  fhe  contingency  of  the  breaking  of  the 
hoisting  cables.  During  the  next  five  years  a 
number  of  machines  were  built  similar  to  that 
exhibited,  all  bein^;  driven  from  line  shafting. 
In  1859  the  same  inventor  introduced  an  inde- 
pendent reversible  steam-engine  directly  con- 
nected to  the  hoisting  machinery,  and  from  that 
date  the  era  of  the  elevator  as  a  separate  insti- 
tution of  the  a^e  began.  In  1871  the  hn^draulic 
elevator  was  introduced,  soon  to  attain  pre- 
dominance in  the  elevator  art  and  displacing  the 
steam-engine.  The  year  1888  witnessed  the  first 
application  of  the  electric  motor  to  elevator  tna- 
chmes,  destined  in  turn  to  eclipse  the  hydraulic 
elevator.  The  first  type  of  electric  elevator  ma- 
chine, still  in  use  to-day  for  low  and  moderately 
high  buildings,  consisted  of  an  electric  motor 
actuating  a  noisting  drum  through  the  inters 
mediary  of  worm  gearing.  Although  this  ma- 
chine has  been  developed  to  operate  satisfactor- 
ily at  comparatively  high  speed,  it  could  not 
satisfy  the  requirements  imposed  on  the  ele- 
vator art  with  the  advent  of  the  skyscraper. 
Thus  in  1903  a  new  type  of  electric  elevator 
machine  was  developed,  known  as  the  1  ;1  gear- 
less  traction  machine  which  has  since  com- 
pletely ousted  the  hydraulic  machine  from  the 
field  of  high-rise,  htgn-speed  elevators.  Another 
development  in  the  electric  elevator  art  is  the 
so-called  microdrive  machine,  first  introduced 
in  1915.  This  machine  is  capable  of  accurately 
and  automatically  stopping  an  elevator  platform 
level  with  the  landing  under  any  condition  of 
loading.  It  is  extensively  used  in  all  cases 
where  neavy  loads  have  to  be  wheeled  on  or  off 
the  elevator  platform  on  trucks. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  the  high  state  of  de- 
velopment of  the  electric  elevator  to-day  could 
not  have  been  accomplished  without  improve- 
ments in  the  design  of  electric  motors  and  con- 
trolling devices.  At  the  time  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  electric  elevator  in  1888  the  design 
of  the  direct-current  motor  was  already  well 
advanced,  while  alternating-current  motors 
were  yet  in  their  infancy.  In  the  next  decade 
the  energy  of  designers  was  mostly  bent  upon 
the  further  development  of  the  application  of 
direct  current,  resulting  in  1897  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  direct-current  magnet  controller. 
With  this  invention  the  direct-current  electric 
elevator  at  once  entered  the  field  of  high-speed 
elevator  service  and  became  a  dangerous  com- 
petitor of  die  hydraulic  elevator. 

The  electric  power  systems  at  that  time  were 
tnostly  direct  current,  but  began  gradually  to 
make  place  for  the  more  economic  two-  or  three- 
phase  alternating-current  systems.  Along  there- 
with polyphase  induction  motors  had  t«en  in- 
troduced and  began  to  be  applied  to  elevators. 
The  first  attempts  were  not  very  promising.  It 
would  seem  for  a  time  that  the  polyphase  alter- 
nating-cm-rent  elevator  never  would  be  suitable 


■8l^ 


iot  high  apeed,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  motor 
operated  only  at  a  fixed  single  speed  and  lo  the 
inability  to  design  suitable  alternating-current 
magnets.  To-day  all  of  these  difficulties  have 
been  overcome;  polyphase  induction  motors  are 
now  easily  built  for  two  or  more  speeds  as  well 
as  alternating-current  magnets  of  suflicicnt 
power  to  operate  controller  and  brake.  In  fact. 
the  number  o£  alternating-current  installations 
to-day  equals  the  number  of  direct-current  in- 
stallations and  is  doubtlessly  destined  to  exceed 
the  latter  in  the  near  future.  Safety  appli- 
ances were  developed  hand  in  hand  with  the 
development  of  the  various  types  of  machines. 
Grips  to  arrest  and  stop  a  falling  cage  were 
first  designed  to  operate  upon  the  breaking  of 
the  hoisting  rope  only.  These  soon  proved  to 
be  inadequate  since  they  remained  inactive  in 
runaway  accidents  from  various  causes  not  due 
to  the  parting  of  the  ropes.  This  defect  was 
removed  with_  the  introduction  ot  centrifugal 
governors,  which  actuate  the  safety  grips  when 
the  car  speed  exceeds  a  predetermined  maxi- 
mum. In  1890  steel  began  to  be  used  for  guide 
rails,  which  previously  to  that  date  consisted 
exclusively  of  wood.  This  brought  about  a  new 
type  of  safeties.  Other  demands  came  with  the 
increase  in  elevator  speeds,  necessitating  the 
design  of  safety  grips  capable  of  arresting  a 
falling  car  witnout  shock  or  injury  to  the 
passengers.  Other  safety  appUances  gradually 
developed  but  which  have  now  become  part  of 
the  standard  equipment  are ;  automatic  stop  at 
the  terminals  of  the  travel ;  slack  cable  devices 
to  prevent  further  motion  of  the  machine  in 
case  the  car  is  obstructed  in  its  descent;  door 
locks  to  prevent  the  starting  of  the  cage  as 
long  as  the  door  is  open,  and  to_  prevent  the 
opening  of  door  unless  the  car  is  at  rest  at 
the  landing. 

According  to  the  foregoing  there  are,  there- 
fore, four  general  classes  of  elevators  —  belt. 
Steam,  hydraulic  and  electric. 

Belt-driven  Blevators.— This  class  of  ele- 
vator, Fig.  1,  is  usually  installed  for  slow-speed 
freight  service  in  factories,  is  reliable  and  vet 
low  in  cost.  The  speed  seldom  exceeds  7S  feet 
per  minute.  The  machine  is  usually  bolted  to 
the  ceiling  of  one  of  the  floors.  The  middle 
one  of  the  three  flat-faced  pulleys  shown  in 
the  illustration  is  tight  on  the  shaft  and  is 
adapted  to  actuate  the  hoisting  drum  through 
the  inlermediary  of  a  worm-and-worm  gear. 
The  two  outer  pulleys  are  loose  on  the  shaft 
and  are  belled,  one  by  straight  belt  and  the 
other  by  crossed  belt  to  a  line  shaft  pulley.  To 
operate  the  elevator  in  the  one  or  other  direc- 
tion the  straight  or  crossed  belt  is  shifted  onto 
the  tight  middle  pulley.  The  machines  are  pro- 
vided with  brake,  slack  cable  device  and  auto- 
matic stop  at  terminal  landings. 
.  Stewn  Elevators. —  Steam  machines  for 
elevator  service  may  be  dismissed  with  the  ref- 
erence that  they  are  no  longer  in  use.  This  has 
been  due  to  the  very  large  consumption  ot 
power  with  no  compensation  for  the  disad- 
vantage in  the  matter  of  ease  of  control. 

Hydraulic  Kleratoia.— The  hydraulic  ele- 
vator installed  in  large  numbers  np  to  about  the 
year  1900  is  the  -so-called  vertical  hydraulic 
type  (Rg,  2).  In  this  type  a  cylinder  of  a 
diameter  of  6  lo  24  inches  is  placed  in  a  vertical 
position  in  the  elevator  shaft  or  in  any  other 


convenient  location.  Within  tfiis  cylinder 
works  a  piston.  The  pull  exerted  thereon  by 
the  water  pressure  is  transmitted  through  the 
piston  rods  to  a  number  of  sheaves,  which  in 
turn  operate  on  the  hoisting  ropes.  The  sheaves 
introduce  a  gear  ratio  varying  from  2:1  to  12:1 
between  the  car  and  piston  travel.  The  ele- 
vator is  controlled  by  a  lever  placed  in  the  car, 
which  actuates  the  operating  valve.  For  the 
ascent,  the  valve  admits  water  to  act  on  the 
piston,  at  the  same  time  discharging  the  water 
underneath.    The  descent  of  the  car  occur*  by 


reason  of  its  unbalanced  weight,  the  water 
above  the  j>iston  being  allowed  to  ^ow  through 
a  circulating  pipe  to  the  space  underneath. 
About  the  year  1900  the  plunger  type  of  hy- 
draulic elevator  (Fig.  3),  (before  that  date 
applied  only  to  low  rises)  began  to  be  intro- 
duced for  hi^h  speed  passenger  service.  In 
this  tyiK  a  cylinder  of  a  length  equal  to  the  car 
travel  is  set  vertically  in  the  ground.  In  this 
cylinder  works  a  piston  or  plunger  of  the 
same  length,  carrying  the  car  on  its  top.  The 
weight  of  car  and  pltmger  is  partially  counter- 


a  Dinct  Ciuieiit  Siagia  Sciaw  Electric  Elanlot  HuUm 


<n  Elgntoi  HacIiiiM 


G  AnUmUle  Cnl-«fl  Vahc  tor  limiled  «u  tnnl,  M  top 


c  Micro  DriTe  Dnm  lI>cldii/'~^  i^  i^  n  I  c 

IjgitizcJbyVjOOy  It. 


t\  Cu  Fume  Filted  with  Wedge  Clamp  SiTety  12  Steel  Pktfomi  wUfe  KoU  SaMa 

|.;nzo=h,ClOOglC 


ELEVATORS 


ssr 


balanced  by  a  weight  attached  to  the  car  frame. 
Although  this  type  of  elevator  had  a  larger 
power  consumption   and  was  more  difficult  to 
control    than    the    vertical    geared   elevator,    it 
succeeded  in  driving  the  latter  from  the  field. 
This   was    due   to    the   popular   belief    in   the 
greater   safety  of  the  plunger  elevator,  since 
the  load  to  all  outward  appearance  was  sup- 
ported on  a  steel  column  and  not  suspended 
from  ropes  as  in  other  types.    As  a  matter  of 
fact   the  plunger  consisted  of  ordinary  com- 
mercial   tubing,   finished  to  siie  and   screwed 
together.     That  columns  of  this  nature  and  of 
lengths  up  to  about  30O  feet  could  carry  loads 
wiuiout   buckling  was  due  to  the  counterbal* 
ance,  which  for  high  rises  exceeds  the  weight 
of  live  load  and  car.    In  reality  therefore  part 
of  the  plunger  was  in  tension,  and  the  load,  in- 
stead of  being  supported  on  a   steel  column, 
was  again  suspended  from  ropes  overhead.  As 
ihe  plunger  rose  out 
of    uie    cylinder,    its 
buoyancy    decreased. 
To  compensate,  there- 
fore,   the    weight   of 
the         counterweight 
ropes  per  foot  is  made 
equal  to  half  of  the 
weight  of  water  dis- 
placed by  one  foot  of 
plunger.     In    a    high 
rise  plunger  elevator 
the  masses  to  be  set 
in    motion   and   stop- 
ped are  quite  consid- 
erable.    For  a  rise  of 
200  feet,  for  example, 
the      plunger       may 
weigh    4,000    pounds, 
the  car  4,000  pounds, 
the         ropes         2.000 
pounds,      counter- 
weight, 4,000  pounds, 
live         load,        2,500 
pounds.  For   this 

reason,  the  control  of 
the  elevator  at  high 
speeds  became  diffi- 
cult, notwithstanding 
the   allowance    of    a    _      .      „ 

lib.™;  .mouni  of  «„.  '"■.,ii'sr„5Kr' 

derbalance  and  sur- 
plus pressure.  The  control  of  the  elevator  is 
effected  by  means  of  a  lever  actuating  an  oper- 
ating valve  (Fig.  4),  which  at  the  will  of  the 
operator  pemuts  water  to  flow  into  the 
cyhnder  for  the  ascent,  or  out  of  the  cylinder 
for  the  descent  In  addition,  two  automatic 
top  valves  (Fig.  S)  are  furnished,  automatically 
to  stop  the  elevator  at  the  limits  of  its 
travel.  Another  type  of  hydraulic  elevator 
machines,  which  may  be  dismissed  with  simple 
reference,  is  the  horizontal  hydraulic  machine. 
It  consists  of  a  cylinder  set  horizontally.  As 
in  the  vertical  geared  machine,  the  piston  oper- 
ates a  number  of  multiplying  sheaves.  This 
type  is  distinguished  as  of  the  pushing  or 
pulling  type  depending  on  whether  the  piston 
rod  is  in  compression  or  tension.  The  desired 
water  pressure  is  generally  obtained  by  steam 
or  electrically  driven  pumps.  On  low  pres- 
sure systems  of  about  ISO  pounds  per  square 
inch,  the  pum^s  deliver  the  water  into  a  pres- 
sure tank,  which  absorbs  the  pump  pulsations 


and  serves  as  a  storage  of  power.  In  high 
pressure  systems,  generally  of  about  800  pounds 
per  square  inch,  the  pumps  deliver  the  water 
into  a  weighted  accumulator.  The  water  dis- 
charged by  the  machines  is  collected  in  a  dis- 
chai^e  tank  from  which  again  the  pumps  are 

In  addition  to-  the  types  of  hydraulic  ele- 
vators mentioned  above,  ttiere  are  the  so-called 
aero-hydranlic  and  hydro-steam  elevators.  The 
elevator  proper  may  be  of  any  one  of  the 
hydraulic  types  already  described,  but  they 
differ  in  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
hydraulic  pressure  is  obtained.  In  the  aero- 
hydraulic  machine  a  tank  partly  filled  with 
water  is  connected  to  a  supply  of^air  pressure. 
The  elevator  ascends  W  simultaneously  admit- 
ting air  into  the  tank  and  water  into  the 
CTlinder.  For  the  descent,  the  air  is  dis- 
charged, while  the  machine  returns  the  water 
to  ue  tank.  In  the  hydro-steam  elevator, 
steam  is  employed  in  place  of  air.  AH  hy- 
draulic elevators  absorb  tbe  same  amount  of 
power  in  each  cycle  of  their  operation,  inde- 
pendently of  the  live  load  in  the  cage.  The 
power  consumption  for  this  reason,  notwith- 
standing an  excellent  mechanical  efficiency,  i» 
quite  large.  In  addition,  the  speed  of  the  hy- 
J_..rr.   .i__. —   :..   largely  with   the  load 


draulic   elevators   i 


1  the  c 

Electric  Elevators. — These  excel  the  hy- 
draulic elevator  by  reason  of  a  speed  practi- 
cally independent  of  the  load  and  by  a  lower 
power  consumption.  They  may  generally  be 
classed  as  having  machines  with  winding  drums 
or  machines  with  traction  sheaves.  Further, 
distinction  is  made  in  respect  to  the  type  ot 
gearing  employed,  into  worm  gear,  worm  and 
spur  gear,  herring-bone  gear,  gearless  or  1:1 
and  2:1   gearless  machines. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  typical  worm  gear  machine 
with  winding  drum.  The  motor  in  the  illus- 
tration is  of  the  direct  current  type,  but  may 
be  alternating  of  single  or  polyphase.  The 
brake  is  placed  between  motor  and  gear  hous- 
ing and  is  of  the  shoe  type  with  springs  to 
hold  the  shoes  in  frictional  contact  with  the 
brake  pulley.  The  brake  is  released  only  upon 
the  adjnittancc'of  current  to  the  brake  magnet 
and  is  applied  immediately  upon  the  interrup- 
tion of  the  current  supply  thereto.  The  hoist- 
ing cables  lead  from  the  cage  to  the  face  of 
the  drum,  where  they  are  solidly  anchored.  At 
the  opposite  side  of  the  drum  a  counterweight 
is  attached,  adapted  to  counterbalance  the  cage 
and  live  load.  Frequently  also  a  second  coun- 
terwei^t  is  employed,  suspended  directly  from 
the  cage.  The  weight  of  the  counterweight 
where  one  is  used,  or  their  aggregate  weight 
where  two  are  used,  is  made  to  exceed  the 
weight  of  the  cage  by  an  amount  of  from  30 
to  50  per  cent  of  the  maximum  load.  On  ac- 
count of  this  arrangement  a  relatively  small 
motor  can  be  employed  since  it  will  be  subject 
only  to  from  70  to  50  per  cent  of  the  maximum 
load  when  lifting  the  same.  When  lowering 
the  empty  cage  the  load  on  the  motor  corre- 
sponds to  from  30  to  SO  per  cent  of  the  maxi- 
mum load.  The  worm  runs  partially  sub- 
merged in  oil  (preferably  castor  oil)  and  owing 
to  the  excellent  lubrication  the  efficiency  of 
worm  gearing  is  higher  than  usually  antici- 
pated. 7*he  roping  employed  in  a  traction  ele- 
vator installation  is  shown  diagrammatical ly  in 


,^le 


Fig.  7  and  will  also  be  evident  froni  Fig.  8. 
The  inachine  is  usually  and  preferably  located 
overhead.  The  ropes  pass  from  the  car  to  the 
traction  sheave,  thence  to  an  idler  or  second- 
ary sheave  and  again  over  the  traction  sheave 
to  the  counterweight.  The  tension  due  to  the 
weights  of  car  and  counterweight  and  the 
approximately  two  half  wraps  of  contact  be- 
tween the  ropes  and  traction  sheave  furnish 
the  necessary  adhesion  to  transmit  motion  from 
the  traction  sheave  to  the  elevator  without  slip. 
This  adhesion  is  instantly  destroyed  if  either 
car  or  counterweight  is  obstructed  in  its  de~ 
scent,  in  which  case  motion  of  the  elevator 
must  cease  even  though  the  machine  keeps  on 
revolving.  This  property  is  a  most  valuable 
safety  feature  of  the  machine  with  traction 
sheave.  By  arranging  the  car  to  land  on  an 
oil  buffer  at  the  lower  lantUng  and  by  simi- 
larly obstructing  the  further  descent  of  the 
counterweight  when  the  car  is  at  the  upper 
landing,  the  car  travel  is  absolutely  fixed  be- 
tween two  limits'.  Another  advantage  of  the 
traction  machine  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  width 
of  the  traction  sheave  is  independent  of  the 
height  of  the  building.  For  a  given  capacity 
therefore,  a  standard  machine  can  be  provideo, 
irrespective    of    the    elevator    travel.      In    the 


As  the  illustration  shows,  the  . 

the  machine  is  simplicity  itself.  It  consists  of 
an  armature  with  extended  shaft,  carrying  a 
brake  pulley  and  a  traction  sheave,  all  sup- 
ported on  two  bearings.  At  full  speed  the 
motor  runs  at  about  only  60  revolutions  per 
minute.  Reductions  in  speed,  are  obtained  by 
means  of  field  control  and  by  manipulation  of 
resistance  in  series  and  parallel  with  the  arma- 
ture. Contrary  to  popular  belief  motors  for 
such  low  speeds  can  be  made  with  as  high 
efficiency  as  high  speed  motors,  although,  of 
course,  the  motor  frame  assumes  consioerable 
dimensions.  Owin^  further  to  the  absence  of 
gears,  the  1 :1  traction  machine  has  the  highest 
efficiency  of  any  elevator  machine  yet  designed. 
Wherever  it  has  replaced  existing  hydraulic 
elevators^  the  saving  in  power  consumption  has 
paid  for  the  new  installation  within  a  few  years. 
The  microdrive  machine  shown  in  Fig.  8  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  fine  ad^justments  in  the 
stopping,  which  can  be  made  with  this  machine 
in  a  manner  not  unlike  the  action  of  a  microm- 
eter. 

To  obtain  accurate  stops  level  with  the  land- 
ing it  is  necessary  to  slow  down  the  ca^e  to  an 
extremely  slow  speed.  In  the  microdrive  ma- 
chine this  is  obtained  by  having  a  main  machine 
(which  may  be  of  any  desired  type)  for  ordi- 
nary hoisting  purposes  and  an  auxiliary  ma- 
chine for  the  stop.  The  main  and  auxiliary 
machines  may  be  coupled  together  by  a  mag- 
netically operated  dutch  earned  on  an  exten- 
sion of  the  main  motor  shaft  At  the  start, 
the  coupling  is  released  leaving  the  main  ma- 
chine free  to  hoist  the  load.  Shortly  before 
the  stop  the  current  su^iply  to  the  main  motor 
is  interrupted  while  simultaneously  the  auxili- 
ary motor  is  started  up  and  the  coupling  at>- 
tlied.  The  effect  of  this  operation  is  that  the 
isd  is  now  transferred  to  the  auxiliary  ma- 
chine, which  drives  the  drum  through  its  own 
and  the  main  gear  reduction.  The  cage  there- 
fore proceeds  to  the  landing  at  extremely  slow 


automatic  leveling  de- 
thiS  device  is  not  only 

stop  the  cafse  flush  at  the  landing,  but  to 

Jntain  the  alignment  between  cage  and  land- 
ing during  loading  and  unloading.  If  for 
example  a  heavy  loaded  truck  is  rolled  onto 
the  car,  the  stretch  of  the  hoisting  ropes  will 
cause  the  platform  to  sink  below  the  landing 
as  soon  as  the  front  wheels  of  the  truck  rest' 
<»i  the  car  floor.  This  will  cause  the  auxiliary 
motor  immediately  to  restore  the  alignment  be- 
tween car  and  landing  before  the  rear  wheels 
pass  onto  the  [ilatform.  The  controlling  device 
most  in  use  with  electric  elevators  consists  of 
a  lever  in  the  car  operating  a  number  of  con- 
tacts. These  in  turn  energize  magnets  as- 
sembled on  a  controller  panel  near  the  machine. 
The  operator  controls  only  the  direction  in 
which  the  car  is  to  travel,  the  fast  and  the  slow 
speed.  Operations  such  as  releasing  the  brake 
and  stepping  out  the  starting  resistance  occur 
automatically.  In  push  button  controlled  ele- 
vators, each  landing  is  provided  with  a  button 
to  call  the  elevator  to  that  landing.  The  cage 
is  provided  with  a  series  of  buttons  to  dis- 
patch the  cage  to  any  desired  floor.  A  passen- 
ger desiring  to  use  the  elevator  presses  the 
button  placed  near  the  elevator  shaft,  and  the 
car,  if  not  in  use,  immediately  travels  to  that 
floor  and  stops  automatically.  When  the  car 
has  come  to  rest,  the  door  can  be  opened.  The 
passenger  enters,  closes  the  door  and  presses  a 
button  correspondine  to  the  floor  to  which  he 
wishes  to  travel  and  the  car  at  once  proceeds 
thereto.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  push  button 
elevator  is  entirely  automatic  in  its  operation, 
having  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  an  at- 
tendanL 

Although  this  type  of  control  was  de- 
veloped many  years  ago,  it  has  in  the  past 
found  application  only  to  slow  speed  residence 
and  apartment-house  elevators  for  the  lack  of 
a  machine  capable  of  making  accurate  Stops 
level  with  the  landing.  With  tne  advent  of  the 
microdrive  machine,  however,  this  type  of 
control  is  receiving  increased  attention  and  It 
is  safe  to  predict  that  it  is  destined  to  come 
into  general  use. 

Safety  Appliances.— White  the  factor  of 
safety  in  the  standard  make  of  elevators  is  such 
that  acddents  rareljr  occur  and  practically  never 
where  proper  attention  is  paid  to  the  machinery, 
still  all  elevators  (except  plunger  elevators) 
are  equiijped  with  safety  grips.  Of  the  very 
large  variety  of  safeties,  only  those  types  which 
have  found  extensive  application  will  here  be 
described.  With  wood  guides  the  type  of 
safety  generally  used  consists  of  an  arrangement 
of  planer  teeth  forced  into  the  guides  and  pro- 
ducing resistance  by  planing  or  grooving  the 
wood  as  the  car  descends.  Figs.  9  and  10  show 
one  form  of  this  type  of  safety.  With  steel 
guide  rails  the  types  in  use  are  the  roll,  wedge 
clamp  and  the  flexible  guide  clamp  safeties. 
The  roll  safety  —  shown  on  Figs.  11  and  12  — 
emplovs  a  corrupted  steel  roller,  adapted  to  be 
forced  into  the  apex  of  an  angle,  formed  by 
the  guide  rail  and  the  inclined  surface  of  the 
safety  block.  The  antrfe  usually  is  small  so  as 
to  make  the  roller  self-locking.  Th's  in  turn 
causes  an  abrupt  stop,  so  that  the  safety  can 
be  used  only  for  low  car  speeds.  In  the  wedge 
clamp  safe^,  the  rails  are  grilled  between  tbe 


vided  with  right  and  left  hand  screw  threads 
which  engage  with  two  screws.  Rotation  of  the 
drum  in  the  proper  direction  moves  the  screws 
outwardly,  forcing  the  wedges  at  the  ends  of 
"     1  of  the  clamp 


rope,  one  end  of  which  ts  fastened  to  the  dnim 
and  the  other  to  the  governor  rope. 

Let  us  now  imagine  a  falling  car,  equipped 
with  a  wedge  clam[)  safety  as  here  described, 
and  analyze  what  will  happen.  Let  us  further 
assume  that  the  normal  speed  of  the  car  is  600 
feet  per  minute.  The  governor  (Fig.  14) — so 
as  not  to  interfere  with  moderate  speed  varia- 
tions from  natural  causes  —  will  be  set  to  trip 
at  ijOO  feet  per  minute;  that  is  to  say,  as  soon 
as  the  speed  of  the  car  reaches  KM  feet  per 
minute,  the  governor  jaws  will  grip  the  gov- 
ernor rope,  causing  the  tatter  to  come  to  rest 
quickly.  As  a  consequence,  the  rope  on  the 
safety  drum,  having  one  end  fastened  to  the 
governor  rope,  will  unwind  while  the  car  keeps 
on  falling.  This  will  cause  the  safely  drum  to 
rotate,  actuating  the  safety  mechanism.  Before, 
however,  the  jaws  grip  the  rail,  all  of  tfie  clear- 
ances must  have   been  taken   up.     During   this 


celeration  of  the  governor  rope.  It  will  there- 
fore be  seen  that  there  is,  at  high  speed,  a 
considerable  increment  in  the  retarding  force 
exerted  by  the  clamps,  resulting  in  undesirably 
heavy  retardations.  Another  disadvantage  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  safety  must  be  made 
self-locking  so  that  it  will  not  release  its  grip 
on  the  rails,  should  the  governor  rope  break. 
If,  therefore,  during  the  slide  of  the  jaws  on 
the  rails,  variations  m  the  thickness  of  the  rails 
occur,  the  jaws  can  yield  only  by  virtue  of  their 
elasticity.  That  this  will  cause  enormous  varia- 
tions in  the  retarding  force  in  the  one  or  the 
other  clamp  is  plain  and  it  is  therefore  no 
surprise  that .  the  platform  frequently  comes 
to  a  stop  altogether  out  of  level.  These  dis- 
advantages have  led  to  the  development  of  the 
flexible  guide  clamp  safety,  first  introduced  in 
1916  and  now  rapidly  superseding  the  type  de- 
scribed above.  Each  of  its  clamps  tas  two 
jaws,  one  solid  and  the  other  provided  with 
a  wcd^e  having  its  face  slightly  inclined  toward  ' 
the  guide  rail.  Both  jaws  are  pivoted  and  are 
adapted  to  coimiress  a  spring  held  between  the 
clamp  levers.  The  spring  is  normally  free  from 
compression.  A  roller  is  adapted  to  be  brought 
in  contact  with  the  inclined  race  of  the  weoge 
side  and  the  guide  rail  on  the  other. 


The  inclination  of  the  fom 


s  such  that  o 


Pic.  13, — Wedge  cUmp  >a/ety. 


time  the  car  falls  another  4  or  5  feet,  equiva- 
lent to  an  increase  in  speed  of  approximately 
1,000  feet  per  minute.  At  the  time  that  the 
application  of  the  safety  begins,  the  car  speed 
Ihercfore  has  assumed  very  considerable  over- 
speed,  amounting  in  the  present  example  to 
1,800  feet  per  minute.  This  is  dcddedly  a  dis- 
advantage.   The  jaws  now  grip  the  rail  and. 


1  consequence,  the 


this  contact  is  established,  the  roller 
to  climb  upwards  until  its  motion  is  arrested. 
In  doing  so,  it  first  forces  the  solid  jaw  to 
engage  with  the  rail,  after  which  it  will  cause 
the  wedge  —  and  therewith  the  jaw  containing 
the  wedge  — to  recede  from  the  rail.  The  lat- 
ter jaw  thereby  swings  around  its  pivot  and 
compresses  the  spring.    The  rail,  therefore,  will 


stops.  The  governor  rope,  previously 
is  therefore  suddenly  accelerated  to  the  car 
speed  of  1,800  feet  per  minute  and  begins  to 
slip  through  the  governor  jaws.  The  force  then 
exerted  on  the  periphery  of  the  safely  drum, 
wh'ch  is  a  direct  measure  for  the  retarding 
force  exerted  by  the  clamp,  is  the  sum  of  fric- 
tion caused  by  the  grip  of  the  governor  on  the 
governor  rope  and  of  the  force  necessaty  to 
suddenly  accelerate  the  same  to  car  speed.  Now 
it  will  be  clear,  that  in  the  present  example  the 
safety  should  be  designed  to  slop  the  car  at 
any  speed  above  800  feet  per  minute.  At  a 
speed  of  800  feet  per  minute,  however,  the 
effect  of  the  sudden  acceleration  of  the  gov- 
ernor rope  is  small  and  most  of  the  work  is 
done  by  the  friction  caused  by  the  grip  ^f  the 
governor  on  the  governor  rope.  If,  however, 
actually  falls,  action  of  the  safety  be- 


of  the  safety  drum      be  gripped  between  the  solid  jav 


,  side 

and  the  roller  on  the  other  side  with  a  force 
corresponding  to  the  spring  compression.  Since 
the  travel  of  the  roller  is  limited,  the  maximum 
amount  of  spring  compression  is  also  fixed  and, 
with  that,  the  retard.ng  force  which  the  clamps 
exercise  can  be  arranged  to  be  just  sufficient 
for  a  smooth  stop  from  any  speed.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  operation  of  the  safetv  begins 
immediately  from  the  moment  that  the  roller 
makes  contact  with  the  wedge  and  rail.  The 
time  lag  between  the  operation  of  the  actuating 
mechanism  and  the  gripping  of  the  rails,  exist- 
ing with  the  wedge  clamp  safety,  is  here  prac- 
tically eliminated;  indeed,  the  flexible  guide 
clamp  safety  responds  immediately  to  any  de- 
mand for  its  operation. 

Another  advantage  of  this  type  of  safety 

!;_,.  :_  .u.  t •  >u_.  it  :. .: i).: ..  -a     ■     • 


the  fact  that  it  is  practically  not  affected 

....      .      .  .  .,      ...        by  sli^t  changes  in  the  thickness  of  the  rail. 

gins  at  a  speed  of  1,800  feet  per  minute  with      This  is,  of    course,   due  to  the  very  flexible 
a  very  considerable  effect  of  the  sudden  ac-      arrangement  of  the  jaws.    A  slight 


,5le 


ELBVBMTU  CBNTURY 


the  thickness  of  the  rul  will  merely  result  ia 
a  somewhat  fairer  spring  compression  without 
much  increase  in  the  retarding  force  of  the 
clamps.  The  operation  of  a  safety  by  mejuis 
of  a  speed  governor  always  has  the  disad- 
vantage that  no  action  occurs,  except  a  I  a 
certain  overspeed.  If,  for  example,  the  hoist 
ropes  break  while  the  car  is  at  rest,  it  is  rather 
contrary  to  common  sense  to  permit  the  car 
to  fall  and  gather  speed  before  the  safety  b 
applied.  For  this  reason,  the  flexible  guide 
clamp  safety  is  arran^d  to  be  actuated  in  three 
different  manners,  viz.,  first,  in  the  ordinary 
way  by  means  of  a  speed  governor;  secondly, 
immediately  upon  the  breaking  of  the  ropes 
and  tliirdly,  at  the  will  of  the  operator. 

Air  Cutkions,—  An  air  cushion  is  the  en- 
ck>sure  of  the  bottom  part  of  the  shaft  to  a 
hdgfat  of  from  one-sirth  to  one-third  of  the 
car  travel  with  just  sufficient  clearance  for  the 


of  the  hei^  of  the  shaft  before  entering  the 
cushion.  As  a  consequ^cc,  the  t^ecd  of  the 
car  at  the  entrance  of  the  cushion  is  coormous 
and  larse  retardations  —  dangerous  to  life  and 
limb  —  nave  to  be  allowed  to  bring  the  car  to 
rest  within  a  com[aralively  small  distance.  By 
actual  tests,  velocities  at  the  entrance  of  the 
air  cushion  as  high  as  10,000  feet  per  minute 
have  been  measured.  Retardations  observed 
have  been  as  much  as  10  times  gravity,  sub- 
jecting a  person  standing  in  the  car  to  11  times 
ins  weif^t.  Air  pressures  have  been  measured 
as  hi^  as  16  pounds  per  square  inch  from 
which  it  will  be  evident  that  a  heavy  construc- 
tion of  the  cushion  and  doors  is  required. 

Oil  Buffers.— VJiOt  particular  reference  to 
higji  speed  electric  elevators,  it  is  his^y  im- 
probable, but  yet  conceivable,  that  all  of  the 
switches,  which  constitute  the  automatic  stop- 


Pic.  1 


—  Oil  buBer  with  tpriog  Mtum. 


m>rmal  operation  of  the  elevator.  At  hi^ 
speed,  therefore,  the  action  is  that  of  a  piston 
within  a  cylinder.  It  is  intended  as  an  addi- 
tional safeguard  in  case  all  other  safety  de- 
vices fail.  The  speed  of  a  falling  car  within 
the  air  cushion  is  controlled  in  various  manners, 
all  tending  to  decrease  the  area  through  which 
air  is  permitted  to  escape,  as  the  car  nears  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft. 

One  of  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  air 
cushion  is  thai  it  has  no  moving  parts,  so  that 
no  disarrangement  can  occur  to  prevent  its 
Operation.  This  claim,  however,  is  not  justified 
since,  of  course,  there  must  be  a  number  of 
doors  within  the  air  cushion  zone  for  the  in- 
gress and  egress  of  passengers.  One  of  these 
left  open  or  blown  open  by  the  air  pressure 
may  be  sufEcicnt  to  put  the  entire  air  cushion 
out  of  commission. 

The  main  defect,  however,  is  that  a  car  at 
the  top  of  the  shaft  is  permitted  to  fall  free 
for  a  distance  of  from  five-sixths  to  two-thirds 


—  the  safety 
IS  no  agent  to  prevent  me  cage  irom  struang 
the  limits  of  its  travel.  Accidents  of  this  kind 
are  made  impossible  by  the  installation  of  oil 
buffers.  One  or  more  of  them  are  placed  in 
the  pit  and  are  struck  by  the  cage  as  it  over- 
nins  the  bottom  landing.  Another  buffer  is 
usually  attached  to  the  counterwei^t  and 
comes  into  c^ration  when  the  cage  overruns 
the  tofi  landing.  The  construction  of  an  oU 
buffer  is  shown  in  Fig.  16.  It  consists  of  an 
outside  casing  with  a  cylinder  within  and  a 
piston  operating  in  the  cylinder.  Casing  and 
cylinder  are  filled  with  oil.  When  the  car 
Strikes  the  buffer  and  the  iHston  descends,  oil 
is  forced  out  of  the  cylinder  through  holes,  so 
arranged  in  number  and  position  that  the  resist- 
ance offered  by  the  fluid  is  just  sufficient  to 
bring  the  car  to  an  easy  stop  within  the  stroke 
of  the  buffer.  The  piston  is  returned  to  the 
upper  position  by  a  spring.  Consult  Baxter, 
William,  'Hydraulic  Bevators'  ;  Hymans,  F, 
'Elevators  in  the  Oliver  Building'  (in  Electric 
Journal  1911)  ;  Bethman,  H.,  'Der  Aufzugbau' ; 
Ernst,  Adolf,  'Die  Hebezeuge';  Lindqwst,  D., 
'Modem  Hectric  Elevators  and  Elevator  Prob- 
lems' (in  Tnuisaclions  of  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers,  Vol.  XXXVIl)  ;  id, 
'The  Micro-drive  Machine'  (1917). 

DAVm    LiNDQUIST, 

Engineering  Department,  Otis  Elevator  Com- 
pany. 
BLEVBNTH  CENTURY,  The.  The  10th 
coitury  is  commonly  said  to  have  been  an  es- 
pecially backward  ^riod  in  human  achieve- 
ment, due  to  the  belief  then  prevalent  that  the 
world  was  coming  to  an  eaA  in  the  year  1000. 


from  serious  work.  An  interesting  commentary 
on  this  generally  accepted  impression  is  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  that  the  two  men  in  the 
world's  most  prominent  positions  of  the  time, 
that  is  as  emperor  and  Pope,  who  lived  over 
from  the  10th  to  the  llth  century,  are  distin- 
guished in  history  for  their  intellectual  abilities 
while  their  lives  are  striking  examples  of  the 
deep  menial  interests  of  the  time.  The  Pope 
was  Sylvester  II  (999-1003)  who  before  he 
became  Pope  was  known  as  the  famous  Gcr- 
bert,    the    most   distinguished    scholar    of    the 


BUtVBNTH  CBNTUKY 


au 


period.  Gerbert  wrote  a  sorics  of  works  on 
philosoi^cal,  mathenutical  and  physical  sub- 
jects whidi  have  been  preserved  and  which 
serve  to  illustrate  the  breadth  of  intellectual 
interest  of  the  men  of  his  time.  He  wu  no 
mere^  academic  scholar  but  a  man  of  TCTy 
prsctical  ability,  for  he  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced the  use  of  Arabic  figures  into  western 
burope  and  to  have  invented  the  pendulum 
dock.  A  great  improvement  in  the  organ  is 
also  attributed  to  him  and  he  is  said  to  have 
notably  influenced  the  devetopment  of  music. 
As  Pope,  he  is  Imown  for  his  determined  in- 
sistence on  the  elevation  only  of  men  of  un- 
blemished character  to  the  episcopal  oSice  and 
his  consistent  reformation  of  abuses.  He  main- 
tained Church  disc^line  finnly,  especially  in 
matters  of  the  moral  law,  even  irtiere  it  con- 
cerned kings  and  was  undoubtedly  a  man  of 
saintly  character.  In  spile  of  this,  popular 
legend  gradually  attributed  to  him  the  powers 
of  a  magician  in  league  with  the  devil  and  after 
some  generations  his  name  became  a  byword. 
The  incident  is  illuminating  because  it  demon- 
strates how  little  the  Chur^  was  able  to  pre- 
vent such  perversions  on  the  part  of  the  people 
of  the  real  significance  of  scientific  knowledge 
and  original  discovery. 

The  emperor  of  the  transition  to  the  second 
millennium  was  Otto  III,  an  orphan  brought  up 
by  his  grandmother  Adclheid,  assisted  by  a  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  council  who  assumed  the 
government  and  made  every  el^ort  to  give  the 
boy,  who  was  destined  to  be  the  ruler  of  the 
larger  part  of  Europe,  a  fitting  education. 
Nothing  shows  so  clearly  how  much  they  valued 
education,  nor  how  well  founded  were  the  ideas 
with  regard  to  it  at  this  time,  than  the  details 
of  Otto's  training  as  they  have  come  to  us. 
The  council  thought  first  about  his  body  and 
his  physical  training  was  entrusted  to  Count 
Hoiko  of  Saxony.  His  mental  education  was 
bepun  under  Berwand,  late  bishop  of  Hildes- 
heim,  known  both  as  litterateur  and  artist,  and 
famous  for  his  interest  in  schools  of  the  arts 
and  crafts.  To  him  the  Bemward  Cross  and 
other  beautiful  objects  of  high  artistry  are  due. 
Later  Otto's  education  was  entrusted  to  the 
famous  Gerbert,  deservedly  considered  the 
greatest  scholar  of  the  penod.  Special  pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  teaching  of  Greek  to 
the  young  prince,  and  John  of  CSlabria,  where 
Greek  was  still  a  spoken  language,  was  chosen 
for  this  purpose.  These  measures  were  so  suc- 
cessful that  Otto  III  as  a  young  man  received 
the  title  of  'wonder  of  the  world.*  When  he 
reached  the  age  of  15  he  assumed  the  im- 
perial power,  and  his  tutor,  Gerbert,  look  the 
occasion  to  remind  him  "how  much  bad  been 
given  to  him  and  therefore  how  much  must 
be  expected  of  him ;  by  Divine  Providence  he 
was  by  birth  a  Greek  (his  mother  was  The- 
oi^ano,  the  dau^ler  of  the  Byzantine  Em- 
peror, Romanus  II),  by  dominion  a  Roman, 
and  that  he  had  inherited  the  treasures  of  Greek 
and  Roman  wisdom ;  as  a  monarch  he  was 
obeyed  in  Germany,  France  and  Italy  as  well  as 
by  the  Slavs,  and  ihat  he  wore  the  greatest 
crown  in  the  world.* 

Yoimg  Otto  as  he  approached  the  age  of  20 
had  high  aspirations  and  dreams  of  restoring 
the  ancient  glories  of  Rome  so  as  to  make  it 
the  capital   of  bis  empire  and  to  surround  it 


with  the  magnificent  drcumstance  of  the 
Byzantine  court.  Personally,  however,  he 
exhibited  a  humility  in  striking  contrast  to  hi> 
position  as  a  monarch  and  his  talent  as  a 
scholar.  He  proclaimed  lumself  the  'slave 
of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  Apostles,*  and  on  his 
visit  to  Rome  insisted  on  spending  a  fortnight 
in  the  catacombs  of  the  great  church  of  Saut 
Clement  in  fasting  and  prayer.  He  spent  some 
time  in  the  cave  of  Saint  Benedict  at  Sutnaco 
in  order  to  testify  his  admiration  for  the  man 
who  bad  begun  the  organization  of  modern 
dvilixation  in  the  tiring  times  of  the  •trans- 
migration of  the  nations,  but  also  in  order  to 
ask  for  help  in  his  own  work  as  he  looked 
forward  to  it  of  turning  the  attention  of  the 
world  to  higher  things. 

Unfortunately  neither  of  these  men  was 
destined  to  live  long  to  influence  the  new  millen- 
nium. The  young  Emperor  Otto  died  23  Jan. 
lOtE,  and  Gerbert  followed  him  to  the  grave 
on  12  May  1003.  'Short  as  was  his  life  and  few 
his  acts,  Otto  III  is  in  one  respect  more  memor- 
able than  any  who  went  before  or  came  after 
him.  None  save  he  desired  to  make  the  seven- 
hilled  city  again  the  seat  of  dominion,  reduc- 
ing Germany  and  Lombardy  and  Greece  to 
their  rightful  place  of  subject  provinces.  No 
one  el»e  foi^t'  the  present  to  live  in  the  light 
of  the  ancient  order;  no  other  soul  was  so 
possessed  by  that  fervid  mysticism  and  that  rev- 
erence for  the  glory  of  the  past  whereon  rested 
the  idea  of  the  mediaeval  empire.'  (Biyce,  'The 
Holy  Roman  Empire* ) .  Thus  opened  the 
second  millennum. 

Otto  III  was  the  last  of  the  Ottos,  and  as 
he  died  unmarried  three  claimants  to  the  throne 
brought  confusion  and  warfare  to  the  world 
of  the  time  and  opened  a  century  that  was  to  be 
fall  of  war.  Henry  II  the  Saint  who  succeeded 
was  the  last  of  the  Saxon  emperors.  His  reign 
is  a  bright  spot  in  the  century  and  after  him 
the  crown  passed  to  the  Franks  in  the  person 
of  Conrad  II  who  reigned  for  some  Ifyearj 
and  then  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  Spires 
which  he  had  founded.  After  him  came  Henry 
III  and  then  Henry  IV  who  succeeded  to  the 
empire  at  the  early  age  of  six  years  and  is 
known  in  history  for  his  recurring  quarrels 
with  Pope  Gregory  VII. 

It  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  a  century 
which  opened  tnus  auspiciously  for  ^e  in- 
tellectual life  in  its  greatest  representatives 
should  have  witnessed  the  development  of 
what  is  practically  the  first  university  of  modem 
times,  that  of  Salerno.  It  was  founded  around 
a  medical  school  largely  under  the  influence 
of  the  Benedictines  whose  mother  house  of 
Monte  Cassino  was  not  far  away.  The' 
greatest  teacher  o£  this  century  was  Conslantine 
Africanus  who  afterward  became  a  Benedictine, 
withdrawing  to  Monte  Cassino.  According  to 
an  old  document  published  by  De  Renii  in  bis 
*Collectio  Salemitana'  it  is  definitely  recorded 
that  the  school  was  founded  by  four  doctors, 
a  Greek,  a  Saracen,  an  Arab  and  a  Jew,  each 
of  whom  lectured  in  his  native  language.  This 
is  probab^  only  a  tradition  invented  to  account 
for  the  wide  interest  in  the  school.  The  Greek 
influence  as  is  not  surprising  here  in  southern 
Italy,  which  used  to  be  called  Magna  Grxcia, 
was  the  strongest.  As  has  been  pointed  out 
by  Gurlt  in  his  'History  of  Surgery,'  the 


8l^ 


BLBV^NTH  CBHTURT 


ings  of  the  Salemitan  phyndans  contain 
Grecisms  and  not  Arabisms.  The  influence  of 
the  Arabs  was  comparatively  slight  and  was 
due  entirely  to  the  fact  that  certain  of  the  old 
Greek  authors  were  available  only  in  ATab 
translations  and  this  gave  Arab  physicians  a 
certain  prestige.  The  medical  school  at 
Salerno  became  so  famous  that  it  attracted 
students  and  patients  from  even  distant  parts 
of  Europe  and  Duke  Guiscard  sent  his  son 
Bobemund  to  Salerno  for  die  cure  of  a  wound 
which  had  refused  to  heal  under  the  ordinary 
surgical  treatment  of  the  time.  Robert  the  son 
of  William  the  Conqueror  of  England,  is  said 
to  have  passed  sctne  time  in  Salerno  for  a 
similar  reason.  From  very  early  in  its  history 
Salerno  not  only  permitted,  but  seems  to  have 
encouraged,  women  medical  students,  and  the 
department  of  women's  diseases  was  placed 
entirely  in  their  charge.  As  a  consequence  of 
the  high  standards  maintained  in  medical  edu- 
cation at  Salerno  the  king  of  Sicily  issued 
rather  stringent  laws  with  -regard  to  the  regu- 
lation of  the  practice  of  medicine  "for  the 
protection  of  the  subjects  of  our  kingdom  from 
the  dangers  arising  from  the  ignorance  of 
practitioners.^  The  development  of  the  history 
of  medicine  in  recent  years  has  shown  that  the 
Salernitan  School  made  magnificent  achieve- 
ments in  surgery  and  that  its  favorite  remedial 
measures  were  fresh  air,  good  food,  water  in- 
ternally and  externally  and  rest.  The  'Regi- 
men Sanitatis  Salernitanum,*  the  little  book  of 
abstracts  from  the  medical  advice  of  the 
teachers  at  Salerno,  written  originally  just 
before  the  dose  of  the  11th  century,  was  for 
centuries  the  most  popular  medical  book  tn 
Europe.  It  has  been  printed  in  more  than  300 
editions  since  the  invention  of  printing  and  has 
been  reprinted  in  most  of  the  modern  languages 
in  our  time. 

The  important  political  events  of  the  century 
were  due  to  the  continuation  of  the  incursions 
of  the  Northmen.  King  Aethelred  II,  'The 
Unready,*  had  tried  at  the  end  o£  the  10th 
century  to  buy  off  the  Danes  from  further  in- 
vasions of  his  territory  in  England,  but  the  10,- 
(WO  pounds  of  silver  only  whetted  their  appe- 
tite for  conquest.  A  second  and  third  ransom 
were  no  more  effective,  and  then  an  organized 
massacre  of  the  invaders  (1002),  in  which 
the  Saxons  tried  lo  repay  all  the  cruelh'  of 
their  oppressors,  only  prompted  organized  re- 
prisals. Sweyn  invaded  England  time  after 
time,  and  finally  (1013)  assumed  the  title  of 
kng  of  England.  Edmund  Ironside,  son  of 
Aethelred.  fought  with  a  heroism  ^at  has  made 
his  name  forever  memorable,  but  in  vain. 
Canute  after  Edmund's  death  (1016)  estab- 
lished the  Danish  rule,  and  as  he  was  the  mon- 
arch also  of  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway  as 
well  as  of  most  of  Scotland,  had  an  imperial 
domain.  He  proved  an  excellent  ruler  once  he 
had  securely  established  his  power,  and  the 
familiar  incidents  related  of  him.  as  when  he 
showed  his  flattering  courtiers  how  little  his 
power  really  was  on  the  seashore,  is  typical  of 
the  man.  He  made  a  visit  to  Rome,  or-ianized 
the  government  of  his  states  and  well  deserves 
a  place  among  the  great  rulers  of  history.  His 
death  was  the  signal  for  internal  dissensions  in 
his  empire  and  it  was  not  until  rebellions  had 
been  nut  down  that  Hardtcanute  succeeded  him. 

The  Irish  suffered  also  from  the 


of  the  Danes,  hut  the  Northmen  were  definitely 
defeated  by  Brian  Boru  at  the  great  battie  of 
Oontarf  not  far  from  Dublin,  1014.  Brian 
had  secured  his  place  of  High  King  by  previous 
defeats  of  the  Danes  and  gave  the  example  of 
military  success  as  a  claim  for  the  position  of 
ruler  with  very  unfortunate  effects  during  Ae 
next  two  centuries.  Brian  himself  and  his  son 
and  grandson  were  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Clontarf,  and  after  this  Ireland  was  plunged 
iolD  internal  dissensions. 

England  was  destined  to  baVe  a  quarter  of 
a  century  of  peace  and  goodwill  in  the  rdgn  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  who  on  Hardicanute's 
sudden  death  in  1042  was  called  by  acdamation 
to  the  throne,  at  the  age  of  about  40.  There 
were  no  wars  except  to  repel  an  inroad  of  the 
Wdsh  and  to  assist  Malcom  III  of  Scotland 
against  Macbeth  tbe  usurper.  Edward  de- 
voted himself  to  the  welfare  of  his  people.  His 
royal  patrimony  sufRced  for  even  his  generous 
donations  to  the  poor  and  for  religion  without 
taxes.  "The  good  Saint  Edward's  laws'  were 
often  demanded  by  the  English  of  subsequent 
generations  in  times  of  oppression.  In  their 
affection  and  reverence  for  him  the  people 
came  to  be  touched  by  his  hands  in  certain 
ailments  and  so  "the  King's  Touch"  became 
a  tradition  for  English  royalty. 

For  the  west  of  Europe  the  significant 
event  of  the  century  was  the  Conquest  of  Eng- 
land by  the  Normans,  1066.  The  cfuchy  of  Nor- 
mandy, the  district  at  the  north  of  France 
which  had  been  given  over  to  tbe  sea  rovers 
from  the  Scandinavian  countries  in  the  hope 
thus  to  create  a  barrier  against  further  in- 
vasion, had  been  growing  in  power  and  pros- 
perity for  several  generations.  William  the 
Conqueror  became  one  of  the  most  important 
sovereigns  by  his  acquisition  of  England.  He 
led  some  60,000  soldiers  of  fortune  on  the  ex- 
pedition. &nerson  in  'English  Traits'  sums  it 
up  as  'these  founders  of  the  House  of  Lords 
were  greedy  and  ferodous  dragoons,  sons  of 
greedy  and  ferodous  pirates.*  The  English 
people  hatd  given  the  crown  to  Earl  Harold, 
"the  Last  d,f  the  Barons,"  but  on  the  strength 
of  a  promise,^made  by  King  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, who  \K^s  through  his  mother  a  lens- 
man  of  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  William 
claimed  the  throi^e.  The  Eln^lish  King  Harold 
found  himself  compelled  to  defend  h'mself 
against  Harold  HSrarada,  Idng  of  the  North- 
men, so  that  he  had  two  enemies  to  contend 
with.  He  defeated  ftarold  of  Norway,  but  was 
himself  defeated  and  i^lain  in  the  famous  battle 
of  Hastings  or  Senlac'i    The  English  still  op- 

Ksed  the  Normans  aftV  the  victory  but  Wil- 
m  succeeded  in  spreaiS'il^  Ws  dominion  over 
the  country  and  the  oppAsition,  often  fomented 
for  the  purpose,  only  served  to  give  excuses  to 
get  the  large  estates  and -the  highest  offices  in 
England  into  the  hands  oi  Normans  and  those 
on  whom  he  could  depend  to  support  him  in  his 
policy.  The  Norman  dyn^'isty  and  its  descend- 
ants have  since  ruled  Enp"laiid,  Britain  which 
UB  to  this  time  had  been. outside  the  circle  o£ 
European  affairs  was  noiv  drawn  into  Con- 
tinental politics.  With  a  ruler  who  had  do- 
mains on  the  Continent  nothing  else  could  well 
have  happened.  Rova!  claims  on  various  parts 
of  France  embroiled  England  in  war  for  cen- 
turies. Conflicts  belwee(^  sovereigns  and 
various  petty  rulers  contirmed  to  be  constant 


BLBVSMTH  CBNTUST 


duriiw  the  cmttiry.  Uon  and  more  the  nctttU 
ity  refused  to  admowledge  obliraitioiu  to  their 
feudal  lords  in  the  matter  of  abstainina  from 
war,  and  private  wars  of  various  kinds  became 
almost  the  rule.  As  a  consequence,  the  reli- 
gioas  and  intellectual  life  as  well  as  the  com- 
merdal  and  aKiicultural  life  of  the  people 
suffered  severely.  Feudalism  at  the  beginnu^ 
of  the  11th  century  had  broken  down  as  an 
instnunent  for  maiataining  peace.  It  is  inter- 
esting then  to  see  what  was  accomplished,  and 
how  successfully,  to  put  an  end  to  this  state  of 
affairs.    It  is  almost  the  last  place  at  the  be- 

E'miii^  of  the  second  millenniimi  of  modem 
stoiy  to  &nd  a  great  movement  for  peace,  but 
here  it  is. 

In  order  to  save  bloodshed  and  protect 
people  seneralljr,  the  Church  succeeded  in  bring- 
ine  about  the  introduction  of  the  "The  Truce 
orGod."  Councils  of  the  Church  early  in  the 
lltb  century  forbade  hostilities  from  Saturday 
□if^t  until  Monday  nioming;  This  prohilv- 
tion  was  subsequently  extended  to  other  days 
in  the  week,  and  Friday  in  honor  of  the  Fas* 


d  Saturday  the  day  of  the  Resurrectii 
'ared  ilfcKal  for  military  or  judicial 

About   the  middle   of    the    century 

ecclesiastical  regulations  made  it  unlawful  to 
Gsht  durinfT  Lent  and  then  during  Advent. 
The  Truce  was  first  successfully  proclaimed  in 
France  and  spread  to  Italy  and  Germanjr  to 
the  great  advantage  of  the  people  of  the  time. 
The  Truce  required  that  people  were  ta  be 
allowed  to  go  quietly  to  and  fro  on  their  busi- 
ness without  being  disturbed  by  soldiers  on 
the  designated  da^s  and  special  regulations 
were  issued  proteclmg  the  peasant  and  his  cat- 
tie  and  his  agricultural  implements.  Before 
th-3  councils  had  proclaimed  the  Peace  of  God 
wh'ch  protected  consecrated  persons,  places 
and  times  from  warlike  invasion.  This  protec- 
tion was  extended  to  the  poor,  pilgrims, 
Crusaders,  and  eventually  even  merchants  on  a 
journey.  The  further  development  in  the  Truce 
of  God  gave  the  impetus  to  peace  which  was 
finally  taken  up  by  the  public  authorities, 
throucth  leagues  for  the  enforcement  of  peace, 
and  municipal  federations  until  war  was  re- 
stricted  to  international  conflict. 

One  of  the  most  noteworth/  features  of  the 
history  of  the  11th  century  is  its  interest  in 
architecture.  This  began  at  the  very  begin- 
ning. 'About  three  years  after  the  year  1000,' 
said  Rodulf  Glaber,  'the  churches  were  reno- 
vated almost  ihroughout  the  whole  world  es- 
pecially in  Italy  and  the  Gauls,  although  the 
greater  part  were  still  in  good  enough  condi- 
tion not  to  need  repairing."  The  movement 
included  not  only  the  churches,  but  also  the 
public  buildings  of  various  lands. 

This  interest  in  architecture  naturally  led 
to  important  developments  and  the  creaMon 
of  that  form  of  architecture  called  Romanesque, 
which  was  to  prove  only  a  step  but  a  very 
great  one  toward  the  magnificent  Gothic  archi- 
tecture of  the  later  Middle  Ages.  The  supreme 
examples  of  Romanesque  are  the  cathedral  of 
Speyer,  finished  in  1030  as  a  mausoleum  for 
the  so-called  Salian  emperors;  the  cathedral  at 
Treves  or  Trier,  planned  and  conceived  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  century;  the  new  cathedral 
of  Mainz,  which  followed  the  one  erected  by 
Willigis  the  Regent  (who  saved  the  empire 
from  disintegration  during  the  minority  of  the 


Emperor  Otto  III),  but  which  was  unfortu- 
nately burned  down  on  the  day  of  its  consecra- 
tion, but  was  immediately  rebuilt  and  completed 
by  Bardo  von  OfKiertsliafen  in  1037.  This 
Romanesque  cathedral  of  Saint  Martin  at 
Mainz  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  monu- 
ments in  the  history  of  architecture  and  has 
been  the  fruitful  source  of  ideas  for  architects 
in  our  generation.  The  limitation  of  the  width 
of  the  Gothic  nave  makes  Gothic  churches  leu 
suitable  for  preaching  to  large  crowds,  and  bo 
even  Boston  and  New  York  chose  to  have 
great  churches  modeled  on  Romanesque  lines. 
The  llih  century  witnessed  some  precious 
social  development,  especially  in  the  establish- 
ment of  hospitals,  which  at  that  time  were  not 
only  for  the  ailing  poor,  but  also  for  the 
ciii>|>led  and  needy  of  many  Idnds  as  well  as 
lodgine  for  strangers.  Archbishop  Lan franc 
ei-ectea  a  series  of   hospitals  and   *tbe  good 

Sueen  Maud,"  the  wife  of  Henry  I,  who  was 
e  dauditer  of  Saint  Margaret  of  Scotland, 
acquired  a  special  repute  in  connection  with 
her  care  for  the  ailing  poor.  iCing  Henry, 
after  the  death  of  his  son  by  drowning  in  the 
famous  incident  of  "the  White  Ship,*  caught 
something  of  his  lady's  spirit,  and  Matilda, 
their  daughter,  followed  their  example.  The 
lepers  particularly  were  cared  for,  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eradication  of  this  disease,  said 
to  be  as  common  then  as  tuberculosis  is  with 
us,  was  made  through  segregation,  the  hard- 
ships of  which  were  mitigated  to  no  incon- 
siderable degree  b^  the  l.vel^  interest  of  royalty 
and  the  nobility  in  the  afflicted  and  the  spint 
in  which  their  ailment  was  taken. 

The  llth  century  saw  the  beginning  of  the 
orjpjiiiation  on  a  broad  scale  of  the  Christian 
nauons  against  Mohammedanism.  The  first 
active  reaction  against  them  in  the  countries 
where  they  had  maintained  themselves  for 
some  centuries  came  in  Spain  where  the  Moors 
in  possession  since  early  in  the  Sth  century 
felt  themselves  at  home.  Just  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  llth  century  the  three  Christian 
kingdoms  —  Castile,  Aragon  and  Navarre  — 
began  to  play  a  role  of  imnortance  in  the 
northern  part  of  Spain.  Castile  led  the  move- 
ment, and  before  the  end  of  the  century  bad 
reconnuered  Toledo.  The  rivalry  between  the 
Christian  countries  hampered  iheir  progress 
tor  a  time,  but  they  grew  stronger  by  the  in- 
termarriage of  their  royal  houses  and  were 
able  to  advance  their  frontiers  at  the  expense 
of  the  Moors.  Aragon  took  possession  of 
Barcelona  and  the  valiey  of  the  Ebro.  Nearly 
500  years  of  struggle  remained  however  before 
the  Moors  were  finally  expelled.  The  ad- 
vantage to  Spanish  character  of  the  ceaseless 
the   role   plaved   by  the 


power  at  home  and  abroad  which  fallowed  the 
final  expulsion  of  the  Moors  in  1492. 

The  great  hero  of  the  century  s  Ruy  or 
Rodrigo  Diai  de  Bivar,  known  as  The  Cid 
(Arabic,  master)  or  El  Campfodor  (Spanish, 
tfie  champion  or  challenger).  His  life  fills  the 
whole  of  the  second  half  of  th*-  century  and 
his  exploits  animated  the  Spaniards  against 
the  Moors  for  all  the  centuries  afterward  until 
their  complete  expulsion.  The  romantic  chron- 
icle of  'The  Cid'  the  substance  of  which  was 
compiled   by  Alfonso   the  Learned  only  half 


8l^ 


SIAVXNTH   CEHTUKT 


A  centuiy  after  the  hero's  death  contami  much 
that  is  bleral  history,  and  the  obviously  legen- 
dary incidents  can  be  rather  readily  elinliiiated. 
Southey's  translation  made  the  work  familiar 
in  English.  The  Cid  of  the  romances  is 
another  creature  entirely,  auite  as  much  the 
nucleus  for  myths  as  Qiarlemagne's  Paladins 
or  King  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round 
Table.  Undoubtedly  Rodrigo's  real  victories 
apart  from  all  romance  form  the  core  of  Span- 
ish history  at  the  time. 

The  other  phase  of  Christian  (^position  to 
Mohammedanism  is  also  the  greatest  event  of 
the  11th  century,  the  first  Crusade.  Jerusalem 
had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Arab  Mc4iam- 
medans  shortly  after  the  death  of  Mohammed 
In  the  7th  century.  This  Semitic  race  shared  in 
the  Christian  reverence  for  the  Holy  Places  and 

Cirmitted  the  Christian  pilgrims  who  came  in 
r^  numbers  during  the  Middle  A^s  to  pursue 
their  devotions  without  molestation.  In  the 
llth  century,  however,  the  Seljuldan  Turks,  re- 
conquered long  before  by  the  caliphs,  now  in- 
vaded the  caliphate  as  the  Germans  the  Roman 
Empire,  reidaced  the  Arabs  as  (he  rulers  of 
Jerusalem  and  at  once  initiated  a  very  different 
policy  toward  the  Christians.  Great  hardships 
were  inflicted  upon  the  pilgrims,  and  the  stories 
of  the  cruel  ties  imposed  aroused  the  feelings 
of  Europe.  The  Seljuks,  continuing  their  victo- 
rious career,  defeated  the  Eastern  Empire  in 
1071  and  thus  became  rulers  of  Asia  Minor.  They 
took  possession  of  Nicxa,  just  across  the  straits 
from  Constantinople,  and  Europe  i  I  self  was 
menaced.  Pope  Urtan  II,  whose  training  as 
a  churchman  had  come  under  Pope  Gregory 
VII,  after  six  years  of  wandering  from  the 
time  of  his  election  had,  in  1094,  at  last  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  entrance  to  Rome  and  set 
himself  to  the  task  of  unifying  Christendom. 
In  spite  of  rather  serious  breaks  with  the  Em- 
peror Henry  and  King  Philip  of  France  who 
had  repudiated  their  wives.  Urban  devoted  him- 
self to  the  great  problems  of  arousing  Chris- 
tianity against  the  Turks. 

The  first  incentive  to  the  Crusades  has  often 
been  attributed  to  Peter  the  Hermit,  but  it 
really  came  from  Pope  Gregory  VII  and  was 
popularized  by  the  address  of  Pope  Urban  at 
the  Council  of  Oermont  (in  Auvergne).  After 
excommunicating  Philip  of  France  for  adulteiy 
in  having  taken  to  wife  Bertrada,  the  wife  of 
Fulk  of  Anjou,  the  argent  question  of  the  East 
was  taken  up.  The  Council  had  attracted  im- 
mense crowds  of  all  classes,  but  particularly  of 
the  nobility  and  knights.  The  Pope's  address 
asking  for  an  army  to  be  sent  to  redeem  the 
Holy  Places  aroused  great  enthusiasm,  and  all 
present  exclaimed  with  one  voice  "It  is  the 
will  of  God.»  The  Pope  declared  that  this 
should  be  their  rallying  cry.  and  all  were  to 
wear  a  cross  as  a  sign  of  their  acceptance  of 
whatever  hardships  mig^t  be  involved.  It  is 
from  this  cross  that  the  word  crusade  is  de- 
rived. Each  participant  was  "crossed.*  Pope 
Urban  suggested  that  particularly  those  who 
were  in  the  midst  of  contentions  with  brethren 
and  relatives  miRht  thus  find  a  holy  vocation. 
Most  of  those  who  took  up  the  cross  did  so  out 
of  the  highest  motives  of  pure  devotion.  It 
would  be  idle  to  think  that  in  so  great  a 
mass  of  men  there  should  have  been  no  hypo- 
crites, but  they  must  have  been  surprisingly  few. 


In  bis  great-beartedness  the  Pope  proposed  that 
those  who  bad  been  robbers  and  brigands  mi^t 
now  become  soldiers  of  Christ  with  the  feeling 
that  here  was  a  chance  for  the  redemption  of 
such  men  from  evil  ways,  though  doubtless  also 
with  the  conviction  that  no  matter  what  thdr 
motives  they  could  work  less  harm  in  the  army 
than  at  home,  and  that  at  any  rate  all  should 
have  their  chance  in  the  great  cause. 

Many  privileges  were  granted  to  the  Crn-  | 

saders  by  the  Church,  and  these  have  sometimes  ' 

seemed  to  modem  historians  violations  of  jus- 
tice. The  payment  of  debts  for  instance  could 
be  put  off,  and  the  Crusaders  were  even  freed 
from  the  payment  of  interest  upon  their  debts 
and  permitted  to  mortgage  their  property  for 
the  purposes  of  the  Crusade  without  the  con- 
sent of  their  feudal  lords,  though  this  was  re- 
quired by  the  laws  of  the  time.  We  in  our 
time  who  have  seen  another  great  World  War 
with  its  moratoria,  its  prorogation  of  rents 
and  notes,  its  shutting  up  of  stock  exchanges 
and  its  talcing  over  of  the  resources  of  coun- 
tries, are  not  likely  to  misunderstand  similar 
events  of  the  Crusade.  Crusaders'  wives  and 
children  and  property  were  taken  under  the 
direct  protection  of  the  Church  and  those  who 
disturbed  them  found  that  they  had  to  do  with 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  The  youth  of  all 
the  country  gave  themselves  unstintedly  to  the 
cause  quite  as  they  have  in  our  time  and  have 
always  done  for  idealistic  purposes.  Within  a 
year  after  the  great  wave  of  enthusiasm  which 
had  begun  at  Qermont  had  spread  throu^  Eu- 
rope there  was,  according  to  the  Pope  himself, 
some  300,000  soldiers  collected  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  great  nobles  of  the  time.  If  it  is 
recalled  that  at  this  period  the  European  coun- 
tries whose  census  of  papulation  we  have,  had 
much  less  than  one-tenth  as  many  inhabitants 
as  in  our  time,  the  immensity  of  the  effort  thus 
put  forth  will  be  properly  appreciated.  The 
important  leaders  were  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and 
his  brother  Baldwin,  from  Brabant,  with  Count 
Raymond  of  Toulouse  who  led  a  great  army 
from  Provence.  The  French  troops  were  not 
led  1^  Philip,  who  was  in  disgrace,  but  were 
joined  with  those  of  the  Normans  from  soutb- 


who  was  the  son  of  Otto  the  Good  and  of 
Emma,  the  sister  of  Robert  Guiscard.  Tancred 
came  to  be  the  rival  in  the  later  legends  of  the 
Crusades  even  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  and  to 
be  the  centre  of  romances  for  centuries  in 
modem  European  life. 

After  many  hardships  the  army  of  the  Cru- 
saders succeeded  in  finding  its  way  to  Constan- 
tinople only  to  discover  that  the  Greeks  ex- 
pected to  turn  the  great  Christian  expedition 
into  a  military  campaign  for  the  beneSt  of  the 
empire.  The  Crusaders  encamped  in  the  sub- 
urbs of  the  capital  not  only  were  not  welcomed, 
but  were  actually  declared  enemies  because  they 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  homage  to  the  em- 
peror. Contemporary  dociunents  which  show  the 
complaints  of  traitorous  cruelty  on  both  sides 
used  to  be  held  up  as  flagrant  testimony  to_  the 
essential  barbarity  of  the  people  of  the  tim^ 
but  recent  experiences  have  demonstrated  that 
the  trait  thus  disclosed  is  human  and  not  merely 
mediaeval.  The  emperor's  daughter  Anna, 
writing  a  history  of  the  times,  has  made  » 


ELBVBNTH  CENTURY 


document  almost  as  bitter  in  denundation  of 
the  Crusaders  as  any  that  appeared  on  either 
side  in  our  own  great  war.  The  Crusaders  did 
not  hesitate  to  call  the  Greeks  traitors,  cowards, 
liars  and  worse,  but  above  all  to  deprecate  their 
cruelty  toward  small  parties  ol  Crusaders  un- 
able to  defend  ibemselves.  The  Byzantines 
replied  with  accusations  o£  attacks  upon,  women 
and  children  and  thieving  depredations  of  vari- 
ous kinds. 

It  was  not  until  the  spring  of  1099  that 
an  army  of  2),00O  Crusaders  under  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon    reached   Jerusalem.     The   Moty   City 

s  stormed  and  taken  IS  July  1099.    Elected 


reigned  over  the  worltf  from  there,  and  chose 
the  simple  designation  of  Prelector  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre.  He  completed  the  conquest  of 
the  Holy  Land  by  defeating  the  sultan  of 
Egypt  in  the  plain  of  Ascalon,  12  Aug.  1099. 
Godfrey  had  been   wounded  during  the   siege 


win.  Altogether  four  principalili 
ated  by  the  Crusaders  m  Mohammedan  terri- 
tories, the  capitals  of  which  were  Edessa,  Anti- 
och,  Tripoli  and  Jerusalem.  Baldwin  succeeded 
in  taking  possession  of  Acre,  Sidon  and  some 
other  important  towns  along  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  news  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
caused  great  rejoicing  throughout  Europe  and 
brousht  many  accessions  to  the  armed  forces 
of  the  city's  ruler.  Unfortunately  many  of 
these  were  lost  at  sea  and  many  were  cut 
off  in  various  ways  by  the  Turks  so  that  the 
consolidation  of  the  recent  conquests  became 
very  difficult.  Luckily  the  Mohammedans  were 
engaged  in  fighting  among  themselves  and  could 
not  combine  against  the  Franks  as  they  called 
the  Crusaders  generally.  Altogether  at  the  end 
of  the  11th  century  the  Crusaders  occupied  a 
small  strip  of  Tand  not  50  miles  wide  and  some 
500  miles  long  from  which  the  Turks  were  for 
long  unable  to  displace  them. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  great  move- 
ment, the  Crusades,  which  was  destined  to  in- 
fluence Europe  so  deeply  for  the  next  two 
centuries.  There  was  scarcely  a  generation 
until  the  end  of  the  13lh  centuiy  that  did  not 
witness  the  going  out  from  some  part  of 
Europe  of  large  bodies  of  men  who  had  nobly 
taken  up  the  task  of  securing  the  possession  of 
the  How  Places  to  the  Christians.  In  the  end 
they  failed  of  that  object  and  the  Holy  Land 
fell  once  more  under  the  domination  of  the 
Turks,  but  in  the  meantime  an  immense  amount 
of  good  was  accomplished.  The  loss  of  men 
in  battle  and  by  disease  so  far  from  draining 
die  human  resources  of  the  countries  rather 
added  to  them.  Men  developed  new  enei^es. 
A  great  surgeon  said  during  the  Great  War  that 
for  every  man  killed  two  men  were  being  made. 
Something  like  this  happened  In  the  Crusades. 
They  aroused  men's  energies,  brought  the  East 
and  West  in  contact,  broadened  men's  interests, 
lessened  the  power  of  the  nobles,  strengthened 
national  feeling  and  accomplished  great  good 
for  the  race  which  was  manifest  in  the  achieve- 
ntents  of  the  13th  century. 

The  character  of  the  Ulh  century  most  dis- 
puted about  in  history  is  Pope  Gregory  VII, 
whose  name  Hildcbrand  has  been  translated 
•a  bright  flame"  by  those  who  felt  that  he  ac- 


complished wonderful  work  for  Christendom 
and  *a  brand  of  HelP  by  those  who  declared 
that  be  was  an  influence  for  evil.  There  is  no 
doubt  at  all  that  he  exerted  a  deep  influence 
over  his  own  and  succeeding  generations.  He  . 
was  a  self-made  man  of  lowly  birth,  one  of 
those  who  in  President  Wilson's  words  make 
clear  _  "whj^  _^ovemmcnt   did   not   suffer   diy 


.    .  . Ages  under  the 

systems  which  then  prevailed  .  .  .  there 
was  no  peasant  so  humble,  that  he  might  not 
become  a  priest  and  no  priest  so  obscure  that 
he  might  not  become  Pope  of  Christendom 
and  every  Chancellory  in  Europe  was  ruled  by 
those  learned,  trained  and  accomplished  men.* 
As  Pope  he  took  up  at  once  the  reform  of 
Church  matters  and  the  definite  regulation  of 
the  relations  of  the  Church  to  the  State.  By 
abuse  bishops  had  come  to  be  almost  more  state 
officials  than  Church  dignitaries.  Gregory 
labored  to  have  them  independent  in  their 
ecclesiastical  functions  except  of  the  head  of  the 
Church,  but  it  was  difficult  to  correct  long 
standing  abuses,  The  most  serious  contest  in 
this  matter  is  between  Pope  Gregory  and  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV  of  Germany.  Hiidebrand 
dissolved  the  oath  of  allegiance  of  Henry's 
subjects  and  the  nobility,  gtadof  the  opportumty 
to  put  down  a  tyrant,  fell  away  from  him  and 
made  Henty  realize  that  unless  he  regularized 
his  relations  with  the  Church  he  could  not  hope 
to  continue  as  a  ruler.  After  many  attempts 
to  avoid  the  hiuniliation  Henry  made  the  famous 

JDumcy  to  Canossa  to  be  reconciled  with  the 
'ope,  when  he  was  required  to  do  penatice  so 
severe  that  Hildebrand's  conduct  in  this  matter 
has  often  been  censored.  But  Hiidebrand 
maintained  the  rights  of  the  Church  as  he  saw 
them  and  continued  to  purify  the  Church  itself 
of  abuses  of  various  kinds  and  to  uphold  the 
moral  law  as  binding  upon  rulers  as  well  as 
the  people.  Reformers  are  not  likely  to  be 
popular  and  Gregory  was  in  constant  trouble. 
His  own  last  words  sum  up  his  life  better  than 
any  others.  He  had  been  compelled  to  leave 
Rome  and  was  dying  in  Salerno  when  he  said 
"I  have  loved  justice  and  hated  iniquity,  there- 
fore I  die  in  exile.* 

Hiidebrand  both  before  and  after  his  election 
as  Pope  did  more  than  anyone  else  to  lay  that 
foundation  of  the  ascendency  of  the  Papacy  in 
Europe  which  culminated  a  century  later  in 
the  pontificate  of  Pope  Innocent  III.  During 
the  dme  when  popes  were  looked  up  to  as 
guardians  of  the  moral  conscience  of  Europe, 
the  best  historians  admit  that  there  was  a  inag- 
niticent  development  of  culture  in  the  best 
sense  of  that  word. ,  Few  if  any  epochs  in  the 
whole  history  of  mankind  present  achievements 
higher  than  those  of  the  12th  and  13th  cen- 
turies. The  loftiest  aspirations  of  mankind 
were  finely  fostered  Beautiful  architecture, 
painting  that  has  never  lost  its  interest,  mag- 
nificent hospitals  and  great  literature,  charminK 
arts  and  crafts  all  developed  at  this  time  and 
have  come  to  be  the  loving  study  and  reverent 
admiration  of  our  generation.  If  a  career  it 
to  be  judged  by  its  fruits,  Hildebrand's  in- 
fluence in  making  the  popes  a  moral  centre  as 
well  as  ecclesiastica!  power  in  Europe  must  be 
considered  one  of  the  great  factors  for  a  great 
era  of  human  development. 

A  great  scholar  of  the  lltb  century  whose 
works  are  still  republished  in  many  languages 


r 


BIXVBHTH  CBNTURT 


and  whose  inflaence  continues  to  be  felt  is 
Anselm,  archbishop  of  Canterbuiy.  His  little 
book,  'Cur  Deus  Homo,'  is  still  frequently  read 
bv    those    who    are    deeply    interested    in    the 

fihilosophic  side  of  Christianity  and  his  'Mono- 
ogiutn'  and  'Proslogium'  are  well  known  by 
philosophic  students.  Me  was  one  of  the  most 
important  links  in  the  chain  of  philosophic 
thinking  known  as  scholasticism,  which  h:is  had 
a  very  interesting  and  significant  revival  mainly 
through  Cardinal  Mercier  in  our  own  genera- 
tion. Though  Anselm  was  the  archbishoo  of 
Canterbury  and  had  been  the  abbot  of  Bee  in 
Normandy,  he  was  neither  Norman  nor  Saxon, 
but  Italian,  bom  in  1033  near  Aosia,  His 
fattier  was  a  simple  citizen  of  the  little  town 
and  Anselm  owed  his  rise  entirely  to  his  own 
abilities.  He  entered  the  abbey  of  Bee  as  a 
young  man  just  when  it  had  been  made  famous 
by  the  learning  of  Lanfranc  and  three  years 
later  became  pr.or  and  filled  that  office  and  that 
of  abbot  for  some  30  years  when  he  was  made 
archbishop.  He  succeeded  Lanfranc  as  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  under  most  difficult  cir- 
cumstances, refusing  the  archbishopric  at  first 
as  he  had  refused  the  election  of  abbot  and 
consenting  to  be  honored  only  when  it  was 
made  clear  to  him  that  he  could  probably  do 

Eeat  good  in  the  new  office.  Lanfranc  had 
d  serious  difBculties  with  the  king  over  the 
matter  of  investiture  and  Church  revenues  and 
Anselm  inherited  these.  He  succeeded  in  find- 
ing a  mode  of  compromise  and  laying  down 
the  principles  on  which  the  relations  between 
the  Church  and  State  could  be  safeguarded 
without  violation  of  the  rights  of  either.  His- 
torians have  recognized  tne  genius  and  char- 
acter of  the  man,  and  Freeman  did  not  hesitate 
to  say  'stranger  as  he  was  he  has  won  his 

flace  among  the  noblest  worthies  of  our 
sland'  Curiously  enough  Anselm's  contribu- 
tion to  the  borderland  between  philosophy  and 
dieology,  the  ontologlca]  argument  for  the 
existence  of  God  put  forth  in  his  'Proslogium,' 
was  revived  in  modem  limes  bv  Descartes,  be- 
came the  cardinal  point  of  difference  between 
Kant  and  Hegel  at  the  end  of  the  18ih  cen- 
tvry,  to  be  revived  by  Rosmini  in  Italy  and 
adopted  by  Brownson  in  America  in  the  19th 
century.  An  argument  that  sways  such  minds 
all  down  the  centuries  must  surely  have  in  it 
(omething  that  has  a  deep  appeal  to  some  es- 
sential quality  of  the  human  intellect  apart 
from  training  and  environment. 

The   rise  of   the   Seljukian  Turks  ^ve  a 

Krod  of  peace  in  Persia  under  the  viziers  of 
i^nil  Beg  and  his  son  and  grandson,  Alp 
Arslin  and  Malik  Shah,  during  which  a  series 
of  contributions  of  enduring  interest  to  the  in- 
tellectual life  of  humanity  were  made.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Itth  century  Abul  Kasim  Man- 
sur  of  Tus  in  Persia  (d.  1020),  known  as 
Firdusi  or  Firdausi  "the  Paradisiac,^  finished 
the  Shahnahmeh,  the  great  Persian  epic  of 
about  60,000  distichs,  which  sintfs  (he  deeds  of 
Persian  heroes  and  rulers  for  500  years.  A  little 
later  Avicenna,  "the  prince  of  physicians'  (d. 
at  Hamaderi,  Persia,  1037),  'at  once  the  Hinpoc- 
rates  and  the  Aristotle  of  the  Arabians*  (Whe- 
wcll)  wrote  the  books  that  for  five  centuries 
influenced  medicine  in  Asia  and  Europe  more 
than  any  others.  They  are  only  compilations 
cf  Hippocrates  and  Galen,  but  when  Greek  was 
no   longer   known    they   served   as   sources    of 


ancient  knowledge  for  a  great  many  writers. 
Avicenna's  work  is  typical  of  much  of  what 
the  Arabs  did.  There  is  little  of  originality, 
he  was  merely  a  channel  for  the  older  medical 
writers  and  for  Aristotle.  The  second  half 
of  the  century  Al  Gaiali  (b.  at  Tus  1IB8> 
was  for  a  time  professor  of  Mohammedan 
theology  in  the  school  at  Bagdad.  In  his 
earlier  years  some  of  his  writings  were  sceptical 
and  these  have  a  special  appeal  to  the  mooems, 
but  later  he  became  the  greatest  of  Moham- 
medan apologists  and  continued  to  be  studied 
for  long  afterward.  Omar  Khayyam,  the 
Persian  poet-astronomer,  whose  'Rubaiyat'  at- 
tracted so  much  attention  at  the  end  of  the 
19th  century  was  the  fourth  of  these  Mohamme- 
dan writers  destined  to  an  enduring  influence. 
He  corrected  the  calendar  successfully  and 
wrote  books  on  algebra  and  astronomy,  but 
these  have  had  no  influence  beyond  a  generation 
or  two  in  its  own  time,  while  his  quatrains  on 
life  and  death  and  love  and  God  and  the  prob- 
lems men  face  forever,  struck  ofF  at  idle  mo- 
ments, caught  the  vein  of  thought  of  the  dis- 
tant Western  peoples  eight  centuries  later.  He 
had  been  the  schoolmate  of  the  vizier  of  Alp 
Arslin,  and  the  third  of  a  little  trio  who  at 
school  swore  eternal  friendship  and  to  share 
whatever  fate  might  bring  them  was  the  notori- 
ous Hasan,  'the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountains,* 
from   whose  name    because  of   his    infamous 


_...  modem  languages  is  derived.  Manifestly 
Omar's  experience  of  hfe  and  its  vicissitudes 
in  person  and  through  his  friends  was  am^le 
to  enable  him,  if  he  had  the  mind  to,  to  write 
of  humanity's  problems  with  fullness  of  knowl- 
edge. 

There  are  two  great  women  of  the  century 
whose  names  are  still  well  known  and  lives  of 
whom  have  been  written  in  our  generation. 
One  of  these  was  Matilda  of  Canossa,  Countess 
of  Tuscany  and  heiress  of  the  Marquess  Boni- 
face of  Tuscany.  She  knew  Latin  well,  was 
fond  of  serious  books,  took  a  deep  interest  in 
the  philosophical  and  religious  discussions  su 
common  at  the  time  and  came  to  exert  an  im- 
mense influence,  not  only  in  Italy  but  through- 
out Europe.  She  was  a  great  personal  friend 
of  Hildebrand  before  his  election  to  the  Papacy 
as  Gregory  VII,  and  constantly  supported  him 
in  the  conflicts  which  his  reforms  involved. 
It  was  in  letters  to  the  Countess  and  her  mother 
thai  Pope  Gregory  discussed  the  <(uestion  so 
dear  to  his  heart  of  the  organization  of  the 
Crusade  for  the  winning  back  of  the  Holy 
Land.  It  was  at  her  castle  of  Canossa  that 
Pope  Gregory  received  the  repentant  Emperor 
Henry.  At  her  death  Matilda  bequeathed  her 
estate  in  central  Italy  to  the  Church,  feeling 
the  necessi^  of  strengthening  the  Pope's  po- 
litical situation  and  this  bequest  was  confirmed 
by  the  Emperor  Frederick  11. 

The  other  great  woman  of  the  century  was 
Margaret  of  Scotland,  whose  life  runs  Umost 
parallel  with  the  second  half  of  it.  She  was  In- 
I'mately  related  to  many  of  tlie  wellrknown 
characters  of  the  time.  She  was  the  grand- 
daughter of  Edmund  Ironside,  and  when  exiled 
tinder  Canute  spent  some  years  with  King 
fSaint)  Stephen  of  Hungary.  She  returned 
to  be  close  to  Edward  the  Confessor  for  a 
time,  but,  with  her  mother,  set  out  for  Prance 


BLF-ARK0W8,  SLF*BOLTS,  EU-SUOT  —  BLGIN 


when  the  Normans  won  the  battle  of  HastinKs. 
Their  ship  was  driven  by  storm  to  Scotland 
wtiere  Malcom  III,  having  defeated  Macbeth, 
was  IdiiK.  Margaret  becatue  his  wife  and  did 
»  much  to  soften  the  barbarous  manners  of 
the  Scotch  that  ever  since  she  has  been  in  bene- 
diction. A  favorite  occupation  was  the  securing 
of  justice  for  the  poor  and  a  stcme  is  still 
pointed  ont  near  Edinbnrgh,  called  Saint  Mar- 
garet's stone,  on  which  she  sat  to  hear  their 
causes.  Her  favorite  son  David  is  the  Saint 
David  of  Scottish  history, 'and  the  building  of 

Seat  churches  and  monasteries  was  initiated 
Margaret.  She  was  untiring  in  leal  for 
education  and  for  the  encouri^eroent  of  book- 
making  and  is  looked  upon  by  the  Scotch  as  one 
of  the  great  founders  of  their  civilization. 

James  J.  Walsh, 
AtUkor   of    'Tht    Tkirteenlk,   tkt    Grealeil   of 
Centmriet.' 


PRINCIPAL  EVENTS  OF  THE  ELEVENTH 
M.  Tb«  Butem  Bmpn*  loan  tawitoiy  to  tim  Btdauiiui* 
tod  i%  atKtcked  by  Uw  Rbibbdi. 

1002.  Bfnperor  Otto  lit  of  the  Wattern  SmpiR  dio. 

1003.  Pi>p«  Srlwiter  11  previon»ly  fcncnra  —  "— ^-^   --- 
Bre»t«w  icholBT  of  the  -  -    "" 

lOlJ.  Dand  cot  "--■- 

101*.  The  Iriih 


oiai  of  the  IK.  di 
tiurr  EnsUod. 
aDder  Bnan  Bora 


ion.  Cuiute,  kii«  of  flranrtiiavia.  bBcomca  Idna  o(  Bus- 

1042.  Bdwud  the  Confewar  reieni  tmt  En^uid. 

lotft  Tb*  Nomva  mvad*  Sid^ 

I06«.  The  Nomui  Coaquen  nt  Engluid.    WiUivn  the  Con- 

Queror  reigna;    inititutca  feudAliun^    forest  Iavb;    the 

DvMBtiUy  Boak. 
■Oil.  ThBTmbMCat  tha  BaMna    Brnpira,  occnpr  Ana 

Minot  and  thnatea  Coiutantioople. 
lOTS,  The  Turin  capture  Jeraaalnn. 

7.  Heiuy  TV  of  Gamuir  <loea  penance  M 

diKbadience  to  toga  OreBory  VU. 


I  to  foot  Ores 

iaS7.  Tbe  Moon  enter  Spaia  to 

lOM.  Ruy  Diat  de  Bint  the  Ctitilian  Cid  Campei 

the  MooTB  aad  tiaiiniKa  k>rd  of  V  '      '     "^ 


•t  tbs  Aiaba  and  Sara< 


and  actively  enauea  m  unitins  Chrartendom. 
I.  The  Burr^iean  wice  of  God  proclaiined  at  the 
<tt  of  Clennont  b^  Pope  Urban  II. 
[.  Powc  the  Hnsut  ttn«  Bunwa  V>  mvt  Jcnwalan 


Un  Bunwa  u 

the  Turin.     CeUbacy  enjoined. 
■' .  Th«  Pint  Cnuade. 


ELF-ARROWS,  ELF-BOLTS,  ELF- 
SHOT,  are  the  names  given  to  implements  of 
stone,  especially  flint,  of  various  sixes  and 
forms,  which  arc  found  abundantly  in  many 
countries,  and  are  the  remains  of  arrow-heads, 
darts  and  other  rude  ancient  weapons  from  the 
Palzolithic  period.  They  belong  to  the  same 
class  qi  ancient  implements  that  are  generally 
known  as  Celts  (stone  hatchets).  These 
rude  and  ancient  implements  are  objects  of 
some  extraordinary  superstitions.  The  names 
^vcn  above  are,  of  course,  of  popular  and  com' 
paratively  modern  origin,  and  impl^  that  those 
who  gave  them  were  completely  ignorant  of 
the  real  origin  and  use  of  those  weapons.  These 
names  are  found  independently  among  the 
peasantry  in  Scotland,  England  and  Ireland, 
and  the  superstitions  associated  with  them  are 
much  more  widely  spread.  According  to  the 
popular  belief  the  stones  are  of  supernatural 
origin,  and  various  virtues  arc  attributed  to 
them.  They  are  worn  as  charms,  and  used  as 
a  protection  against  lightning;  but  they  are 
chiefly  suspected  of  mischievous  consequences. 
A  cavern  has  been  pointed  out  where  the  arch- 
fiend carries  on  the  manufacture  with  the  help 
of  attendant  imps,  who  rough-hew  them  while 


he  finishes  the  work.  Similar  superstitions  pre- 
vail in  Italjr,  Africa  and  Turkey.  Consult 
Evans,    'Ancient   Stone  Implements  of   Great 

ELGAR,  Sri)  Edward  Willivu,  English 
composer :  b.  Broadheath,  Worcestershire,  2 
June  1857.  Among  his  compositions  are  'The 
Black  Knight*  flSfe)  ;  *Choral  Suite:  from  the 
Bavarian  Highlands'  (1895):  'Lux  Christi,> 
produced  at  the  Worcester  Festival  (1896); 
*Te  Deum,*  sung  at  the  Hereford  Festival 
(1897);  'Caractacus,'  produced  at  the  Leeds 
Festival  (1898);  'Sea  Pictures,'  for  the  Nor- 
wich Festival  (1899) ;  'Dream  of  Ckrontius,' 
for  the  Birmingham  Festival  (190Q),  which  is 
considered  his  maslerpiece.  It  was  reproduced 
at  the  Niedderrheinische  Musik  Fest  in  19(& 
Other  of  his  composilions  are  ^Coronation  Ode* 
(1902);  'The  Apostles>  (1503);  'The  iQng- 
dom>  (1906);  '(Coronation  March*  (1911);  a 
masque,  'The  Crown  of  India'  (1912) ;  'The 
Music    Makers'     (1912) ;    'Falstaff,'    a    sym- 

g ionic  study  (1913).  and  'Carillon'  (1915). 
esides  these  he  has  written  symphonies,  sev- 
eral concert  overtures  and  a  violin  concerto. 
ELGIN,  James  Bruce,  Sth  Eail  or,  and 
]2rH  Earl  of  Kincasdihe,  English  statesman: 
b.  London,  20  July  1811;  d  Dhurmsala,  North 
India,  20  Nov.  1863.  He  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Oxford;  in  1841  entered  Parliament  as 
member  for  Southampton,  and  in  the  same  year 
succeeded  to  the  earldom.  In  1842  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Jamaica.  His  rule  m 
Jamaica  was  so  successful  that  in  1846  he  was 
appointed  governor-general  of  Canada,  and 
there  he  succeeded  by  a  conciliatory  policy  in 
allaying  the  discontent  which  had  broken  out 
and  for  some  time  continued.  It  was  througfti 
his  efforts  that  reciprocity  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada  in  natural  products  was 
established  (1854-^).  In  1849  he  was  raised 
to  the  British  peera^  as  Baron  Elgin;  was 
sent  in  1657  as  special  ambassador  to  China, 
where  in  the  following  year  he  succeeded  in 
concluding  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin.  He  also 
concludea  a  treaty  with  Japan.  When  he  re- 
turned to  England  he  was  given  the  office  of 
Postmaster-General  and  elected  lord  rector 
of  Glasgow  University.  In  I860,  the  CMnese 
emperor  having  manifested  unfriendliness. 
Lord  Elgin  was  sent  to  enforce  the  treaty, 
which  he  did  by  seizing  Peking.  The  treaty 
which  followed  was  successful  in  regulating 
Chinese  relations  with  Europe  until  1890.  In 
1861  he  was  appointed  governor-general  of 
India.  He  maintained  internal  peace  and  ex- 
erted himself  unceasingly  for  the  development 
of  the  country.  His  'Letters  and  Journals* 
were  edited  by  Walrond  (London  )8^). 
ELGIN,  Thomas  Bmce.    See  Elcin  Mas- 

ELGIN,    Victor    Alexander    Brace,    9tb 

Earl  op,  British  statesman ;  b.  Montreal, 
1849;  d.  Scotland,  January  1918.  His 
grandfather,  the  7tb  earl,  best  known .  'by 
his  connection  with  the  Elg^n  Marbles  (q.v.), 
was  British  Ambassador  at  Constantinople 
from  1799  to  1802.  Lord  Elgin  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Oxford  and  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  a  Libera!  under  the  banner  of  Glad- 
stone. In  1893  he  was  appointed  viceroy  of 
India,  a  post  which  his  father  had  held — and 


.lOogle 


BLGIN  — ELGIN   HARBLBS 


died  in  — 30  years  before.  The  five  years 
of  Elgin's  administration,  1894  to  1899,  were 
marked  by  numerous  and  serious  problems, 
financial,  economic,  plague,  famine  and  war. 
The  difficultiea  were  met  by  the  viceroy  and  his 
advisers  with  courage,  resource  and  success,  and 
much  was  done  to  improve  public  works  in  gen- 
eral and  railroad  construction  in  particular. 
Lord  Elgin  was  chairman  of  the  royal  com- 
mission appointed  in  1902  to  inquire  into  the 
military  preparations  for,  and  conduct  of,  the 
South  African  War.  In  the  Campbel I ~ Banner- 
man  Cabinet  (December  1905)  he  became 
Colonial  Secretary,  in  which  capacity  he  was 
primarily  responsible  for  framing  the  Constitu- 
tion  for  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  He  retired 
in  1908,  but  his  services  were  employed  on  im- 
portant government  commissions  where  judg- 
ment and  impartiality  were  needed.  As  chair- 
man of  the  Carnegie  Trust  he  took  a  strong 
interest  in  the  amplication  of  the  fund.  Lady 
Elgin,  who  died  in  1909,  had  six  sons  and  five 
daughters. 


t  by  north  e 


1  the   Fox  River. 


and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern.    It  — 

the  terminus  of  the  Aurora,  Elgin  and  Chicago 
Railway,  which  is  a  third-rail  electric  line  be- 
tween these  dlies.  Two  products  make  Elgin 
famous  —  butter  and  watches.  The  dairv  in- 
terests have  probably  had  more  to  do  with  the 
development  of  the  community  than  any  other 
factor.  Elarly  in  its  history,  The  Borden  Con- 
densed Milk  Company  located  a  large  plant 
here  and  since  that  time  has  established  many 
more  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  The  current 
quotations  of  the  Elgin  Board  of  Trade  fix  the 
market  price  of  hiM  grade  butter  throughout 
the  entire  country.  The  other  industry  to  which 
Elgin  largely  owes  its  growth  and  prosperitv  is 
the  making  of  fine  watch -movements.  The 
watch  factory  was  started  in  the  spring  of  1864 
and  has  been  a  success  from  the  beginning. 
There  are  many  other  industries  in  Elgin,  all 
of  which  are  prosperous  concerns.  Two  watch- 
case  factories  and  as  many  shirt  factories  dis- 
tribute their  products  throughout  the  country. 
Besides  these,  there  are  shoe,  pipe-organ,  silver- 
plate,  automobile,  cotfin- fixtures,  canning,  malted 
milk,  rug  factories,  foundries,  flouring  mills. 
etc.  Two  large  publishing  houses  are  located 
here  and  there  are  several  machine  shops  and 
foundries.  The  United  States  census  of  manu- 
factures for  1914  showed  within  the  city  limits 
91  industrial  establishments  of  factory  grade, 
employing  5,974  persons ;  5,529  being  wage 
earners,  receiving  annually  $3,320,000  in  wages. 
The  capital  invested  aggregated  $17,371,000  and 
the  year's  output  was  valued  at  $10,492,000; 
of  this,  $6,221,000  was  the  value  added  by  manu- 
facture. Elgin  is  sometimes  called  the  "City 
of  Churches."  Nearly  all  denominations  are 
represented  and  the  various  houses  of  worship 
are  lat^e  and  handsome.  The  city  is  noted  for 
its  public  school  system,  which  is  highly  devel- 
opei  and  very  efficient.  The  builjiings  are 
handsome  in  architecture  and  a  new  high  school 
is  in  the  process  of  construction.  The  Elgin 
Academy  of  the  Northwestern  University  is  a 
well-known  preparatory  school  for  the  latter 
institution,  which  is  located  at  Evanston,  111. 


Saint  Mary's  Academy  is  also  well  known 
throughout  the  State  and  bears  a  high  repu- 
tation as  a  place  of  learning.  The  Illinois 
Northern  Hospital  for  the  Insane  is  located  in 
Elgin.  The  Elgin  Woman's  Club  has  built  and 
operates  a  large  hospital,  which  is  famed 
throu^out  the  country  and  State  for  its  h^h 
standing  and  great  efficiency.  Its  cost  was  about 
$1,000,000.  The  banks  are  six  in  number,  four 
national  and  two  savings.  They  have  a  com- 
bined capital  of  over  $650,000  and  are  prosper- 
ous and  strong  financial  institutions.  Founded 
in  the  spring  of  1835,  Elgin  has  grown  rapidly 
in  size  and  importance  until  it  now  is  the  most 
beautiflil  and  the  second  largest  city  in  Kane 
County.  El^n  was  incorporated  in  1854  and 
Dr.  Joseph  Tefft  was  chosen  the  first  mayor. 
The  waterworks  and  sewer  system  and  an  elec- 
tric-lighting plant  are  the  property  of  the  mu- 
nicipality. The  city  has  commission  form  of 
government.  Property  is  in  demand,  owing  to 
the  number  of  Chicago  people  who,  on  account 
of  good  transportation  facilities,  are  seekit^ 
more  room  and  pleasanter  homes  within  the 
confines  of  the  beautiful  city  on  the  Fox  River. 
Pop.  27.485. 

ELGIN  MARBLES,  the  name  ^veo  to  a 

feerless  collection  of  antique  sculptures  bixnight 
rom  Athens  to  England  by  Tliomas  Bruc^ 
7th  Earl  of  Elgin,  m  the  early  part  of  the 
19th  century.  While  Ambassador  at  Constanti- 
nople (1799-1802)  he  conceived  the  plan  of 
securing  some  portion  of  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Athens  and  to  that  end  secured  permission  of 
the  Porte  to  take  *any  stones  that  might  appear 
interesting  to  him.'  At  his  own  expense  (the 
British  government  having  refused  aid)  he 
set  a  corps  of  artists  to  work  who  toiled  for  10 
years  detaching  various  specimens  from  the 
Parthenon,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  colossal 
statues  on  the  tympana  of  the  pediments,  the 
metopes  and  the  frieie  around  the  cella.  Among 
the  best  preserved  examples  which  this  splendid 
effort  brought  forth  were  the  ^Ttipanum  repre- 
senting the  birth  of  Minerva,  the  15  metopes 
showing  in  high  relief  the  combats  of  the 
Centaurs  and  Lapithx  and  the  slabs  from  the 
cella  frieze  depicting  in  low  relief  the  great 
Panathenaic  prc>cession.  In  addition  to  these 
Lord  Elgin  procured  the  colossal  statue  of 
Bacchus  from  the  choragic  monument  of 
Thrasyllus,  one  of  the  caryatides  from  the  tem- 
ple of  Pandrosus,  a  portion  of  the  frieze  from 
the  Erechthcum  and  fragments  of  the  columns 
of  the  Parthenon  and  Erechtheum;  also  nu- 
merous inscriptions,  urns,  etc,  found  in  the 
nei^borhood.  When  these  treasures  of  an- 
tiquity arrived  on  the  English  shores  they  were 
received  with  a  mixture  of  admiration  and  in- 
dignation—  the  latter  because  of  supposed  van- 
dalism. It  is  said  that  Lord  Byron  was  so 
outraged  by  the  alleged  depredations  that  when 
he  visited  the  Parthenon  he  inscribed  conspicu- 


not  Lord  Elgin  obtained  these  sculptures  they 
would  have  been  destroyed  in  the  subsequent 
war  of  Greek  independence  and  especially  in 
the  last  siege  of  Athens  in  1826.^,  After  much 
hesitation  and  bickering  as  to  the  price,  in 
spite,   too,   of   their  value  vouched  for  by  e 


ELHOI^T  —  KLrjAH 


third  1cm  than  he  had  expended  upon  them. 
They  are  now  to  be  aeen  in  the  British  Museum 
as  priceless  examples  of  the  highest  in  Greek 
art  which  matured  under  the  genius  of  Phidias. 
Uany  casts  have  been  taken  of  these  unsur- 
passed relics  ot  which  the  dty  of  New  York 
possesses  a  set.  Consult  'Andent  MarUes  in 
the  British  Museum*  (Vols.  VI-IX,  London 
1830-39,  1842). 

ELHORST,  Hendrik  Tan,  Dutch  biblical 
scholar:  b.  Wisch,  Guelderland,  1861.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  University  of  Am- 
sterdam. He  entered  the  Mennanite  ministry 
and  held  pastorates  successively  at  In  sum, 
Friesland,  Amhem,  The  Ha^e  and  Haarlem, 
In  1906  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Hebrew 
language,  antiquities  and  literature  in  the 
University  of  Amsterdam.  He  has  published 
critical  commentaries  on  Micah  (1891),  Amos 
(1899)  and  <lsrael  in  Thet  lichte  der  jongste 
onderzoekingen*    ( 1906) . 

ELI,  eli,  Hebrew  judge  and  high-priesl  of 
Israel.  After  a  turbulent  rule  of  40  years,  he 
died  1116  B.  C.  Failing  to  punish  the  misdoings 
of  his  sons,  Phineas  and  Hophni,  the  downfall 
of  his  house  followed. 

ELI  PERKINS.  See  Landon,  Uelville 
DB  L. 

ELIA,  e1i-3.    See  Lamb,  Charles. 

ELIE  DE  BEAUMONT,  ile  ii  bo-moA, 
Jean  Baptivte  Armand  Louis  L£once,  French 
geologist :  b.  Canon,  France,  25  Sept.  1798 ; 
d..  there,  22  Sept.  1874.  He  was  educated  in 
the  Polytechnic  School ;  became  professor  at 
the  School  of  Mines  (1829) ;  professor  of 
geology  in  the  College  of  France  (1833)  ;  chief 
engineer  of  mines  (1833);  member  of  the  In- 
stitute (1835)  and  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  (1853),  He  published 
'Carte  geologique  de  France*  (1843) ;  'No- 
-  tices  sur  les  systemes  de  montages'  (1852); 
and  Vk-ith  Dufrenoy,  'Voyage  metallurgique  en 
Angleterre'  (1827),  the  record  of  a  scientific 
journnr  he  had  made  in  England  and  Scotland 
in  1823.  His  principal  services  to  science  were 
in  the  establishinif  of  the  ^:eological  survey  of 
France    and    the    stimulating    of    interest    in 


BLIGIUS,  e-llj'iis,  or  ELOI,  a-lwa.  Saint, 
bishop  of  Noyon :  b.  Cadillac,  near  Limoges, 
588;  d.  Noyon,  1  Dec.  about  660.  Having  in 
boyhood  shown  a  decided  aptitude  for  tine  art 
he  was  placed  by  his  parents  under  the  direction 
of  the  master  of  the  mint  at  Limoges  and  there 
acquired  skill  in  the  goldsmith's  craft.  Ap- 
pointed coiner  to  the  Frankish  king,  Gotaire, 
and  to  his  son  and  successor,  Dagobert,  he  exe- 
cuted at  their  order  the  bas-reliefs  on  the  tomb 
of  Saint  Germanus,  bishop  of  Paris,  and  other 
works  in  the  precious  metals  which  were  re~ 
garded  as  the  masterpieces  of  decorative  art  in 
that  time.  He  was  a  favorite  at  court,  which  he 
was  obliged  to  frequent  because  of  his  con- 
nection with  the  king ;  but  he  took  more  pleas~ 
ure  in  relieving  the  needy  than  in  the  society 
of  the  worldly.  He  daily  fed  a  large  numb«- 
of  poor  people,  he  buried  the  bodies  of  male- 
factors, and  he  ransomed  captives,  especially 
the  Saxon  slaves  who  were  often  sold  in  the 
markets.  Both  Clotaire  and  his  son  Dagobert 
bestowed  costly  presents  upon  Eligius,  but  they 
could  not  make  him  rich,  be  gave  so  much  to 


the  poor  and  to  the  founding  of  charitable  in- 
stitutions. At  about  the  Age  of  50  he  decided 
to  abandon  the  world  entirely  and  devote  him- 
self to  the  conversion  of  the  pagans.  Two 
years  later  he  was  ordained  priest  and  in  546 
was  made  bishop  of  Novon.  As  bishop  he 
gave  special  attention  to  the  conversion  of  the 
Flemings  and  Frisians,  and  the  greater  part  of 
Flanders  was  converted  through  his  efforts. 
Consult  Lebeuf,  'Histoire  du  diocese  de 
Paris';  Fleury,  'Vila  S.  Eligius.' 

ELIHU,  a  friend  of  the  patriarch  Job, 
introduced  as  speaking  after  the  three  intimate 
friends.  His  portion  in  chapters  xxxii-xxxvii 
is  supposed  by  many  critics  to  be  a  later  addi- 
tion to  the  book,  Lightfoot  and  others  con- 
jecture that  Elihu  was  the  author  of  the  book 
of  Job, 

ELIJAH,  whose  name  ("Jehovah  is  God») 
indicates  his  mission  and  his  work,  was  one  of 
the  greatest  prophets  of  Israel.  His  prophetic 
activity  began  in  the  days  of  Ahab  of  Israel,  and 
ended  in  the  days  of  his  son,  Ahaziah,  or,  as  is 
on  the  whole  more  probable,  in  the  days  of  his 
son-in-law,  Jehoram  ot  Judah.  His  first  ap- 
pearance is  strange;  the  end  of  his  life  on  earth 
still  more  Strang^.  Throughout  liis  career  he 
comes  and  goes  in  an  unusual  and  remarkable 
way.  His  special  work  was  to  save  his  nation 
from  falling  into  heathenism,  and  thus  making 
impassible  the  great  history  which  has  resnlted 
in  the-  Christian  civilization  of  our  own  da^s. 
Ahab,  the  Idng  of  northern  Israel,  had  marned 
Jeiebel,  the  daughter  of  Ethbaal.  king  of  Tjrre, 
and  formerly  a  priest  of  the  Tyrian  religion. 
Among  the  Seimtic  peoples  an  alliance  of  na- 
tions meant  a  mutual  honoring  of  gods.  Thus 
the  marriage  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel  introduced 
into  the  kingdom  of  Israel  the  worship  of  the 
Tyrian  Baaf  Gradually,  through  the  deter- 
mined elTorts  of  Jezebel,  who  was  a  fanatic  for 
her  faith,  the  worship  of  Baa!  displaced  that  of 
Jehovah,  and  Seemed  likely  altogether  to  de- 
stroy it.  Later,  by  the  marriage  of  Atbaliub, 
the  daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jeiebel,  to  Jehoram, 
king  of  Judah,  the  same  course  of  things  began 
in  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (2  Kings  viii,  18). 
To  bring  back  the  nation  !o  the  worship  of 
Jehovah,  and  to  the  recognition  of  him  as  God, 
was  the  work  of  Elijah.  This  work  began  with 
the  sudden  appearance  of  the  prophet  to  Ahab, 
to  announce  to  him  the  coming  drought  and 
famine,  which  the  nature  god  Baal  would  be 
powerless  to  prevent  (1  Kings  xvii,  1).  The  life 
of  the  prophet  up  to  this  time  had  probably 
been  spent  in  the  lonely  and  wild  region  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Jordan,  allhou^  it  is  tm- 
certain  where  his  birthplace  was.  During  the 
three  years  and  more  of  drought  and  famine 
which  followed  Elijah's  tirsl  appearance  to 
Ahab.  the  prophet  found  a  home  and  the  means 
of  hfe,  first  by  the  brook  Cherith,  and  after- 
ward in  the  home  of  a  widow  in  Zarephath,  a 
city  of  Phicnicia.  At  the  end  of  this  time  he 
had  his  great  contest  with  the  prophets  of  Baal 
on  the  Mount  Carmel,  where,  in  answer  to  his 
prayer,  Jehovah  revealed  himself  by  fire,  and 
was  acknowledged  by  the  people  to  be  God, 
The  same  day  the  falling  rain  ended  the  drought 
and  the  famine  (1  Kings  xviii).  The  triumph 
of  the  prophet  was  followed  by  a  flight  to 
Mount  Horeb  to  escape  the  wrath  of  the 
angered  Jeiebel.    On  diis  mountain  he  received 


Google 


240 


ELIJAH— SUOT 


from  God  a  revelation  in  regard  to  the  reaJ 
part  his  work  had  in  the  history  of  his  nation, 
and  was  commanded  by  God  to  call  Elisha  lo 
be  his  successor  in  the  work  for  the  nation.  In 
obedience  to  this  command,  he  went  from  Horeb 
to  Abel-meholah,  the  home  of  Elisha.    Having 

S'ven  lo  Elisha  the  call  to  be  his  successor,  he 
sappeared  for  a  time  from  the  view  of  men 
(1  Kings  xix).  About  six  years  later,  the 
prophet  asain  appeared  to  Ahab  in  the  vine- 
yard of  Naboth,  in  Je/reel,  to  denounce  him 
for  his  wicked  disregard  of  the  riKhts  of  his 
brother,  made  sacred  by  the  taw  of  Jehovah  (1 
Kings  xxi,  17-24).  The  final  work  of  the 
prophet  on  behalf  of  his  people  is  recorded  only 
m  the  book  of  Chronicles  (2  Chron.  xxi,  12-15). 
This  was  the  sending  of  a  letter  to  Jehoram, 
the  king  of  Judah,  to  teti  him  that,  because  he 
had  endeavored  to  introduce  the  Baal  worship 
of  the  northern  kifif^dom  into  Judah,  and  be- 
cause he  had  cruelly  murdered  his  brothers  to 
make  his  own  throne  more  secure,  Jehovah 
would  send  great  evils  upon  his  people,  his 
family  and  himself.  How  lon^  the  prophet 
lived  we  do  not  know  (2  Kin^  li,  1-12).  Con- 
sult Milligan,  'Elijah:  His  Life  and  Times' 
On  'Mi-n  of  the  Bible');  Farrar,  <First  Book 
of  Kites'  (Chaps,  xxxiii-xlviii,  in  the  'Ex- 
positor's D;ble>  1893) ;  and  'Second  Book  of 
Kings'  (in  the  same.  Chaps,  i  and  ii.  1902) ; 
Strachan.  'EJijali'  (in  Hastings'  'Dictiotiary 
of  the  Bible,>  18!^). 

Sylvester  Buxnhau, 
Professor  of  Old  Testament  Interbretatio*, 
Theo!ogici^  Seminary  of  Colgate  University. 
ELIJAH,  The,  an  oratorio  by  Mendelssohn, 
first  performed  at  Birmingham.  England.  26 
Aug.  1846.  It  is  one  of  his  best-known  works 
an<r  is  more  popular  in  England  and  America 
than  any  other  oratorio,  with  the  exception  of 
Handel's  'Messiah.' 

ELIMINATION.  In  mathematics  we  often 
meet  with  instances  where,  given  several  state- 
ments concerning  several  distinct  quantities,  we 
wish  to  d-scover  precisely  what  is  affirmed  of 
a  smaller  group  of  these  quantities.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  solution  of  simultaneous  equa- 
tions, stich  as 

\a,x  +b,y  +f,  =  0 
laa  +  bty  +  c,  =  0, 
to  obtain  the  value  of  x,  we  must  derive  from 
these  two  equations  a  sii^le  one  not  involving  y. 
This  process  is  called  the  elimination  of  y.  In 
the  case  of  linear  simultaneous  equations  such 
as  the  above,  the  elimination  may  be  performed 
by  multiplying  the  first  e(^uation  by  b,  and  the 
second  by  b,  and,  subtracting  or  by  solving  the 
first  equation  for  y  and  substituting  this  value 
in  the  second,  or  by  solving  both  equations  for 
3'  and  equaling  the  values  thus  obtained.  All 
these  methods  give  the  result 


(see  DcfERMiMANTS),  and  throughout  all  forms 
of  elimination  determinants  are  very  convenient. 
Elimination  between  equations  not  linear  is 
apt  to  be  very  complicated  and  difficult.  How- 
ever, in  the  case  oi  the  elimination  of  a  single 
unknown  from  two  consistent  algebraic  equa- 


tions, Sylvester's  dialytic  method  forms  an 
easy  solution  to  the  problem.  This  consists 
in  obtaining  from  two  equations  in  jt  of  the 
mth  and  nih  degrees,  respectively,  the  n  equa- 
tions formed  by  multiplying  the  first  equation  t^ 
the  powers  of  x  from  the  Olh  to  the  (n^  l)sl 
and  the  m  equations  formed  by  multiplying  the 
second  equation  by  the  powers  of  x  from  the 
0th  to  the  (m  —  l)st,  and  by  eliminating  from 
these  the  powers  of  x,  considered  as  independ- 
ent variables.  We  thus  get  nt  +  n  equations 
in  m  +  n  —  1  variables,  and  the  condition  (see 
Dethiiiinants)  that  these  be  consistent  is  that 
the  determinant  of  the  coefficients  should  vanish. 
For  example,  if  our  two  equations  are 

\aM*  -j-art'-t-a«t'  +  OiX-|-<u  =  0 

Ibof  +  hx  +  b,  =  0 
we  obtain  from  these  the  equivalent  family  of 
equations 

iwr'  -|-  ort*  +  Oik'  -|-  OiK  -f  (h  =  0 

■j^  +  Oi**  +  Otx"  -|-  oik'  -}■  (m;  =0 

b,^  +  lnx  +  b,=f> 

btif  +  b^  +  b.  =0 

baf  +  b,x*+b^  ■=  0, 

which  give  the  relation  between  the  coefficients 


b,     bi     b,     0 
b,     b,     0      0 

In  certain  cases  an  analogous  method  may 
be  applied  to  systems  of  three  or  more  equa- 
tions. A  method  of  similar  application  to  that 
of  Sylvester  had  been  discovered  previously  by 
Euler.  (See  Alcebha,  Eu!mentary;  Detehmi- 
WANTS).  Consult  Bumside  and  Ponton,  'Theory 
of  Equations'  (Dublin  190!)  ;  Dickson,  'Intro- 
duction to  the  Theory  of  Algebraic  Equations' 
(New  York  1903)  ;  Muir,  'Theory  of  Deter- 
minants' (London  1890)  ;  Young,  'Monographs 
on  Modem  Mathematics'   (New  York  1911). 

ELIOT,  Charles  William,  American  col- 
lege president  and  educator ;  b.  Boston,  Mass., 
20  March  1834.  He  was  graduated  from  Har- 
vard in  1853,  was  tutor  in  mathematics  there 
1854-58,  and  assistant  professor  of  mathematics 
and  chemistry  in  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School, 
Harvard.  1858-63.  After  spending  two  years  in 
Europe  studying  chemistry  and  investigating 
educational  methods  he  was  professor  of 
analytical  chemistry  in  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  1865-69.  In  the  last-named 
year  he  became  president  of  Harvard  University, 
which  position  he  resigned  in  1909.  He  is  one 
of  the  foremost  writers  and  speakers  of  the  day 
upon  educational  and  social  problems  and  has 
exerted  a  strong  influence  upon  the  trend  of 
American  thought.  During  his  incumbency 
Harvard  College  introduced  what  is  commonly 
known  as  the  elective  s;fslera  —  a  system  since 
adopted  by  most  American  colleges,  whereby 
Students  no  longer  must  pursue  a  rigidly  pre- 
scribed curriculum,  but  may  chose  (within 
certain  groups)  any  of  the  subjects  taufiht. 
Under  President  Eliot,  too,  Harvard's  college 
course  could  be  covered  in  three  years  instead 
of  four,  thus  making  it  possible  to  complete 
both  the  college  and  a  professional  course  in 
six.  instead  of  seven,  years.  Numerous  other 
educational    reforms    were   advocated   by    Dr. 


^)': 


>glc 


CHARLES  WILLIAM  ELIOT 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


.yGooi^le 


Efiot  in  his  long;  ear«r  at  Harvard,  which 
bave  placed  him  among  (he  greatest  American 
educators  and  have  won  great  prestige  for  the 
UTiiversitv  over  which  he  presided.  He  has 
published  'Manual  of  Qualitatrre  CTiemical 
Analy5is>  (with  P.  H.  Storer)  ;  'Manual  of 
Inorganic  Chemistry*  fwith  F.  H.  Slorer)  ; 
'Ftve  American  Contributions  to  Civilization 
and  Other  Essays'  •  'Educational  Reform' ; 
'More  Money  for  the  Public  Schools'  (1903); 
'JohD  Gilley'  (!904);  'The  Happy  Life' 
(190S);  'The  Road  Towards  Peace'  (1915). 
BLIOT,  George  (the  pseudonym  of  Maby 
Ann  or  Uariak  Evans  Cjioss),  the  most  dis- 
tinguished of  English  women  novelists :  b.  Ar- 
buiy  farm,  near  Nuneaton,  Warwickshire,  22 
Xov.  1819;  d.  Cnielsea.  22  Dec  1880.  Her  father, 
Robert  Evans,  who   was   of   Welsh  . 


daughter  and  third  child  of  his  sei^ond  marriage. 
When  Marion  was  a  few  months  old,  the  family 
removed  to  Griff,  a  "dieerful  red-brick,  ivy- 
covered  house,'  and  there  the  first  21  years 
of  her  life  were  spent  amid  scenes  and 
!imong  a  people  that  she  vias  destined  to  im- 
mortalize. Her  first  school  was  at  Attleborough, 
and  from  there  she  went  to  a  boarding  school 
at  Nuneaton,  one  of  the  governesses  at  which. 
Miss  Lewis,  became  a  warm  friend,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  awakening  religious  impressions  that 
were  deepened  in  tne  years  she  spent  between 
the  ages  of  13  and  16,  at  Miss  Franklin's  school 
in  Coventry.  The  death  of  her  mother,  Iq 
whom  she -was  tenderly  devoted,  which  occurred 
in  1836,  was  succeeded  soon  after  by  the  mar- 
riage of  her  sister,  and  the  care  of  her  father's 
home  then  devolved  upon  her.  The  duties  of 
the  household  were  accompanied  by  lessons  in 
Italian  and  tikrman,  Greek  and  Latin ;  she  was 
already  an  omnivorous  reader  and  one  with  a 
fine  power  of  selection;  she  was  passionately 
fond  of  music,  and  an  excellent  player  on  the 
piano  on  which  instrument  she  might  have  at- 
tained some  distinction  as  an  executant  but  for 
the  ■agonies  of  shyness"  wilh  which  she  was  at- 
flicied.  Her  father's  retirement  from  active 
life  was  followed  by  her  brother's  appoiniment 
lo  succeed  him,  and  Marian  and  her  father  re- 
moved in  1841  to  Tolcshill  Road,  Coventry. 

Up  to  this  time  Marian  was  deeply  imbiied 
with  evangelical  religion,  which  had  ,  been 
stamped  upon  a  mind  of  singular  receptivity 
iy  the  example  and  instruction  of  her  teachers. 
Then  with  expanding  intellect  came  vanishing 
faith.  Among  the  new  friends  was  Charles 
Bray,  whose  wife  was  a  sister  of  Charles  Hen- 
nell,  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  'An  Inquiry 


reading  of  this  and  similar  works  effected  _ 
complete  revolution  in  the  inner  hie  of  Marian 
Evans ;  she  abandoned  the  creed  of  her  girl- 
hood, and  determined  in  the  spring  of  1842  not 
to  go  to  church.  This  was  Uje  occasion  of  a 
temporary  breach  with  .her  father,  who  was  a 
churchman  of  the  old  school  and  little  disposed 
to  brook  rebellion  in  his  own  household.  After 
a  short  absence  from  home  and  throuffh  the 
eRorts  of  friends  a  reconciliation  was  effected ; 
Marian  returned  and  resumed  her  attendance 
at  church,  and  although  she  never  retraced  by 
a  step  the  course  she  had  taken,  her  works  are 
witness  to  the  insight  and  tendetness,  bohi  o( 


3*  Ml 

underslandmg,  with  whieh  she  approached 
evangelical  beliefs. 

The  years  from  18«  to  1M9  were  devoted 
to  attendance  on  her  father  during  his  recurrent 

illnesses,  and  by  the  translation  of  Strauss'* 
'Life  of  Jesus,'  a  work  which  entailed  two 
years  of  exacting  labor  and  was  published 
anonymously  in  1846,  and  for  which  she  received 
the  sum  of  CO.  The  completion  of  this  work 
left  her  "Strauas-sick  —  it  makes  lier  ill  dis- 
secting the  beautiful  story  of  the  Crucifixion!" 
After  the  death  of  her  father  (1S49)  she  went 
to  the  Continent  and  passed  about  eight  months 
in  Geneva.  On  her  return  she  took  up  work 
on  the  IVesiminster  Review,  acting  as  sub- 
edilor,  and  in  1853  went  to  reside  at  the  office 
of  the  magazine  at  142  Strand.  In  the  same 
year  she  published  a  translation  of  Feuerbach's 
'Essence  of  Christianity,'  the  only. work  pub- 
lished under  her  own  name,  and^^  the  leading 
idea  in  which  is  that  man  has  made  God  in  his 
own  image  —  the  spiritualized  form  of  his  hopes 
and  desires.  At  this  period  she  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Froude,  J.  S.  Mill,  Carlyle^  Har- 
riet Martineau,  Herbert  Spencer  and  George 
Henry  Lewes  (q.v,). 

With  Lewes,  whom  she  describes  as  'a  man 
of  heart  and  conscience, .  wearing  a  mask  of 
fUppancy,"  she  entered  into  a  cormection  which 
she  regarded  as  a  marriage  without  the  sanc- 
tion of  law.  He  had  a  wife  already,  from  whoip 
he  was  separated  under  circumstances  that  pre- 
cluded the  possibility  of  divorce.  This  alliance 
is  regarded  by  many  as  the  one  fatal  step  in 
her  hfe,  and  to  it  they  attribute  the  somewhat 
obtrusive  self-consciousness  that  is  apparent  in 
some  parts  of  her  writings,  and  note  that  the 
novelisl's  own  conduct  does  not  square  wi^h 
her  teachings.  There  is  no  doubt  however  that 
they  lived  happily  together,  and  that  their  imion 
exercised  a  profound  mutual  influence  on  their 
literary  life  and  fortunes.  Lewes  undertook  all 
business  matters  for  her,  acted  as  critic  and 
mentor;  and  tactfully  shielded  her  from  the 
perusal  of  unfavorable  or  inept  reviews.  In- 
deed bi)t  for  the  constant  encouragement  and 
stimulus  given  by  Lewes,  the  chances  are  ihit 
Marian  Evans  would  never  have  discovered 
herself  as  a  creative  artist,  for  althougii  possess- 
ing singular  robustness  and  health  of  intellect 
she  Was  of  low  physical  vitality,  subject  to 
acute  fits  of  depression,  and  only  by  strotig 
effort  was  able  to  undertake  creative  work.. 
Lewes  and  Marian  Evans  left  England  in  July' 
1854  and  wintered  in  Germany.  On  their  re- 
turn she  labored  at  a  translation  of  Spinoza's 
'Ethics'  and  wrote  reviews  for  the  Leader. 
An  article  contributed  to  the  Westminster 
Review  entitled  "Evangelical  Teaching:  Dr. 
dimming,*  in  which  the  famous  preacher  of 
Crown  Court  was  subjected  to  a  criticism  that 
was  at  once  informed,  witty,  pointed  and  scath- 
ing, revealed  to  Lewes  that  he  had  mated  with 
genius,  and  under  his  encouragement,  'The  Sad 
Fortunes  of  the  Reverend  Amos  Barton'  was 
begun  in  Septenjber  .  1856,  and  appeared  in 
Blackwood's  Magasine  in  January  1857.  This 
was  followed  1^  'Mr.  Gilfil's  Love  Story,'  and 
'Janet's  Repentance,'  the  three  stories  being 
published  in  book  form  in  185^  under  the  pen 
name  of  'George  Eliot.'  Discerning  critics 
like  Thackeray  and  I>ickens  recognized  that  a 
new  force  had  arisen  in  England  fiction,  and  the 
latter  divined  that  the  creator  was  a  wotnaiL 


,5lc 


It  may  be  questioned  if  the  author  ever  bettered 
those  faithful  sketches  of  old-fashioned  life  in 
the  WarwiL'kshire  of  her  gitlhood,  with  their 
genial  and  kindly  humor,  warmth  of  sympathy, 
power  of  desciplion  and  moving  but  unforced 
pathos.  'Scenes  of  Qerical  Life*  could  not  be 
called  a  popular  success,  but  with  her  nexl  novel 
'Adam  Bede>  (1859)  written  partly  in  Ena- 
land,  partly  at  Munich  and  Dresden,  the  lead- 
ing public  was  taken  by  storm,  and  il  has  re- 
mained the  most  popular  of  George  Eliot's 
works.  The  genesis  of  the  story  came  to  the 
author  through  an  aunt,  a  Methodist  preacher, 
who  had  occasion  to  pass  a  night  with  a  girt 
condemned  for  child  murder,  the  aunt  and  girl 
respectively  becoming  the  Dinah  Morris  and 
Hetty  Sorrel  of  the  novel.  George  Eliot  was 
put  to  considerable  amtoyance  by  the  claims 
made  to  its  authorship,  especially  by  one  Lig- 
gins  in  her  native  county,  and  only  the  inter- 
vention of  Blackwood  the  publisher  set  the  mat- 
ter at  rest.  It  then  became  known  that  Marian 
Evans,  the  lyestminsUr  reviewer,  and  Gcotge 
Eliot  were  identical.  'The  Mill  on  the  Floss' 
(1860)^  is  to  some  extent  autobiographical,  the 
charming  portraits  of  Maggie  and  Tom  Tulli- 
ver  being;  drawn  from  her  own  and  her  brother 
Isaac's  childhood.  'Silas  Mamer,*  which  many 
regard  as  her  most  perfect  stoty,  followed  in 
1861.  In  1860  George  Eliot  had  spent  the  sum- 
mer in  Italy  collecting  material  for  her  great 
historical  romance,  "Romola,"  first  pubhshcd 
serially  in  Cornhill,  for  which  she  rccdved  the 
then  unheard-of  sum  of  i7,000,  and  which  ap- 
peared in  book  form  in  1863.  In  order  to  write 
this  she  went  through  a  course  of  readinjj  that 
would  have  qualified  her  to  write  a  history. 
Her  husband  says  that,  'it  ploughed  into  her 
more  than  any  of  her  works,*  and  she  herself 
^ys  she  *began  it  a  young  woman,  and  finished 
It  an  old  woman.*  Although  it  must  be  pro- 
nounced a  masterpiece,  reflecting  her  powers  at 
their  very  highest,  it  cannot  be  re^rded  —  in 
spile  of  the  fine  character  drawing  in  it,  espe- 
cially of  Tito  Milema  and  Tessa  — as  a  faith- 
ful and  lifelike  reproduction  of  the  Florence 
of  the  Renaissance.  The  appearance  of  *Felix 
Holt  the  Radical*  in  1866  seemed  to  betoken 
diminishing  powers.  She  then  essayed  poetry, 
'The  Spanish  Gypsy'  appearing  in  1868,  and 
'Agatha'  in  1869;  .and  these  revealed  that  her 
art  did  not  lie  in  that  dirccliotL  The  only  poem 
of  hers  that  b  certain  to  live  is  the  noble  ^iece 
beginning  'O  may  I  join  the  choir  invisible.' 
'Middlemarch'  (1871-72),  a  novel  which  may 
be  regarded  as  iaspired  by  her  life  at  Coventry, 
as  her  early  works  drew  their  stimulus  from 
childhood  and  girlhood,  is  notable  for  some 
fine  characteriiations  of  middle  and  upper  class 
life  in  an  English  provincial  town,  and  is  replete 
with  pregnant  thought.  'The  Legend  of  Jubal 
and  Other  Poems'  appeared  in  1874,  'Daniel 
Deronda,'  her  last  great  work,  was  published 
in  book  form,  and  in  the  opinion  of  at  least  one 
noted  critic  is  the  best  of  her  novels  and  marks 
the  culminating  point  in  her  career.  On  28 
Nov.  1878,  Lewes  died.  This  bereavement 
was  a  crushing  blow  to  George  Eliot ;  for  weeks 
she  saw  no  one  and  wrote  no  letters-  and  she 
busied  herself  preparing  his  unpublished  work 
for  the  press,  and  founded  a  scholarship  in  his 
memory  for  scientific  investi^tion.  'Theo- 
t^rastus  Such,'  written  sometime  earlier,  ap- 
peared in  1879.    She  never  really  got  over  the 


shock  of  Lewcs's  death.  In  the  months  of  sor- 
row and  depression  following  on  that  event 
she  had  been  lifted  somewhat  by  the  fore- 
ihou^tfulness  and  helpful  sympathy  of  J.  W, 
Cross,  an  American  ^"an  old  friend  of  her  own 
and  of  LeweE  —  to  whotn  she  was  married  on 
6  May  1880.  But  their  married  life  was  cut 
short,  for,  after  contracting  a  chill  at  a  concert, 
she  died  on  22  December  of  the  same  year. 
The  first  collected  edition  of  her  novels  ap- 
peared 1878-80,  and  a  25-volume  edition  was 
issued  at  Boston  in  1908.  See  Adau  Bese; 
MiDDLEUARcu ;  Mill  oit  the  FLoss,  The; 
Romola;  Silas  Mabnql 

Bibliography.— Consult  her  'Life  and  Let- 
ters,' by  J.  W.  Cross  (3  vols.,  London  1885)  ; 
biographies  by  Blind  (London  1883)  ;  Brown- 
ing. O.,  (London  1892)  ;  and  Stephen,  L.  (New 
Yoilc  1902)  :  Deakiii,  'Early  Life  of  George 
Eliot'  (Manchester  1913) iDowden,  E.,  'Studies 
in  Literature'  (London  1878);  Hutton,  'Mod- 
em Guides  of  English  Thought'  (London 
1887);  James,  'Partial  Portraits'  (1888); 
Mottram,  'The  True  Story  of  George  Eliot  in 
Relation  to  Adam  Bede'  (New  York  190S) ; 
Myers,  'Essays  Modem'  (1883)  ;  Parldnson, 
'Scenes  from  the  George  Eliot  C^ilntry'  (Leeds 
1888). 

ELIOT,  Sir  John,  English  orator  and 
statesman:  b.  Port  Eliot,  Cornwall,  20  April 
1592;  d,  London.  27  Nov.  1632.  He  studied 
at  Exeter,  but  did  not  Uke  a  degree.  He  then 
took  up  lawj  and  traveled  in  Europe,  where  he 
became  an  intimate  friend  of  George  Villiers, 
later  Duke  of  Buckingham.  In  1614  he  was 
'  the  ■Addled*  Parliament  for  Saint  Ger- 
In  1618  he  was  knighted  and  in  the  fol- 


of  Devon.  Id  this  capacity  he  was  energetic 
in  suppressing  piracy.  His  arrest  of  a  notorious 
pirate  namea  Nutt  brought  him  into  collision 
with  Nutt's  nrotector,  Sir  George  Calvert,  then 
Secretary  of  State;  and  Eliol  was  imprisoned 
on  trumped-up  charges  for  three  months.  The 
return  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  accom- 
plished his  release.  He  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1624,  where  his  remarkable  independ- 
ence and  fluent  oratory  at  once  brought  him 
into  prominence.  He  supported  the  proposed 
war  with  Spain  and  began  his  life-long  opposi- 
tion to  encroachments  on  the  rights  ol  the 
House  of  Commons,  which  he  considered  the 
backbone  of  the  national  government.  He  was 
re-elected  in  1625,  during  which  session  he 
opposed  the  leniency  toward  Catholicism  and 
became  an  ardent  supporter  of  constitutional 
rights.  In  1626,  the  accumulated  mismanage- 
ments and  instances  of  the  selfish  policies  of 
Buckingham  completely  undermined  Eliot's  faith 
in  him  and  an  impeachment  followed.  This, 
together  with  Eliot's  opposition  of  forced  loans, 
led  to  his  imprisonment.  At  the  protest  of  the 
Commons  he  was  shortly  released  and  returned 
to  Parliament  in  1628.  He  joined  Coke  in 
promoting  the  Petition  of  Right  which  was 
signed  by  Charles  on  7  June.  In  1629,  after 
the  murder  of  Buckingham,  Eliot  devoted  him- 
self to  the  earnest  support  of  ProKstantism. 
His  attempts  to  resist  the  king's  tonnage  and 
poundage  taxes  were  met  by  the  monarch  with 
contempt  and  with  the  adjournment  of  Parlia- 
ment. When  this  last  measure  was  to  be  carried 
out  a     second    time,    Eliot    insisted    that    the 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


.yGooi^le 


speaker  be  held  in  his  cliair  iriiile  a  speech  was 
read  indicatiiiK  the  kuiK's  cncroachnKnts  on 
cDQstitutioiial  ris^ts.  When  aununoned  to  trial 
he  declared  that  be  was  answerable  to 
Parliament  alone  for  his  actions  and 
would  not  reply  (o  charges  brought  against 
him  by  any  other  body.  He  was  con- 
fined in  the  Tower,  and  finally  tried  with 
Holies  and  VaJentine  for  conspiracy  against 
lawful  order.  Eliot  refused  to  yield  an  inch  in 
submission  to  the  king  and  was  fined  and  im- 
m^oned  in  1629,  where  he  sickened  and  died. 
During  his  imprisonment  be  wrote  a  woric  on 
constitutional  monarchy  entitled  the  'Uonarchy 
of  Man,>  and  also  an  account  of  the  first 
Parliament  of  Charles  I  under  the  title 
'Negotium  PosteHonun* ;  *An  Apolo^  for 
Socrates,)  a  vindication  of  his  own  public  con- 
duct, and  'De  Jure  Majestatis,*  a  treatise  on 
government  Eliot  was  not  republican  in  bis 
views,  but  believed  rather  that  Uie  ideal  state  was 
a  constitutional  monarchy  in  which  the  powers 
of  the  Idng  would  be  strengthened  and  inter- 
preted by  Parliament  He  was  distinguished  by 
the  enthusiasm  rather  dian  the  logical  depth  of 
his  speeches.  The  king's  treatment  of  Eliot 
was  one  of  the  ca.uses  of  the  unpopularity  of 
that  monarch  which  led  to  his  downfall.  Pym 
did  much  to  systematize  the  imiitical  theories 
of  Eliot  Consult  Forster,  'Life  of  Sir  John 
Eliot'  (London  1871);  and  Gardiner,  'History 
of  England)   (London  18SU-95). 

ELIOT,  Johti,  American  colonial  mission- 
ary, 'the  Indian  Apostle* ;  b.  probably  at  Wid- 
ford,  Hertfordshire,  1604;  d.  Boxbury,  Mass., 
20  May  1690.  He  was  graduated  at  (Abridge 
in  1622,  and,  after  taking  orders  in  the  Chur^ 
of  England,  quitted  his  native  country  for  con- 
science's sake  and  landed  at  Boston,  New  Eng- 
land, in  1631.  In  1646,  after  two  years  study 
of  the  Indian  language,  be  delivered  a  long  ser- 
mon in  the  native  dialect  at  Nonantum,  and 
other  meetings  soon  followed.  He  shortly  after 
began  to  establish  his  converts  in  regular  set- 
tlements, his  work  meeting  with  approval  both 
in  the  colony  and  at  home ;  in  England  a  cor- 
Ijoration  was  founded  in  1649  'for  the  promo- 


expenses  of  the  preachers  and  the 
ina  translations.  At  one  time  there  were  over 
a  dozen  townships  of  'praying  Indians"  within 
the  bounds  of  Massachusetts,  and  many  more 
outside  these  limits,  with  numbers  estimated 
in  1674  at  3,600;  but,  although  the  organization 
survived    until    the    death  of    the    last    native 


of  the  English.    There  _       ..  .    .  ._    .    . 

memory  in  the  Indian  burying-ground  at  South 
Natick,  and  at  Newton,  near  the  scene  of  his 
first  Indian  sermon.  A  man  of  earnest  piety 
and  devotion,  warm-hearted  and  of  a  ungidarly 
attractive  manner,  he  has  left  a  memory  that  is 
honored  among  tne  first  in  the  history  of  New 
England.  With  Thomas  Weld  and  Richard 
Mather,  Eliot  prepared  an  English  metrical  ver- 
sion of  the  Psalms,  the  'Bay  Psalm-book' 
(Cambridge  1640),  as  the  first  book  printed  in 
New  England.  He  was  also  the  author,  among 
other  wcuka,  of  <The  Christian  Commonwealth* 


(London  1659),  suppressed  by  the  court  and 
now  extremely  rare;  'The  Communion  of 
Churches  >  ( 166S) ,  the  first  book  privately 
printed  in  America;  and  of  translations  into 
the  Indian  ton^e  of  Baxter's  'Call*;  Bayly's 
'Practice  of  Piety'  (abridged)  ;  and  Shepard's 
'Sincere  Convert'  But  the  great  work  of  his 
life  was  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the 
tongue  of  the  Indians  of  Massachusetts 
(Algonquin),  of  which  the  New  Testament  ap- 
peared in  1661.  and  the  whole  worl^  with  a  ver- 
sion of  the  Psalms  in  metre  ana  a  page  of 
'catechism*  in  1663.  The  longest  single  word 
in  it  is  "WutappesittukqussiuiDOMnvehtunkouoh,* 
signifyine  "kneeling  down  to  him,*  in  Maik  i, 
40;  wnich  illustrates  the  jest  of  Cotton  Mather, 
who  said  he  thought  the  words  of  the  lan- 
guage must  have  been  growing  ever  since  the 
dispersion  at  Babel.  Oi^  14  complete  copies  of 
the  first  and  second  editions  are  known  to  be  in 
existence,  A  scientific  study  of  Eliot's  Indian 
Bible  was  made  by  T.  H.  Trimibull  (q.v.),  and 
his  manuscript  published  1903  as  'Bulletin 
25'  by  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 
Washmglon.  Its  _tiUe  is  the  'Natick  Dic- 
tionary' and  it  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  first  ^ving  the  Natick  words  with  Eng- 
lish defimtions  and  the  second  giving  toe 
English  words  with  Nalick  definitions 
While  it  is  devoted  to  the  Natick  lan- 
guage it  is  practically  a  dictionary  of  all  the 
Algonquin  languages  of  Massachusetts,  for  the 
tribes  of.  that  part  of  the  country  spoke  prac- 
tically the  same  language,  though  each  had  its 
dialectic  variations.  Eliot's  'Indian  Grammar 
Begun'  was  printed  in  1666;  his  'Indian 
Fnmer'  in  1669.  The  finest  collection  of  unique 
and  scarce  copies  of  Eliot's  works  is  in  the 


that  by  Francis   (Vol.  V)  ;  Sparks'   'American 

Biography'   1st  series   (1836)  ;  the  eariiest  that 

by  Cotton  Mather  (1691).    Consult  also  articles 

the    'Cyclopjedia  of   American   Biography' 

'■"'*"  '  ■'      '"'  '"  '  of  National   " 


was  a  grandson  of  John  Eliot,  the  'Apos- 
tle to  the  Indians,*  and  was  long  a  pastor 
at  Killingworth,  Conn.  He  was  an  able 
preacher,  a  botanist  and  a  scientific  and  prac- 
tical agnculturist;  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 
white  mulberry  tree  into  Connecticut,  and  dis- 
covered a  process  of  extracting  iron  from  fer- 
ru^nous  sands.  He  was  also  regarded  as  the 
first  physician  of  his  day  in  the  colony;  and 
such  was  his  success  in  the  treatment  of  itt- 
lanity  and  chronic  complaints,  that  he  was  some- 
times sent  for  to  Newport  and  Boston,  and  was 
more  extensively  consulted  than  ahy  other  phy- 
sician in  New  England. 

ELIOT,  Samnel,  American  educator  and 
historian:  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  22  Dec.  1821;  d. 
Beverly,  Mass.,  14  Sept.  1898.  He  filled  the 
ch»r  of  history  and  political  science  in  Trinity 
College,   Hanford,    Conn.    (I85(^^} ;   was  its 


Girls'  High  School  m  Boston  (1873-76).  Froif 
1876-80  he  served  as  superintendent  of  tl^ 
Boston  public  schools.  Among  his  publicatioD': 
are   'The  Hittoiy  of  Liberty*    (1853);   <Tl)e 


8l^ 


ELIOT -^SLIXIRS 


Liberty  of  Rome'  (1849);  *Life  and  Timea  of 
Savonarola'  (1856;  ;  'Manual  of  United  Statei 
History  Between  thr  Years  1492  and  1850>  (re> 
vised  ed..  1873):  and  'Stories  from  the  Ara- 
bian Ni^ts'  (1879);  'Selections  from  Atn^- 
can  Autbors'    (1879). 

ELIOT,  Samuel  A&inB,  American  Uni- 
tarian minister:  b.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  24  Aug;. 
1862,  son  of  Charles  W.  Eliol  (q,v.).  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  1884;  was  pastor 
of  Unity  Church.  Denver,  188M)3,  and  of  the 
dlurch  of  the  Saviour,  Brooklyn,  1893-98.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  American  Unitarian  Asso-  ' 
ciation  1898-1900,  becoming  its  president  at  the 
latter  date.  He  is  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Board  of  Indian  Commissioners;  the 
president  of  the  trustees  of  the  Hackley 
Scfaool,  an  editor  of  the  Hibbert  lountat-  vice- 
president  of  the  Massacfa II setts  Federation  of 
Churches,  etc.  He  holds  the  honorary  degree  of 
D.D.  from  Bowdoin  and  LL.D.  from  Western 
Rccerve  University. 

BLIS,  ells,  (1)  a  country  in  the  west  of 
Peloponnesus,  where  Olympia  was  situated.  It 
was  bounded  on  the  east  by  Arcadia,  on  the 
south  by  Messenia  and  ran  along  the  coast, 
watered  by  the  river  Alpheus.  There  were  three 
districts  m  their  country  —  Colle,  or  Hollow 
Elis,  Pisatis  and  Triphylia;  the  two  latter  being 
subject  districts.  It  was  the  seat  of  the  Rreatest 
national  festivals.  The  Athenians  were  the  first 
to  raid  the  coast  during  the  Peloponnesian  War 
and  freguent  conquests  followed.  After  the 
suppression  of  the  games  at  Elis  by  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius  in  394  a.d.,  the  Eleans  lost 
Aeir  prestige  entirely.  Elis  and  Archaia  now 
form  a  nomarehy  of  Greece  with  the  capital 
at  Pyrgos.  (2)  Elia,  once  the  capital  of  Elis, 
is  now  called  Kaloskopi.  (See  Olyupia). 
Consult  Curtius,   'History  of  Greece.' 

ELI5HA,  a  member  of  the  tribe  of  Issa- 
char,  a  citizen  of  Abel-meholah,  was  a  dis- 
cy)1e  of  Elijah,  and  his  successor  in  the  pro- 
,  phetic  oflice.  His  prophetic  ministry,  which  was 
exercised,  as  was  that  of  Elijah,  m  northern 
Israel  began  in  the  reign  of  Ahab,  and  con- 
tinuea  through  the  reign)  of  Jehoram,  Jehu, 
Jt^oahaz,   and   during  a  part   of   the  reign   of 

Soash,  thus  covering  a  period  of  more  than 
alf  a  century.  He  was  a  man  of  veiy  dif- 
ferent character  and  mode  of  Kfe  from  Elijah, 
although  master  and  disciple  seem  to  have  been 
most  warmly  attached  to  each  other.  Elijah 
was  a  son  of  the  desert;  Ellsha  came  from  a 
quiet  farm  in  the  Jordan  Valley.  EKjah  lived 
apart  from  men;  Elisha,  for  the  most  part, 
dwelt  in  the  city,  either  at  Jericho  among  the 
sons  of  the  prophets,  or  in  his  own  home  at 
Dothan  or  Samaria.  Elijah  had  nothinr  to  do 
with  kings  except  to  rebuke  them ;  Elisha  was 
their  friend  ana  counsellor.  Yet  it  is  easy  to 
make  too  much  account  of  their  difference 
of  character  and  life  and  to  suppose  that  it 
affected  essentially  the  prophetic  aim  and  re- 
ligious attitude,  so  that  utese  were  quite  difFer- 
ent  in  the  case  of  each  prophet.  But  to  claim 
dat  the  work  and  spirit  of  Elisha  were  in 
marked  contrast  to  those  of  Elijah  would  be  to 
claim  too  mudi..  The  declaration  of  Jehovah  to 
Elijah  on  Moimt  Moreb,  "Him  that  escapeth 
irom  the  sword  of  Jehu,  shall  Elisha  alay' 
(1  Kings  xix,  17),  shows  that  it  was  Elijah's 
'iroric    of    vengeance    and    dertniction    wbufc 


Elisha  was  to  oAntmne.  It  was  Elisha,  ntore- 
over,  who  devised  the  plan  for  the  destruction 
of  the  house  of  Ahab  (2  Kin^  ix,  1^).  It 
was  Elisha,  alio,  who  reproved  King  Joa^  for 
his  lack  of  leal  for  the  utter  onrerthrow  of  Svria 
(2  Kings  ziii,  19).  It  is  to  be  ranemberea  in 
this  conaectioB  that  the  xcounte  which  we 
have  Qonceming  the  career  of  Elisha,  whatever 
the  cause  may  be,  relate  rather  to  his  deeds  as  a 
man.  than  to  his  work  as  a  prophet 

For  some  six  or  seven  years  after  his  call 
to  the  office  of  prophet  by  Elijah  at  Abel-me- 
faolah  (1  Kings  xix,  l»-2l),  he  was  a  helper 
and  disciple  of  Elijah.  But  we  do  not  ItnW 
just  where  he  was  in  all  this  time,  or  the  exact 
nature  df  his  work.  At  the  close  of  this  time, 
after  the  ascension  of  Elijah,  he  benn  his  own 
independent  work  as  a  prophet  (2  Kings  ii,  13- 
22).  The  character  of  tne  narrative  in  the 
Second  Book  of  Kings  makes  it  impossible  to 
arrange  the  events  olE  his  life  in  chronological 
order.  It  is  better^  therefore,  to  group  them 
under  two  headings;  (a)  his  deeds  id  private 
life;   (b)  his  deeds'  in  public  life. 

Under  the  6rn  ctasE,  we  may  put  ^1)  the 
healing  of  the  waters  of  Jericho  (2  Kings  ii, 
19-22);  (2)  the  puntehment  of  the  lads  of 
Bethel  (2  Kings  ii,  23-25) ;  (3)  die  saving  of 
a  widow's  son  from  slaverv  (2  fGn^  iv,  1-7) ; 
(4)  the  restoring  of  the  Shnnammite's  son  to 
life  (2  Kmg*  iv.  32^36) ;  (5)  the  rendering  of 
some  poisonous  pottage  harmless  (2  Kings  iv, 
38-41)  ;  (6)  the  miraculous  feeding  of  a  hun- 
dred men  (2  Kings  iv.  42-44)  ;  (7)  the  healing 
of  Naaman  the  leper  (2  Kings  v)  ;  (8)  the 
causing  of  the  iron  head  of  an  axe  to  swim  (2 
Kings  vi;  1-7). 

Under  the  second  class  we  may  put  (1)  his 
helpful  work  in  the  campai^  against  Moab  (2 
Kings  iii.  11-24)  ;  (2)  his  bringing  of  the  Syrian 
srmv  into  Samana,  where  they  were  made  pris- 
oners (2  Kings  vi,  8-23) ;  (3)  his  activity  in  the 
siege  of  Samaria  (2  Kings  vi,  24,  vii,  2)  ;  (4) 
his  visit  to  Damascus  to  announce  to  Haiael 
that  he  shall  be  king  of  Syria  (2  Kings  viii 
7-13) ;  (5)  the  sending  of  a  messenger  to  anoint 
Jehu  to  be  king  of  Israel  (2  fGngs  ix,  1-3) ;  (6) 
the  assuring  of  King  Joash  that  Israel  should 
be  victorious  over  Syna  (2  Kings  xiii,  14-19). 

But  the  power  of  Elisha  for  good  did  not 
end  with  his  life.  Of  him  alone  of  all  the 
prophets  it  is  recorded  Aat  be  wrought  a 
miracle  after  his  death.  A  dead  man  who  was 
hastily  cast  into  the  sepulchre  of  the  prophet, 
on  touching  the  prophet's  bones,  came  to  lif^ 
and  stood  upon  his  feet  (2  K'ngs  xiiij  20-21). 
Consult  Grove,  'Elisha*  (inSmitn's  *Dic6onBry 
of  the  Bib!e,>  1868);  Strachan,  'Elisha'  (in 
Hastings'  'Dictionary  of  the  Bible,>  1899J; 
Farrar,  'Second  Book  of  Kings'  (Chaps,  ui- 
■xvii  in  the  'Expositor's  BiWe,'   191)2). 

Svi-VESTHl  BOHMIIAM, 
Professor  of  Old  Testament  Interpretation, 
Theohgicm  Seminary  of  Colgate  Universily. 
ELIXIRS,  in  pharmacy,  are  aromatic 
sweetish,  spirituous  prejnratkms,  containing 
small  quantities  of  active  tnedicinal  drugs. 
They  are  now  mostly  used  as  vehldes  for  other 
remedies  aad  have  very  little  potent  action  save 
that  of  the  alcohol  which  they  contain.  Elixir 
aromaticnm  and  Elixir  glycyrrhizo  (licorice) 
are  the  only  two  elixirs  recognized  by  the  1917 
.T^iaio*  o£  the-Unitcd  Slattis  Phamftcopcea. 


BLIZABBTH,  the  wife  of  the  priest 
Zacharias  and  mother  o!  John  the  Baptist,  and 
a  relative  of  Uary,  the  mother  of  Jesus.  An 
angel  foretold  to  her  husband  the  birth  of  a 
son  in  her  old  a^;  and  it  wis  also  foretold 
by  the  angel  Gabnel  to  the  Virein  Mary,  as  art 
assurance  of  die  birth  of  the  Messiah. 

ELIZABETH,  queen  of  England:  b.  Green- 


VIII  and  of  Anne  Boleyn.  After  her  mother 
had  been  beheaded  (1536)  both  she  and  her  lis- 
ter Mary  were  declared  bastards,  but  finally  she 
was  placed  after  Prince  Edward  and  the  Lady 
Mary  in  the  order  of  succejsioa  Thui,  while 
'  the  first  two  marriages  of  King  Henry  were 
both  still  hrJd  to  be  illeKal,  the  children  of  both 
were  legitimized.  Elizalieth  received  a  classical 
education,  as  was  customary  with  women  of 
rank  in  her  time,  and  under  her  tutor,  Roger 
Ascham.  is  said  to  have  attained  very  consider- 
able proficiency  in  Latin  and  Greek.  During. 
her  father's  life,  as  well  as  in,  the  reign  of  her 
brother,  various  negotiations  were  entered  into 
for  her  marria^.  The  duke  of  Angouleme 
and  Philip  of  Spain,  who  afterward  married  her 
sister,  were  among  the  matches  proposed  for 
her ;  but  the  only  affair  of  this  kind  in  which  she 
may  be  supposed  to  have  been  personally  inter- 
ested was  the  suit  of  Lord  Seynioui  of  Dudley, 
the  Protector  Somerset's  brother.  It  is  ccrtam 
that  even  during  the  life  of  Catharine  Parr,  die 
widow  of  Henry  VIII,  whom  he  married,  his 
attentions  to  the  Lady  Elizabeth  were  only  loo 
well  encouraged.  BotA  before  this  marriage  aiul 
after  the  death  of  his  wife  he  was  a  suitor  for 
the  hand  of  the  princess ;  but  his  ambitious 
designs  iti  this  and  other  matters  were  not  coun- 
tenanced by  the  council,  and  ultimately  cost  him 
his  Ufe. 

On   the   death   of   Kii«   Edward,    Elizabeth 
vigorously  supported  the  title  of  Queen  Mary 

X'inst  the  pretensions  of  L^adv  Jane  Grey,  by 
eh  her  Own  title  as  well  as  her  sister's  were 
barred.  She  rode  to  meet  her  sister,  accom- 
panied by  1,000  horse,  and  this  bold  proceeding 
was  of  DO  small  service  in  confirming  the  doubt- 
ful in  their  allegiance;  but  Elizabeth  gained  lit- 
tle for  herself  by  a  polity  in  which  it  was  well 
understood  she  had  her  own  interest  in  view. 
After  Wyatt's  conspiracy  her  life  was  in  great 
darker,  and  was  probably  saved  only  by  the  in- 
tercession of  Phiftp.  She  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,  from  whence  she  was  removed  to  Wood- 
stock, where  she  was  confined  with  great  strict- 
ness. She  afterward,  through  Philip's  interces- 
sion, obtained  greater  liberty;  but  throughout 
the  whole  reign  continued  an  object  of  suspicion 
and  surveillance.  The  danger  she  now  incnrred 
developed  traits  in  her  character  which  ever 
after  continued  conspicuous,  her  prudent  self- 
control  and  power  of  dissimulation.  She  made 
every  demonstration  not  only  of  conformity, 
but  flif  lealous  adherence  to  the  established  re- 
ligion. Her  conduct  in  this  must  not  be  judged 
from  the  point  of  view  of  rigid  Proteslantism, 
which  Ehzabeth  never  professed;  but  there' 
were  some  at  least  among  the  Roman  Catholic 
ceremonies  and  customs  to  which  she  cowtd  not 
be  supposed  to  give  a  sincere  adherence.  Never- 
theless, her  simulated  zeal  must  have  been  well 
and  ably  sustained,  for  her  conduct  was  not 
left    to    the    report   of    friends,    but    carefully 


watched  by  spies  and  informers,  FhiUp  was 
most  anxious  to  have  her  married  out  of  the 
kingdom ;  and  if  the  Dnke  of  Savoy,  whom  he 
proposed,  was  unacceptable  from  his  Roman 
Catholicism,  there  was  Eric,  son  of  the  king 
of  Sweden,  who  long  after  continued  to  press 
bis  suit;  but  Ehzabeth  refused  both.  She  felt 
in  herself  a  capacity  for  rule,  and  her  sister's 
ill  health  opened  up  for  her  an  early  prospect  of 
the  throne,  which  she  was  nowilung  to  peril. 


herself ,  and  gave  her  the  ofiportunity  of  select- 
ing them  to  advantage.  Her  adviser  throughout 
the  whole  of  it  was  William  Cedi,  afterward 
Lord  Burleijdi,  who  had  already  been  a  minister 
under  Edward  VI,  and  continued  for  the  rest 
of  his  life  to  be  one  of  the  chief  councillors  and 
ablest  ministers  of  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he  was 
in  many  respects  a  congenial  spirit 

On  17  Nov.  1558  Mary's  disastrous  rekn 
came  to  a  close,  and  Elizabeth  was  immediately 
recogniied  qtieen  by  Parliament.  On  entering 
London  she  was  met  by  (he  bishops,  whom  she 
permitted  to  kiss  her  hand,  with  the  exception 
of  Bonner,  'whom  she  omitted  for  sundry 
severities  in  the  time  of  his  anthority.'  it  was 
now  that  the  cantion  and  secrecy  characteristie 
equally  of  Elizabeth  and  Cecil,  and  which  en- 
abled them  to  do  such  great  things,  appeared  in 
spontaneous  exercise.  The  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion was  still  predomitiant  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  any  attempt  to  overthrow  it  suddenly 
might  have  been  attended  with  the  greatest 
danger.  Elizabeth  made  no  immediate  change  in 
her  habits.  For  a  full  month  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Roman  Il^tbolic  Church  were  retained  in  all 
their  state,  A  solemn  funeral  service  was  held 
for  Queen  Mary  in  Westminster  Abbey,  at  her 
imerment  on  13  December.  The  Qtieen  even- 
intimated  her  accession  to  the  Pope.  She  re- 
tained the  greater  part  cf  her  sister's  council, 
choosing  only  seven  new  councillors,  who  were 
Protestants,  it  is  true,  but  not  then  known  as 
such.  Like  Cecil  and  herself,  they  had  all  con- 
formed, and  possessed  the  necessary  qualifica- 
tion for  Elizabethan  councillors  of  accomplished 
dissimulation.  Such  were  her  difliculties,  not- 
withstanding her  great  prudence,  that  at  her 
coronation  onlj;  one  of  all  the  bishops,  Ogle- 
thorpe of  Carlisle,  could  be  found  to  set  the 
crown  on  her  head.  The  obstacle  lay  in  the 
terms  of  thj  oath  of  allegiance,  which  affirmed 
that  the  sovereign  was  the  supreme  head  of  the 
Church,  and  to  which  no  loyal  Catholic  could 
subscribe.  She  had  also  before  this  authorized 
the  reading  of  the  liturgy  tn  English.  The  first 
great  object  of  her  reign  was  the  settlement  of 
religion:  A  Parliament  was  immediately  called, 
to  which  this  work  was  assigned.  It  met  on  25 
January,  and  was  dissolved  8  May,  but  its  object 
was  already  accomplished.  The  nation  was  pre- 
pared for  a  return  to  the  reformed  faith  or 
rather  to  the  via  media  which  is  embodied  in  the 
Anglican  Church  — and  Parliament  was  at  the 
bidding  of  the  court.  The  reformation  of  re- 
ligion in  England  was  the  work  of  Cranmer,  and 
had  already  been  accomplished  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI;  the  re -establishment  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical system  of  the  national  Church  on  the 
basis  ott  which  it  has  remained  to  the  present 
dfty  was  the  work  of  Cecil  and  Elizabeth,  and  it 
was  nearly  completed  in  this  Parliament  Eliza- 
beth had  less  extreme  opinioris  than  many  sup-. 


porters  of  the  new  faith.  She  was  tolerant,  for 
instance,  in  regard  to  images  and  was  fond  of 
ceremonial  and  is  said  to  have  entertained 
scruples  as  to  the  extent  of  the  royal  supremaqr 
in  spiritual  matters;  but  if  she  ifid,  they  must 
have  been  purely  speculative.  Tbey  certainly 
vanished  on   the  first  taste  of  power. 

If  the  formal  establishment  of  the  reformed 
reli^on  was  easily  completed,  the  security  and 
defense  of  the  settlement  was  the  main  object 
of  the  policy  and  the  chief  source  of  all  the 
struffgles  and  contentions  of  her  rdp).  What 
made  the  position  so  difficult  was  the  intolerance 
by  which  at  this  period  and  for  lone  after  all 
religions  sects  were  characterized.  No  sooner 
were  the  Puritans  freed  from  the  restrictive 
measures  of  Mary's  reign  than  they  began  to 
claim  predominance  for  tlieir  own  di^mas.  But 
it  was  far  from  the  intention  of  the  Queen  and 
the  supporters  of  the  Established  Oiurch.  not- 
withstanding the  common  persecutions  they  had 
endured,  to  grant  them  even  liberty  of  worsh^. 
EUizabeth's  own  determination,  as  expressed  by 
herself,  was  that  none  should  be  allowed  to  turn 
aside  either  to  the  ri^t  hand  or  the  left  from 
the  drawn  line  of  prescribed  duty,  and  in  insist- 
ing upon  uniformity  of  worship  she  was  not 
sin^lar,  but  was  acting  in  the  spirit  of  her  age. 
This  principle  was  not  less  firmly  held  in  her 
reign  than  in  her  sister's;  and  Roman  Catholics 
on  the  one  hand,  and  Puritans  on  die  other,  re- 
strained only  by  their  dread  and  hatred  of  each 
other,  were  made  the  irreconcilable  enemies  of 
the  existiim  order.  Moreover,  front  the  neces- 
sities of  the  strug^e  the  severities  of  Elizabeth's 
reign  went  on  increasing  as  time  advanced.  At 
first  no  one  suffered  death  for  his  opinions;  but 
eventually  mai^  were  executed  for  this  cause. 
The  struggle  a^inst  Roman  Catholics  was  the 
most  severe,  chiefly  because  they  were  supported 
by  foreign  powers ;  so  that  while  their  relianon 
was  wholly  prohibited,  even  exile  was  forbidden 
them  in  order  to  prevent  their  intrigues  abroad. 
Simple  non-conformity,  from  whatever  cause, 
was  j>ursued  with  the  severest  penalties.  The 
fine  imposed  for  non-attendance  at  church  was 
120  per  month,  while  so  straight  were  the  lines 
of  conformily  drawn,  that  many  more  clergy- 
men were  driven  out  of  the  Church  by  differ- 
ences about  the  position  of  altars,  the  wearing 
of  caps  and  such  like  matters,  than  were  forced 
to  reswn  by  the  change  from  Rome  to  Reforma- 
tion. These  stringent  measures  were,  however, 
the  rigid  consequences  of  the  false  position 
assumed. 

Elizabeth's  first  Parliament  api>roached  her 
on  a  subject  which,  next  to  rehgion,  was  the 
chief  trouble  of  her  reign,  the  succession  to 
the  crown;  they  requested  her  to  marry.  She 
replied  in  a  long  speech,  declaring  her  intention 
lo  live  and  die  a  virgin.  It  is  certain,  from  her 
conduct  both  before  and  after,  that  this  decla- 
ration was  only  a  convenient  affectation  of  prud- 
ery, which  at  once  served  to  flatter  her  vanity 
and  to  veil  her  real  indecision.  She  saw  too 
clearly  for  her  own  interest  the  restraints  to 
wliich  each  particular  marriage  might  subject 
her  and  therefore  she  shunned  them  all,  thus 
leaving  open  the  question  of  the  succession. 

On  Eliiabeth's  accession  the  country  was  at 
war  with  France.  Peace  was  easily  concluded 
1559;  but  the  assumption  by  Francis  and  Mary 
of  the  royat  arms  and  titles  of  England  led  to 
Ml  imme<Kale  imerf  ercnce  on  the  part  of  Elin- 


beth  in  the  affairs  of  Scotland.  She  entered  Into 
a  league  with  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation,  or 
leaders  of  the  Reformed  party;  and  ihrouidiout 
her  reign  this  party  became  distinctively  anEng- 
lish  one,  and  was  frequently  serviceable  in  fur- 
thering her  polity.  She  also  gave  early  but  half- 
hearted and  dubious  support  to  the  Hu^twnol 
party  in  France,  and  to  the  Protestants  in  the 
Netherlands.  Thou^  she  disliked  war  as  an 
occasion  of  expense  and  had  no  toleration  for 
any  kind  of  nonconformity,  throughout  Europe 
she  was  looked  on  as  the  head  of  the  Protestant 
party.  She  roused  the  implacable  resentment  of 
Philip,  who  strove  in  turn  to  excite  the  Roman 
Catholics  against  her,  both  in  her  own  dominions 
and  in  Scotland.  After  the  detention  of  Mary 
queen  of  Scots  in  England,  he  fomented  the 
various  rebellions  in  her  favor,  formed  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  and  at  her  death  declared  him- 
self her  avenger.  Mary,  as  is  well  known,  was 
imprisoned  19  years  in  England,  whither  she 
fled  to  the  protection  of  Eliiabeth.  Her  im- 
prisonment was  followed  by  a  series  of  con- 
spiracies, beginning  with  that  under  the  earls  of 
Northumberland  and  Westmoreland  and  ending 
with  the  plot  of  Babington,  which  finally  deter- 
mined Eliiabeth  to  proceed  to  extremities  with 
her  captive.  The  execution  of  Queen  Mary  was, 
nevertheless,  the  chief  political  blunder  of  Eliza- 
beth's reign.  If  the  death  of  Mary  did  not  raise 
up  new  enemies  to  Elizabeth  on  the  Continent 
it  at  least  gave  a  just  cause  of  offense  to  those 
she  already  had.  Eliiabeth  had  for  some  time 
been  eiuraged  in  a  negotiation  for  marriage  with 
the  Duke  of  Alengon  (afterward  of  Anjou) ; 
and  in  1580  the  Duke  arrived  in  London  to  pur- 
sue his  suit,  which  had  lasted  nearly  12  years, 
in  person.  He  was  well  received,  but.  still  the 
Queen  hesitated.  She  was  now  47.  The  follow- 
ing winter  the  Duke  paid  another  visit  and  the 
marriage  was  all  but  concluded,  but  she  finally 
informed  him  she  could  never  marry. 

The  state  of  France,  as  indicated  by  the 
change  of  government  consequent  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Henry  IV,  who  was  assisted  bv  Eliza- 
beth, obviated  any  danger  that  might  have 
arisen  from  the  indignation  which  the  execu- 
tion of  Queen  Mary  had  caused  in  that  coun- 
try. Nowhere,  however,  was  that  event  more 
meekU'  borne  than  by  ICing  James.  The  Scot- 
tish Solomon  had  thought  bis  mother's  danger 
a  favorable  opportunity  for  sententious  obser- 
vations about  the  strangeness  of  her  case,  and 
now  his  philosophy  was  nonplussed.  His  av/e 
of  Elizabeth  and  his  dread  of  interfering  with 
his  own  right  of  succession  to  England  made 
him  powerless,  and  he  accepted  an  addition  to 
his  pension  in  full  of  bis  grievances.  Philip 
was  not  to  be  so  appeased.  He  had  other 
grievances,  to  which  the  execution  of  Mary 
lent  edge.  The  fleets  of  Elizabeth  fiad  galled 
him  in  the  West  Indies,  her  arms  and  subsidies 
had  helped  to  deprive  him  of  the  Netherlands; 
the  Armada  was  already  in  pr^aration.  There- 
fore he  called  the  Queen  of  England  a  mur- 
deress, and  refused  to  be  satisfied  even  with 
the  sacrifice  she  seemed  prepared  to  make  of 
her  Dutch  allies.  The  Armada  sailed  on  2  May 
1588.  Its  fate  is  too  well  known  to  need  reca- 
pitulation. The  war  with  Spain  dragged  on  till 
the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign. 

During  her  long  rule  Eliiabeth  showed  her 
judgment  in  nothing  so  much  as  in  the  coim- 
dllors  she  trusted.    But  while  the  splendor  of 


fcer  govenrnunt  at  home  and  aVoad  was  sus- 
tained by  such  men  as' Burleigh,  Bacon,  Wals* 
ingham,  Throgmonon  and  Davisoti,  who  served 
her  with  a  zeal  which  did  not  always  spare 
even  their  own  reputations,  she  had  personal 
favorites  of  less  merit  who  were  often  more 
brilliantly  rewarded.  It  is  sufficient  to  name 
Dndley,  whom  she  created  Earl  of  Leicester; 
and  Essex,  who  was  still  more  a  personal  favo- 
rite, though  much  less  a  courtier.  The  latter 
had  some  merit  as  a  soldier ;  but  his  violen;  tem- 
per, ill-suited  to  (he  Queen's  haughty  disposition, 
brought  about  his  ruin.  He  was  beheaded  in 
1601  and  Elizabeth  never  forgave  herself  his 
death.  Her  own  health  soon  after  gave  way, 
and  she  died,  naming  James  of  Scotland  as 
her  successor. 

Besides  its  political  glories,  won  in  despite 
of  the  Queen's  somewhat  insular  and  narrow 
outlook,  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  the  golden 
age  of  &]^lish  literature.  If  all  else  could  be 
■forgotten,  it  would  be  remembered  as  the  age 
of  Spenser  and  of  Shakespeare,  not  to  mention 
a  ht^t  of  minor  names.  The  naval  achieve- 
ments of  Drake  and  the  discoveries  of  Raleigh 
cimcurred  to  do  it  honor.  Thus  everything 
conspired  to  throw  a  halo  round  the  name  ox 
EJiiabeth,  when  regarded  as  a  sovereign,  and 
seen  as  she  would  be  in  her  own  day,  especially 
hj  foreien  beholders,  through  the  drapery  of 
state.  If  a  minute  criticism  has  exposed  some 
of  the  wtakneioes  of  the  individual  woman 
who  bore  this  burden,  it  must  be  remembered 
tlat  dw  process  is  only  half  fair.  As  a  sover- 
eign she  is  entitled  to  her  surroundings,  and 
■S  an  absolute  ruler,  as  to  a  great  extent  she 
undoubtedly  was,  she  must  have  her  share  of 
pi^se  for  the  good  that  was  done  in  her  name. 
It  is  no  small  merit  to  select  Bood  councillors 
and  to  adhere  to  them.  Elizabeth  knew  how 
to  do  both ;  and  yet  she  was  no  puppet  in  the 
hands  of  her  advisers.  Though  haugh^  and 
imperious  to  the  Commons,  she  knew  both 
when  and  how  to  yield.  She  studied  with  rare 
sagacity  the  temper  of  the  people;  and  hieh  as 
were  her  notions  of  prert^ativc,  she  may  fairly 
be  considered  the  first  constitutional  monarch 
of  England. 

BIUioKraphy.. —  Cambden,  'History  ol 
Queen  Efizabetb'  (1622);  D'Ewes,  'joumala 
of  all  the  Parliaments  of  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Eliiabcth'  (1682);  Bruce  (ed.),  <Letters  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  VP  Q&49) ;  Wright, 
'Queen  EUiabeth  and  Her  Times'  (ISS); 
Strickland,  'Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England'; 
Wiescncr,    <La  jeunesse   d'Elisabeth   d'Angle- 


dar  of  Spanish  State  Papers :  Elizabeth* ;  ibid., 
'Courtships  of  Queen  Elizabeth'  (1896)  ;  ibid., 
'The  Year  After  the  Armada'  (1896):  ibid., 
<Tbe  Great  Lord  Burghley*  (1898);  Creighton. 
^ueen    Eliiabeth>    (1899) ;  JBeeilev,    '§i 

aphy.' 

RLI2ABETH,  ennress  of  Austria :  b. 
Possenhofen,  Bavaria,  24  Dec  1837;  d.  Geneva, 
10  Sept.  ISKL  She  was  the  daughter  of  Duke 
Uaximilian  JTosef  of  Bavaria,  and  married  her 
cousin,  the  femperor  Fran*  Josef,  on  34  April 
1854.  To«ther  they  were  crowned  with  the 
insignia  ot  Saint  Stephen  when  the  inangur^-* 
(kn  of  the  dual  system  was  solonnized    She 


BSTH  .    MT 

was  greatly  admired  by  Austrians  and  Hun- 
garians alike.  While  visiting  Geneva,  Switzer- 
Und,  she  was  assassinated  by  an  Italian  anar- 
chist. Consult  Friedmann,  'Kaiserin  Eliza- 
beth' (Berlin  1898). 

ELIZABETH,  Madame  (EusAaETH 
Philippine  Marie  H6l£nk),  French  princess: 
b.  Versailles,  3  May  1764;  d  Paris,  10  May  1794. 
She  was  a  sister  of  Louis  XVL  She  was  the 
faithful  friend  and  companion  of  the  royal 
family  in  their  flight  to  Varenncs,  and  during 
their  imprisonment  was  executed,  on  the  pre- 
tense of  corresponding  with  her  other  brothers, 
afterward  Louis  XVIII  and  Charles  X. 

ELIZABETH,  Pauline  Ottilie  Luise, 
dowager  queen  of  Rumania  (pseudonym  'Cab- 
hen  SvLVA*)  :  b.  Neuwied,  29  Dec.  18«;  d. 
Bucharest.  2  March  1916.  Her  father  was 
Prince  Hennann  of  Wied  and  her  mother 
Princess  Marie  of  Nassau.  She  married 
Charles  of  Rumania,  15  Nov.  1869.  She  was 
the  patroness  of  arts  and  letters  in  Rumatiia, 
did  much  to  promote  native  artistic  industries 
and  founded  several  charitable  institutions. 
She  is  well  known  as  a  writer  over  the  sivna- 
lure  'Cabmew  Svi.va,»  her  works  including 
'Sappho'  (1880) ;  'Hammerstein'  (1880)  ; 
'Sturme'        (1881)  ;        'Leidens       Erdengang' 

4 'Sorrow  on  Earth')  (1882)  ;  *Les  pens^s 
'une  reine'  (1882) ;  'Peleich  Marchen* 
(1883);  'Le  pic  aux  regrets'  (1884);  «Es 
klopft'  (1887).  She  was  very  much  interested 
in  rollections  of  Rumanian  l^end  and  folk- 
lore. In  English  she  wrote  'Pilnim  Sorrow,' 
<A  Real  Queen's  Fairy  Tales"  and  'From 
Memory's  Snrine.'  In  1882  she  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Science  at  Bucharest, 
and  in  1914  an  honorary  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Literature  oi  the  United  Kingdom. 


daugltter  of  the  Dt2ce  of  Carinthia:  b.  Presburg 
I2(^d.  Marburg,  19  Nov.  1231.  Early  in  Ufe 
ab«  displayed  a  dislike  for  things  worldly,  as 
the  pomp  with  which  she  was  surrounded,  am- 
bition, avJricc  »nd  vain  pleasures,  and  bc^an 
to  cultivate  hiunility,  pic^  and  great  charity. 
According  to  the  pustom  of  the  times,  when  die 
was  only  four  years  old  she  was  betrothed  by 
ber  parents  to  Louis,  the  son  of  the  Landgrave 
of  Thuringia,  who  was  about  her  own  age. 
When  Elizabeth  was  14  years  old  they  were 
married.  Her  husband  admired  his  wife's 
harit 

—    __    ny   i 

though  members  of  his  own  famiW  severely 
censured  her.  She  founded  hospitals  in  Mar- 
burg and  other  places  within  her  husband's 
dominion.  (Louis'  father  died  the  year  after 
the  betrothal,  and  he  was  the  landgrave  when 
he  married  Elizabeth).  In  1227  Louis  left 
home  with  Frederick  Barbarossa  to  en^ge  in 
the  war  for  Palestine-  but  before  reaching  the 
Holy  Land  Louis  died  from  fever.  Great  mis- 
fortunes soon  befell   Elizabeth.    She  was  de- 


the  plea  that  she  wasted  the  treasures 
of  tbe  state  by  her  charities.  The  inhabitants 
of  Marburg,  whose  miseries  she  had  frequently 
relieved,  refused  her  any  asylum,  for  fear  of 
the  new  regent.  At  last  she  found  refuge  in 
the  monastery  of  Kitzingen,  where  her  atmt 


,^lc 


BLIZABBT|{'r>^9LIZAWTH,  N.  J. 


tended  Tier  husband  in  the  Crusade  returned 
from  the  East  with  his  body,  she  gathered 
them  around  her,  and  recounted  her  suiTerings 
and  the  wrongs  done  to  her  three  children. 
Steps  were  taken  to  restore  to  her  her  sovereign 
rights.  She  declined  the  regency,  however,  arid 
would  accept  only  the  revenues  which  accrued 
to  her  as  landgravine.  The  remainder  of  her 
days  were  devoted  to  almsgiving,  mortifications 
and  prayer.  She  became  a  member  of  the 
ThirQ  Order  of  Saint  Francis,  and  in  pictures 
she  is  often  represented  clothed  in  the  Francis- 
can habit.  She  was  canonized  by  Gregory  IX 
four  years  after  her  death.  Consult  Montalem' 
bert,  'Life  of  Saint  Elizabeth  of  Hungary' 
(trans,  into  English  by  F.  D.  Hoyt  1904): 
Starr,  'Patron  Saints^  Butler,  'Lives  of 
Saints';  Bonaventure,  'Sennon  on  Saint  Eliz- 
abeth* ;  Theodoric  and  Montague  of  Spire. 
There  are  extant  manuscripts  on  her  life,  by 
contemporaries,  Conrad  of  Marburg,  Siegfried 
of  Mcntz,  and  others. 

BLIZABBTH  Famrae,  far-na'zi,  queen 
of  Spain;  b.  25  Oct.  J692;  d.  1766.  She  was  » 
daughter  of  Edward  II,  Prince  of  Parma.  On 
becoming  the  second  wife  of  Philip  V  she  sur- 
prised  those  who  had  cowiseled  the  marriage  by 
assuming  the  practical  headship  of  the  Idng- 
dom :  her  ambition  to  place  her  sons  Carios  and 
PhiJip  in  power  over  princinalities  in  Italy  and 
the  aggressive  policies  of  tier  Minister,  Albe- 
roni,  disturbed  the  whole  of  Europe. 

BLIZABETH  PBTROWNA,  empress  of 
Russia:  b.  29  Dec.  1709;  d.  S  Tan.  1762.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Cath- 
arine, and  ascended  the  throne  on  7  Dec.  1741, 
as  the  result  of  a  conspiracy,  in  which  Ivan  VI, 
a  minor,  who  had  reigned  only  one  year,  was 
deposed.  Elizabeth  is  said  to  have  rivaled  her 
mother  in  beauty  and  to  have  surpassed  her  in 
her  love  of  pleasure.  Her  reign  was  stained 
both  by  her  unbridled  licentiousness  and  the 
tyranny  of  her  government,  which  was  con- 
ducted by  favorites.  Banishment  to  the  mines 
of  Siberia  and  imprisonment  in  dungeons  were) 
awarded  for  the  slightest  political  offenses. 
She  was  a  patron  of  literature  and  corresponded 
with  Voltatrc,  to  whom  she  supplied  materials 
for  hii  'Life  of  Peter  the  Great.'  She  also 
founded  the  Untrersity  of  Moscow  and  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Saint  Petersburg. 
Elizabeth  sent  an  army,  in  1748,  to  assist  Mana 
Theresa  in  the  war  of  the  Succession,  which 
contributed  to  bring  about  the  Peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle;  and  she  joined  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War  against  Prussia.  Consult  Bain,  'The 
Daughter  of  Peter  the  Great'    (London  1899). 

ELIZABETH  STUARTj  queen  of  Bo- 
hemia; b.  Falkland  Palace,  Fifeshire,  16  Aug. 
1S96;  d.  London,  13  Feb.  1662.  She  was  a 
daughter  of  Tames  I  of  England  and  was  mar- 
ried to  the  Palatine  Frederick  at  Whitehall,  14 
Feb.  1613.  Her  husband  was  then  at  the  head 
of  the  Protestant  interest  in  Germany,  and  in 
1619  he  accepted  the  crown  of  Bohemia  offered 

colintrv.  .._  . 
very  short  period ;  and  after  his  defeat  by  the 
Imperialists  at  the  battle  of  Prague  in  1620,  he 
and  his  wife  were  obliged  to  flee,  first  to  Bres- 


lau  and  Betlin,  and  then  to  The  HagiM.  Btit»- 
beth  had  13  children,  several  of  whom  died 
early.  Charles  Louis,  the  eldest  surviving,  was 
reinstated  in  the  palatine  by  the  Treaty  of 
Westphalia  in  1648.  His  daughter,  Eliza- 
beth Charlotte,  was  the  second  wife  of  Philip, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  Her 
descendants  were  excluded  by  their  Catholidsm 
from  the  crown  of  England,  but  one  of  them 
was  regent  of  France  during  the  minority  of  ' 
Louis  XV;  and  another,  Louis  Phihppe; 
ascended  the  throne  after  the  revolution  of 
1830.  Her  sons,  Princes  Rupert  *nd  Maurice, 
distinguished  themselves  in  the  dvil  war  in 
England.  Her  daughter,  Sophia,  married  into 
the  house  of  Brunswick,  became  ekctress  of 
Hanover  and  mother  of  George  I.  Elizabeth 
Stuart's  cause  was  extremely  popular  with  the 
English  nation  and  after  her  husband  was  de- 
prived of  the  crown  of  Bohemia  she  still  re- 
tained among  them  the  endearing  epithet  of 
'Queen  of  Hearts.'  She  returned  to  England . 
at  jhe  Restoration  with  her  nephew,  Charles  li. 
Consult  Green,  Mrs.  E.,  'Lives  of  the  Prin- 
cesses of  England'   (London  1854). 

ELIZABETH  OF  VALOIS,  v51-wi',  or 
ISABELLA,  Queen  of  Spain :  b.  Fontainebleau, 
France,  22  Nov.  1S45;  d.  Madrid,  3  Oct  156S. 
She  was  a  dau^ter  of  Henry  11,  of  France, 
and  Catherine.de  Uedid.  She  was  destined  to 
be  the  wife  of  the  infante,  Don  (^rlos,  but  his 
*""""'  5  left  a  wWower,  became 
her  himself.  Hie  stotv 
of  a  romantic  relationship  between  Qiiabetn 
and  Don  Carlos  has  furnished  tiagic  stibjects 
to  Otway,  Campiitron,  Chinier,  Schiller  and 
Altieri. 

ELIZABETH,  N.  J.,  dty,  county-seat  of 
Union  County,  on  Newartc  Bay  and  the  Arthur 
Kill,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  Lehi^  Valley, 
Baltimore  and  Ohioj  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
and  New  Jersey  Central  railroads,  14  miles 
southwest  of  New  York.  Elizabeth  has  a  good 
harbor  admitting  vessels  of  25  feet  draught. 
Coal  and  iron  reach  tidewater  here  from  the 
Pennsylvania  fields  and  are  transshipped  here. 
The  city  has  steamer  communication  with  New 
York  and  is  the  residence  of  many  who  com- 


articles  manufactured  are  sewing-machines 
(one  of  the  shops  of  the  Singer  Manufacturing 
Company,  employing  about  10,000  people,  being 
located  here),  oilcloth,  hats,  saws,  mill-ma- 
chinery, stoves,  hardware,  edge-tools,  harness, 
cordage,  combs,  leather  and  rubber  works,  c^ 
refineries,  foundries,  chemical  works,  ship  build- 
ing plants,  wire  and  cable,  tools,  electromotors, 
castings  and  bronze  powder.  The  United  States 
Census  of  Manufactures  for  1914  showed 
within  the  city  limits  184  industrial  establish- 
ments of  factorj^  grade,  employing  14,297  per- 
sons, 12.871  being  wage  earners,  receiving 
$8,198,000  annually  in  wages.  The  capital  in- 
vested aggregated  $3i,O37,000  and  (he  year's 
output  was  valued  at  $31,228,000:  of  this,  $14,- 
921,000  was  the  value  added'  by  manufacture. 
The  shops  of  the  Central  Railroad,  employing 
about  1,000  hands,  and  the  Crescent  Steel  Works 
and  shipyard  are  located  here.  There  are  three 
bankf^  one  savings  bank  and  a  trust  compaiq' 
with  a  combined  capiulizatioo  of  $700,000  and 
deposits  of  $7,154,000,  and  building  and  loan 


BLIZABBTH.   CAFB^  BUZAVBTFOL 


e  the 
Aiexian  brothers'  tlOspiUl,  ijeiieral  iiospital. 
Saint  Elizabeth  Hospital,  Orphan  A^lum,  Old 
Ladies  Home  and  Public  Library,  "Die  educa- 
tiooal  institutions  indude  the  Batlin  and  Pingiy 
bigh  schools,  the  Vfttl-Deane  School,  a  buaineat 
college  and  11  public  schools.  The  city  has 
electric  lights  and  street  railways,  many  naod- 
sooie  churches  and  contains  an  old  tavern  where 
WashingtoD  stopped  on  his  way  to  New  York 
for  his  inauguration.  Gen.  Winfield  Scott's 
home  the  Boudinot  House  and  the  old  Living- 
ston Mansion  are  located  here.  It  was  settled 
in  1664  as  Elizabethtown  and  four  years  later 
die  first  General  Assembly  of  New  Jersey  met 
here.  For  two  years  after  17SS  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  Colony  of  New  Jersey.  During 
the  Revolution  it  stinered  from  its  position  be- 
tween the  contending  forces.  In  1789  it  was 
chartered  as  a  borou^,  as  a  town  in  1796,  and 
as  a  dty  in  1855.  Its  revenue  averages  about 
$2,250,0«).  In  1746  the  college  of  New  Jersey 
(now  Princeton)  was  established  here.  Among 
its  early  citizens  were  the  great  rivals  Alex- 
ander Hamilton  and  Aaron  Burr.  There  are 
many  fine  types  of  architecture  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary period  still  standing.  Pop,  83,411, 
Consult  Hetfield,  "History  of  Eliiabeth'  (New 
York  1866). 

BLIZABBTH.  Cape.  See  Cape  Euza- 
vena. 

BLIZABBTH  CITY,  N.  C,  town,  county- 
Mat  of  Pasquotank  County,  on  the  Pasquotank 
River  and  me  Norfolk  and  Southern  and  the 
Virginia  and  Carolinft  Coast  railroads,  about 
145  miles  northeast  of  Raleigh.  A  State  normal 
school  and  United  Stales  custom-house  are  lo- 
cated here.  The  town  has  a  good  trade  in  the 
^oducc  of  the  ndghboring  truck  farms,  also  In 
cMton,  fish  and  oysters.' The  region  about  is 
adajfted  for  agriculture  lumbering  and  cotton 
rainnE.  The  manufactures  of  tne  town  are 
varied,  including  cotton,  saw-  and  planing-milU, 
tbipbuildioK.  bnck  yards,  carriage  and  wagon 
factories,  shingle  factories,  hosiery  mills,  flour 
and  grist-milts,  ironworks,  machine-shops,  bar- 
ids  and  baskets,  boxes,  etc  The  town  was 
founded  in  1793  and  now  has  a  government 
consisting  of  a  mayor,  elected  every  two 
years,  a  board  of  aldermen  and  a  board  of  con- 
trol, A  naval  victory  was  gained  here  by  the 
Federals,  10  Feb,  1862-    Pop,  9,292. 

ELIZABETH  ISLANDS,  Mass.,  group  of 
16  in  number,  forming  the  town  of  Gosnold,  in 
Dukes  County.  They  are  situated  between 
Vineyard  Sound  and  Buzzards  Bay:  area,  14 
square  miles.  In  1602  the  first  New  England 
settlement  was  made  on  one  of  these  islands, 
Bnttyhunk,  by  Bartholomew  Gosnold;  bul  after 
a  residence  of  a  few  weeks  it  was  abandoned 
and  Gosnold  returned  to  England  (sec  Gosnold, 
Bartholoukw).  The  climate  is  healthful  and 
the  islands  are  popular  with  anglers  and  as  a 
vacation  resort.  Naushon  and  Nashawena  are 
the  largest  of  the  group,  which  in  1864  were 
incorporated  as  the  town  of  Gosnold.  Pop, 
164. 

BLIZABBTHAN  ARCHITSCTURB.  a 
style  of  architecture,  which  began  to  prevail  in 
&iglaiid  daring  the  rei^u  of  Elizabeth  and 
Janes  I.  It  was  a  mixture  of  inferior  Gothic 
with  debaMd  Italian,  often  very  picturesque. 


but  without  purity  and  unih*  of  design.  It  was 
characterized  by  deeply  emoayed  windows,  gal- 
leries of  great  length,  very  tall  and  elaborate 
chimneys,  strap  work  in  the  parapets  and  win- 
dow-heads, and  many  dormented  details  of 
surface-carving  characteristic  of  the  bizarre  in- 
fluence of  the  combined  Renaissance  forms 
from  Germany  and  Holland.  The  names  of 
Holbein  and  John  of  Padua  are  associated  with 
this  style  of  architecture  in  which  they  had 
hoped  to  revive  classic  models.  The  mansions 
erected  for  the  nobility  during  the  reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  I  are  examples  of  this 
style  of  architecture,  particularly  the  palace 
erected  in  the  mixed  style  for  Protector  Somer- 
set by  John  of  Padua  and  the  mansion  of  Long- 
leat  lor  his  secretary.  Sir  John  Thynne.  Others 
which  may  still  be  seen  near  London  and  which 
represent  the  architecture  of  the  I7th  century 
are:  Knowle,  belone^ng  to  the  Duke  of  Dor- 
set, the  Marquis  of  Salisbury's  at  Hatfield,  Hol- 
land House.  Cimpden  House  in  Surrey,  Brams* 
hill  in  Kent,  Sir  T.  Willow's  at  Charlton,  Bur- 
ton Agnes,  Blickling,  Montacute,  Audley  End. 
Mogus  Park,  Aston,  etc.  This  style  was  sac- 
cceded  by  the  Jacobean  in  which  Gothic  details 
disappeared.  The  greatest  architects  of  (he 
Elizabethan  period  were  Gerard  Chrism  as, 
John  Thorpe,  Thomas  Holt  and  Rodolph  Sy- 
monds.  Consult  Gotch  and  Brown,  'Arclu- 
tecture  of  the  Renaissance  in  England'  (Lon- 
don 1894)  I  Richardson,  'Architectural  Remains 
of  the  Reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I'  (ib. 
1340) ;  BlomReld,  'History  of  Renaissance 
Architecture  in  England'  (ib,  1897). 

ELIZABETHTOWN,  Ky..  city,  county- 
seal  of  Hardin  County,  on  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  and  the  Illinois  Central  railroads, 
about  40  miles  south  of  Louisville,  The  city 
is  the  centre  of  the  trade  in  asphalt  tor  which 
the  county  is  noted.  It  has  Souring  mills,  slave 
and  overall  factories,  and  dairying  interests, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  live  stock, 
grain,  flour,  fruit,  brick  and  tobacco.  It  has 
municipal  waterworks.     Pop.  1,970. 

KLIZAVETPOL,  t-lE-za-vet-pol,  or 
YELIZAVBTPOL,  Russia,  (1)  government  of 
Transcaucasia,  Asiatic  Russia;  area  16,991 
square  miles;  pop,  1,098,(KX>,  of  whom  about 
60  per  cent  are  Azerbaijan  Tartars,  30 
per  cent  Armenians  and  the  balance  Kurds, 
Russians,  etc  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Tiflis,  Da(^stan  and  Zakataly,  east  by  Baku, 
south  by  Persia  and  west  by  Erivan.  It  be- 
longs partly  to  the  region  of  the  Little  Caucasus 
ana  is  partly  covered  with  steppes,  in  the  west 
consisting  of  high  mountains  whereas  the  east 
is  more  level.  The  Kur  River  and  several 
smaller  streams  are  the  chief  waterways.  Agri- 
culture is  the  principal  industry,  the  valleys 
being  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  Wine  is  pro- 
duced in  considerable  quantities ;  also  cotton, 
the  acreage  in  1914^15  being  142.570  producing 
23,652,500  pounds.  The  rearing  of  live  stock 
is  largely  carried  on  in  the  steppes.  The  moun- 
tain slopes  are  well  wooded  and  there  are  rich 
deposits  of  minerals,  especially  of  copper,  cobah 
and  iron  ore  which  are  found  and  mined  in 
large  quantities.  The  Transcaucasian  Railway 
crosses  the  government,  which  is  divided  into 
eight  districts,  Elizavetpol,  Zanglzur,  Aresh, 
Jebrail,  Javanshir,  Shusha,  iCazakh  and  Nnkha. 


.gk 


ELK  — KLEINS 


(2)  A  city  of  the  game  name  is  the  capital  of 
me  government,  located  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Kur  River  about  120  miles  by  rail  southeast 
of  Tiflis.  It  is  siniated  in  a  rich  agricultural 
region  and  besides  trading  in  the  agricultural 
products  and  fruit,  the  inhabitants  are  exten- 
sively engaged  in  the  silk-worm  industry.  The 
dty  consists  of  two  sections,  the  old  and  the 
new;  the  former  is  poorly  built  with  crooked 
streets  and  tow-roofed  houses  and  is  occupied 
chiefly  by  Mohammedans ;  the  tatter  is  well 
built  and  contains  several  handsome  buildings, 
churches,  masques,  etc.,  and  a  tiazaar.  Ancient 
remains  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city 
and  the  old  Turkish  fortifications  may  still  be 
seen.  The  dty  changed  bands  between  Per- 
sians, Arabs  and  Khozars  as  early  as  the  7tb 
century,  later  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Mongols,  Geoi^ans,  Persians  and  Turks,  was 
taken  by  the  Russians  in  1?96  and  finally  an- 
nexed to  Russia  in  1813,  receiving  its  name  in 
honor  of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Alexander  I, 
In  1826  the  Persians  were  defeated  here.  Pop. 
60.500. 

ELK,  the  name  of  various  deer,  but  origi- 
nally and  properly  belonging  to  the  great,  flat- 
homed  deer  of  northern  Europe  (Alces  tnack- 
lis),  of  which  the  American  moose  is  substan- 
tially the  counterpart,  although  regarded  by 
naturalists  as  a  distinct  species.  The  European 
elk  is  now  restricted  to  northern  Russia,  north- 
em  Scandinavia  and  the  wilder  forests  of  cast- 
em  Prussia;  but  in  Pleistocene  times  it  had  a 
far  more  southerly  range,  together  with  other 
species  now  extinct.  The  great-antlered 
"Irish  Elk,'  whose  remains  are  found  abun- 
dantly in  peat-bogs  and  similar  places  not  only 
in  Ireland  but  in  England  and  on  the  Continent, 
is  not  a  true  elk  (Alces),  bat  a  deer  of  the 
genus  Cenms  related  more  nearly  to  our 
wapiti,  despite  the  palmation  of  its  horns.  See 
Moose, 

The  American  deer  called  elk,  by  the  igno- 
rance or  carelesstiess  of  early  colonists,  is  the 
large,  round-homed  stag,  related  not  to  the  true 
elk  but  to  the  red  deer  of  Europe,  and  the 
white-tailed  and  other  deer  of  this  country,  and 
would  better  be  called,  as  commonly  nowadiQrB 
by  its  Indian  name  Wapiti.     See  Wapiti  ;  Dcer. 

ELKBSAITES.    See  Elcesaites. 


hart  Rivers,  and  on  the  Cleveland,  Cindnnati, 
Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  the  Lake  Shore 
and  Michigan  Southern  and  other  railroads 
101    miles    east   of    Chicago.     It   is    a   railroad 


power.  A  large  dam  and  power-house,  erected 
in  1913  at  a  cost  of  $750,000,  furnishes  abun- 
dant power  for  its  industries,  which  include  rail- 
road shops,  musical  instrument  factories,  auto- 
mobile works,  bridge  and  iron  works,  and  es- 
tablishments for  the  manufacture  of  carriages, 
invalid  tables,  machinery,  gocarts,  corsets,  tele- 
phone supplies,  furniture,  brass  sundries,  gas 
generators,  paper  boxes,  rubber  and  paper. 
The  United  States  census  of  manufactures 
for  1914  showed  within  the  city  limits  105  in- 
dustrial establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 3,815  persons;  2,993  being  wage  earners, 
receiving  annually  ^4,382,00!)  in  wages.  The 
capital  invested  aggregated  $9,511,000,  and  the 


year's  output  was  valued  at  $8.649,000 :  of  this, 

¥1.267,000  was  the  value  added  by  manufacture: 
he  dty  has  a  Carnegie  library  and  a  fine  high 
school  building.  Elkhart  is  the  seat  of  Elkhart 
Institute  and  has  public  schools,  Inisiness  col- 
leges, daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  gas  and 
electric  lights,  electric  railways,  waterworks  and 
two  national  tanks.  The  control  of  the  govern- 
ment is  vested  almost  etitirely  in  the  mayor  and 
there  is  a  city  council.     Pop.  21,028. 

ELKHORN,  a  river  in  Nebraska  formed 
by  the  junction,  in  Madison  County,  of  the 
North  Fork,  v^ich  has  its  rise  m  Brown 
County,  and  the  South  Fork,  which  rises  in 
Knox  Counh".  The  general  course  is  south- 
east, 260  miles,  when  it  flows  into  the  Platte 
River.  Logan  Creek  is  thf  largest  tributary. 
ELKIN,  William  Lewis,  Ameri:an  astron- 
omer; b.  New  Orleans,  29  April  1855.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Royal  Polytechnic  School  in 
Stuttgart,  Gennany,  and  was  graduated  in  1880 


Sir  David  Gill,  English  astronomer  there,  and 
took  part  with  him  in  observations  with  the 
heliometer  for  the  determination  of  stellar 
parallax,  these  determinations  being  the  most 
accurate  of  the  kind  ever  made  up  to  that  time. 
He  became  aalronomer  in  1884  and  director  in 
1896  of  the  Yale  College  observaloiy.  His 
work  there  was  mainly  in  the  lines  of  determi- 
nations of  stellar  parallax,  the  sabr  parallax 
from  asteroids  and  the  photography  ot  meteor 
trails, 

ELKINS,  Stephen  Benton,  American  pol- 
itician; b.  Perry  County,  Ohio,  26  Sept.  1841; 
d.  4  Jan.  1911.  He  removed  to  Missouri  when 
a  child;  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Missouri  in  I860:  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1864.  During  the  latler  year  he  went  to  New 
Mexico,  where  he  was  a  member  of  the  Terri- 
torial legislature  in  1864-65 ;  and  the  Territorial 
delegate  in  Congress  in  1873-77.  Subseauently 
he  removed  to  West  Virginia  where  he  ac- 
quired targe  business  interests.  He  married 
the  daughter  of  Heniy  Gassaway  Davis.  He 
secured  control  of  great  coal  tietds  in  West 
Virginia  and  also  became  a  large  stockholder 
in  several  railroads,  serving  also  as  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  West  Virginia  Central  and  Pitts- 
burgh Railroad  In  1891-^3  he  was  Secretaiy 
of  War  and  in  1894,  1900  and  1907  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate.  The  EHdns  Rail- 
road Law  of  1903  bore  his  name.  "See  Elkins 
Act. 

ELKINS,  W.  Va..  city  and  county-seat  of 
Randolph  Coonty,  on  both  sides  of  the  Tygarts 
Valley  River  and  on  the  West  Virginia  Cin- 
cinnati and  Pennsylvania  (Wabash)  and  its 
branches,  the  Coal  and  Iron  and  the  Coal 
and  Coke  railways,  60  miles  south  of  Graf- 
ton and  130  miles  northwest  of  Charies- 
ton.  Elkins  is  in  the  centre  of  vast  timber 
areas,  and  nearby  arc  large  deposits  of  coal, 
glass,  sand,  limestone,  poller's  clay,  fire  clay 
and  shale  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
pressed  brick  and  tiling.  The  industries  include 
railroad  car  and  machine  shops,  brick  works,  ice 
plant,  foundries  and  machine  shcrt)!,  tannery, 
boiler  works,  pail  factory,  several  plafring  mills, 
etc  The  pnncipal  streets  are  paved  wiut  brick 
or  macadamized  limestone,  and  walks  are  laid 
with    brick    The    city    owns  the  waterworks, 


BLKINS  ACT  — BLLB  KT  LUI 


friiich  pmnp  (he  water  from  the  Tygarts  Vaiey 
Riv«r.  The  streets  are  lighted  Iw  electrici^ 
and  natural  gas  is  furnished  for  domestic  and 
mannfacturiiig  purposes.  There  are  a  national 
bank  and  a  trust  company  in  the  city,  with  com- 
Uned  rapital  of  $300,000  and  deposits  of  abotit 
$1,200,000.    The  dty  contuns  seven  churches, 


Endns  is  also  the  scat  of  Davis  and  Skins  Col- 
lege and  has  an  Odd  Fellows  home,  two  hospi- 
tals and  an  orphans'  borne.  Under  a  diarter 
of  1905  it  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  chosen  annu- 
ally, and  a  tmicameral  counaL    Pop.  6,00& 

BLKINS  ACT,  a  law  enacted  19  Feb.  1903, 
to  prevent  secret  railroad  rebates  and  discrimi- 
nations. The  acceptance  as  well  as  the  offer 
of  a  rebate  or  unlawful  djsciimination  was  a 
violation  of  the  law ;  the  published  rate  was  de- 
clared to  be  the  only  lawful  charge,  and  the 
United  States  Circuit  Cburta  were  authgriied  to 
enjoin  carriers  to  charge  Mily  the  published 
rates.  The  penalty  was  not  less  than  $1,000  nor 
inorE  than  $20,000  for  eadi  offense,  the  corpo- 
ration as  well  as  the  officer  giving  the  rebate 
receiving  the  penalty.  The  law  was  most 
effective  and  with  slight  changes  was  incorpo- 
rated in  the  Hepburn  Act  (1906)  and  the 
Mann-Elkini  Act  (1910).  See  DirFRBNTiALa 
IN  Railroad  TaAmc;  Sherman  Anti-Trust 
Act. 

ELKS,  Benevolent  and  Protective  Order 
of,  a  tr^temal  association,  founded  in  1868  in 
New  York  from  an  older  social  and  benevolent 
society,  the  Jolly  Corks.  The  grand  lodge  was 
incorporated  10  March  1^1,  and  was  composed 
of  past  members  of  New  York  Lodge  No.  1,  the 


Lodges  were  formed  in  Philaddphia,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Sacramento,  Balti- 
more, Louisville,  Saint  Louis,  Boston,  Pitts- 
burgh, Indianapolis,  ProvidetKe,  Wa^ington 
and  Denver  and  in  every  other  city  of  any 
size  thrDuehout  the  country.  The  order  has 
been  notecT  for  the  prompt  assistance  given  its 
members  and  also  its  ready  response  to  calls 
for  aid  from  the  outside.  In  all  great  calami- 
ties of  recent  years  it  gave  liberally  of  its  funds 
to  aid  the  needy.  Its  membership  is  close  to 
500,0(X),  and  its  annual  disbursements  are  about 
$600,000.  There  are  1.392  lodges,  and  sub- 
ordinate lodges  in  Alaska  and  the  island  pos- 
sessions of  (he  United  States,  White  male 
citizens  of  21  years  or  over  and  of  good  char- 
acter are  eligible  for  membership.  In  any  city 
there  ma^  be  but  one  lodge,  and  the  population 
of  such  atv  must  be  at  least  5,000.  <>i  the  first 
Sund«y  of  December  is  held  a  memorial  service 
for  the  deceased  members  of.  the  order.  Prop- 
erty and  cash  to  the  extent  of  over  $11,000,000 
are  owned  by  the  order.  Its  official  organ  is 
the  BIkt  Antler  a  monthly  published  in  New 
Yorit  Consult  ElKs.  C.  E.,  <Authenric  HiBtory 
of  the  Benevolent  and  Protective  Order  of 
Elks'   (Chicago  1910). 

BLKTON,  Md„  town  and  county-seat  of 
Cecil  Coun^,  50  miles  northeast  of  Baltimore, 
on  the  Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Washing- 
ton Railroad  and  on  the  Elk  River,  It  contains 
a  hosiery  mill,  fertilizer  worlts,  boat  yards,  tex- 
tile milts  and  pulp  mills.  First  settled  in  1681. 
Elkton   was     incorporated     in     1787.    It    has 


form  of  gotterumesit/ 

fOp.  £flO/. 

ELKUS,  Abram  Isaac,  American  lawyer 
and  diplomat:  b.  New  York,  6  Aug.  1867.  He 
was  ediicated  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York  and  at  Columbia.  He  has  been  promi- 
nent at  the  New  York  bar  since  1888  and  was 
considered  by  President  Wilson  for  a  place 
on  the  Federal  court  in  New  York.  He  is  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  American  Jewry  and  has 
frequently  appeared  for  Jewish  immigrants 
who  have  faced  deteation  at  Ellis  Island  and 
deportation  because  they  had  less  than  $25  in 
cash  when  thw  reached  this  country. 

In  1896  he  became  a  member  of  the  law  firm 
of  James,  Schell  and  Elkus.  On  the  deaths  of 
his  partners  be  became  senior  inember  in  the 
firm  now  known  as  Elkus,  Gleason  &  Pros- 
kaner.  He  has  appeared  in  all  branches  of  his 
profession.  He  was  elected  by  the  Um'lcd 
States  judges  as  a  special  United  States  attor- 
ney to  prosecute  fraudulent  bankruptcy  case* 
and  met  with  great  success  in  that  work. 

He  acted  as  counsel  for  the  Merchants* 
Association  and  president  of  (he  Hebrew 
Technical  School  and  as  trustee  gf  the  BaroB 
de  Hirsch  Fund.  In  July  1916  he  was  nomi- 
nated by  President  Wilson  as  Ambassador  to 
Turkey  to  succeed  Henry  Morgenthau,  who 
had  retired  to  become  chairman  of  the  finance 
committee  of  the  Donocratic  national  com- 
mittee. He  is  the  author  of  a  treatise  on 
'Secret  Liens  and  Reputed  Ownership.'  . 

ELL.  an  old  linear  measure,  originally  de- 
noting the  length  of  the  forearm  and  later  de- 
noting (Kfferent  lengths.  The  English  ell 
equalled  one  and  one-quarter  yards  (45  inches). 

ELLAOIC  ACID  or  BEZOARIC  ACID, 

CnHtOt,  is  separated  from  Oriental  beioar 
stones  (concretions  found  in  the  stomachs  of 
goats  atid  Other  animals  which  have  fed  upon 
plants  containing  ellagitannin)  by  dissolving 
them  in  cold  strong  potash,  away  from  the  air, 
passing  a  current  of  carbolic  add,  collecting  the 
ellag[ate  of  potassum,  washing  and  reerystalliz- 
ing  it,  and  then  liberating  the  ellaoic  acid  by 
hydrochloric  add.  When  crystslTized  from 
pyridine  it  forms  prismatic  needles.  After 
washing  these  with  alcohol  ellagic  acid  become? 
pale  yellow,  tasteless,  crystalline  powder,  insolu- 
ble in  water,  decomposing  at  680°,  at  which 
temperature  it  has  still  refused  to  melt.  With 
the  bases  it  forms  salts,  which  are  not  very 
well  known;  they  are  crystalline  and  insoluble 
or  sparingly  soluble  in  water.  The  lead  and 
barium  compounds  are  yellow.  This  add  can 
be  prqiared  synthetically  by  oxidizing^  gallic 
acid  with  arsenic  add.  Though  not  in  itself  a 
taiming  agent  it  is  considered  of  great  value  in 
the  tanning  industry. 

ELLE  ET  LUI  (<She  and  He>)  is  a 
novel  by  George  Sand  which  exdted  a  good 
deal  of  comment  and  enjoyed  a  kind  of  celeb- 
rity because  it  was  accepted  as  her  version  of 
her  unfortunate  love  affair  with  Alfred  de 
Uusset  After  the  rupture  which  brought  to 
a  pitiful  end  their  Venetian  adventure  (1834), 
many  bitter  accusations  were  brou^t  against 
each  bjr  the  friends  and  partisans  of  the  other, 
and  ndther  hesitated  to  exploit  the  experience 
for  literary  purposes.    Gewge  Sand's  'Lettres 


8l^ 


BZLLBNBOROVGH^  BLLBT 


dtm  Vc^^eur,'  wrttten  immediately  afterward, 
already  drew  largely  upon  it  and  echoes  of  it 
are  frequent  in  the  3ubs«(uent  poetry  of  Mus- 
set  (Nuit  de  mai.  SoTivemr)  and  In  his  'Con- 
fession d'un  enfant  du  siede.'  The  appearance 
of  'Elle  et  Lui'  (1859)  shortly  after  the  poefs 
death  (1857)  revived  the  bitter  memories  and 
recriminations  of  the  affaiT.  It  was  evidently 
substantially  the  story  of  their  relations,  under 
the  transparent  disguise  of  a  novel,  though 
George  Sand's  intention,  as  she  tells  us  else- 
where, was  not  to  tell  their  story,  but  lo  "pre- 
sent, under  the  veil  of  fiction,  a  certain  situ- 
ation in  which  others  than  they  may  have 
found  themselves.'  It  provoked  from  Paul  de 
Musset,  Alfred's  brother,  the  answering  volume, 
'Lui  et  EllCj'  in  the  poet's  defense.  The  'true 
story*  of  'Elle  et  Lui'  has  been  told  by  Spoel- 
berch  de  Louvenjoul  ('La  veritable  histoire  de 
Elle  et  Lui,*  Notes  et  documents,  1897).  The 
oririnal  correspondence  of  George  Sand  and 
Alfred  de  Musset  has  been  published  by  F^lix 
Decori  (1904). 

Arthur  G.  Can  field. 

ELLEHBOROUGH,  •Ellen-bur-A,  Bdwari 
Lmw,  LoRn,  EngliA  lawyer:  b.  Great  Salkeld, 
Cumberland,  16  Nov.  1?S0;  d.  London,  13  Dec 
1818.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  became 
the  pupil  of  the  celebrated  special  pleader, 
George  Wood,  in  1771,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1780.  In  1787  he  was  made  a  king's 
counsel.  On  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings  in 
1788,  Ersldne  having  refused  to  imdertake  the 
defense,  Law  served  as  leading  counsel.  It 
required  no  little  courage  to  encounter  such 
opponents  as  Burke,  Fox,  Sheridan  and  other 
eminent  men  of  the  time,  who  conducted  the 
impeachment  Law,  as  is  well  known,  obtained 
the  victory.  In  18)1  he  was  made  Attorney- 
(^eneral  and  in  1802  became  Lord  Chief  Jus- 
tice  of  the  king's  bench  and  was  created  baron. 
In  Parliament  he  Opposed  the  emancipation  of 
the  Catholics.  Believing  thai  the  criminal  laws 
were  not  severe  enough  he  succeeded  in  estah-- 
lishtng  10  new  capital  felonies  by  the  passage 
of  the  so-called  Ellcnborouf^  Act,  afterward 
repealed  in  toto.  He  held  the  office  of  chief 
justice  for  15  years. 

ELLENBOROUGH,  Bdward  Law,  1st 
Eakl  of,  English  statesman;  b.  8  Sept  1790; 
d.  near  Cheltenham,  22  Dec.  1871.  He  was 
educated  ai  Eton  and  Cambridge ;  entered  Par- 
liament as  representative  of  Saint  Michael's  in 
1814,  and  in  1818  succeeded  his  father  as 
2d  baron  and  entered  the  House  of  Lords. 
He  was  Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1828,  and  in  1841 
accepted  the  governor- generalship  of  India.  He 
arrived  in  Calcutta  in  time  to  take  control  of 
the  Afghan  war,  which  was  brought  to  a  suc- 
cessful issue.  Scinde  was  conquered  by  Sir 
Charles  Napier  and  annexed  in  1843.  This  was 
followed  by  the  conquest  of  Gwalter.  The 
conduct  of  the  governor-general,  however,  gave 
great  dissatisfaction  at  home.  He  was  conse- 
quently recalled  by  the  East  India  Company 
early  in  1844,  Under  Lord  Dnby's  govern- 
ment in  18S8  he  held  the  ofhce  of  President  of 
the  Board  of  Control  from  February  to  June, 
during  which  he  wrote  a  dispatch  censurii^ 
the  poticv  of  Lord  Canning  as  governor-gen- 
eral of  India,  which  caused  mudi  discussion 
and  led  him  to  resign  his  office. 


ELLENVILLE,  N.  Y..  village  of  Uhter 
County,  at  the  foot  of  Shawagunlc  Moimtaia, 
on  the  main  line  and  on  the  Ellenville  and 
Kingston  division  of  the  New  York,  Ontario 
and  Western  Railroad,  18  miles  north  of  Mid- 
dletown.  The  first  house  was  built  in  1805, 
a  post  office  established  in  182J  and  the  village 
incorporated  in  1856.  It  has  several  denomi- 
national churches,  a  bi^  school  and  other  eda- 
cational  establislunents,  two  national  and-  one 
savings  banks,  and  its  industries  include  line 
mining,  manufactures  of  cudciy,  paints,  hand- 
kerchiefs  and  shirt<  waists,  ovnalls,  arti&dal 
stone,'  and  wooden  wares,  employing  about  300 
operatives.  Ellenville  is  a  popular  sunmer  re- 
sort. It  has  finely  shaded  streets  and  is  near 
several  places  of  interest  including  Mount 
Meenahga,  the  Ice  Caves,  Sun  Ray  Spring  and 
many  beautiful  waterfalls.  The  village  owns 
its  waterworks.     Pop.  3,U4. 

BLLBR,  Jotunn  Theedor,  German  chem- 
ist:  b.  Plotzkau,  in  Anhalt-Bemburs,  29  Nov, 
1689;  d.  Berlin,  13  Sept.  1760.  In  1721  he  was 
appointed  Anhah-Bemburg  {dtysician;  in  1724, 
professor  of  anatomy  in  Berlin;  in  1735,  ph);si- 
cjan  to  Frederick  (he  Great;  in  1755,  privy 
councillor  and  director  of  the  ^tysical  class  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  papers  were 
published  in  the  'Memoirs  of  the  Berlin  Acad- 
emy,* and  among  them  is  a  long  and  interesting 
review  of  the  opinions  held  respecting  the  ele- 
ments from  the  earliest  times  down  to  his  own 
day.  He  also  published  a  series  of  curious 
microscopic  observations  upon  the  change  of 
blood  corpuscles  by  the  addition  of  different 
Salts,  tinctures  of  plants  and  other  solutions. 
EUer  was  undoubtedly  a  man  of  great  learning 
and  abilities,  but  hii  writings  do  not  indicate 
a  high  degree  of  originality. 
.  ELLERIANS,  a  sect  of  fanatics  which 
arose  in  1726,  and  had  for  its  founder  EIras 
EUer,  a  ribb(wi -weaver,  who  was  bom  in  1690 
at  Ronsdorf  in  Berg.  He  was  influenced  in  his 
religious  beliefs  by  reading  the  works  of  Jacob 
BShme,  and  other  mystical  writings.  The  sect 
committed  great  excesses,  and  became  very 
numerous.    See  BdHME,  Jacob. 

ELLER7,  William,  American  patriot:  b. 
Newport,  R.  L  22  Dec  1727;  d.  there,  15  Feb. 
1820.  He  sat  in  the  Congress  of  1776,  and  was 
one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. He  became  Chief  Justice  of  Rhode 
Island  in  1785  and  in  the  following  year  com- 
missioner of  the  Continental  Loan  Office  for 
Rhode  Island.  From  1790  till  his  death,  he  re- 
tained the  office  of  collector  in  his  native  place. 

BLLBSMKRE  LAND,  the  most  noriben) 
region  of  the  continent  of  North  America,  dis- 
covered by  Baffin  in  1616.  The  western  part  of 
this  region  was  explored  and  mapped  bf  Otto 
Sverdrup  (q.v.)  in  1899.  Elleemere  Land  is  a 
high  plateau,  without  human  inhabitants;  a  few 
reindeer,  muSk-oxen  and  wolves  find  suste- 
nance there.  It  is  separated  from  Greenland 
by  Smith  Sound.  Consult  Sverdrup's  account 
of  his  discoveries;  'Four  Years  in  the  Arctic 
Region*   (2  vols..  New  Yotit  1904). 

ELLET,  Charlea,  American  engineer:  b. 
Penn's  Manor,  Bucks  County,  Pa.,  1  Jan.  1810; 
A  Cairo,  111,  21  June  1862.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Paris,  and  on  Ws 
return  to  America  held  various  responsible  en- 


iXLuer^suaOT; 


aineeriiig  posts.  He  buih  at  FKirmaunt,  Phila- 
OelpiuB,  the  first  wire  susptmsioii  bridge  in  ths 
United  Sute^  and  in  1845  built  U-  Niagani 
below  the  Palls  a  luspenston  brid^  adapted 
for  railway  pui^>oses.  He  conatmcted  also  die 
railway  suspension  bridge  at  Wbeeling,  W.  Va., 
which  is  owned  br  the  Baltimoire  and  Ohio 
KxAroad.  In  tbe  Qvll  War  he  became' cohNiel 
in  the  engineering  corps  and  equipped  niiM 
Uississippi  River  steamboats  as  rams,  and  with 
Ibcm  defeated  a. fleet  of  Coniedentc  (ann,  but 
died  of  wounds  on  that  occasion. 

BLLST,  BUrabeth  Frim  Lvmmla,  Anieri* 
can  proie  writer:  b.  Sodus  Point,  M.  V.,  Octi>> 
ber  1818:  A.  New  Yorlt  3  June  m?.    She 

— ^«.l«-    :«     l.-_    Aw,^      ^*kA     ^*^^^r^    L-*   Vn.t**    n 


(1834);  'Poetns,  Original  »nd  Se- 
lected' (1835);  'Characters  of  Sdiiller' 
(1842)  1  'Pioneer  Women  of  the  West>  (1852) ; 
'Novelettes  of  the  Musicians*  (1852)  \  'Queens 
of  American  Society'  (1867);  *Court  Cirdes 
of  the  Republic,*  with  Mrs,  R.  E.  Mack  (18W) ; 
*The  Practical  Housekeeper' ;  'Evenings  at 
Woodlawn* ;  'Women  Artists  in  All  Ages.' 

HLUCB,  m%,  or  LAGOOK  ISLANDS, 
a  f;roup  of  coral  islands,  situated  north  of  the 
Fiji  and  northwest  of  the  Samoan  group  be- 
tween lat.  5°  and  II'  S.  and  long.  l?6*^and  180° 
E.  They  extend  for  3(50  miles  in  the  direction 
northwest  to  southeast,  and  form  nine  groups, 
the  largest  islands  being  Sophia  or  Rocky 
Island,  Nukulailai  or  Mitchell  Ellice,  Nuktife- 
tau,  Vaitupu,  Netherland  and  Lynx.  The  in- 
habitants almost  all  speak  a  Samoan  diaka, 
and  have  traditions  of  a  migration  from  the 
Samoan  Islands.  They  have  long  been  Chris- 
tianiied,  and  reading  and  writing  are  general. 
The  islands  are  of  coral  formation.  Guani^ 
yams,  fruil^oconuts  and  copra  are  the  chief 

Soducts.     They   were    discovered    in    I78I   by 
aurelle,  and  were  annexed  by  Great  Britain 
in  1892.    Area,  15  square  miles.    Fop.  3,084. 

ELLICHPUR,  «-ich-poot',  India,  town  in 
Amraoti  district,  Berar,  on  the  Bichan,  32  miles 
northwest  of  Amraoti  and  was  once  large  and 
prosperous.  It  contains  manufactories  of  cot~ 
tons  and  carpets,  and  is  an  important  trading 
centre  in  lumber.  Imperial  troops  haye  a  regu- 
lar station  here.  TTie  town  contains  many 
interesting  ruins,  including  a  palace  and  several 
fine  tombs.    Pop.  13,909. 

ELLICOTT,  Andrew,  American  astrono. 
mer  and  civil  engineer:  b,  Bucks  County,  Pa., 
24  Jan.  1754;  d.  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  28  Aug. 
182a  His  father  founded  the  town  of  EUicott's 
Mills,  Md.,  where  the  younger  days  of  hia 
son  Andrew  were  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
sciences  and  practical  mechanics.  The  latter's 
scientific  attaiiuiieni»  early  attracted  public  at- 
tention, and  from  the  Revolution  to  the  day 
of  his  death  he  was  employed  in  the  fulfilment 
of  tnuts  conferred  br  the  general. or  State  gov-- 
emmenls.  About  1785  he  removed  to  Bakir. 
more,  and  represented  the  city  in  ttie  State 
legislature.  In  1789  he  was  appointed  by_  Presi- 
dent Washington  to  survey  the  land  lying  be- 
tween Pennsylvania  and  Lake  Erie,  and  during 
that  year  made  the  first  accurate  measurement 
of  the  Niagara  River  from  lake  to  lake,  with- 
tbe  h^ht  of  the  falls  and  the  fall  of  the  rapids. 
In  1790  he  was  employed  t^  the  govcmnient  to 


survey  and-lay  out  tfae'Federml  itiatropdii.  IB 
1792  he  was  made  Survneor-Caenenu  of  du 
United  States,  ami  i»  179$  superintended  tbe 
coBstructioa  of  Fort  Eric  at  Presqwc  Isle  (now 
Erie,  Pa.),  aod  was  employed  in  laying  out  the 
towns  of  Erie,  Warrea  and  FrankUn.  In  L796 
he  was  ai^omtcd  by  President  Washington 
commissioner  on  behalf  of  the  United  States 
under  the  Treaty  of  San  Lorenzo  el  Real^  to  de- 
tennine  the  southern  boundary  separatmg  the 
United  States  territory  from  the  Spanish  pos- 
sessions.   The  results  of  this  service,  embracinj[ 


t  period  of  nearly  five  year^  appear  i 
Tournal'  (published  1803).    Upon  the  cotnple- 
I  offliis  service  he  was  appointed  by  Gov- 


McKean  of  Pennsylvania  ;  _  .  .  _ 
the  State  land  office,  the  duties  of  which  he 
performed  to  the  year  1808,  and  in  1812  became 
professor  of  mathemathics  at  West  Point,  In 
1817,  by  order  of  the  government,  he  proceeded 
to  Montreal  to  make  astronomical  observations 
for  carrying  into  effect  some  of  the  articles  of 
the  Treaty  of  (SienL 

ELLICOTT,  Chulea  John,  Anglkan  erel- 
ale:  b,  Whttwell,  Stamford,  Ei^^and,  25  Aiuil 
1819;  d.  15  Oct  1905.  He  was  educated  at 
Saint  John's  (^^;e,  (^mbridgc,  and  after  be- 
ing professor  of  divinity  in  King's  OiUm,  Lon- 
don, Hulsean  lecturer  and  professor  of  divin- 
ity at  Cambridge,  and  dean  of  Exeter,  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  in 
1863.  In  1897  the  diooese  of  Bristol  wat 
separated  from  that  of  Gloucester,  Bishop  Elli- 
cott  renuuning  at  the  head  of  the  Utter  diocese. 
He  was  for  11  years  chaiiman  of  the  scholars 
engaged  on  the  revision  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment translation,  and  published  commentaries 
on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  as  well  as 
•Historical  Lectures  on  the  Life  of  Christ* 
(I860);  'Modern  Unbelief  (1877)  ■  'Some 
Present  Dangers  of  the  Church  of  England* 
(1878):  'The  Revised  Version  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture' (1901),  which  is  the  best  papular  account 
of  the  work  of  the  revisers,  etc. 

BLLICOTT  aTY,  Mi,  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Howard  County,  on  the  Patapsco  River, 
nine  miles  west  of  Baltimore,  and  on  the  EUIti- 
more  and  Ohio  Railroad.  Saint  Charles  College 
(R.  C)  in  charge  of  secular  clergy,  and  Ro^ 
Hill  College,  in  charge  of  Brokers  of  tb« 
Christian  Schools,  are  located  here.  It  baa 
manufactures  of  flour,  cotton,  silk  and  woolen 
goods.  Founded  in  177%  EUicott  City  was  in- 
corporated in  1867. 

KLLIOT,  Arthur  Balpb  DdqbUk,  Evglisli 
lawye':  h.  17  Dec.  1846.  He  is  second  son  ot 
the  3d  Earl  of  Minto,  was  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh Univerei^  and  at  Trinily  College,  Cam- 
bri^  From  1S80  to  1892  and  from  1898  to 
1906  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament  In  1903 
he  was  Financial  Secretary  to  the  'Treasury  and 
from  1895-1912  was  editor  of  the  Eduibur^ 
RevUie.  He  has  published  'Criminal  Pro- 
cedure in  England  and  Scotiand'  (1878)  ;  'The 
State  and  the  Church'  (1881;  2d  ed.,  18S9); 
'Life  of  the  First  Viscount  Goschen>  (1911). 

BLLIOT,  Beniunin,  American  jurist:  b. 
Charleston,  S.  C,  1786;  d.  1836.  He  was 
graduated  at  Princeton  m  1806,  studied  law, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1610  andentered  on 
hi»  practice  inhis  .native  State  of  South  Caro- 
lina.   He  was  tbe  author  of  numerous  literary, 


8lc 


BLLIOT — ELLIOTT 


historical  and  political  productions.  Among 
hib  works  is  a  'Refutation  of  the  Calumnies 
circulated  against  the  Soulfiem  and  Western 
States  respecting  the  Institution  and  Existence 
of  Slavery'  (1822),  He  also  prepared  and 
published  'The  Mihtia  System  of  South  Caro- 
lina,' which  was  adopted  as  the  militaty  code 
for  the  State. 

ELLIOT,  Daniel  Giraud,  American  zoolo- 
gist: b.  New  York,  7  March  183S;  d.  22  Dec. 
1915.  He  made  zoology  a  special  study  from 
his  youth;  traveled  in  Europe,  Africa  and  parts 
of.  Asia  in  1856-78;  subsequently  in  Canada, 
Alaska,  South  America  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  United  States.  He  afterward  became 
curator  of  zoology  in  the  Field  Columbian 
Museum.  He  has  published  'The  Pheasants' 
(1871-72);  'Birds  of  North  America'  (1897); 
'The  Grouse'  (1863):  'Birds  of  Paradise'; 
<Hombills'  (1877-ffi)  ;  'North  American 
Shore  Birds'  (1895) ; 'Gallinaceous  Game  Birds 
of  North  America'  (1897);  'Synopsis  of  the 
Mammals  of  North  America  and  the  Adjacent 
Seas'  (1901) ;  'A  Review  of  the  Primates' 
(Vols.  I-III.  1913).  He  has  been  decorated  10 
times  by  various  European  governments  for 
his  researches  in  natoraf  science. 

ELLIOT,  SiK  Qilbcrt,  Scottish  philoso- 
rfier  and  poet;  b.  Teviotdale,  September  1722; 
d.  Marseilles,  11  Jan.  177>,  His  song  of 
'Amynta'  beginning  'My  sheep  I  neglected,  I 
brcke  my  sheen  hook,'  is  famous;  be  also  wrote 
occasional  philosophical  papers. 

ELLIOTT,  Charlea,  American  Methodist 
clergyman :  b.  Glenconway,  County  Donegal. 
Ireland,  16  May  1792 ;  d.  Mount  Pleasant,  Iowa, 
3  Jan.  1869.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1814  and  became  prominent  in  the  Methodist 
denomination.  He  was  a  professor  of  languages 
at  Madison  College,  Uniontown,  Pa.,  lfc7-31, 
and  president  of  Iowa  Wesleyan  University 
1856-60  and  1864-67,  He  was  editor  of  The 
Western  Christian  Advocate,  Cinciimati  1836- 
48,  The  Central  Christian  Advocate,  Saint 
Louis  1852-56.  He  published  'Treatise  on 
Baptism'  (1834);  'Delineationof  Roman  Cathol- 
icism' (2  vols.,  1841)  ;  'Life  of  Robert  R. 
Roberts'  (1844) ;  'Sinfulness  of  American 
Slavery'  ^1851);  The  Bible  and  Slavery,'  eta 
His  most  important  book  was  'The  History  of 
the  Great  Secession  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  year  1845.'  'Southwest- 
em  Methodism'  was  edited  by  L.  M.  Vernon 
(1868). 

ELLIOTT,  Chu-Iotte,  English  hymn- 
writer:  b.  17  March  1789;  d.  Brighton,  22  SepL 
I87I.  She  wrote  a  number  of  religious  poems, 
which  were  published  under  the  titles  'Hymns 
tor  a  Week';  'Hours  of  Sorrow';  'Invalids' 
Hymil  Book*  The  last  collection  included 
'Just  as  I  Am,'  a  hymn  which  is  widely  used, 
and  has  been  translated  in  *almost  every  living 


ELLIOTT,  Edward  Charles,  American 
educator;  b.  Cliicago,  III,,  21  Dec.  1874.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Nebraska  in 
1895,  studied  also  at  Jena  and  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. In  1898-1903  he  was  superintendent  of 
schools  at  Leadville,  Colo.,  in  1W5-07  associate 
professor,  and  after  1907  professor  of  education 
at  die  University  of  Wisconsin,  where  after 
1909  he  also  served  as  director  of  the  pedagogi* 


._    .       In  190^10  he  conducted  special 

itigations  for  the  United  States  Bureau  of 

Education,  in  1911-12  for  the  New  York  Board 
of  Education  and  in  1913  for  the  Sute  of  Ver- 
mont He  has  published  'Some  Fiscal  Aspects 
of  Public  Education  in  American  Cities'  ( lw5)  ; 
'State  School  Systems'  (3d  ed,  1910);  'Legis- 
lation upon  Industrial  Education  in  the  United 
States'  (1910);  'Oty  School  Supervision' 
(1914). 

ELLIOTT,  Jesse  Dnncan,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  Maryland  1782;  d.  1845.  He  entered 
the  United  States  navy  as  a  midshipman  1604, 
and  in  October  of  1812  won  the  first  American 
naval  success  on  the  lakes,  capturing  two  Brit- 
ish brigs,  the  DttroU  and  the  Caiedonia,  near 
Fort  Erie.  He  commanded  the  Niagara,  in  the 
battle  of  Lake  Erie,  September  1813,  beinK  sec- 
ond in  command  to  Perry,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  October  of  the  same  year  as  commander  of 
the  Lake  Erie  fleet  In  1815,  during  the  war 
against  Algiers,  be  was  in  command  of  the 
sloop  of  war  Ontario,  under  Decatur,  being  ap- 
pointed captain  in  1818.  He  was  court- 
martialed  and  suspended  for  four  years,  after 
his  service  in  the  Mediterranean  squadron.  He 
resumed  his  duties  in  1843  and  was  given  charge 
of  the  f^iladelphia  navy  yard. 

ELLIOTT,  Maud  Howe,  American  novel- 
ist: b.  Boston,  Mass.,  9  Nov.  1854.  She  is  a 
daughter  of  Julia  Ward  Howe  (q;V.),  and  was 
married  to  John  Elliott,  an  artis^  in  1SS7.  Her 
writings  include  'A  Newport  Aquarelle' 
(1S83);  'The  San  Rosario  ^nch'  (1884); 
'Atlanta  in  the  South'  (1886);  'Mammon' 
0888);  .'Honor':  and  'Phyllida'  (1903); 
'Roma  Beata'  (1904);  'Two  in  Italy'  (1905); 
'Sun  and  Shadow  in  Spain'  (1908);  'Sicily  in 
Shadow  and  in  Sun'  (1910);  'The  Eleventh 
Hour  in  the  Life  of  Julia  Ward  Howe'  (1911)  ; 
'Life  and  Letters  with  Julia  Ward  Howe,' 
with  Laura  E.  Richards  (1915). 

ELLIOTT,  Uaxine,  American  actress:  b. 
Rockland,  Me.,  5  Feb.  1873,  dau^ter  of 
Thomas  and  Adelaide  Dermot.  Making  her 
dibut  with  E.  S.  Willard,  she  played  Felicia 
Umfraville  in  'The  Middleman'  (1890),  and 
later  in  'The  Professor's  Love  Story.'  She 
was  with  Rose  Coghlan,  and  in  1895  went  to 
London    with    Au^stin    Daly's    company.     A 


lember  of  N.  C.  Goodwin's  company  1896,  she 
"    Oyde  Fitch's  'Nathan  Hale'  (1898); 
led   to   Mr.   Goodwin   that   year,   ap- 


peared wiA  him  in  'When  We  Were  'Twenty- 
One,'  and  played  Portia  in  the  'Merchant  of 
Venice'  (1901).  She  starred  in  Fitch's  'Her 
Own  Way'  in  1903  and  thereafter  appeared  in 
several  light  comedies.  She  is  owner  and 
manager  of  the  Maxine  Elliott  Theatre,  New 
York,  since  1908.  She  appeared  there  in  'The 
Chaperon'  and  'Deborah  of  Tods,'  etc  She 
has  since  appeared  in  the  film  drama  and  with 
the  greatest  success. 

ELLIOTT,  Sarah  Barnwell,  American 
novelist  She  is  a  granddauRhter  of  Stephen 
Elliott,  Her  best-known  works  are  'The  Pel- 
meres'  (1879);  'Jerry';  'John  Paget';  'The 
Durkct  Sperrel'  (1898) ;  'An  Incident  and 
Other  Happenings'  (1899) ;  'Sam  Houston' 
(1900);  'The  Making*  of  Jane'  (1901);  and  a 
play  'His  Majesty's  Servant.*  She  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Soeie^  of  Colonial  Dames  and  the 
United  Daughters  of  the  Confederacy. 


ELLIPSE— ELLIS 


ELLIPSE  (Lat  elii^,  from  Gr.  liUipM, 
omission),  a  plane  curve  of  mch  a  form  that, 
if  from  any  point  in  it  two  straigbt  lines  be 
drawn  to  two  given  fijted  points,  the-  sum  of 
these  straiE^t  lines  will  alwa^rs  be  the  same. 
The  ellipse  is  a  species  of  coiuc  section  (q.v.), 
and  is  obtained  by  a  plane  which  cuts  all  the  ele- 
ments of  one  na^e  of.  a  right  circular  cone. 
Projectivcly  considered,  an  ellipse  is  a  conic 
which  cuts  the  line  of  infinity  id  two  distinct 
imaginary  points.  If  these  are  the  two  circular 
points,  the  ellipse  becomes  a  circle.  These  two 
fixed  points  are  called  the  foci.  In  the  ellipse 
A  B  C  D  E  and  F  are  the  foci.  If  a  strai^t 
line  (£  Q  F)  be  drawn  joining  the  foci,  and  be 


then  bisected,  the  point  of  bisection  is  called 
the  centre.  The  distance  from  the  centre  to 
either  focus  <E  Q  or  Q  F)  is  called  the  linear 
eccentricity.  The  straight  tine  (G  Q  H), 
drawn  through  the  centre  and  terminated  boUi 
ways  by  the  curve,  is  called  the  diameter.  Its 
vertices  are  G  and  H.  The  diameter  A  C, 
which  passes  through  the  foci,  is  called  the 
major  ajds;  the  points  in  which  it  meets  the 
curve  (A  and  C),  the  principal  vertices.  The 
diameter  (B  D),  at  right  angles  to  the  major 
axis,  is  called  the  minor  axis.  Practically,  a 
tolerably  accurate  elhpse  may  be  drawn  on 
paper  by  sticking  two  ^ns  in  it  to  represent 
the  foci,  putting  over  these  a  bit  of  thread 
knotted  together  at  the  ends,  inserting  a  pencil 
in  the  loop,  and  pulling  the  string  tight  as  the 
figure  is  described.  The  importance  of  the 
ellipse  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  planets 
move  in  elliptical  orbits,  the  sun  being  in  one 
of  the  foci  —  a  fact  which  Kepler  was  the  first 
to  discover. 

The  equation  to  an  ellipse,  referred  to  its 
centre  as  origin,  and  to  its  major  and  minor 
axes  as  rectangular  axes,  is 


=  1,  where  a  and  a 


and  semi-minor  axes  respectively.  From  this 
equation  it  may  be  shown,  by  the  integral  cal- 
culus, that  the  area  of  an  ellipse  is  eaual  to 
7  db;  or  is  got  by  multiplying  the  product  of 
the  semi-major  and  semi<minor  axes  by  3.1416. 
It  may  also  he  shown  that  the  length  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  an  ellipse  is  ^ot  by  multiplying 
the  major  axis  by  the  quantity 


The  eccentrid^  e. 


Sec  Gkom- 


elliptlcity  is  the  ratio  a — b  to 
ETiY  and  Conic  Sections. 

ELLIPSIS,  in  grammar,  the  , ,..  ,. 

one  or  more  words,  which  may  he  eastl;  sup- 


idied  by  the  cmineciioa  It  is  common,  espe- 
cially in  colloquial  bnguase,  for  the  sake  of 
brevi^,  and  frequently  adds  to  the  strei^th 
and  perspicuity  ot  the  sentence ;  hence  a  more 
extended  use  of  the  ellipsis  in  rhetoric  and 
poetry.  In  the  hands  of  a  genuine  poet  or  ora- 
tor the  ellipsis  has  a  very  telling  value.  In  nat- 
ural language,  from  the  brevity  it  affords,  the 
ellipsis  becomes  in  all  its  phases  the  .language 
of  passion,  and  cspeciall/  of  sudden  and  intense 
emotion;  and  the  imitation  of  its  natural  use  in 
this  way  is  to  the  poet  the  most  powerful  in- 
strument for  painting  passion  to  the  life.  The 
works  of  all  the  greater  poets,  and  especially 
the  Hebrew  poetry  of  the  Old  Testament, 
abounds  with  familiar  instances  of  this  use  of 
the  ellipsis, 

ELLIPSOID,  in  geometry,  a  real  quadric 
surface  with  no  reaT  points  at  infinity.  Its 
equation  may  be  reduced  by  a  transformation 

J-, 


,+5  + 


=  I, 


being  real.  Every  real  plane  section  of  an 
ellipsoid  is  an  ellipse.  If  a,  b  and  c  are  not  all 
distinct,  the  ellipsoid  is  a  figure  of  revolution, 
and  is  known  as  a  spheroid.  An  oblate 
spheroid  is  one  where  the  axis  of  revolution 
is  less  than  the  chords  of  the  spheroid  bisect- 
ing it  perpendicularly;  a  prolate  spheroid  is  one 
where  the  chords  are  less. 

ELLIPSOIDAL  STRUCTURE  IN  IG- 
NEOUS ROCKS.  Certain  extrusive  igneous 
rocks  when  viewed  at  a  distance  seem  to  be 
made  up  of^  aggregates  of  bowlders  varying 
from  a  few  incnes  to  several  feet  in  diameter. 
If  these  masses  are  studied  more  closely,  how- 
ever, they  are  seen  not  to  be  bowlders  at  all, 
but  merely  ellipsoidal  shaped  masses  of  the  rock 
that  have  a  slightly  different  texture  and  color 
from  the  remaining  mass.  This  difference  is 
believed  to  be  the  result  of  certain  differences 
set  up  during  the  cooling  and  solidification  of 
the  molten  rock.  The  cause  is  obscure  but 
there  is  some  reason. to  believe  that  it  is  due 
to  the  lava  being  poured  out  into  a  body  of 
water,  as  in  a  lake  or  the  ocean, 

ELLIS^  Alexander  John  (originally 
Sharpe),  English  scientist  and  philosopher :  b. 
Hoxton.  4  June  1814;  d.  London,  28  Oct.  1890. 
He  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury,  Eton  and 
Trinity,  Cambridge,  and  devoted  himself  to 
mathematics,  the  scientific  side  of  music,  and 
more  especially  to  philology  and  phonetics. 
His  translation  of  Professor  Helmholtz's  'Sen- 
sations of  Tone*  (187S)  has  taken  a  place  as  a 
standard  work  on  scientific  music     In  1848  he 

fubltshed  two  small  works :  'The  Essentials  of 
'honctics* ;  and  'A  Plea  for  Phonetic  Spell- 
ing,* and  collaborated  with  Sir  Isaac  Pitman 
(q.v.)  in  framing  a  phonetic  system.  His 
magrtum  of  us  on  'Early  English  Pronun- 
ciation,' with  special  reference  to  Chaucer  and 
Shakespeare,  appeared  between  1869  and  1889. 
His  other  wonts  include  'Horse  Taming* 
(1842);  'Phonetics*  (1844);  'On  Glosik,  a 
Neu  Sistem  ov  Inelish  Speling*  (1870)  ;  <Ej>g- 
Iish  Dyonisian  and  Hellenic  Pronunciations  of 
Greek*  (1876);  'Logic  for  Children*  (1882), 
which  consists  of  two  addresses-  'Original 
Nursery  Rhymes  tor  Boys  and  Girls*  (1848); 
'Algebra  Identified  with  (Jeometry*  (1874) ! 
■Practical  Hints  on  the  Quantitative  Pronuncia- 


■8l^ 


tton    of    Latin*     (1874);    'PrMninciation    for 
Singer.'  (1877). 

BLLIS,  Alston,  American  educator ;  b. 
Kenlor  County,  Ky.,  26  Jan,  1847.  He  was 
graduated  at  Miami  University  in  1865  and 
from  1867  to  1892  was  principal  of  schools  at 
Covitigton  and  Newport,  Ky.,  and  superintend- 
ent of  schools  at  Hamilton  and  Sandusky,  Ohio. 
From  1892  to  1900  he  was  president  of  the 
State  Agricultural  College  of  Colorado  and  for 
the  greater  part  of  that  time  served  also  as 
director  of  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station. 
In  1901  he  was  chosen  president  of  Ohio  Uni- 
versity, He  was  president  of  the  Ohio  Super- 
intendents' Association  in  1875,  of  the  Ohio 
Teachers'  Association  in  1888,  of  the  Ohio  Col- 
lege Association  in  1892-93,  and  of  the  Ohio 
Association  of  Presidents  and  Deans  in  1910- 
II.  He  published  a  'History  of  the  Ungraded 
Sdiools     of    Ohio,*     and    many    educational 

BLLIS,  Edward  S7lvttBt«r,  American 
writer  of  school  textbooks  and  juvenile  liter- 
ature: b.  in  Geneva,  Ohio,  11  April  1840.  For 
some  years  he  was  superintendent  of  public 
schools  at  Trenlon,  N.  J.  He  has  published 
more  than  100  juveniles,  most  of  which  have 
been  reissued  in  London  and  are  sold  in  every 
part  of  the  world.  He  is  joint  author  of  'The 
World's  Great  Events,^  and  of  a  school  history 
oi  New  Jersey,  His  'History  of  the  United 
Stales*  (8  vols.,  Cincinnati  1887)  has  sold  to 
the  extent  of  n4,000  sets  or  912,000  separate 
volumes.  A  number  of  his  historical  ^roduC' 
tions  have  appeared  in  the  moving  pictures. 
His  latest  literary  work  is  the  editing  of  some 
60  translations,  devoted  to  a  full  history  of  all 
the  nations  engaged  in  the  great  European  War. 

ELLIS,  George,  English  author:  b.  Lon- 
don. England,  1753;  d.  10  April  1815.  He  was 
educateiT  at  Westminster  School  and  Trini^ 
College,  Cambridge,  and  was  one  of  the  junta 
of  wits  concerned  in  the  welt-known  political 
satire,  'The  RoIIiad.'  He  published  'Speci- 
mens of  the  Early  English  Poets,  with  an  His- 
torical Sketch'  (1790);  'Specimens  of  Early 
English  Metrical  Romances'  (1805);  and  was 
an  mtimalc  friend  of  Sir  Walter  ScDtt. 

ELLIS,  George  Edward,  American  Unita- 
rian clergyman  and  historical  writer:  b.  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  8  Aug.  1814;  d.  there,  20  Dei^  1894. 
He  was  pastor  of  the  Harvard  (Unitarian) 
Church,  Charicstown,  Mass.  (1840-69)  ;  and 
held  the  professorship  of  systematic  theology 
in  the  Cambridge  Divinihr  School  (1857-63). 
He  was  also  a  lecturer  of  Lowell  Institute  m 
1864,  1871  and  1879,  and  was  editor  of  the 
Chrtslian  Register  and  Christian  Examiner, 
As  president  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society  he  made  valuable  contributions  to  an 
early  colonial  history.  He  published  'A  Half- 
Century  of  the  Unitarian  Controversy'  (1857)  ; 
'Hiaiory  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill' 
(1875)  ;  'The  Red  Man  and  the  White  Man* 
(1882)  ;  'The  Puritan  Age  and  Rule  in  the 
Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  1629-85';  vari- 
ous memoirs,  and  several  biographies  in  Sparks' 
'American  Biography.' 

BLLIS,  Henry  Havelock,  English  scientist 
and  literary  scholar:  b,  Croydon,  Surrey,  2  Feb. 
1859,  He  tatight  school  in  New  South  Wales 
1875-79,  and  on  his  return  lo  England  practised 


medicine  for  k  short  time  and  tlicn  devoted  him- 
self to  literary  and  scientific  work.  He  was 
editor  of  the  'ContemporaTy  Science  Series' 
(1889) :  and  of  the  'Mermaid  Series  of  Old 
Dramatists'  (1887-89) ;  and  U  the  author  of 
'The  New  Spirit'  (1890>;  'The  Criminal> 
(1890) ;  'Man  and  Woman:  a  Study  of  Human 
Secondary  Sexual  Characters*  (1894)  ;  'Sex- 
ual Inversion*  (1897);  'Affirmations'  (1897); 
'The  Evolution  of  Modesty*  (1899)  ;  'Analysis 
of  the  Sexual  Impulse'  (1903) ;  'Sexual  Selec- 
tion in  Man>  (1905)  ;  'Erotic  SymboBsra' 
(1906);  'Sex  in  Relation  to  Society'  (1910); 
'The  Worid  of  Dreams*  (1911);  'Impressions 
and  Comments'   (1914). 


jggested  the  idea  that  the  South  Sea  islands 
were  constructed  and  raised  from  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean  by  means  of  .zoopltytes  or  the 
polypi  inhabiting  different  spedea  of  coral 
('Essay  towards  the  Natural  History  of  Cor- 


allin 


1755). 


:  tmie  agent 


for  the  colony  of  West  Florida  and  the  island 
of  Dominica-  AmDng  his  works  is  a  posthu- 
mous one  entitled  'The  Natural  History  of 
Many  Uncommon  Zoophytes*  (1786), 

BLLIS,  John  Valentin*,  Canadian  states- 
man: b,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  1835.  He  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools  of  his  native  city; 
worked  several  jrears  in  a  printer's  office  and 
in  1857  removed  to  Saint  Jobn,  New  Bninswid^ 
where  he  became  a  reporter.  He  bought  the 
Globe  of  that  city  in  1862  and  thereafter  was  its 
editor  and  publisher.  In  1882  he  entered  the 
political  arena,  served  in  the  New  Brunswidc 
legislature  as  Liberal  for  Saint  John  from 
1^-87.  In  the  latter  year  he  went  to  the 
House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Saint  John. 
In  connection  with  his  election  court  proceed- 
ings were  instituted  which  involved  Ellis  in 
contempt  of  court  and  be  was  im[)risoncd  and 
fined.  His  popularity  was  greatly  increased  by 
these  proceedings  and  the  fine  was  made  up  t^ 
public  subscription.  He  sat  in  dte  Commons 
until  1891,  was  again  elected  in  1S96  and  in  1910 
became  a  member  of  the  Senate.  In  1911  he 
was  chairman  of  the  -Senate  Committee  on  De- 
bates and  in  the  same  year  was  also  president 
of  the  Natural  History  Society  of  New 
Brunswick. 

ELLIS,  John  Willis,  American  statesman: 
h.  Rowan  County,  N.  C,  2S  Nov,  1820;  d 
Raleigh.  N.  C„  1861.  He  was  ^duated  at  the 
University  of  North  Carolina  tn  1841,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1842  and  soon  acquired  a 
large  practice.  He  was  a  member  of  the  State 
House  of  Commons  from  1844  to  1848,  when 


cecded  his  former  preceptor,  R,  M.  Pearson, 
who  was  elevated  to  the  Supreme  bench,  he  held 
until  1858,  when  he  was  elected  governor  of 
North  Carolina.  He  was  re-elected  in  1860  and 
died  in  office.  On  2  Tan,  1861,  Governor  Ellis 
took  possession  of  Fort  Macon  at  Beaufort. 
the  works  at  Wilmington  and  the  Federal 
arsenal  at  Fayetteville,  professedly  on  behalf 
of  the  State,  On  20  April  he  ordered  the  seiz- 
ure of  the  United  Slates  mint  at  Charlotte.  He 
was  active  in  promoting  the  passage  of  the 
secession  ordinance  in  North  Carcdina. 


BUUlft— BU.iOfiute 


fiLLia,  UwaM  jL,  &uttdiaii  explorer:  b. 
Bewilley,  Ontario,  about  1875.  She  wa»  gradu-' 
Bled  at  ihc  Brooklyn  (N.  Y.)  Trainuie  School 
for  Nurses;  later  became  aasistant  superin- 
Itndent  of  the  S.  R,  Smith  Iofiim»y  (now  tfae 
Statcn  Island  Hospital)  arid  superintendent  of 
the  Virginia  Hospital,  Richtnom<l  Va.  ^le  mar-; 
ri«d  Leonidas  HubbaKi,  journalist  and  exjferer. 
in  190! ;  he  perished  two  years  later  in  Labra- 
dor. She  orgBni»ed  fen  expedition  and  in  IBOS 
succeeded  in  completing  the  exploration -work 
undertaken  twfcar  tusfeand  hy  -crossina  the 
northeastern  part  of  L»h»ador,  iiow  known  a» 
ihe  District  of  Ungava,;  Proyince  of  Quebec; 
She  WB8  the  first  white  person  to  cross  the 
ridge  <]ivi<Ung  tlie  Naskaupi  utd  George  water- 
sbeds.  An  account  a£  the  expedition,  \w4iiah 
resuhed  in  some  important  discoveries,  is, given 
in  her  'A  Womans  Way  through  Unknown 
Ut»wk>r'  (190B)  and  in  'The  Bulletin  »f  th<J 
American  Geographical  Society.' 

ELU5,  Powhatan,  American  iurist  .atid 
polilician;  i,  Virginia,  about  1794;  d.  Richmond, 
Va.,  abont  1844.  In  1813  he  was  graduated  at 
William  and  Maiy  College,  settled  in  MisMS- 
sippi  while  it  was  a  Territory,  gained  a  high 
reputation  as  a  lawyer  and  in  1818  was  raised 
to  the  supreme  bench  of  the  State,  being  one 
of  the  first  judges  of  thai  court.  He  remained 
in  office  until  1825,  when  he  was  appointed  by 
the  governor  to  serve  out  the  unexpired  term 
of  David  Holmes  in  the  United  States  Senate. 
He  failed  of  election  by  the  legislature,  hut 
at  the  next  election  he  was  chosen  senator  for 
a  full  term,  but  served  only  from  3  Dec.  1827 
to  1832,  when  he  resigned  to  take  his  seat  on 
the  bench  as  United  Slates  judge  for  the  dis- 
trict of  Mississippi.  While  in  the  Senate  he 
joined  Thomas  H.  Btnton  and  WaUam  Smith 
m  opposing  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of 
182S  with  Mexico,  which  established  a  bound- 
ary-line intersecting  the  Red  and  Ai^cansas 
rivers,  thus  leaving  only  Florida  and  Arkansas 
for  the  expansion  of  slavery.  While  on  the 
bench  he  delivered  more  opinions  than  any  con- 
temporary judge.  On  5  Jan,  1836  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Jackson  charg*  d'affaires 
in  Mexico,  and' on  28  December  he  closed  the 
American  legation.  President  Van  Buren  ap- 
pointed him  minister  to  Mexico  on  IS  Feo. 
1839,  in  which  post  he  was  succeeded  by  Waddy 
Thompson  in  1842.  After  his  return  he  resided, 
in  Virginia. 

ELLIS,  Robinton,  English  classical  scholar; 
b.  Banning,  Kent,  5  Sept.  1834;  d.  9  Oct.  1913. 
He  was  eiuicated  at  Rugby  and  Baliiol  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1870  became  professor  of  Latin 
in  University  College,  London.  From  1883  till 
1893  he  was  university  reader  in  Latin  liter- 
ature at  Oxford,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  was 
elected  to  the  corpus  professorship  a(  Latin. 
His  name  is  chiefly  associated  with  the  elucida- 
tion of  the  poems  of  the  Roman  poet  CaluUuSi 
In  1867  he  published  a  critical  edition  of 
Catullus  ('Catulh  Veronensis  Liber*)  and  in 
1871  'The  Poems  and  Fragments  of  Catullus' 
in  the  metres  of  the  original,  these  works  being 
(oUowed  by  a  'Commentary  on  Catullus' 
(1876).  Other  publications  of  his  include 
Ovid's  'Ibis,'  with  commentary  (1881)  ;'FabIes 
of  Avianua'  (1887) ;  ^Ovientii  Carmina' 
(1887);     'Noctei    M^niUanse'     <IS91)!     'The 


F.abbEi  oLPhalims>  (1894),  andra  new  rcden- 
«at  oi  'Velleiiu  Paterculus,''  with  comincn' 
tary  (1898);  'Aetna'  (1900);  'Appendix:  Ver- 
gitianaJ  (1907);  'Licinianu*'  (1906).  CowiU 
Ammta»  Journal  of  Philology  (Vol.  XXXIV, 
pp.  494--«»6;  1»13). 

ELLI6,  William  Hodeton.  Canadian  chem- 
ist; b.  Bakewell,  Derbyshire,  England,  184S. 
He  came  to  Canada  ih  early  youth  an^  was 
erSduated  at  the  University  of  Toronto  in 
iBW,  afterward  studying  medicine  there  and  in 
Great  Britain.  On  his  return  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  Trinity  Medical  School 
ahd  tecttcrsr  qn  chemistry  at  TrinUy  University. 
Afterward  he  became  instructor  in  chemistry  m 
the  Pi'oviiKial  College  of  Technology,  and  in 
IQDO  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  toxicology 
iiL.the  University  of  TorontOi.  He  also  served 
as  official  ajuiyst  of  the  Inland  Revenue  office 
at  Toronto..  He  is  widely  known  as  an  expert 
chemist. 

KLLIS.  WIIUmb  TtwiQM.  Ao«4c3n  iour- 
oali«;  b.  Alledieny,  Pa.,  2S  Oct,  1873.  He  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools  and  until  1894 
was  on  the  stafi  of  Philadelphia  newspa^rs, 
when  he  became  editor  of  the  iBtemaUonal 
Christian  Endeavor  organ.  In  1897  he  became 
editor  of  Forward  and  in  1903-08  was  editorial 
writer  for  the  Philadelphia  Presi.  He  investi- 
gated social  conditions  in  foreign  countries  in 
t9D6-07  and  in  1910-11  in  the  interest  of  a 
news  syndicate.  He  wrote  Sunday-school  lea- 
sons  and  al»o  contributed  to  religious  peri- 
odicals. He  lias  lectured  f re<).uently  before  re- 
ligious bodies  and  has  published  'Men  and 
Missions'  (1909) .  and  'Foreign  Missions 
through  a  Journalist's  Eyes.'  ' 

ELLIS  ISLAND,  small  island  situated  in 
New  York  Bay,  one  mile  southwest  of  the  Bat- 
tery, where  the  old  immigrant  station,  Castle 
Garden,  was  located.  The  United  Sates  immi- 
giant  commissioner  has  his  offices  on  this  island. 
Immignants  detained  for  investigation  v  to 
compliance  with  the  United  States  immigra- 
tion laws  are  kept  on  tlus  island  until  allowed 
to  land  or  are  deported.  It  was  sold  by  New 
York  State  to  tlM  United  Stales  tn  1808,  and 
for  many  years  wasused  as  a  powder  magai 
zinc.  In  1891  it  was  made  an  immigrant  sta- 
tion. The  present  buUdingt  were  erected  in 
1897,  when  the  original  structures  were  burned. 

ELLORA,  e-16'ra,  BLORA,  or  ELOKU; 
e-loo'ra,  India,  village  in  the  province  of 
Aurun^bad  Hyderftbad  State;  situated  in  ZO*) 
21'  N.,  and  75?  IC  E,  about  IS  miles  north- 
west of  Aurungfibad  city.  Near  by  is  the  red 
stone  temple  of  Ahalya  Bai,  the  RanE  of  Indore 
(1767-95),  a  good  example  of  modern  Hindu 
architecture.  Ellora  is  celebrated  for  some  re- 
markable cave  temples,  excavated  In  the  solid 
rock,  which  in  magnitude  and  perfection  sur- 
pass all  other  constructions  of  the  kind  in  India. 
The  temples  are  divided  intp  .  three  series, 
Buddhist  Brahmanical  and  Jain  and  are  ar- 
ranged chronologically.  There  are  12  Buddhist 
caves  at  the  north  enc^  5  Jain  caves  at  the  oppo- 
site end,  with  17  Brahmanical  caves  between. 
Important  inscriptions  have  been  found  on 
them,  dating  from  the  5U)  to  the  9th  cen- 
turies. The  Kail&s  temple  at  Ellora  is  a  re- 
marlable  specimen  of  Indian  architecture.  Its 
court  is  about. 154  feet  wide  by  276  feet  loog, 


BLLORE— EUl 


entirdy  cnt  out  of  the  solid  rock,  backed  by  a 
scarp  107  feet  high.  A  curtain  of  stone  haa 
been  left  at  the  front  on  vhich  forms  of  Siva, 
Vishna  and  the  other  gods  arc  carved.  Rooms 
inside  face  an  entrance  passage  at  the  end  of 
which  are  a  colossal  Lakshmi  and  her  attendant 
elephant  and  lotuses.  An  inscription  dates  from 
the  8lh  century.     A   bridge   leads  to   the  tem- 

Ele  proper  yarded  by  posts.  The  terapie  .was 
uilt  by  Krishna  I,  the  Rashtrakiita  King  of 
Malked  (760-83).  Consult  Fergusson  and 
Burgess,  'The  Cave  Temples  of  India*  (Lon- 
don 1880). 

ELLORE,  (-lor".  India,  town,  in  the  God- 
avari  district  of  the  Madras  presidency,  on  the 
river  lammalcr,  once  the  capital  of  the  Norths 
em  Ctrcars.  It  has  ma^stefial  and  judicial 
establishment*  police  station,  post  office,  etc., 
a  number  of  Christian  missions  and  a  garrison. 
There  are  some  manufactures  of  carpets  and 
saltpetre.    Pop.  33,500. 

ELLSWORTH,  Bphralm  Bbner,  ^neri- 
can  soldier :  b.  Mechanics vllle,  N.  Y.,  23  April 
1837;  d.  Alexandria  Va.,  24  May  1861.  He 
organized  about  1859  a  zouave  corps  which 
became  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  dis- 
cipline. In  March  1861  he  accompanied  Presi' 
dnit  Lincoln  to  Washington,  and  in  April  he 
went  to  New  York,  where  he  organized  a 
louave  regiment  of  firemen,  of  which  he  be- 
came colonel.  Ordered  to  Alexandria,  he 
towered  a  Confederate  flag  tloatii^  over  a 
hotel,  for  which  act  the  hotelkeeper  shot  him 
dead. 

ELLSWORTH,  Oliver,  American  jurist: 
b.  Windsor,  Conn.,  29  April  174S;  d.  there,  25 
Nov.  1807.  He  was  graduated  at  the  College 
of  New  Jersey  in  1766,  and  soon  after  com- 
menced the  practice  of  law.  In  1777  he  was 
chosen  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress, 
and  in  1780  was  elected  a  member  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Connecticut,  in  which  body  he  continued 
till  1784,  when  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of 
the  Superior  Court.  In  1787  he  was  elected 
to  the  convention  which  framed  the  Federvl 
Constitution,  and  was  afterward  a  member  of 
the  State  convention,  where  be  earnestly  advo- 
cated  the  ratification  of  that  important  instru- 
ment, which  his  exertions  had  essentially  aided 
in  producing.  In  1789  he  was  chosen  a  Senator 
of   the   United   States,   which   station   he   filled 


United  States.  In  1799  he  was  appointed  envoy 
extraordinary  to  Paris,  and  with  his  associates 
successfully  negotiated  a  treaty  with  the 
French.  He  resigned  his  oliice  of  chief  justice 
in  1800.  In  1803  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  governor's  council  of  Connecticut,  and  in 
1807,  chief  justice  of  that  State.  His  biography 
was  written  by  W.  G.  Brown  (New  York 
1905), 


sides  of  the  Union  River,  and  on  the  Maine 
Central  Railroad;  30  miles  southeast  of  Bangor, 
It  is  the  trade  centre  of  the  county  and  has 
extensive  timber,  ship-bniMing  and  fishing  in- 
terests, exporting  over  50,000.000  feet  of  lumber 
annually.  It  has  shoe,  woolen,  leather,  car- 
riage, sails,  gasoline  engines  and  other  manu- 
facturing industries.    The  city  contains  a  court- 


house, custom-bbuw,  pubUt  Kbriry  and  a  city 
hall.  The  Union  River  is  crossed  by  severu 
bridges  and  furnishes  good  water  power  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  A  fish  hatchery  is 
maintained  here  by  the  Federal  government. 
The  city  was  settled  in  1763,  was  incorporated 
as  a  town  in  1800  and  as  a  city  in  1869.  A 
mayor  and  a  board  of  aldermen  administer  the 
affairs  of  the  mnnictpaU^  which  controls  the 
water-supply  system  ana  the  electric  plant 
Pop.  3i#. 

ELLWOOD,  CharlM  Abr«m,  American 
socioloflst:  b.  near  C^densbnrg,  N.  Y.,  20  Jan, 
1873.  He  was  graduated  at  Cornell  University 
in  1896  and  studied  also  at  the  Universities  of 
Chicago  and  Berlin.  For  one  year  he  was  lec- 
turer and  instructor  at  the  Universi^  of 
Nebraska  and  in  1900  became  professor  of  so- 
ciology at  the  University  of  Missouri.  He 
became  also  advisory  editor  of  the  American 
Journal  of  Sociology  and  associate  editor  of 
the  Journal  of  Crimmal  Law  and  Criminology. 
In  1904  he  served  as  president  of  the  Missouri 
Confederated  Charities.  He  has  published 
'Sociology  and  Modern  Social  Problems' 
(1910) ;  'Sociology  in  its  Psychological  As- 
pects' (1912;  French  trans.,  1914^  also  mono- 
graphs and  special  articles  on  social  psychology. 

KLLWOOD,  Thomw,  English  Quaker;  b. 
Crowell,  near  Thame,  Oxfordshire,  1639;  d. 
Amersham,  1  March  1714.  About  1660  he  was 
induced  to  join  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  sub- 
sequently became  reader  to  Milton,  wiUi  whom 
he  improved  himself  in  the  learned  languages, 
but  was  soon  obliged  to  quit  London  on  account 
of  his  health.  In  the  year  1665  he  p'^ocured  a 
lodging  for  Milton  at  Chalfont,  Bud^and  was 
the  occasion  of  his  writing  'Paradise  Regained' 
by  the  following  observation  made  on  rereading 
the  'Paradise  Lost*  which  the^poet  had 
lent  him  to  read  in  manuscript:  ■Thou  hast 
said  much  of  paradise  lost,  but  what  hast  thou 
to  say  of  naradise  found?*  In  1705  he  pub- 
lished the  bTBt  part  of  'Sacred  History,  or  the 
Historical  Parts  of  the  Old  Testament'  ;  and  ui 
1709  "Sacred  History,  etc,  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.' His  other  works  are  numerous;  among 
them  'Davideis,  the  Life  of  David,  King  of 
Israel,'  a  poem,  which  is  more  distinguuhed 
for  piety  than  poet^.  His  life,  written  by  him- 
self, and  published  the  year  after  his  deall^ 
affords  many  interesting  particulars  of  the 
history  of  his  sect. 

ELM,  Uimm,  a  genus  of  trees  and  a  few 
shrubs  of  the  family  Vltnacea.  The  species, 
of  which  about  20  are  known,  are  natives  of 
the  North  Temperate  rone  and  the  southern 
portions  of  the  Arctic  zone.  Their  southern 
limits  seem  to  be  the  Himalayas  in  Asia  and 
the  mountains  of  southern  Mexico.  None  are 
natives  of  the  Pacific  slope  of  North  America. 
They  are  characterized  by  short-petioled,  alter- 
nate, rough,  usually  deciduous  leaves  with  ser- 
rate edges ;  axillary  racemes  of  perfect, 
apetalous  flowers  which  appear  in  early  spring 
before  Or  with  the  leaves;  and  compressed 
winged,  dry  fruits.  Many  of  the  species  arc  of 
wide  economic  importance.  Their  hard,  heavy, 
tough,  pliable  wood  is  lar^ly  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  barrels,  agricultural  implements, 
boats,  wagon  wheels,  buildings,  etc.,  and  for 
fuel.  The  inner  baric  of  some  species  furnishes 
an  article  of  food,  and  that  of  others  a  tough 


ELM  TREES 


lyGoot^Ie 


.yGooi^le 


ELH  —  KLH-IHSKCTS 


bast  fibre  used  for  corda^  and  cloth  making. 
The  outer  bark  of  some  is  used  in  dyeing  and 
sugar  refining.  Various  parts  of  several  species 
were  formerly  popular  remedies  employed  In 
medicine,  but  except  in  domestic  and  local  prac- 
tice are  rarely  prescribed.  Most  of  the  species 
are  highly  valued  as  ornamental  trees  in  street 
and  park  planting,  those  specially  popular  beins 
the  straight-t runted,  tall-growing,  vase-formed 
species,  which  quickly  over-arch  the  streets  and 
cast  an  abundant  shade.  Many  cultivated  varie- 
ties of  fantastic  form,  color  of  folia^,  or  habit 
of  growth  are  also  planted  ?-  —■""'■•:■"■ 


which  grows  in  rich  moist  woods,  especially  i 
the  shores  of  streams,  from  Newfoundland 
Florida  and  westward  to  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  a  tall  tree,  often  at- 
taining a  height  of  120  feet  when  growing  in 
the  forest,  and  with  a  wide-spreading,  less  lofty 
lop  when  growing  in  the  open,  where  it  may  be 
seen  in  several  dinerent  forms,  popularly  known 
as  vase,  plume,  oak-tree,  etc.,  accordmg  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  branches.  Some  specimens 
of  each  one  develop  numerotts  twiggy  growths 
upon  the  trunk  and  main  branches,  which  are 
thus  rendered  very  attractive  because  of  their 
feathery  ap^arance.  The  most  common  form 
ii  the  vase,  in  which  the  main  branches  develop 
at  about  213  feet  or  more^  and  at  their  bases 
gradually,  and  toward  their  extremities  mdely 
diverge.  This  is  probably  the  most  popular 
street  form  in  America.  Another  well-known 
American  species  is  the  slippery  or  red  elm 
([/.  /ulva),  which  attains  a  height  of  70  feet 
in  rich  soils  and  is  found  from  Quebec  to 
Florida  and  westward  to  Texas  and  the  Da- 
kotas.  It  is  called  red  because  the  btid  scales 
are  reddish  and  conspicuous  when  unfoldii.g  in 


ued  than  that  of  the  English  elm,  but  more  than 
that  of  the  white  elm.  The  cork  or  rock  elm 
(U.  racemoio),  which  grows  on  river  banks 
from  New  England  to  Ndiraska  and  as  far 
south  as  Kentud^  and  Tennessee,  attains  a 
height  of  100  feet  and  is  noted  for  the  cort^ 
developments  resembling  wings  on  the  smaller 
branches.  Its  wood  is  specialty  valued  for  its 
great  durability,  strength,  pliability  and  tough- 
ness. Another  species  with  corW,  winged 
branches  is  the  wahoo  or  winged  elm  Xp. 
alata),  which  ranges  from  Virginia  to  Flonda 
and  westward  to  Texas  and  Illinois.  It  rarely 
exceeds  70  feet  in  height,  is  very  attractive  in 
habit,  and  is  planted  for  ornament  in  the  South, 
but  not  in  the  North,  as  it  is  not  sufficiently 
hardy  for  the  rigors  of  winter. 

The  most  noted  European  species  is  the 
English  elm  ( U.  eampestris'i^  which  ranges 
through  middle  and  southern  Europe,  northern 
Africa,  and  eastward  to  Japan.  It  reaches  100 
feet  in  height  and  has  a  rather  round-topped 
or  open  head,  on  account  of  its  spreading 
branches.  It  is  frequently  planted  for  ornament 
at  home  and  abroad,  and  in  America  is  valued 
because  its  foliage  continues  green  for  several 
weeks  after  that  o£  the  white  elm.  It  has  sev- 
eral distinct  varieties,  which  are  sometimes 
considered  as  distmct  species,  and  of  which  there 
are  a  large  number  of  horticultural  varieties. 
The  next  most  important  European  species  is 
probably  the  Scotch  or  wych  elm  (U.  scabrai. 


which  has  much  the  same  tan^  as  die  preced- 
ing species,  like  which  it  attains  a  height  of 
^□ut  100  feel  It  is  a  variable  species  with 
many  cultivated  varieties,  one  of  the  best- 
known  of  which  is  the  Camperdown  elm,  which 
has  long,  pendulous  branches,  on  account  of 
which  the  tree  is  freanently  planted  as  a 
cnriost^  in  parks  and  gardens.  The  Chinese 
elm  ((/.  parvifolia)  is  a  semi-evergreen  shrub 
or  small  tree,  a  native  of  eastern  Asia,  which 
has  proved  hardy  in  America  as  far  north  as 
Massachusetts. 

Elms  are  readily  propagated  from  seed 
which  ripens  in  late  spring  or  early  summer 
and  should  be  sown  at  once.  The  seedlings 
are  easily  managed,  both  as  lo  cultivation,  trans- 
planting and  pruning.  The  trees  do  best  in  rich 
soil,  especially  if  moist.  The  choice  varieties 
are  generally  grafted.  The  trees,  especially  of 
the  American  or  white  elm,  are  specially  liable 
to  the  attacks  of  certain  insects  and  aiseases, 
which  often  defoliate  them.  The  latter  maj^  be 
kept  in  check  by  the  timely  and  proper  applica- 
tion of  a  standard  fungicide  (qv.). 

The  name  elm  is  also  given  to  various  un- 
related trees,  the  best-known  of  which  are 
probably  the  following:  Water  elm  (Planera 
aguatica) ;  Spanish  elm  or  Bois-de-Chypre 
(Cordia  gerascanlhus).  Several  Australian 
trees  are  also  known  as  elms,  especially 
Duboisia  myoporoides  and  Aphanantkt  phtlif- 
pinensit,  each  of  which  is  valued  for  its 
timber. 

ELH,  Sltj^ery,  in  medicine,  the  bark  of 
Ulmut  fitiva,  11  widely  used  as  a  demulcent. 
It  is  probable  that  die  ancient  Indian  inhab- 
itants of  the  country  introduced  it  into  medi- 
cine. Slippery  elm  bark  is  noted  for  the  large 
amount  of  mucilage  which  it  contains,  thus 
rendering  it  a  pleasing  demulcent  for  sore 
throat,  diarrhcea,  dysentery,  and  inflammation 
of  the  intestinal  tract  in  general. 

KLH-INSECTS.  Vcvr  ornamental  trees 
arc  more  subject  to  the  attacks  of  insects  than 
are  the  elms,  and  especially  the  American  elm. 
The  European  species  are,  however,  attractive 
to  the  European  insects,  of  which  many  have 
been  brought  over  unintentionally,  and  have 
spread  remarkably  because  of  the  absence  of 
their  enemies.  One  of  the  most  notable  is  the 
plant-louse  known  as  Coloiha  ulmicola,  which 
produces  the  cockscomb  galls  upon  the  foliage. 
It  is  rarely  very  troublesome,  and  has  usually 
done  its  damage  before  it  can  be  attacked. 
Kerosene  emulsion,  if  applied  in  time,  will  provC' 
effective.  (See  Insecticide).  A  borer  (Sap- 
erda  Indtnlala)  is  sometimes  troublesome,  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  satisfactory  way  to  control 
it,  though  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  trunk 
should  be  washed  with  lime  or  soft  soap  during 
June  and  July.  Most  of  the  other  insects  that 
attack  the  elms  are  beetles,  their  larvx,  or  the 
caterpillars  of  various  moths.  These  all  bite 
their  food,  and  hence  may  be  attacked  with 
arsenites  or  other  stomach  poisons  sprayed 
Upon  the  foliage.  Among  these  insects  are  the 
four-homed  sphinx-moth  {Ceratomia  amyntor 
or  tjuadricomis) ,  a  green  catemllar  with  tour 
little  horns  rear  the  bead  and  the  long  anal 
horn  characteristic  of  the  sphinx-moth.  The 
bag-worm  {Thyndopteryx  ephemeraformis), 
the  gypsy-moth  {Ocneria  dispar),  the  tussoclc- 
motfa    {Notolophus    or    Orgyria  Itueostigmai, 


8l^ 


aoo 


BLMAN-rBLJilRiaL  BSFOHHATORY 


and  several  other  general  feeders  are  frequently 

troublesome.  But  the  most  important  leaf-cat- 
inR  enemy  of  the  elm  is  the  elm-leaf  beetle 
iCaieruca  xanlhomelana) ,  a  reddish-yellow, 
two-striped  European  insect  which  appears  and 
eats  the  leaves  in  spring.  The  bottte-shaped 
yellow  egga  are  laid  m  rows  on  the  under  sides 
of  the  leaves,  and  the  hairy,  blact-spotted,  yel- 
low larvE  eat  circular  holes  between  the  leat- 
veins,  Spraying  with  arsenites  is  effective,  but 
where  more  tlian  one  brood  is  produced  the 
sprayings  must  be  repealed  frequently  throu^* 
out  the  summer.  Consult  Uarlatt,  'Elm  Leaf 
Beetle,'  Circular  8,  Division  of  Entomology, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
(Washington  1895). 

ELMAN,  Mlscha,  Jewish  violinist;  b. 
Talnoje,  Russia,  1892.  He  showed  such  re- 
markable talent  that  at  the  age  of  six  he  was 
taken  by  his'father  to  Odessa  and  there  studied 
under  competent  masters  for  four  years.  He- 
met  Leopold  Auer  in  1902  and  so  impressed  the 
latter  that  he  secured  the  permission  of  the 
Tsar  for  Elman's  admission  to  the  Imperial 
Conservatory  at  Saint  Petersburg,  hitherto 
dosed  to  members  of  the  Jewish  race.  Ehnan 
spent  two  years  there  under  Auer  and  at  his 
oebut  in  1904  he  was  at  once  acclaimed  as  an 
artist  of  first  rank.  He  toured  Germany  and 
everywhere  scored  a  triumphant  success.  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  1908  and  again  in' 
1911,  1912,  1913  and  1914,  being  eminently  suc- 
cessful on  every  occasion.  On  the  violin  he  is 
ilow.recognued  as  a  veritable  genius. 

KLMBNDORP,  Theresa  Hubbell  West. 
American  librarian:  b.  Pardeeville,  Wis.,  mS. 
She  was  graduated  at  Miss  Wheelock's  Semi- 
nary, Milwaukee,  in  1874  and  froml880  to  1896 
was  deputy  librarian  and  librarian  of  the  Mil- 
waukee Public  Library.  In  1896  she  married 
Henry  Livingston  Elraendorf  (d.  1906),  and  in 
1906  was  appointed  vice-librarian  of  the  Bttffalo 
PnWic  Library.  In  1903-^  she  was:  piresiaent 
of  the  New  York  Library  Association  and  in 
1911  became  president  of  me  Americ»n  Library 
Association  —  the  first  woman  to  fill  that  ofike, 
^e  was  also  caeditor  of  the  'Americaii  Library 
AsscKiation  Catalogue'  and  has  published  many 
articles   in    library   periodicals   on   profession^ 

■  ELMTNA,  ei-me'na,  or  SAINT  QEOROB 
DEL  MINA,  West  Africa,  town  belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Dutch 
settlements  on  the  Gold  Coast,  five  or  six  miles 
west  of  Cape  Coast  Castle.  The  Castle  of  Saint 
Geot^  del  Mina  was  the  first  European  estab- 
lishment on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  having  been 
erected  by  the  Portugese  in  1481.  The  castle 
is  the  residence  of  the  pgvernmetit  officials  of 
the  district  Tt  is  the  chief  oullft  for  the  trade 
of  Ashanti.  It  came  under  English  control  in 
1872,  when  it  was  claimed  W  the  King  6f 
Ashanti  the  result  beinu  the  Ashanti  wars  of 
1873-74,  Pop.  about  4,000. 
.  ELMIRA,  N.  Y.,  city,  county-seat  '»i  Che- 
mung  County,  on  both  sides  of  the  Chemung 
River,  and  on  the  Delaware  and  Lackawanna, 
the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Korlhern  Central  and 
the  Erie  railways ;  100  miles  southeast  of  Roch- 
ester, 149  miles  east- southeast  of  Buffalo,  and 
46  mites  soulh^southwest  of  Ithaca.  Among 
tbC'tnorc  important  eetaUishnients  »xe  ^ulroad-. 


tables,  bicycles  slass,  fire  engiues,  tobacco  a 
cifiars,  boilers  and  endues,  doors,  sashes  ana 
blmds,  hard-wood  finishing  works,  silk  and 
knitting  miUs.  tobacco  warehouses,  dyeworks, 
breweries  and  aluminum  works.  The  district 
is  fertile^  and  there  are  also  stone-qnarters  in 
the  vicint^.  Here  are  located.  Ehniia  Coll^ie 
(q.v.),  a  State  armory,  the  Stale  reformatory 
(see  Elhisa  Retormatoky),  the  Amot-Ogden 
Memorial  Hos^tal,  file  Steele  Memorial  Free 
Library,  a  Federal  goverament.  biulding  housing 
the  Federal  courtSj  the  post  office,  etc.,  and 
various  charitable  mstitutions.  The  park  sys- 
tem includes  Wisner,  Riverside,  EUdridge  and 
Hofftnaa  parks.  Elmira  is  finely  laid  out,  and 
has  an  excellent  water  supply,  and  gas  and 
ejkctric  ligfatinK.  Elmira  was  permanently  set- 
tled In  1788,  was  incorporated  as  the  village  of 
Mcwtown  in  1615,  and  in  1828  was  reincor- 
poiated  as  the  villase-of  Elmira.  In  1836  it  be- 
came the  county-seat  of  Chemung  County,  and 
in  1864  obtained  its  city  charter.  During  the 
Civil  War  it  was  the  State  recruiting  and  mili- 
tary rendezvous,  and  in  1864-65  one  of  die 
Federal  prisons  for  Confederate  prisoners  of 
war  was  here  situated.  Near  the  present  site 
of  Elmira  the  battle  of  Newtown  was  fought. 
29  Aug.  1779.  .  General  Sullivan,  with  an  Ameri- 
can force  numbering  5,000,  defeating  a  com- 
bined band  oi  Tories  and  Indians  oommanded 


respectitfelv  t^  Sir  John  Jt^mson  and  Joseph 
Brant    (Tbayendanegea)     and    numbering 
proximately  1,500,    The  battle^ound  is  i 


marked  by  a  memorial  to  Sullivan.  Elmira  ii 
governed,  under  a  charter  of  190C^  by  a  mayor, 
who  is  biennitjly  elected,  and  a  coramon  coun- 
cil, which  is  unicameral.  In  addition  to  the 
aldermen,  who  are  chosen  by  wards  for  terms 
of  two  years,  the  recorder,  municipal  judge 
and  12  supervisors,  to  act  as  a  county  board, 
are  also  chosen  by  popular  vote.    Pop.  37,816 

ELMIRA,  Battle  of,  29  Aug.  1779,  m  the 
Revolution.    See  CHeuuno,  Battle  or. 

ELMIRA  COLLEGE,  at  Elmira,  N.  Y, 
The  first  college  founded  exclusively  for  women 
in  the  United  States  (1855).  Under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  its  course 
of   study   from   the   first   demanded   as   high  a 

f'ade  of  work  as  is  usual  in  first-class  colleges, 
he  degrees  conferred  are  bachelor  of  arts, 
bachelor  of  science,  bachelor  of  music  and 
master  of  arts.  The  college  maintains  a 
graduate  department  and  also  *  summer  ses- 
sion. The  average  enrolment  is  about  203, 
with  20  members  in  the  faculty.  There  are 
11,000  volumes  in  the  library.  The  annual  in- 
come is  about  $90,000,  and  the  productive  funds 
amount  to  $140,000. 

ELMIRA  HEIGHTS,  N,  Y.,  village  in 
Chemung  County,  adjolniiig  Elmira,  on  the 
Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western,  the  Erie 
and  the  Lehigh  Valley  railroads.  Bridgeworks, 
machine  shops,  knitting  mills  and  pump  fac- 
tories give  employment  to  a  very  great  number. 
Pop.  2732. 

ELMIRA  REFORMATORY,  State  insti- 
tution, located  in  Ehnira,  N.  Y.  It  is  a  re- 
formatory to  which  may  be  sent  only  males  be- 
tween the  ages  of  US  and  30  who  have  not 
served  a  penpd  in  a  State ,  pris<m.    The  court 


ELMOt  .««H0~  JH.OCUTION 


of  ttfc  Sute  af  New  York,  in  sautencitis  a 
prisoner  to  ttus  institution,  has  no  authority  to 
limit  the  timej  thai  is  deieimined  by  the  man- 
agers of  the  institution,  and  is  .almost  wholly 
dependent  upon  the  conduct  of  the  prisoner. 
However,  the  term  of.  imiirismimenl  sliall  not, 
according  to  the  law  of  the  State,  "exceed  the 
maximum  term  provided  by  law  for  the  crime 
for  which  the  prisoner  was  convicted  and  sen- 
tenced." This  reformatory,  which  takes  thp 
Elace  of  a  State  prison  for  male  offenders  who 
ave  not  become  hardened  in  crime,  has  effected 
a  radical  change  in  methods  of  dealing  with  the 
class  of  law-breakers  intended  to  benefit.  Al- 
though the  law  authoriunir  the  institution  was 
passed  in  1866  it  was  not  until  1876  that  the  in- 
stitution was  opened.  The  nlaa  has  been  a 
splendid  success  and  has  had  many  imitators. 
About  22,000  prisoners  have  passed  through  its 
regimen.  About  ipOO  is  the  average  detained 
there.  Consult  Winter,  'The  Elmira  Reforma- 
tory' ;  New  York  State  Laws  of  1877,  sec,  2, 
eh.  J73.  Wines,  'Punishment  and  Reformation* 
(189S>  ;  and  the  Keariooij  o£  the  Reformatory. 
EL,MO,  ERHO,  or  ERASMUS,  Saint,  a 
martyr  who  suSered  death  at  Formiae,  a  town 
«f  andenC  Italy,  dutinff  the  jiersecution  under 
Piocietion,  in  Xii.  He  is  considered  the  patron 
saint  of  sailors,  and  is  usually  invoked  by 
Italian  sailors  duriog  a.  stoim.  His  feast  is 
kept  on  June  3. 

BL-MO'S  FIRE,  Saint,  is  the  popular  name 
of  an  electric  appearance,  especially  in  southern 
climates  during  thunderstorms,  of  a  brush  or 
■tar  of  light  at  the  tcqts  of  masts,  sinres,  or 
other  objects.  Greek  superstition  embodied 
this  phenomenon  In  the  story  of  Castor  and 
Pollux. 

BLMORB,  Alfred,  Irish  artist :  b.  Clona- 


traveled  dirough  Europe  to  Rome,  where  he 
lived  two  years,  returning  to  England  in  184^ 
becoininK  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
1845,  and  Royal  Academician,  18S6.  Among 
his  works  are  'Martyrdom  of  Thomas  a 
Becket'  (1840),  Saint  Andrew's  Church,  Dub- 
lin; "The  Novice'  (1»«) ;  'Rienai'  (1844) 
'Death  of  Robert,  King  of  Naples'  (1848) 
'Griselda'  (1850);  'Oiarlcs  V  at  Yuste 
(1856);  'Marie  Antoinette  in  the  Temple 
(1861):  Louis  XIII  and  Louis  X1V>  (1870), 
'Ophelia'  (1875)  ;  'Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and 
Danilcy'  (1877);  'Pompeii"'  'John  Alden  and 
Priscilla>     (1878):     'After    the    Ruin,'     and 

BLMWOOD  PLACE,  Ohio,  village  of 
Hamilton  Coimty,  adjoimng  Gncinnati,  to 
which  it  has  repeatedly  refused  to  be  annexed, 
and  on  the  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis 
and  the  Dayton  and  Cleveland  railroads,  the 
Miami  River  and  the  Erie  Canal,  It  contains 
large  steel  manufacturing  plants  and  extensive 
railroad  freight  yards.     Pop.  3,423. 

BLOBEY  ISLANDS,  a  lo-ba'e.  The  ntime 
of  two  small  islands  off  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
in  Africa,  belongiiw  to  Spain,  Elohey  Chico 
is  the  am^ltr  and  Hobey  Grande  the  larger. 
Pop.  350. 

ELOCUTION  (Latin  ehcutio,  e,  ouf.  loqui. 
to  speak),  the  science  and  art  of  expression  by 
voice  and  action.    Though  expression  is  depend- 


ent vgfon  the  tbou^t  or  emotion  to  be  ^ven, 
elocution  applies  only  to  the  manner  of  delivery. 
In  a  larger  sense  it.  relates  to  all  forms  of  ex- 
pressive art,  such  as  music,  painting  or  scul^ 
ture;  but  the  treatment  here  is  confined  to  its 
uses  in  human  action  and  speech.  As  a  science 
it  discovers  and  sets  forth  the  elements  or 
principles  of  expression;  as  an  art  it  embodies 
these  elements  in  the  portrayal  of  our  physical, 
mental  and  emotive  moods. 

The  principles  of  elocution  are  as  old  as 
the  human  race  and  are  exemplified  in  nature 
whenever  the  vibration  of  vocal  cords  produce 
sound  or  muscular  activities  reveal  a  psychic 
state.  They  are  heard  and  seoi  in  animate 
nature,  and  their  proper  use  constitutes  that 
naturalness  so  desirable  in  public  speech.  The 
laws  governing  the  use  of  these  elements  are 
as  fixed  and  definite  as  those  of  other  well-es- 
tablished^  sciences,  and  a  violation  of  these  laws 
results  in  unnatural,  ineffective  expression. 
The  relation  between  psychic  conditions  and 
the  elements  and  laws  through  which  im- 
pressions are  received  and  expressed  presents  a 
uaeful  and  consistent  philosoithy  by  which  all 
students  of  the  art  of  expression  in  any  of  its 
forms  may  be  guided, 

Man  is  endowed  with  a  vital,  a  mental  and 
an  emotive  ■  nature.  Through  these  three 
natures  he  receives  all  impressions,  and  through 
the  elements  of  elocution  corresponding  to 
these  triune  nMuves  he  nmst  communicate  all 
expressioTL 

PAST  L— ELEUENT3  OP  VOCAL  EXPBESBIDH, 

There  are  four  generic  vocal  elements  of 

elocution,  namely.  Qualily,  Farce,  Time  and 
Pilch,  all  of  which  are  embodied  in  every 
utterance,  while,  in  turn,  every  shade  of  human 
ex[)ression  may  be  traced  in  its  various  sub- 
divisions and  combinations.  A  tabubr  view  of 
the  vocal  elements  is  given  on  p.  262. 

I.  Quality^- Quality  is  the  tone-color  or 
kind  of  voice,  the  purity  or  impurity  of  the 
tone,_  and  is  dependent  upon  the  size,  snape  and 
physical  condition  of  the  vocal  organs  and  cav- 
ities. Broadly  speaking  it  is  an  emotive  de- 
ment which  subdivides  into  eight  varieties,  each 
having  a  definite  correspondetce  to  man's  triune 
nature.  Each  quality  is  determined  by  its 
resonance,  which  Helmhohz  defines  as  "the 
strengthening  or  reinforcing  of  sotwd*  in  the 
cavities  of  the  head,  throat  and  chest.  By 
changing  these  resonances  at  will  the  speaker 
can  employ  the  qualities  to  express  his  various 
moods  and  emotions, 

£1)  Normal. —  The  normal  is  the  ordinary, 
preaominant,  characteristic  quality  of  voice 
peculiar  to  each  individuaL  Its  resonance  is 
in  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  mouth,  and 
the  tone  should  be  pure.  By  this  quality  we 
recognize  the  voices  of  diflFerent  persons.  It 
belongs  to  the  mental  division  and  is  ^e  natural 
expression  of  our  ordinary  thoughts,  such  aa 
splemni^'.  tranquillity,  mild  patho^  conversa- 
tion, dituctic  thought,  gladness,  and  joy. 

(2)  Orotund. — The  orotund  is  a  strong 
clear,  dee^,  voluminous  quality,  the  resonance 
of  which  is  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tboradc 
cavity.  _  It  represents  about  equally  the  mental 
and  vital  natures  and  is  used  to  express 
thoughts  and  emotions  of  a  loftv  nature,  such 
as  reverence,  sublimity,  grantJt^r,  couiag^ 
patriotism  and  oratorical  intensify.  .   . 


Google 


<3)  Oral.—  The  oral  is  a  thin,  feeble,  shal- 
low quality  with  the  resonance  in  the  forward 
part  of  the  mouth.  It  is  the  physical  result  of 
a  low  state  of  inherent  or  exerted  vitality  and 
logically  belongs  to  the  vital  division.  It  is 
generally  used  by  a  speaker  in  a  personative 
sense  to  express  sicloiess,  feebleness,  idiocy, 
timidity  and  fati^e. 

(4)  Ntuai.— The  nasal  is  an  impure  twang- 
ing, head-tone  with  the  resonance  in  the  front 
nasal  cavities.  It  represents  a  vital  condition 
and  belongs  to  that  division.    As  an  habitual 


quality  it  is  a  grave  defect  in  : 

control  of  the  will  it  may  be 

sonative    way    to    express    1: 

burlesque    or    drollery ;    and 

thought  it  is  often  employed  to  give  pungency 

to  irony,  insinuation  or  contempt. 

(5)  Falulto.—  'The  falsetto  is  a  pure,  shrill, 
penetrating  quality  ratiging  above  tnc  ordinary 
pitch.  Its  resonance  is  in  the  iinper  part  of  the 
^arynx  and  it  belongs  to  the  vital  division. 
Its  use  shows  a  lack  of  physical  poise  and  ex- 
presses (treat  excitement,  fright,  yelling,  scream- 
ing, calling,  etc. 


(6)  Guttural.— The  guttural  is  a  harsh, 
grating,  impure  quality  the  resonance  of  which 
IS  in  tne  upper  part  of  the  throat.  It  repre- 
sents a  vital  condition  under  a  strong  emotion 
and  belongs  about  equally  to  the  vital  and  emo- 
tive natures.  It  is  usea  to  express  the  malig- 
nant passions  such  as  malice,  scorn,  anger, 
revenge,  violent  hate  and  rage. 

(7>  Pectoral.— The  pectoral  is  a  hollow, 
hoarse,  sepulchral  quality  with  the  resonance  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  dtest.  It  is  emotive  in 
nature  and  is  never  used  except  under  the 
influence  of  the  deepest  emotions  such  as  ven- 
eration,   dread,   amarement   or  horror. 

(S)  Aspirate. —  The  aspirate  is  a  hissing, 
breathy,  whispered  quality  in  which  intensity 
of  emotion  forces  out  more  breath  than  can 
be  vocalized.  It  belongs  to  the  emotive  divi- 
sion. The  resonance  varies  according  to  the 
position  of  the  organs  and  resonant  cavities: 
and  its  use  ranges  from  the  gentlest  whisper  of 
secrecy  or  caution  to  the  intense,  halt-whispered 
emotions  of  fear,  terror  or  consternation. 

II.  Force. —  Force  is  the  power  or  energy 
with  which  sound  waves  are  sent  forth  from 
the  vocal  organs.  FlKuratively  speaking,  it  u 
the  exploding  powder  b»ck  of  the  projectile  and 
dearly  represents  the  vital  nature  in  speech. 
It  has  three  divisions. 

(1)  Form. —  Form  is  die  manner  of  exert- 
ing force,  the  smoothness  or  abruptness  with 
which  a  sound  or  word  ia  bf^on  ana  ended.  It 
reveals  the  sentiment  or  emotion  implied  and 
belongs  to  the  emotive  division.  It  has  three 
divisions  which  also  correspond  to  the  triune 

a.  Effusive, —  The  effusive  is  that  form  of 
voice  in  which  the  soimd  flows  forth  smoothly 
and  evenly  without  abniptnea*  of  force  either 
in  the  be^nning  or  the  ending  of  the  tone.  It 
represents  the  emotive  nature  and  is  used  tn 
express  such  gentle  and  solemn  emotions  ai 
pathos,  tranquilli^,  reverence,  awe  or  sup- 
pressed fear. 

b.  Expulsive. —  The  expulsive  is  that  form  in 
which  the  force  is  applied  abruptly  causing  the 
sound  to  rush  forth  from  the  vocal  organs,  II 
is  the  ordinary  form  and  represents  the  mental 
nature  in  the  expression  of  narration,  didactic 
thought,  gladness,  patriotism,  etc. 

c.  Explosive.— The  explosive  is  that  fom 
in  which  the  force  is  exerted  very  abruptly, 
causing  the  sound  to  burst  forth  from  the  vocal 
organs.  It  belongs  to  the  vital  nature  and  is 
used  to  express  those  emotions  in  which  great 
physical  vitality  is  aroused  such  as  in  the  ex- 
cilmcnt  of  ecstatic  joy,  great  earnestness,  de- 
fiance, alarm,  anger,  etc 

(2)  Degree. —  Degree  of  force  is  the  meas- 
ure  or  power  with  which  sounds  are  uttered. 
Its  sub^ visions  are  subdued,  moderate  and 
energetic,  all  of  which  correspond  to  the  vital 
nature  and  mark  the  degree  of  energy  used 
This  scale  of  degrees  is  relative  and  dependant 
upon  individuality  and  the  acoustic  properties 
of  the  auditory  wliich,  in  turn,  depena  upon  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  room  and  whether  or  not 
it  is  tilled  with  an  audience, 

<3)  Stress.— Slress  is  the  application  of 
force  to  the  ditTerent  parts  of  a  sound  or 
syllable.  Any  change  of  the  location  of  the 
strongest  impulse  of  force  from  one  part  of  i 
word  to  another  invariably  changes  tne  mean- 
ing of  the  utterance;  hence  stress  responds  to 


the  mental  dmsion  of  man's  ttiune  nsturd 
There  are  six  varieties  of  stress. 

a.  Radical.—  In  the  ndical  stress  the  iotce 
is  applied  strongest  in  the  first  part  of  the 
sauna.  It  is  the  ordinary  stress  representing 
the  mental  nature  and  is  expressive  of  didactic 
thought,  narration,  gaiety,  patriotism,  courage, 
etc. 

b.  Compound. —  In  the  compound  stress  the 
main  force  is  put  upon  the  first  and  the  last 
parts  of  the  sound.  It  represents  the  mental 
and  emolive  natures  and  expresses  any  irony  of 
purpose  or  Insinuation  of  statement  such  as 
mockery,  satire,  sarcasm,  taunt,  derision,  etc. 

c.  Median.—  Median  stress  represents  the 
placing  of  the  force  chiefly  upon  the  middle 
part  of  the  sound.  It  belongs  to  the  emotive 
division  and  is  used  to  express  pathos,  sorrow, 
wailing,  reverence,  awe,  etc 

d.  Final, —  In   the  final  stress  the  force  is 

{laced  mainly  upon  the  last  part  of  the  sound, 
t  represents  the  emotive  and  vital  natures  and 
expresses  self-assertion,  determination,  stub- 
bomess,  courage,  amazement,  hale  or  revenge. 

e.  Thorough. —  The  force  continues  in  about 
the  same  intensity  thrtntghout  the  sound  in  the 
thorough  stress  which  represents  the  vital 
nature  and  is  aporopriate  in  the  expression  of 
calling,  command,  triumph,  shouting,  apostro- 
phe, lofty  appeal,  etc 

f.  Intermittent. —  In  the  intermittent  stress 
the  force  is  placed  upon  periodic  parts  of  the 
sound  which  represents  a  physical  unsteadiness 
or  trcmblins;  of  the  body;  hence  it  belongs  to 
the  vital  division.  It  is  used  to  express  laugh- 
ter, crying,  ecstatic  joy,  deeji  sorrow,  tender- 
ness, sympathy,  extreme  fright  and  defiant 
courage. 

HI.  Time.— Time  is  the  duration  of  utter- 
ance and  relates  to  the  length  of  vocal  sounds, 
syllables  and  words,  the  rests  which  occur 
between  them  and  the  rate  of  speed  with  which 
they  are  giveiL  It  is  one  of  uie  vital  generic 
elements  with  three  specific  divisions  which 
represent  the  three  psychic  natures. 

(1)  Powjf.— Pause  is  the  time  spent  be- 
tween the  impulses  of  the  voice  in  the  utterance 
of  sounds  and  syllables  or  between  words  or 
groups  of  words  m  speech.  By  correct  pausing 
words  are  grouped  into  their  ideas,  hence  this 
element  belongs  to  the  mental  division  of  the 
triune  nature.  Rhetorical  pauses  should  be 
used  (a)  Before  relative  pronouns  always  and 
conjunctive  words,  prepositional  phrases  and 
infinitive  phrases  generally ;  (b)  belvieen 
words  of  a  series,  words  marking  an  ellipsis  and 
clauses;  (c)  after  nominative  phrases,  words 
or  phrases  used  independently  and  words  of 
strong  emphasis  or  emotion;  (d)  before  and 
after  words  or  phrases  transposed  or  used  in 
appoiiticm,  direct  quotations  and  parenthetical 
expressions. 

(2)  QuoHfifji.— Quantity  is  the  length  of 
time  given  to  the  utterance  of  sounds,  words 
and  syllables.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
vocal  utterance  of  the  different  shades  of  feel- 
ing or  emotion  and  belongs  to  the  emotive 
division.  It  naturally  divides  into  (a)  long 
tpimitHy  which  eapiesscs  sorrow,  pathos,  rev- 
erence, sublinuty,  apostrt>phe,  conunand,  callitig, 
etc;   (b)   medium  qitaMtly  which  is  ortliiiarily 

"*   'J  eatress  narrative,  descriptive  and  di- 


unemotive  Tangu^e;   and    (c>   jhtrt  va^lity 


which  is  the  shortest  prolongation  of  sound 
consistent  with  the  requirements  of  articulation 


The  use  of  the  various  lengths  of  quantity 
dei>ends  upon  the  length  of  the  inherent  pho- 
netic sounds  composing  the  words.  Lone  quan- 
tity, especially,  should  never  be  placed  on  a 
short  sound. 

(3)  Movement. —  This  is  the  rate  or  degree 
of  rapidity  with  which  a  series  of  sounds  or 
words  or  a  sentence  is  given.  Since  the  vari- 
ous degrees  of  movement  are  but  an  expres- 
sion of  the  physical  activities  of  speech  this 
element  belongs  to  the  vital  division  of  man's 
triune  nature.  Its  d^rees  are  slow,  moderale 
and  rapid,  and  are  dependent  upon  the  indi- 
viduality of  the  speaker  and  the  acoustic  con- 
ditions. Very  naturally  the  inner  or' reflective 
life  requires  a  slow  utterance,  while  the  im- 
pulsive, lively,  joyous  moods  find  their  expres- 
sion in  rapid  movement,  and  the  ordinary 
states  of  mind  require  the  moderate  degrees. 

IV.  Pitch. —  Pilch  is  the  range  or  comi«9s 
of  voice  and  relates  to  the  location,  variation 
and  succession  of  notes  upon  the  scale  of  de- 
grees. It  has  three  sped6c  divisions  which  may 
be  subdivided  to  suit  greater  varieties  of  shad- 
ing in  expression.  Broadly  speaking;  it  is  men- 
tal in  significance  and  belongs  to  that  triune 
division. 

(1)  Dtgree.—  The  degree  of  pitch  is  the 
range  of  voice  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
tone,  and  the  position  in  that  range  ^ven  to  a 
particular  note  or  word.  Its  subdivisions  are 
nigk,  middle  and  (oiu,  which  may  be  further 
subdivided ;  and  like  all  other  scales  of  degrees 
in  elocution  depends  upon  individuality  and 
acoustic  conditions.  The  dej^ees  of  pitch  mark 
plainly  the  speaker's  emotive  state,  and  the 
scale  ranges  from  the  deeply  serious  of  rever- 
ential emotions  of  low  pilch,  throu^  the  ordi- 
nary tboi^t  of  middle  to  the  cry  of  excite- 
ment, joy,  alarm  or  defiance  of  high  pitch. 

(2)  change. —  Change  is  the  transition  from 
one  degree  of  pitch  to  another  and  is  accom- 
plished by  a  concrete  glide  or  a  discrete  step. 
By  changes  of  pitch  we  convey  the  various 
shading  of  meaning  in  expression  and  thus 
represent,  the  mentsu  nature.  There  are  three 
varieties  of  change  or  transition  which  corre- 
spond to  the  triune  classification. 

a.  Inflection. —  Which  corresponds  to  the 
mental  nature  is  a  simple  concrete  c^n||e  of 
jMtch  of  which  there  are  two  varieties,  ruino, 
expressing  anticipation  or  questioning,  and  fau- 
mg,  whi<£  denotes  decision  and  conclusion. 

b.  Waves. —  Waves  are  emolive  and  consist 
of  two  or  more  inflections  united  in  a  con- 
tinuous concrete  movement  Tbey  may  be 
single,  composed  of  two  inflections ;  double, 
composed  of  three;  or  continued,  made  up  of 
four  or  more  inflections,  all  of  which  are  us«d 
to  extend  the  vocal  quantity  without  overstep- 
ping the  interval  of  pitch  that  the  sentiment 
requires ;  and  they  represent  the  vital  nature. 
Waves  are  also  eqwl,  expressing  pleasantry;  or 
mne<twii,  implying  irony;  both  of  which  repre- 
sent the  emotive;  and  direct,  expressing  asser- 
tion, and  inverted,  indicating  anticipation,  both 
of    which    are    representative    of    the   mental 


'V^le 


BLOmM  —  vitxmisT 


length  of  the  vocal  slide  or  step  taken.  As  a 
measure  of  the  physical  act  of  vocalization  it 
bdongs  to  the  vital  division.  The  five  relative 
intervals  of  pitch  are :  Semitonts,  expressing 
plaintiveness  or  sorrow ;  seconds,  reverence  and 
sublimity;  thirds,  ordinary  conversation  and 
oratorical  thought;  fifths,  animated  conversa- 
tion and  triumph ;  and  octaves  representing 
extreme  surprise,  horror  or  impassioned 
exclamation. 

(3)  Melody. —  Melody  is  the  succession  of 
speech-notes  m  utterance  and  represents  the 
vital  nature  in  the  vocal  placing  of  all  degfecs 
and   changes   of   pitch   upon   the   scale.     There 

a.  Current  melody  relates  to  the  body  of 
the  sentence  and  is  made  up  of  monotoneSj 
ditonts.  Iritones  and  polytones,  all  of  which 
show  the  vital  notation  of  intervals  and  notes 
and  record  the  vocal  trend  in  speech  or  song. 


/^    '~-^Mrfull.0t4«»ll»-— VltiL.^\ 


roMo^Mte— 


.>. 


**!  Alt.  R.  *  L.  StOi'i^'' 


>• 


^^' — ^"- 

b.  The  cadence,  wkicfi  is  that  part  of  melody 
which  givw  repose  at  the  close  of  a  sentence 
when  uie  thought  is  compete.  Its  technical 
varieties  are  (a)  the  menad,  in  which  tbc 
lowering  of  pitch  occurs  on  one  s)dlable;  (b) 
the  first  and  second  duads,  on  two  syllables; 
(e>  the  rising  and  filling  triads,  on  three  syl- 
lables; (d)  the  tetrad,  on  four;  and  (c)  the 
Pentad,   on    five   syllables. 

The  distance  over  which  the  tine  of  rqxtse 
is  reached  is  dependent  upon  the  range  of  the 
current  melody. 

PAKT    II. THE    PRIKCIPLES   OF   ACTIOK, 

Action  in  elocution  is  that  part  of  delivery 
which  addresses  itself  to  the  eye.  The  main 
principles  of  gesture  and  position,  the  common 
property  of  students  of  expression  since  the 
days  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  were  set  forth  in 
the  'Chinanomia,*  a  voluminons  work  of  a 
ceniuo*  ago.  by  Dr.  Gilbert  Austin,  of  London ; 
but  the  eminent  French  psychologist,  Francois 
Detsarte,  was  the  first  to  snow  (be  relatioct  -of 


the  whole  physical  activities  to  tnan't  triune 
nature  and  present  anything  like  a  philosophy 
of  actional  expression.  Uore  recent  writers 
have  presented  the  subject  in  textual  form  and 
made  it  practical  for  the  student.  Combining 
the  expressional  use  of  the  hands  and  feet, 
as  explained  in  the  'CUronomia,'  with  the 
zonal  correspondencies  of  Delsarte,  we  dismiss 
the  subject  by  referring  to  the  diagram. 

For  the  history  of  elocution  and  its  relation 
to  the  material  used  in  speaking,  see  Oratory. 


Handbook  of  Oral  Reading*  (iBoslon  1917)  ; 
Belle,  A.  M.,  'Essays  and  Postscripts  on  Elocu- 
tion' (New  York  1886) ;  Brewer,  J.  M.,  'Oral 
English*  (Boston  1916) ;  Burgh,  J.,  'The  Art 
of  Speaking'  (New  York  1785)  ;  Fulton,  R.  I., 
'Practical  Elements  of  Elocution'  (Boston 
1883)  ;  Jennings,  H.,  'Voice  and  its  Natural 
Development'  (New  York  1911);  KlUer.  G., 
•How  to  Develop  Power  and  Personality'  [New 
York  1909)  ;  'How  to  Read  and  Declaim'  (New 
York  1911);  'How  to  Speak  in  Public'  (New 
York  1905) ;  Knowics,  A-,  'Oral  English'  (Bo»- 
ton  1916)  ;  Pertwce,  E.,  'The  Art  ot  Effective 
Public  Speaking'  (New  York  1911)  ;  Porter, 
£.,  'Rhetorical  Reader'  (New  York  1835); 
Rush,  J.,  'The  Philosophy  of  the  Human 
Voice'  (Philadelphia  188S) ;  Sheridan,  T.,  'A 
Course  of  Lectures  on  Elocution'  (Troy  1803); 
Staley,  D.  M^  'Psychology  of  the  Spoken 
Word'  (Boston  1914) ;  Winans,  J.  A.,  'Public 
Speaking'  (New  York  1916).  Among  the 
organs  devoted  to  elocutjon  is  The  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Public  Speaking  (a&dal  organ  of 
Society  ot  Teachers  of  Elocution,  publi^ied  at 
Ucnasha,  Wis.). 

BLO 

Eloah),   -    .. 

of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Bible,  especially 
in  those  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  attributed  to 
the  earliest  writers  in  the  northern  domain  of 
the  Semitic  race.  Eaohim  is  used  in  speaking 
both  of  the  true  God  and  of  false  god^  while 
Jehovah  is  confined  to  the  true  God.  The 
plural  form  ot  Elohim  (literally  signifying  "the 
great  Eloah"  or  God)  has  caused  a  good  deal 
of  controversy  among  critics.  By  some  it  has 
been  considered  as  containing  an  allusion  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  oiaers  regard  it  » 
the  plural  of  excellence,  while  others  hold  it 
as  estabiislung  the  fact  of  a  primitive  polythe- 
ism. This  word,  together  with  'Jehovay  has 
played  a  great  part  in  modern  criticism.  Critics 
have  professed  to  find  in  the  comparative  fre- 
quency of  the  two  terms  an  evidence  of  the  date 
of  the  tnanuscripts  in  which  they  occiu';  bm 
on  this  controversy  we  cannot  enter.  See 
Elohist. 

BLOHI8T,  ^ri-hlst,  also  called  Yobwiit, 
both  used  in  contradistinction  to  Jehoviat  (q.v.), 
one  of  the  biblical  writers,  hypothttjcally  as- 
sumed to  have  written  part  of  the  Pentateuch, 
who  habitually,  if  not  exclusively,  used  the  He- 
brew name  Elohim  for  God.  The  Elohistic 
passages  Id  the  Old  Testament,  as  detemiined 
upon  by  biblical  scJiolars,  are  nmple,  straight- 
forward, and  bear  no  si^s  of  rhetoric  or  poetic 
effort,  therein  contrastiiw  with  the  Jchofvistic 
paragraphs.  Gen.  i,  27  is  Elohistic;  Gen.  li, 
21-4  is  Jebovistic. 


BbOI W — BLSB  VBMHER 


BLOISB,  U'6-it,  Mich;,  a  faoipiMl  Kttlcr 
ment  in  Wmynt  County,  on  tlie  UKhigan  Cen- 
tral Boitroad.  15  miles  tma  Detroit  Here  are 
situated  a  Urge  hospital,  an  infirmary  and  a 
sanitarium.  These  are  controlled  hy  the  Wayne 
County  Soperinlcndent  gf  the  Poor,  a  board 
ealablisbed  in  1832.    Fop.  IJ^SO. 

BLON  COLLBGE,  a  coeducational  insti'- 
lation,  situated  at  Elon  College,  64  miles  north 
of  Raleigh.  N.  C.  It  was  founded  under  the 
auspices  ot  the  Christian  Church,  in  1889,  sw- 
ccedinK  the  Graham  Normal  College,  foimded 
in  lfi6a.  Courses-are  given  leading  to  the  de- 
grees of  bachelor  of  arts,  music,  philosopl^ 
and  literature;  and  master  of  arts.  The  act- 
vanced  degrees  of  doctors  of  literature, 
divinity  ana  laws  are  also  avrarded.  Certifi- 
cates are  given  in  music,'  art,  expression  and 
domestic  science.  The  instructors  number  27, 
the  students  <IOa    The  library  contains  10,000 


BLONGATIOH,  in  astronomy,  the  angle 
■'   ;    apparent    distwice    of    " 


Stars  as  seen  from  the  earth.  The  term  iS, 
however,  by  usage  confined  exclusively  to  the 
distance  of  a  planet  from  the  sun,  and  of  a 
satellite  from  its  primary.  The  greatest  elon- 
gation of  Mercury  amounts  to  about  28  degrees 
30  minutes;  that  of  Venus  to  about  47  de- 
gi«e$  48  minutes,  and  that  of  the  superior  plan- 
ets may  have  any  value  up  to  180  degrees. 
When  two  fixed  stars  or  planets  ore  spoken  of 
the  word  'distance*  is  employed. 

BLOFBHBNT,  in  law,  an  act  of  unlicensed 
departure,  especially  when  a  wife  forsakes  her 
husband  and  flees  with  a  paramour,  or  when  a 
daughter  or  ward  accepting  the  protection  of  a 
lover  leaves  her  natural  or  legal  guardians.  In 
almost  every  one  of  the  States,  the  male  prin- 
cipal in  an  elopement  is  held  gmlly  of  an  abduc- 
tion provided  his  associate  in  the  act  is  under 
age.  Marriage,  however,  diecfcs  all  conseouent 
criminal  proceedings  unless  the  female  alleges 
coercion.  Al!  persons  guilty  of  aiding  or  abet- 
ting an  elopement  of  a  male  with  a  female  are 
deemed  in  law  accessories,  and  liable  to  legal 

froceedings.  Elopers  themselves  are  not  safe 
rom  arrest,  their  act  coming  within  the  pur- 
view of  the  criminal  statutes. 

BLOTHSSIUM,  an  extinct  suilline  animal 
of  ite  Lower  Miocene  Epoch,  remotely  related 
to  the  hippopotami  and  pigs.  The  skull  sug- 
gests that  or  ^e  hippopotamus,  but  it  has  a 
narrow  elongated  muzck;  and  the  front  teeth 
resemble  those  of  the  carnivora  rather  than  die 
faring  tusks  of  the  hippopotami  and  pigs. 
The  limbs  and  feet  are  tall  and  stilted,  the  lat- 
eral toes  reduced  to  small  rudiments,  as  in 
ruminants.  Different  species  raiued  in  size 
from  [hat  of  a  sheep  to  that  of  a  rhinoceros. 

SLPHINSTONB,  Honntiturt,  East  In- 
dian administrator:  b.  Scotland,  6  Oct,  1779;  d 
Limpsfield,  Surrey,  20  Nov.  1859.  He  jcnned 
the  Bengal  civil  service  in  1795 ;  was  Ambassa- 
dor to  the  Afghan  court  in  1808:  resident  at  the 
court  gt  Poonah  from  1810  to  1817;  and  British 
commissioner  to  that  province  from  1817  to 
1819,  when  he  became  lieutenant-governor  of 
Bombay.  During  a  government  of  seven  years 
he  established  a  code  of  laws,  lightened  taxes 
and  pud  great  attention  to  sdiools  and  public 
institutians.    He  resigned  ta  1827.    A  coHcfcc 


by  the  naliveb-vras  called  after  him 

lElpfainstone  College.  He  twice  declined  the 
govemor-generatsbip  of  India  and  devoted  the 
remainder  of  his  lue  to  literary  pursuits.  He 
w>s  the  author  o(  an  'Account  of  the  iCingdom 
of  Cabul  and  Its  Dependencies'  (1815) ;  and  a 
"History  of  India*  (1841). 

BLPHINSTONB,  William,  Scottish  prel- 
ate: b.  Glasgow  1431;  d  25  Oct.  1514.  Hav- 
ing gone  to  France  he -studied  law  for  three 
years,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  law, 
first  at  Paris  and  suosequenlly  at  Orlcatis.  He 
later  made  general  of  the  diocese  of  G!as- 


sary  of  the  Lothians,  and  in  1479  became  arch- 
deacon of  Argyle,  and  Privy  Councillor.  Soon 
after  he  was  made  bishop  of  Ross ;  and  in  1483 
'Was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Aberdeen.  In 
1488  he  was  appointed  Lord  High  Chancellor  of 
the  kingdom.  In  October  of  that  year  he  as- 
sisted in  the  coronation  of  James  IV.  He  was 
afterward  sent  on  a  mission  to  Germany,  and 
oc  his  return  was  installed  in  the  oiHice  of 
Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal,  which  he  held  till  his 
death.  In  1494  he  obtained  a  papal  bull  for  the 
erection  of  a  university  at  Aberdeen,  and 
King's  College  and  University  soon  came  into 
existence.  He  was  the  author  of  'Bi^iariuiB 
Aberdonense'  (1509-10;  reprinted  London 
1850). 

BLSBERO,  ilx'herg,  Lonis,  American  phy- 
'sician :  b. '  Gerlohn,  Prussia,  1836 ;  d.  in  the 
United  States  in  1885.  His  family  settled  in 
the  United  States  in  1849  at  Philadelphia.  He 
introduced  the  art  of  laryngoscopy  in  the 
United  States,  wrote  many  papers  on  the  throat 
and  its  diseases,  notably,  'The  Throat  and  the 
Production  of  the  Voice'  ;  was  the  first  to  illus- 
trate the  character  of  undertones  and  divisions 
of  sound  in  articulation,  and  invented  many  in- 
struraenls  which  are  used  in  surgical  treatment 
of  the  throat  and  ear. 

ELSHEIHBR,  Slz'him-er,  Adam,  German 
punier :  b.  Frank  fon-on-l  he-Main  1578 ;  d 
probably  at  Rome  1620,  called  the  "Roman 
Fainter  of  Germany."  He  studied  in  Rome  and 
settled  there  while  still  very^oung.  He  painted 
many  biblical  and  mythological  scenes  and  was 
a  master  of  landscape,  being  the  chief  German 
artist  of  the  end  of  the  16th  century  to  acclima- 
tize Roman  art  in  Germany.  Among  his  prin- 
cipal works  are  'Jupiter  and  Mercury  with 
Philemon  and  Baucis';  'Joseph  in  the  Pit'; 
and  'Judith*  (at  Dresden)  ;  'Martyrdom  of 
Saint  Lawrence,'  and  'Flight  into  Egypt* 
(Munich)  ;  his  portrait  and  'Triumph  of 
Psyche'  (Florence) :  many  landscapes  at 
Naples,  Venice  and  Madrid;  <Good  Samari- 
tan,' and  another  'Flight  into  Egypt'  (Louvre) 
and  a  targe  collection  of  drawings. 

ELSIE  VBNNBR,  the  first  novel  of  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes,  was  originally  published  as 
'The  Professor's  Story'  in  the  Atlantic 
Moitlkly  for  1B60,  where  it  followed  'The  Pro> 
fessor  at  the  Breakfast  Table.'  The  story  cen- 
tres about  a  young  woman  whose  nature  has  a 
strange  element  not  human,  which  she  acquired 
before  birth  when  her  mother  was  bitten  by  a 
rattlesnake.  The  author  aims  to  enforce  his 
ideas  regarding  heredity,  and  especially  regard- 
ing beredity.  as  modifying  moral  responsibility 


BLSINORB— BLSSLBSt 


^  ideas  which  he  bad  advanced  in  the  'Auto- 
crat* and  the  'Professor  at  the  Breakfast 
Table,'  and  which  had  been  vigorously  chal^ 
lenged  by  orthodox  New  En  glanders.  His 
moralizing  is  not,  however,  obtrusive,  and  his 
strange  heroine  is  fascinating  and  not  in  the 
least  repulsive.  As  in  all  Dr.  Holmes'  novels, 
the  plot  is  of  the  old-fashioned,  obvious  sort, 
and  some  of  the  incidents  are  almost  melodra- 
matic. The  humorous  and  realistic  picture  of 
New  England  village  life,  and  of  a  young  ladies' 
boarding  school  are  delightful,  and  some  of  the 
more  serious  scenes  are  portrayed  with  force. 
The  work  has  the  limitations  that  might  be  ex- 
pected from  an  author  who  began  to  write  fiction 
at  the  age  of  50,  and  who  was  by  nature  an 
essayist  and  a  social  philosopher  rather  than  a 
novelist;  but  the  (inception  is  striking,  and  the 
execution  not  unworthy.  The  story  has  a 
Strange  power  of  impressing  itself  on  the 
reader  and  ts  usually  remembered  longer  than 
many  novels  of  far  greater  technical  merit 
William  B.  Cairns. 
ELSINORE,  fl-sl-nor',  or  ELSINEUR 
(Danish,  Helsingor),  Denmark,  seaport,  on  the 
island  of  Zealand,  24  mites  northeast  of  Copen- 
hagen. The  town  has  a  charmine  site,  with 
several  interesting  buildings^  notably  the  town 
hall  and  the  hospital.  Its  mhabitants  are  en- 
g^ed  chiefly  in  commerce  and  seafaring.  The 
castle  of  Kronborg,  built  about  1580,  is  the  chief 
defense  of  the  town.  It  is  a  Gothic-Byzantine 
edifice,  built  by  Frederick  II  in  the  boldest 
style,  and  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest  struc- 
tures of  its  Idnd  in  Europe.  Until  1857  tolls 
were  exacted  of  all  ships  navigating  the  strait. 
Scenes  in  Shakespeare's  'Hamlet'  are  laid  here. 
It  is  now  chiefly  used  as  a  prison,  and  was  die 

SI  ace  of  confinement  of  the  unfortunate 
tatilda,  sister  of  George  III  of  England.  The 
manufactures  are  chiefly  fishing-nets  and  a 
coarse  cloth,  iron  founding,  shipbuilding, 
marine  engines  and  net  weaving.  It  has  a  t^ood 
harbor,  with  excellent  dry-dockinK  facilities 
for  repairing  vessels.  Coal  is  imported  in 
great  Quantities.  To  the  northwest  lies  the 
bathing  place  of  Marienlyst,  once  a  royal  sum- 
mer  residence.     Pop.   13,783. 

ELSON,  Arthur,  American  musical  critic; 
b.  Boston,  18  Nov.  1873.  Son  of  Louis  C.  Elson 
(q.v.).  He  studied  music  with  his  father  and 
With  Prof.  J.  K.  Paine,  at  Harvard.  He  has 
degrees  from  Harvard  and  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  and  has  been  promi- 
nent as  a  teacher.  His  chief  works  are  'A 
Critical  History  of  Opera'  (1901);  'Orches- 
tral Instruments  and  their  Use'  (1902); 
'Woman's  Work  in  Music'  (1903)  ;  'Modem 
Composers  of  Europe'  (19(M)  ;  'Musical  Club 
Programmes  from  all  Nations'  (1907);  'The 
Book  of  Musical  Knowledge'  (1915);  and 
'The  Pioneer  School  Music  Course'  (1916). 
He  is  editor-in-chief  of  the  'Musician's 
Guide'  (10  vols.,  1913)  and  author  of  many 
musical  essays.  He  contributes  occasional  con- 
cert reviews  to  Boston  Advertiser  and  many 
articles  to  magazines. 

ELSON,  Henry  William,  American  author; 
b.  Muskingum  County,  Ohio,  29  March  I8S7; 
spent  early  life  on  farm;  took  classical  college 
course  at  Thiel  College,  Greenville,  Pa.,  after 
which  he  spent  three  years  in  the  Lutheran 
Theokigical  Seminary  at  Philadelphia  and  later 


two  years  in  the  University  of  Pehntylvania. 
After  six  years  in  Lutheran  pastorates,  at  Kit- 
tanning  and  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  he  left  the  active 
ministry  and  took  up  the  work  of  writer  on 
historical  subjects  and  lecturer  in  the  Univer- 
sity Extension  Society  of  Philadelphia.  In 
1912  Dr.  Elson  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  Ohio  in  vbith  he 
took  a  very  active  part  in  the  debates  and  pro- 
ceedings, especially  as  champion  o£  theaiort 
ballot  and  as  one  of  the  leaders  in  bringing 
about  a  reform  in  the  judicial  system  of  the 
State.  He  introduced  and  piloted  through  the 
proposal  to  enable  three- fourdis  of  a  jury  to 
render  a  verdict  in  civil  cases.  This  was  made 
a  part  of  the  constitution  of  the  State.  Since 
1905  Dr.  Elson  has  been  the  head  of  the  his- 
tory department  in  Ohio  University  at  Athens, 
Ohio.  He  was  president  of  the  Ohio  Valley 
Historical  Association  in  1915~16. 

He  published  'Side  Lights  on  American 
History*  <2  vols.,  1898-99)  ;  'HistOTV  of  the 
United  States'  (1  vol.,  1904)  ;  'Hislory  of 
the  United  States'  (5  vols,  1906)  ;  'Guide  to 
American  History' ;  'Guide  to  English  His- 
tory* (1906-07)  ;  wrote  most  of  the  first  four 
volumes  of  the  10-voIume  set  of  the  'Photo- 
graphic History  of  the  Civil  War*   (1911). 

ELSON,  Louis  Charles,  American  writer 
on  music:  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  17  April  1848. 
After  studying  music  at  Leipzig  he  returned 
to  Boston  and  has  been  a  teacher  and  lec- 
turer on  music  there  from  1880.  He  has 
been  musical  editor  of  the  Boston  Advertiser 
since  1888.  He  has  published  'Curiosities  of 
Music*  (1883) ;  'German  Songa  and  Song 
Writers'  (1886);  'Our  National  Music  and  Its 
Sources*  (1896>;  'Theory  of  Music'  (1890); 
'Realm  of  Music'  (1892)  ;  'European  Reminis- 
cences' (1893);  'Great  Composers'  (1897); 
'Shakespeare  in  Music'  (1900)  ;  'Famous  Com- 
posers and  Their  Works,'  new  series  (1901). 
His  later  activities  have  been  wide- spread. 
He  has  twice  been  a  Lowell  Institute  lecturer, 
giving  one  course  of  ei^ht  and  one  of  10  lec- 
tures before  that  institution.  He  has  been  city 
lecturer  of  Boston,  giving  about  250  lectures 
on  music  to  the  general  public  of  that  city,  as- 
sisted by  an  orchestra,  and  he  has  traveled  over 
the  United  States  and  Canada  with  musical  lec- 
tures. His  'Shakespeare  in  Music,'  and  'Great 
Composers'  have  been  reprinted  in  London. 
He  has  written  a  'History  of  American  Music' 
(1905)  and  a  revised  edition  of  the  same 
(I91S);  'MisUkes  and  Disputed  Points  of 
Music'  (1912J;  and  he  is  editor-in-chief  of 
'The  University  Musical  Encyclopedia'  (10 
vols.).  He  has  written  two  musical  diction- 
aries, numerous  magazine  "  articles,  and  is 
teacher  of  the  advanced  courses  in  theory  of 
music  at  the  New  England  Conservatory  of 
Music,  Boston. 

ELSSLER,  elil^r,  Panny,  Austrian  dancer:  . 
h.  Vienna,  23  June  1810;  d.  there,  27  Nov,  1884, 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Johann  Els^ler, 
Haydn's  factotum,  and  was  educated  at  Naples 
for  the  ballet,  with  her  elder  sister  Theresa  (b. 
1808;  d.  1878),  who  in  !8!il  became  the  mor- 
ganatic wife  of  Prince  Adalbert  of  Prussia  and 
was  ennobled.  Fanny  Els sler  during  her  visit 
to  the  United  States  gave  an  entertainment  in 
order  to  raise  money  for  the  Bunker  Hill  MonB- 
ment.    She  retired  ar  "*" 


.lOOg  Ic 


BL8TBR— C1.TK8 


BLSTBR,  Sfster,  two  Germra  rivers.  (1) 
TTie  While,  of  Great  Ebter,  rising  in  the  we»t 
of  Bohemia,  flows  north  into  Saxony,  receives 
the  Plei&se  and  Parde  at  LeipEtg,  and  joins  the 
Saale  between  Halle  and  Mer^bui^,  after  a 
course  of  about  115  miles.  It  Is  navigable  for 
small  vessels  as  far  as  Leipzig.  (2)  The 
Black  Bster,  rising  in  Saxony,  flows  north  Into 
Prussia,  then  northwest,  receives  the  Pulsnitz 
and  Roder,  and  joins  the  Elbe  between  Witten- 
berg and  Torgao,  after  a  course  of  about  130 
miles.    It  is  navtgaUe  for  40  miles. 

BLSTRACKE,  ReginBld  or  RoDKld,  Eng- 
lish engraver;  b.  probably  in  London  and  lived 
there  early  in  the  17th  century.  His  plates  were 
made  wiOi  the  graver  solely,  their  chief  value 
being  historical.  He  executed  portraits  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  Damley  and  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Among  his  works  was  a  volume  of  32  plates 
called  ■Basiliologia:  a  Book  of  Kings,  being 
the  true  and  lively  effigies  of  all  our  English 
Kings  from  the  Conquest  until  this  present* 
(1618). 

BLSWICK,  eiz'wlk,  England,  suburb  of 
Newcastle,  containing  the  great  ordnance  works 
of  Sir  William  Armstrong,  Mitchell  and  Com- 
pany. These  works  are  probably  the  largest  of 
their  kind  in  Europe,  employing  in  normal  times 
about  14,000  persons.    Pop.  58,352. 

ELTON,  Charlca  Isuc.  English  jurist  and 
anJueologist ;  b.  Somerset  1839 ;  a.  Chard,  Som- 
erset, 23  April  1900.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1865.  He 
represented  West  Somerset  in  Parliament  as  a 
Conservative  1884^  and  1886^2.  On  legal 
subjects  he  published  "Tenures  of  Kent' 
(1867)  ;  'Commons  and  Wa«e  Lands'  (I868>; 
'Copyholds  and  Customary  Tenures' (1874-93) ; 
'Improvement  of  Commons  Bill'  (1876)  ;  'Cus- 
tom and  Tenant-Right'  (1882)  ;  and  tRobinson 
on  Gavelkind'  (1897).  Other  works  of  his  are 
'Norway,  The  Road  and  Fell'  (1864);  'The 
Career  of  Columbus'.  (1892)  :  'The  Great  Book- 
Collectors'  J1893)  ■  and  'Stwlley's  Visits  to 
France'  (1894).  His  greatest  work,  however, 
is  his  'Origins  of  English  History'  (1882).  It 
is  chiefly  characteriiea  by  its  thorough  investi- 
ntion  of  the  evidence  furnished  by  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  regarding  the  condition  and  cir- 
cumstances of  early  Britain^  l^  its  discussion  of 
the  ethnology  and  prehistonc  archsology  of  the 
country,  ana  l^  the  importance  assi^ed  to  the 
Celtic  and  even  pre-Celtic  element  in  forming 
the  English  nation. 

ELTON,  Jamei  Frederic^  English  ex- 
plorer: b.  3  Aug.  1840;  d.  13  DecTTST?.  He 
entered  the  Indian  army  in  1857.  In  1871  he 
found  himself  in  the  Transvaal  and  Natal ;  in 
1873  he  was  vice-consul  at  Zanzibar,  two  years 
ai'terward  as  consul  in  Mozambique  he  explored 
the  coast  of  East  Africa  for  the  sake  of  repress- 
ing the  slave  trade.  With  Cotterill  he  reached 
Lake  Nyassa  in  1877  and  scaled  the  Konde 
range  of  mountains  at  the  north  end  of  the 
lake,  to  the  height  of  10.000  feel.  After  his 
death  CN)tterill  published  his  journal  under  the 
title  'Travels  and  Researches  among  the  Lakes 
and  Mountains  of  Eastern  and  Central  Africa' 
(1879). 

ELTON,  Oliver,  English  literary  historian: 
b.  1861.  He  was  educated  at  Marlborough 
School  and  at  Corpus  (Hiristi  College,  Oxford. 
Prom  1890  to  1900  he  was  IcctUKr  on  EagtiA 


Uteratnre  at  Owens  College,  Manchetter,  and  in 
the  latter  year  became  professor  of  English 
literature  at  the  University  of  Liverpool.  He 
published  an  edition  of  Milton's  'Comus  and 
other  Poems' ;  'The  M/thical  Books  of  Saxo 
Grammaticus,'  'Historia  Danica,'  translated 
for  the  Folklore  Society;  'The  Augustan  Ages' 
(in  'Periods  of  European  Literature,'  18?^); 
'Michael  Drayton'  (1906);  'Life,  Letters  and 
Writings  of  Frederick  York  Powell'  (1906); 
'Modem  Studies'  (1907);  'Survey  of  Ei^Ush 
Literature  from  1780  to  1830'  (1912)  ;  contribu- 
tions and  reviews  in. the  Man(iiester  Guarditm, 
the  Quarterly  Review,  etc. 

ELTON,  a  shallow  lake  in  the  government 
of  Astrakhan,  in  Russia;  area,  60  square  miles. 
Ejght  salt-water  streams  flow  into  this  lake, 
ana  it  has  no  visible  outlet-  thus  a  large  salt  de- 
posit rests  on  the  bed  of  the  lake.  From  abouf 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century  for  100  years, 
the  salt  from  this  lake  was  in  demand;  but  since 
the  opening  of  the  salt  fields  in  the  southern 
part  of  Russia  (I860)  flie  Elton  salt  has  not 
been  on  the  market 

ELTZBACHER/  eitsliaH-ir,  Paul.  German 
jurist:  b.  1868.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Heidelberg,  Leipzig  Strassburg  and 
Gottinsen.    He  was  appointed  a  judge:  in  1900 

Civatdozent  at  Halle,  and  in  1906  professor  of 
w  at  the  Berlin  Handelshochschule.    He  has 
published  'Ueber  RechtsbegrifEe'  (1900);  'Die 


Handlungsfahig^eit'  (1903);  'Die  Untcrlas- 
sungsklagc'  (1906);  'Gross-Ser liner  Mielsver^ 
trage'       (1913).    His  _bcst-known     work 


'Anarchismus'  (1^;  Eng.  trans,  hy  Byington, 
1908),  the  most  complete  and  unbiased  treat? 
ment  of  the  subject;  it  has  appeared  in  most 
modern  languages.  The  article  in  'Handbuch 
der  Politik'  on  anarchism  was  written  by 
Eltzbacher  in  1910, 

BLVAS,  al'vas  (Rom.,  Alpesa;  Moorish, 
Balesh),  Portugal,  the  stronf^est  fortified  city 
of  the  republic,  in  the  province  of  Alemtejo, 
near  the  Spanish  frootter.  10  iniles  west  of 
Badajoz.  Standing  on  a  hill,  it  is  defended  by 
seven  large  bastions  and  two  isolated  forts. 
The  city  contains  a  15th  century  cathedral,  in 
which  arc  housed  some  fine  paintings;  a  theatre, 
hospital  and  an  ancient  aqueduct  of  remarkable 
■■■-'■  '   ■    '   ■      1622.     Fire 


city  suffered  from  the  wars  between  the  Moors. 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards.  It  fell  to  Portugal 
in  1226,  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1808,  hut 
was  ceded  to  Portugal  after  the  Convention 
of  Cmtra.    Pop.  14.0ia 

ELVES  (O.  Eng.,  <Elf;  Germ.  Alp;  phan- 
tom, spirit),  imaginarj'  creatures  of  the  north- 
ern mythology,  forming,  according  to  some 
classifications,  with  the  undines,  salamanders  and 
gnomes,  groups  of  elementary  sprites  identified 
respectively  with  the  water;  fire,  earth  and  air. 
The  elves  are  of  the  air,  and  have  been  more 
widely  received  in  the  faith  and  poetry  of  Eu- 
rope under  diis  name  than  under  that  of  sylphi, 
invented  by  Paracelsus,  They  are  capncious 
spirits,  of  diminutive  size  but  preternatural 
power.  Their  stature  is  less  than  the  size  of  a 
young  girl's  thumb,  yet  their  limbs  are  most 
delicately  formed,  ana  when  they  will  they  can 
fauri  granite  blocks,  bind  the  stron^rest  man  <» 
shake-B  boBM.    Tb^  are  divided  to  thesagu 


8lc 


SLVIRA  COVMCIL-OR  lYHOD  — ELY 


into  good  and  bad,  or  light  and  dark  eires,  the 
formn'  having  eyes  like  the  stars,  countenances 
brighter  than  the  sun,  and  golden  yellow  hair, 
die  latter  being  blacker  Ihan  pitch,  and  fearfully 
dangerous. .  The  elves  ordinariiy  wear  glass 
shoes,  and  a  cap  with  a  little  bell  hanging  from 
it.  Whoever  finds  one  of  these  sHppers  or  bells 
may  obtain  from  the  elf  who  has  lost  it  any 
thing  which  he  asks  for.  In  the  winter  they 
retire  to  the  depths  of  mountains,  where  they 
Uve  in  much  the  same  way  as  men,  and  in  die 
£rst  days  of  sfiring  issue  from  their  grottoes, 
run  along  the  sides  of  hills,  and  swing  upon  the 
branches  of  the  trees.  In  the  morning_thoy 
sleep  in  blossoms  or  watch  the  people  who  yass 
by,   but  at  the   evening  twilight  they  meet  to- 

£ther  in  the  fields,  join  hands  and  sing  and 
nee  by  the  light  of  the  moon.  They  are  gen- 
erally invisible,  but  children  bom  on  Sunday 
can  see  them,  and  the  elves  may  extend  the 
privilege  to  whomsoever  they  please.  Iti  Em;- 
land  and  Scotland  they  became  fairies  in  the 
fonner,  and  brownies  in  the  latter  country  and 
were  subject  to  a  king  and  queen.  The  isl^ds 
of  Stem  and  Rugen.  in  the  Baltic,  are  especially 
subject  to  the  king  of  the  "elves,  who  rides  In  a 


the  neighing  of  the  steeds,  the  blackness  of  the 
water,  and  the  bustle  of  the  great  aerial  com- 
tiany  who  follow  in  his  train.  The  elves  sorae- 
times  become  domestic  servants,  and  would  be 
valuable  as  such  if  they  were  less  easilv  ofFended 
and  less  dangerous  after  taking  offense.  As 
long  as  their  caprices  are  gratified,  their  food 
and  drink  regularly  left  at  an  appointed  place, 
and  no  attempt  made  to  interfere  with  their 
freedom,  the  fnmiture  is  sure  to  be  dusted,  the 
floor  to  be  swept  and  every  chamber  to  be 
perfectly  in  order.  But  the  brothers  Grimm,  in 
their  'Deutsche  Sagen.J  have  chronicled  the 
misfortunes  of  many  a  young  girl,  who,  having 
called  an  elf  to  her  aid,  repented  too  late  of 
having  otTended  it. 

ELVIRA  COUNCIL  OR  SYNOD.  This 
council  was  held  at  Illiberis  or  Elvira  in  Gran- 
ada, Spain,  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury. Three  dates  are  assigned,  May  IS,  303, 
305,  309.  Felix,  bishop  of  Accis,  presided  The 
town  is  no  longer  in  existence.  The  council 
was  attended  by  19  bishops  and  26  priests. 
Hosius  of  Cordova,  adviser  of  the  Emperor 
Constantine,  was  the  most  important  person- 
age present.  Eighty-one  canons  were  adopted, 
which  reveal  the  fact  ihai  the  Spanish  Church 
was  largely  influenced  at  the  time  by  Noratian 
and  Montanist  teaching.  The  regulations  are 
many  of  them  very  stringent  and  are  largely 
negative  in  character.  They  deal  with  idolatry, 
marriage,  unchastity,  penance  and  the  prohibi- 
tion of  communion  to  specified  classes. 

BLWELL,  Fruik  Edwin,  American  sculp- 
tor: b.  Concord,  Mass,,  15  June  1858.  His 
early  instruction  in  art  was  from  May  Alcott 
and  Daniel  C.  French.  He  studied  subsequently 
at  the  School  of  Fine  Arts,  Paris,  the  Ghent 
Academy,  and  with  Falguiire  of  Pans,  He 
settled  in  New  York  soon  after  his  return 
home  in  1885,  His  principal  works  are  'Death 
and  Strength'  at  Edam.  Holland;  'Diana  and 
die  Lion,'  now  in  the  Chicago  Art  [nstitutct 
itatne  of  General  Hancod(  at  Gettysburg  bat'^ 
tlefield;  'New  Life,'  in  the  oemetcry 'Of  LowdV 


Mass.;  mOnuKCBt  ta  Edwin  Booth,  Canbridge, 
Mass.;  'Charles  Dickens  and  Little  Nell,>  at 
Philadelphia;  statues  of  Greece  and  Rome  oa 
the  New  Cuiioms  House,  New  York;  busts  'at 
the  Senate,  Washington,  D,  C;  'Water  Boy  of 
Pompey,'  in  the  New  York  Metropolitan 
Museum.  From  1902  to  1905  he  was  curator 
of  a  department  at  the  Metrt^wlitan  Museum 
and  in  1910  was  chosen  director  of  die  School 
of  Aiqtiied  Design   for  Women,   New  York. 

ELWOOD,  Ind.,  city  m  Madison  County, 
on  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  Ctucago  and 
Saint  Louis  and  the  Lake  Erie  and  Western 
railroads,  about  50  miles  northeast  of  Indian- 
apolis. It  is  surrounded  by  an  agriculture  re- 
gion and  is  in  a  natural-jpas  bell.  lis  industries 
are  chiefly  lumber,  flour,  tin-plate  mills,  witulow. 
iron  works,  saw  and  planing  mills,  brickyards, 
canneries,  plate  glass  and  Tamp  chimney  and 
other  factories.  The  United  Slates  census  of 
manufactures  for  1914  «howed  within  the  city 
limits  40  industrial  establishments  of  factory . 
grade,  employing  2,216  persons,  1,969  being 
wage  earners,  receiving  annually  $1,484,000  in 
wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated 
$4,624,000,  and  the  year's  output  was  valued  at 
tel99,000:  of  this.  $2307,00)  was  the  value 
added  by  manufacture.  Its  shipping  trade  con- 
sists in  the  agricultural  products  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  and  the  articles  manufactured 
in  the  city.  The  city  maintains  a  public  library. 
Pop.  12,000. 

ELY,  Richard  Theodore,  American  politi- 
cal economist:  b.  Ripley,  N.  Y„  13  April  1854. 
He  was  educated  at  Columbia  College  (A,B. 
1876,  A.M.  1879,  Feljow  in  Letters,  1876-79),  and 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Halle,  Heidelberg 
<Ph.D.  1879)  and  Geneva;  Royal  Statistical 
Bureau.  Berlin,  187^-80;  LL.D.  Hobart  Col- 
lege, 1892.  He  was  head  of  the  department  of 
pditical  economy  at  Johns  Hopkin^  1881-92; 
when  he  became  professor  of  political  economy 
in  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  He  was  mem- 
ber of  the  Baltimore  Tax  Commission,  1885-86: 
of  the  Maryland  Tax  Commission,  1686-88,  and 
founded  the  American  Bureau  of  Industrial 
Research  in  1904  and  has  since  been  one  of  its 
directors.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Economic  Association,  1885;  its 
secretary.  1685-92;  its  twice  elected  president, 
1S9»-1901,  and  was  first  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  for  Labor  Legislation,  1907-08. 
In  1913  he  waa  appointed  lecturer  at  the  Lon- 
don University;  has  traveled  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  and  Germany  investigating  land 
problems;  was  invited  in  1914  by  the  New 
Zealand  government  to  visit  N^ew  Zealand; 
member  of  the  International  Statistical  Insti- 
tute. He  published  'French  and  German  Social- 
ism in  Modem  Times'  ([1883);  'Taxation  tn 
American  Slates  and  Cities'  (1888) ;  'Outlines 
of  Economics'  (1893) ;  'Monopolies  and 
Trusts'  (1893)  ;  'Socialism  and  Social  Reform' 
(1894)  ;  'Studies  in  the  Evolution  o£  Industrial 
Society'  (1903);  'Propeny  and  Contract  in 
their  Relation  to  the  Distribution  of  Wealth* 
(1914) ;  editor  of  'Macmillan's  Gtizen's  Library 
of  Economics,  Politics  and  Sociology,'  also 
'Macmillan's   Social   Science  Text-booKS.' 

ELY,  Theodore  Newel,  American  civil 
engineer:  b.  Watertown,  K.  Y.,  23  June  1844 
He  was  giaduated  at  the  Rensselaer  Poly- 
tochnic  Institute  ia  4866.    From  1868  to  1910 


■,*■ 


be  ms  a  mem^e^  of  die  engineering  departilienf 
of  the  Penna^lvaiua  Railroad.  He  also  held 
dirECtonhips  in  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Com- 
pany and  the  Cambria  Steel  Company;  wa* 
trustee  of  the  Drexet  Institute  and  director  of 
the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  He 
is  honorary  member  of  the  American  Institnte 
of  Architects  and  vice-president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  in  Rome.  In  1904  he  w35  presi- 
dent of  the  Eastern  Railroad  Association. 

ELY,  England,  an  episcopal  city  in  the 
county  of  Cambridge,  about  IS  miles  northeast 
□f  Cambridge,  on  the  Onse.  The  place  is  noted 
for  its  cathedral,  one  of  the  most  remailcable 
edifices  of  the  kind  in  England.  It  was 
foimded  in  tOB3  and  displays  m  itself  all  the 
ityles  of  architecture  from  early  Norman  to 
bte  Perpendicular.  It  is  a  cradiorm  building, 
537  feet  long  and  190  feet  across  the  tnuisepts. 
The  nave  is  208  feet  long  and  the  tower  215 
feet  hig^  It  occujHes  the  site  of  a  monastery 
founded  about  the  year  673  by  Saint  Etheldreda 
(or  Aud^),  daughter  of  Anna,  king  of  East 
Angiia.  Its  ancient  history  is  most  interesting. 
In  1071,  Hereward,  the  noted  English  outlaw, 
defended  Ely  against  the  Normans.  (See 
Hzkewakd).  Market  gardening  and  fruit  pr&- 
terving  arc  among  the  important  industries. 
Pt^.  7,917.  Consult  Van  Rensselaer,  'English 
Cathedrals':  Bond,  P.,  'English  Cathedrals'; 
Stewart,  'Ardutectural  History  of  Ely 
Cathedral.' 

BLY,  Minn.,  city  and  summer  resort  in 
Saint  Louis  County,  115  miles  northeast  of 
Dulnth,  on  the  Duluth  and  Iron  Ranpe  Rail- 
road. It  is  in  the  centre  of  the  Vermilion  Iron 
Range,  and  nearby  are  several  lakes  and  water- 
falls. There  is  a  large  trade  in  fish,  furs,  lum- 
ber and  iron.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  elected  annuity,  and  a  board  of  alder- 
men. The  city  has  a  fine  high-school  building 
and  city  hall,  and  owns  the  waterworks  ana 
electric-lighting  plants.    Pop.  3,572. 

ELY,  Isle  of,  a  district  in  England,  in  the 
county  of  Cambridge,  separated  on  the  south  by 
the  Ouse  from  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
county  and  forming  in  itself  an  administrative 
county;  area,  283,0/3  acres.  It  rests  about  100 
feet  above  the  general  level  of  the  fen  country, 
and  was  formerly  surrounded  by  marshes, 
which  at  times  became  sheets  of  water.  The 
whole  has  by  drainage  been  converted  into 
fertile  fields  and  is  a  most  productive  fruit- 
growing district.  Pop.  69,752. 
.  ELYHAS.    See  Bar-Jesus. 

ELYOT,  «ir-6t.  Sir  ThonwB,  English 
author:  b.  Wiltshire  not  later  than  1490;  d. 
Carlton.  Cambridgeshire,  20  March  1546,  In 
1511  he  became  clerk  of  assize,  in  1523  clerk  of 
the  king's  coimdl.  In  1531-32,  as  Ambassador 
to  Charles  V,  he  visited  the  Low  Countries  and 
Germany,  having  orders  to  procure,  if  pos- 
sibte,  the  arrest  of  Tyndale.  'The  Bolce  named 
the  Gouemonr,  deuised  b^  Sir  Thomas  Elyot, 
Knight,'  was  published  m  1531.  It  may  be 
described  as  the  earliest  treatise  on  moral  phi- 
losophy in  the  English  language,  the  author's 
principal  diject  being  "to  instruct  men  in  such 
vermes  as  shall  be  expedient  for  them  which 
shall  have  anthoritie  in  a  weale  publike.*  An 
elaborate  10th  edition  appeared  in  ISSO,  with 
lite  notes  onit  gtossacy  Dy  H.  H.   S.   Cioft 


Bytft's  12  other  woHcs  indnde  'Of  the  Knowl- 
edke  whidi  maketh  a  Wise  Man'  (1533) ;  <Pu- 
)}a&  the  Playne>  (1533);  Isocrates'.  'Doctrinal 
of  Princes'  (1534) ;  Picus  de  Mirandola's 
'Rules  of  a  Christian  Lyfe>  (1534);  'The 
Castd  of  Helth'  (1534);  'The  Bankette  of 
Sapience'  (1534);  <Bibliotheca»  (1538),  the 
first  Latin-EoKlish  dictionary;  'The  Image  of 
Governance'  (1540)  ;  'Defence  of  Good  Wo- 
men' (1545) ;  and  'Preservative  against  Deth' 
(1545),^  These  books  went  ifarougb  edition 
after  edition  in  their  author's  lifetime,  and  have 
now  became  among  the  rarest  treasures  of 
book  collectors. 

BLYRIA,  Ohio,  dty  and  county-seat  of 
Lorain  County,  on  the  Black  River  and  on 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  and  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  Southern  railroads,  25  miles  south- 
west of  Qevdand.  It  has  a  public  library,  a 
hospital  and  a  fine  natural  park.  Agriculture  is 
ihe  chief  industry  of  the  surrounding  country; 
the  sandstone  quarries  furnish  employment  to 
a  number  of  pec^le.  The  chief  manufactures 
in  the  city  are  supplies  for  automobiles  and 
bicycles,  saddles,  telephones,  home-lighting 
plants,  flour^  feed,  caimed  goods,  concrete 
blocks,  moldings,  paints,  metal  polish,  switch* 
boards,  screws,  machine  parts,  iron  pipe,  angje 
iron,  strip  steel,  etc.  The  United  States  census 
of  manufactures  for  1914  showed  within  the 
dty  limits  63  industrial  establishments  of  fao 
tory  grade,  empl<^ng  3,236  persons ;  2,735  being 
wage  earners,  receiving  $1,759,000  annually  in 
wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated  $9,485,- 
000,  and  the  year's  output  was  valued  at 
$8,792,000:  of  this,  $3,776|p00  was  the  value 
added  by  manufacture.  'The  waterworks  ars 
owned  by  the  dty.     Pop,  17,396. 

BLYS£b,  PaUii  de  1',  pi-la  it  Ift-li-ia,  the 
official  residence  of  the  President  of  France,  in 
Paris,  on  the  Rue  du  Fauburg  Saint  Honori, 
with  its  garden  extending  to  the  Champs 
Elysies.  It  was  built  in  1/18  for  the  Count 
d'Evreux;  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV  it  became 
state  property  and  was  the  residence  of 
Madame  de  Pompadour.  It  wns  also  used  as 
a  residence  by  Napoleon  I  and  by  Louis  Na- 
poleon, and  became  Ae  presidential  residence 
In  1871. 

BLYSIAN  FIELDS,  or  ELYSIUH,  in 
dassical  mythology,  the  residence  of  the  blessed 
after  death.  Elysium  was  supposed  by  Homer 
to  have  been  at  the  western  end  of  the  earth; 
other  poets  placed  it  in  the  Fortunate  I^es; 
later  it  was  supposed  to  be  in  the  under  world. 
It  was  represented  as  a  region  of  perfect  hap- 
piness, where  the  sky  .was  ,blways  cloudless  and 
a  celestial  light  shc4,a  niagic  brilliancy,  over 
every  object  ;_where*each  one  was  free  to  fol- 
low his  favorite  pufcuit,  ^d  t^re&  and  4nfirnt- 
ities  were  unknown. 

ELZB,  el'tsi!.  Karl,  .Genn>n  hbtorian  of 
literature :  b.  Dessau,  22  May  1821 ;  d.  Halle.  22 
Jan.  188*  His  specialty  was  English  literature 
and  he  was  professor  of  English  philology  Id 
the  University  of  Halle  1875-»J.  One  of  his 
first  works  was  a  compilation  entitled  a  'Trea»- 
«iry  of  English  Song.'  He  produced  critical 
editions  of  Shakespeare  and  other  EngKsh 
dramatists,  and  wrote  bioBrapfaies  of  Byron  and 
ether  English  ai^iars.  ^ecally  noteworttiy  Is 
fan     ^Grandniss    der    ensliKhni     Pbilologiet 


,5le 


ELZEVIR  —  BlUNCIPATION 


(1877).  'Westward'  (18G0>  contains  trangla- 
tions  of  English  and  AJnerican  poems. 

ELZEVIR,  ei'uEvIr,  name  of  a  notable 
family  of  printers  descended  from  Ludovic 
Elsevier  or  Elzevier,  Latinized  Elzeverius,  a 
native  of  Louvain:  b.  1S40;  d.  1617.  Having 
learned  the  bocdcbinders'  trade,  he  practised  it 
for  some  years  in  his  native  (own,  but  in  1580 
he  removed  to  Leyden  iif  the  United  Provinces 
and  there  set  up  a  printing  press.  His  five  sons, 
Matthew,  Ludovic,  Egidy,  Joost  and  Bona- 
ventura,  were  also  printers  and  booksellers ;  but 
it  was  the  youngest  of  the  five,  Bonaventtira, 
bom  1S83  at  Leyden,  that  gave  the  name 
Elzevir  its  great  celebrity.  The  firjt  work  pub- 
lished by  -the  house  of  Elzevir  appeared  in 
1583,  the  'Ebraicx  Qusestiones  ct  Responsiones' 
of  Drusius,  not  the  whole  three  books,  but  only 
the  second  and  third.  In  1608,  nine  years  before 
iiis  father's  death,  Bonavcntura  Elzevir  founded 
a  separate  printing  and  publishing  establi  stun  cut 
ia  the  same  city  and  then  commenced  the  issue 
of  works  in  Greek,  Lattn  and  other  languages 
which  have  ever  since  been  r^arded  as  models 
of  correct  and  elegant  typogr^hy.  He  con- 
ducted the  business  of  his  house  more  than  42 
year^  till  his  death  in  1652,  having  had  as  part- 
ner from  1626  Abraham  Elzevir,  his  nephew, 
whom  he  survived  one  month.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Daniel  and  Abraham's  son 
John;  this  partnership  was  soon  dissolved, 
John  carrjing  on  the  business  in  Leyden,  Daniel 
migrating  to  Amsterdam  in  1655  and  entering 
into  partnership  (here  with  another  of  his  cous- 
ins ;  both  of  these  were  dead  1680.  The  last  of 
the  Elzevirs  to  figure  in  the  history  of  typog- 
raphy was  Abraham^  son  of  Abralum,  one  of 
the  five  sons  of  Ludovicui ;  from  1681  to  1712 
he  was  printer  to  the  University  of  Leyden. 
The  Elzevir  editions  of  the  ancient  classics, 
especially  Latin,  while  admirable  in  point  of 
typography,  are  mostly  reproductions  of  the 
texts  adopted  by  previous  _printers  and  hence 
are  infenor  from  the  critical  point  of  view. 
The  number  of  works  published  by  the  different 
Elievir  houses  nears  the  2,000  mark. 

EHANCIPATION,  the  act  by  which  free- 
dom of  various  kinds  is  granted  to  individuals, 
races  or  nations.  In  Roman  law  the  dissolu- 
tion of  paternal  authority  (patria  potettat)  in 
the  lifetime  of  the  faihcr.  It  took  place  in  the 
farm  of  3  sale  by  the  father  of  the  son  to  a 
third  party,  who  manumitted  him.  The  Twelve 
Tables,  the  foundation  of  Roman  law,  required 
that  this  ceremony  should  be  gone  through 
diree  times.  In  general,  the  son  was  at  last 
resold  to  the  father,  who  manumitted  him,  and 
thus  acquired  the  rights  of  a  patron  which 
would  otherwise  have  belonged  to  the  alien 
purchaser  who  finally  manumitted  him.  In  the 
case  of  danglers  and  grandchildren  one  sale 
was  sufficient.  This  form  of  emancipation  con- 
tinued in  the  Empire  until  the  time  of  Justinian, 
who  substituted  a  declaration  by  the  father 
before  a  proper  tribunal.  This  emperor  also 
changed  the  succession  law.  by  making  kinship 
by  blood  decisive.  According  to  Teutonic  law 
the  marriage  of  a  daughter  freed  her  from 
parental  control  and  a  son  became  free  upon 
setting  up  a  home  of  his  own.  In  modem 
states  liberty  from  parental  authority  comes  on 
attaining  full  age.  If  a  person  receives  his 
freedom  before  attaining  full  age  he  is  said 


to  be  'emancipated*  For  full  information  oo 
this  question  it  is  necessary  to  consult  the  vari- 
ous codes.  The  Catholic  Emancipation  Act 
was  the  act  signed  13  April  1839,  which 
removed  the  most  galling  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  disabilities  in  England.  See  Euanci- 
FATioN,  Catholic;  EuANaFATioK  Pboclaha- 
tion;  Slaveby. 

EHANCIPATION,  Catholic,  the  custom- 
ary designation  of  a  measure  of  relief  from 
penalties  and  civil  disabilities  granted  to  pro- 
fessors of  the  Catholic  religion  in  England  and 
Ireland  b^  acts  of  the  British  Parliament  1829: 
the  act  did  not  extend  to  Scotland.  The  neces- 
sity of  granting  relief  to  the  CathoHcs  of 
Ireland  became  apparent  soon  after  the  out- 
break of  the  war  a^unst  the  American  colonies, 
and  the  first  relaxation  of  the  penal  laws  against 
the  professors  of  the  Catholic  relinon  was 
made  in  1780.  At  that  time  it  was  higb  treason 
for  a  priest,  native  of  the  kingdom,  to  perform 
any  of  the  duties  of  his  office.  Catholics  could 
not  own  land  in  fee.  Roman  Catholics  whose 
titles  to  land  antedated  the  penal  laws  were 
ousted  if  the  legal  heir  professed  Protestantism. 
A  Catholic  could  not  practise  law,  nor  conduct 
a  school.  In  1780  a  bill  for  removal  of  some 
of  the  disabilities  was  passed  for  England  and 
Ireland.  When  the  act  of  union  of  the  king- 
dom of  Ireland  with  that  of  Great  Britain  was 
passed  in  the  Irish  Pariiament  1800,  'solemn 
pledges  were  ^ven  by  the  British  Cabinet  that 
the  disqualifying  statutes  should  be  repealed; 
but  after  the  union  the  promise  was  ignored 
In  1824  in  Ireland  was  farmed  the  Catholic 
Association  to  agitate  for  civil  rights,  such  as 
the  right  to  vote  for  members  of  the  Parlia- 
ment, to  be  elected  members  of  the  same  and 
to  occupy  various  offices  in  the  government,  na- 
tional and  local.  In  1829  it  was  seen  by  English 
statesmen  that  to  withhold  these  rights  and 
franchises  any  longer  would  provoke  a  rebel- 
lion in  Ireland;  and  a  bill  of  relief  was  intro- 
duced in  the  Parliament  5  March,  and  passed 
in  both  houses  and  approved  by  King  Geor^ 
IV  13  April,  permitting  Catholics  to  elect  and 
be  elected  to  uie  Parliament,  and  to  hold  offices 
under  the  Crown ;  but  they  remained  still  ex- 
pressly excluded  from  certain  high  offices  — 
that  of  lieutenant-governor  of  Ireland,  that  of 
regent  of  the  universal  kingdom,  or  lord  chan- 
cellor of  the  United  Kingdom,  or  of  Ireland, 
etc  In  1867  the  last  named  disability  was  re- 
moved, as  was,  many  vears  after,  the  disability 
of  a  Catholic  to  be  lord  chancellor  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  But  the  Act  of  Grace  of  1829  con- 
tained a  clause  forbidding  Catholic  ecdesiastics, 
monks,  friars  and  nuns  from  wearing  the  at- 
tire or  habit  of  their  respective  station  or  order 
■s  public  under  a  penal^  of  $250  for  each  of- 
fense. This  proviso  was  ostentatiously  violated 
in  Ireland,  and  with  impunity,  for,  like  the  $500 
forfeiture  for  violation  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
Titles  Acts  'q.v.),  no  penalty  was  ever  exacted. 
Another  clause  of  the  Catholic  Emanctpalion 
Act,  which  was  also  ignored  and  condemnel 
required  that  Jesuits  and  members  of  TtAi^cna 
orders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  living 
within  the  kingdom  should  roister  in  die  office 
of  the  clerk  of  the  peace  of  the  coun^  under  a 
penalty  of  $250.  (See  O'CatrNEU,  Damcl). 
Consult  Butler,  'Historical  Memoirs*;  Milner, 
'Supplementary  Memoirs';  Lin^ud,   'Histon' 


.yGooi^le 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


EMANCIPATION.    LATUI^AHBRICA— BHANCIFATIOH   PROCLAMATION       STl 

o(  the  Church  in  Engtand* ;  Green,  'History 
of  HngioncL' 

EMANCIPATION    IN    LATIN-AHBR- 

ICA,  the  Manumission  of  Slaves  in  Relation 
to  the  several  Declarations  ot  Independence.  In 
Haiti,  where  African  slavery  was  first  intro- 
duced into  America,  the  negroes  received  as  a 
gifi  'the  full  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity* 
of  the  French  republic  in  1794,  and  by  fighting 
established  their  independence  m  1804.  In  Cen- 
tral America  (when  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Hon- 
duras, Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica  were  united 
in  the  Central  American  republic),  the  laws  of 
31  Dec.  1823  and  17  and  24  April  1824  emanci- 
pated all  slaves,  and  made  free,  slaves  of  other 
countries    coming    to    Central    America.      The 


slave  trade  was  prohibited,  under  penalhr  of 
forfeiture  of  the  rights  of  citiiertship.  H.  H. 
Bancroft,  in  his  'History  of  the  Pacific  States,' 


says  "Of  all  the  nations  of  North  America, 
to  the  Central  American  republic  belongs  the 
honor  of  having  first  practically  abolished  slar- 
tTy*  We  shall  presently  diow,  however,  that 
this  distinction  fairly  belongs  to  Mexico. 
Eciiador,  which  made  its  first  effort  to  gain 
independence  at  Quito,  10  Aug.  1809,  and  act- 
uallv  threw  off  Se  yoke  of  Spain  on  9  Oct. 
1820,  abolished  slavery  during  the  presidential 
term  of  Genera!  Urvina,  1852-56.  The  Ai^en- 
tine  nation  began  its  struggle  for  independence 
2S  May  1810,  and  at  the  Congress  of  Tucuman, 
9  July  1816,  the  formal  separation  from  Spain 
was  declared.  Article  XV  of  the  constitution 
of  25  SepL  1860  provides  that  'there  shall  be 
no  slaves  in  the  Argentine  nation.  Those  few 
who  now  exist  in  it  shall  become  free  at  the 
very  moment  this  constitution  goes  into  effect. 
The  indemnification  which  the  declaration  may 
involve  shall  be  provided  for  by  special  law. 
Any  contract  involving  the  purchase  or  sale  of 
a  person  shall  be  held  to  be  a  criminal  offense. 
Slaves  introduced  in  any  way  what- 
ever into  the  country  shall  become  tree  1^ 
virtue  of  the  fact  that  they  have  trodden  the 
soil  of  the  republic'  In  Colombia  (New 
Granada)  the  number  of  negroes  was  never 
very  great;  it  was  estimated  at  80,000  in  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century.  The  struggle  for 
independence,  beginning  20  Jnly  1810,  or  as  a 
vigorous  insurrection  m  1811,  was  continued 
after  the  union  with  VencMiela  (December 
1819),  and  the  republic  of  New  Granada  was 
formed  in  1831.  In  1821  a  law  was  passed  by 
the  republic  of  Colombia  for  the  gradual  manu- 
mission of  slaves,  and  all  born  after  that  date 
were  declared  free  at  the  age  of  18, —  that 
gradnal  {"'ocess  ^>plying,  of  course,  to  all  the 
territory  of  the  (Sreater  Colombia  at  the  time 
of  the  law's  enactment.      (See  Colomeia,   Hit- 


torv).  A  law  of  1851  abolished  slavery  entirely 
in  New  Granada,  by  nving  liberty  to  all  who 
remained  slaves  on  1  Jan.  1852,  provision  being 


made  for  the  pa^rment  of  in<tonnity  to  the 
owners.  The  beginnii^  of  the  war  for  inde- 
pendence in  Mexico,  dates  from  16  Sept.  1810 
(see  Dolose^  Et  Gbito  he)  ;  on  6  Nov.  1813  the 
first  Mexican  Congress,  installed  in  the  town  of 
Cltilpancingo,  issued  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence and  decreed  the  emancipation  of 
slaves.  This,  therefore,  was  the  starting  point 
of  emancipation  on  the  mainland  of  America. 
Veneznelas  declaration-  of  independence  (S 
July  1811)  was  followed  after  10  years  t^  the 


law  for  the  gradual  manumission  of  slaves 
which  we  have  mentioned  above,  that  is,  the 
law  of  the  Greater  Colombia  of  1821.  Para- 
guayan independence  should  be  dated  from  11 
June  1811,  when  an  assembly  of  deputies  began 
Its  sessions;  for  the  resolution  passed  by  this 
assembly,  renouncing  allegiance  to  Spain,  was 
ratified  as  a  declaration  of  independence  by  the 
Paraguayan  Congress  of  1  Oct  1813,  The  ques- 
tion of  African  slavery  was  comparatively 
unimportant  in  Paraguay,  "In  1865  there  were 
negroes  and  mulattoes  at  Emboscada,  Tabapy, 
and  Aresui ;  but  the  negroes  have  now  almost 
completely  disappeared"  ('Handbook  of  Para- 

Eay,>  September  1902,  issued,  by  International 
ircau  of  the  American  Republics),  Chile 
entered  upon  a  contest  with  Spain  on  18  Sept. 
1810,  and  the  independence  of  the  country  was 
proclaimed  12  Feb.  1818.  The  negro  problem 
did  not  weigh  upon  that  country,  the  popula- 
tion being  recruited  from  Europe  quite  largely. 
The  independence  of  Peru  was  declared  at 
Lima  28  July  1821 ;  that  of  the  Dominican' 
republic  1  Dec,  1821 ;  that  of  Brazil  7  Sept,  1822 : 
and  Bolivia  became  an  independent  republic  o 
Aug.  1825.  In  Brazil  the  conservative  stales- 
man,  Silva  Paranhos,  obtained  from  the  Parlia- 
ment the  passage  of  a  bill  (28  Sept.  1871)  for 
the  gradual  extinction  of  slavery,  which  pro- 
vided that  thereafter  every  child  bom  of  a  slave 
mother  should  be  free,  and  created  a  special 
fund  for  emancipation  by  redemption.  Private 
philanthropy,  largely  directed  by  the  Masonic 
lodges,  effected  more  than  the  fund  created  for 
this  purpose;  and  the  number  of  slaves  began 
to  decrease.  A  bill  tor  the  immediate  and  un- 
conditional abolition  of  slavery  in  Brazil  was 
signed  by  Prmcess  Regent  Isabel  13  May  1888; 
the  monarchy  was  overthrovm  15  Nov,  1889; 
the  new  constitution  approved  24  Feb,  1891. 
Jn  Cuba  the  slaves  were  emancipated  on  the 
conclusion  ot  the  Ten  Years'  War,  that  is,  in 
1878,  and  Cuba  became  a  republic  20  May  1902. 
The  experiences  of  the  French,  Danish  and 
British  possessions  may  be  referred  to  briefly 
in  conclusion.  Napoleon  restored  slavery  in 
French  Guiana,  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe, 
although  his  efforts  to  accomplish  the  same  re- 
sult in  Haiti  were,  as  mentioned  above,  frus- 
trated by  the  resistance  of  the  blacks  them- 
selves. The  freedom  of  all  who  were  held  in 
bondage  throughout  the  French  dominions  was 
declared  in  1848.  Slavery  in  the  Danish  West 
Indies  (Saint  Thomas,  etc)  was  abolished  also 
in  1848,  The  act  to  abolish  slavery  throughout 
the  British  colonies,  providing  £20,000,000  for 
compensation  of  the  owners,  was  dated  28 
Aug.  1833,  and  its  effect  was  to  free  770,280 
slaves  on  1  Aug,  1834,  the  number  thus  emanci- 
pated in  Jamaica  being  309,000. 

Marriok  Wilcox, 
BUANCIPATION  PROCLAMATION, 
the  announcement  issued  by  Abraham  Lincoln 
1  Jan.  1863  abolishing  slavery  in  ail  military 
sections  of  the  South  except  those  territories 
occupied  by  Union  arms.  The  Republican  ad- 
ministration at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
was  awkwardl:^  placed  for  dealing  with  slavery. 
To  assail  it  in  its  ownterritory  was  not  only  to 
belie  the  past  professions  of  the  party,  but  to 
alienate  so  much  Northern  support  as  to  assure 
failure ;  nor  indeed  had  the  great  bulk  of  the 
par^  any  thought  beyond  fettering  the  slave 


-lifft 


SMAHTS  — BHAMVEL'THS  GRBAT . 


Kwer  for  future  aggression.  On  the  other 
nd,  to  leave  slavery  untouched  was  not  only 
to  chill  the  energies  of  the  most  reliable  up- 
holders of  the  War,  but  to  give  foreign  coun- 
tries a  pretext  for  asserting  tnat  the  North  was 
fighting  merely  for  dominion,  and  that  the 
Southern  cause  was  that  of  liberty  and  morally 
entitled  to  help.  The  former  horn  of  the  di- 
lemma was  much  the  sharpest ;  and  the  govern- 
ment moved  very  cautiously,  restraining  its 
subordinates  like  Fremont  (30  Aug.  1861)  and 
Hunter  (9  May  1862)  from  forcing  its  hand  by 
emancipation  orders.  On  9  Aug.  1861  an  act 
had  declared  masters  employing  slaves  against 
the  government  barred  from  further  claim  to 
them;  bill  that  was  a  mere  warning  and  rule 
of  court.  The  first  embarrassing  problem  was 
how  to  deal  with  slaves  xa  conquered  districts, 
or  who  had  come  within  its  lines :  was  the  gov- 
ernment to  act  as  slaveholders'  trustee  and  re- 
turn them  to  servitude?  The  growing  resent- 
ment against  slavery  as  a  convertible  term  for 
the  rebellion,  and  disgust  at  being  slave -catchers 
to  the  behoof  of  their  enemies,  supplied  the 
answer,  and  on  13  March  1862  all  army  officers 
were  forbidden  to  return  fugitive  slaves:  their 
surrender  from  any  quarter  was  made  harder 
(though  ihe  Fugitive-Slave  Law  was  not  form- 
ally abolished  till  28  June  18W) ;  on  17  June 
1862  all  captured,  deserted  or  fugitive  slaves  of 
owners  in  rebellion  were  freed.  As  to  the  main 
body  who  plainly  could  not  be  left  in  un- 
changed status  as  the  core  of  a  fresh  abscess, 
Lincoln's  wish  was  for  compensated  emancipa- 
tion ;  he  sent  a  special  message  to  Congress  6 
March,  and  that  body  passed  a  joint  resolution 
10  April,  declaring  that  the  United  States  ought 
to  co-operate  with  any  State  which  would  adopt 


urgencies,    the    border    States    would    ___ 

measures  of  the  kind.    On  19  June  the  slaves 
in  the  Territories  were  freed. 

The  final  blow  came,  as  John  Quincy  Adams 
20  years  before  had  forecast  that  it  would,  by 
using  the  President's  war  power  to  suppress  in- 
surrection. As  the  second  year  of  the  conflict 
wore  on,  the  majority  demanded  the  crippling 
of  its  enemy  bjr  the  most  efficient  means, 'and 
very  man^  believed  that  a  threat  of  general 
emancipation  would  bring  about  a  general  sur- 
render. Lincoln  wished  for  a  great  victory 
first,  that  it  might  not  appear  the  selfish  re- 
source of  an  overmatched  power ;  but  the  dis- 
couraging Peninsular  campaign  obliged  him  to 
satisfy  his  supporters  by  holdinfr  this  bludgeon 
over  the  enemy.  On  22  Sept  1862  he  issued  a 
proclamation  announcing  that  100  davs  after, 
on  1  Jan.  1863,  the  Executive  would  i^sue  an- 
other proclamation  designating  the  States  or 
parts  of  States  then  deemed  m  rebellion,  evi- 
dence to  the  contrary  being  the  presence  of 
bona-fide  representatives  in  Congress,  that  all 
slaves  in  the  designated  sections  should  be  per- 
manently free,  and  that  the  civil  and  military 
authorities  of  the  United  Slates  would  main- 
tain their  freedom,  and  would  not  repress  any 
efiort  of  theirs  to  make  it  good.  The  only  re- 
sult was  a  retaliatory  proclamation  by  Jeffer- 
son Davis  23  December,  ordering  that  captured 
negro  Federal  soldiers  and  their  officers  should 
he  turned  over  to  the  States,  and  that  Gen. 


B.  P.  Butler  should  be  banged  if  captured.'  Od 
the  1st  of  January  the  threatened  proclamation 
was  issued,  as  *by  virtue  of  the  power  in  me 
vested  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  Slates,  and  as  a  fit  and  nec- 
essary war  measure  for  repressing  said  rebel- 
lion." It  designated  Arkansas,  Texas,  Louisi- 
ana except  13  '^rtshes*  or  cou'hties,  Missis- 
sippi, Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  South  Caro- 
lina, North  Carolina  and  Virginia  except  West 
Virginia  and  seven  other  counties,  as  in  rebel- 
lion, emancipated  all  the  slaves  in  them;  en- 
joined these  freedmen  to  abstain  from  all  vio- 
lence except  in  self-defense,  and  to  work  faith- 
fully for  reasonable  wages  i  announced  Uiat 
suitable  members  of  them  would  be  received 


of  mankind  and  the  gracious   favor  of 

Almighty  God.* 

The  curious  feature  of  this  proclamation  is 
that  it  abolished  slavery  only  in  the  sections  not 
under  the  military  power  of  the  United  States, 
and  left  it  untouched  in  those  which  were, 
namely,  the  ones  specially  excepted  by  it,  'which 
are.  for  the  present,  left  precisely  as  if  this 
proclamation  were  not  issued.'  _  Hence  it  was 
argued  by  the  Democrats  that  it  had  no  legal 
force  whatever,   and  emancipated  no   one;   a 

Juestion  the  Supreme  Court  never  passed  on. 
t  was  always  accepted  t^  the  majority  party, 
however,  as  a  continuing  act,  applying  as  fast 
as  any  of  that  territory  fell  into  the  ^  Union 
power,  and  not  necessary  to  repeat.  Politically, 
the  results  were  enormous.  Recognition  of  the 
Confederacy  thenceforward  meaning  a  flat 
maintenance  of  slavery  instead  of  freedom,  the 
entire  anti- slavery  sentiment  of  France  and 
Great  Britain  was  thrown  against  those 
countries'  interference,  which  at  once  became 
unthinkable.  It  drove  away  many  lukewarm 
Northern  Republicans,  and  brought  many  local 
and  State  defeats  to  Uie  administration  j  but  it 
took  the  party  'off  the  fence'  and  made  it  a 
coherent  organization  with  one  firm,  open  prin- 
ciple, for  many  years  unassailable.  In  the 
Soudt,  as  defeat  meant  emancipation  by  th^ 
enemies  and  it  woidd  be  no  worse  if  done  by 
themselves,  some  of  the  leaders  (as  Lee) 
$eriousl);  thought  of  offering  freedom  to  slaves 
to  fight  in  their  armieiS  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
war,  hoping  to  save  independence  and  the  con- 
trol of  their  own  destinies  at  least 

EMANTS,  im'ants,  Marcdlu,  Dntdi  poet 
and  descriptive  writer:  K  Voortnlrg.  near  The 
Hague,  12  Aug.  1848.  His  volutnes  of  travels 
display  his  keen  observation  and  Us  wMtical 
imagination.  Among  his  best  sat  'A  Jaamey 
Thn)i«h  Sweden>  (1877);  <Mona«r>  (1878); 
<Along  the  m]e>  (1884) ;  'From  Spain> 
(1886).  He  holds  a  permatMiil  ^ace  in  the 
literature  of  the  Low  Conntries  throuf^  his 
charming  narrative  poons,  'Lilith'  (1879) ; 
<The  Shimmer  of  tb«  Gods'    (1883). 

EMANUEL  THE  ORBAT,  king  of  Poi^ 
tugal:  b.  31  May  1469;  d  Lisbon,  13  Dec 
1521.  He  ascended  the  thrwne  In  1'49S.  During 
his  reign  were  performed  the  TWagBS  of  dis- 
covery of  Vaseo  da  Gam  a,  of  Cabral,  of 
Americus  Vespuciua  and  (he  heroic  exploits  of 
Albuquerque,  by  whose  exertions  ti  passage  was 
found  to  the  East  Indies  (for  which  the  way 
was  prepared  by  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  of 


BMBA  — smARaO  ni  THE  URITSn  STATES 


Good  Ho|w  ia  1486  bjr  Bartelomeo  Dias);  die 
Portuguese  dominion  in  Gee  was  established, 
the  BrBzih,  the  Uahiccas,  etc.,  were  disoovered. 
The  commerce  of  Portugal  under  Emanuel  was 
more  prosperous  than  at  any  former  period. 
The  treasures  of  America  flowed  into  Lisbon 
and  the  reign  of  Emanuel  was  justly  called 
*the  golden  3g&  of  Portugal*  He  died  deeply 
lamented  by  bis  subjects,  but  bated  by  the 
Moors  and  Jews,  whom  he  had  expeltea  As 
a  monument  of  his  discoveries  Emanuel  buitt 
the  monastery  at  Belcm,  where  he  was  buried. 
He  was  a  friend  to  the  sciences  and  to  learned 
HMD.    He  left  'Memoirs  on  the  Indies.' 

EMBA,  im'ba,  a  river  in  the  district  of 
OrenburK,  Asiatic  Russia;  the  Russians  call  it 
Jemba,  the  Kirghiz,  Dchem.  It  rises  at  three 
sources  in  the  western  slope  of  the  Mugodchar 
foothills,  flows  sl^gishly  through  an  area  of 
steppes,  is  about  200  feel  wide  and  500  miles 
long,  and  forms  a  delta  at  its  embouchure  in 
the  Caspian.  It  is  not  navigable,  but  abotmds  in 
fish.    The  fortress  Embinsk  is  built  on  its  upper 

EMBALMING,  the  art  of  preserving  the 
body  after  death.  It  was  probably  invented  by 
the  Egyptians,  whose  bodies  thus  prepared  for 
preservation  are  known  as  mummies,  but  it  also 
prevailed  among  the  Assyrians,  Scythians  and 
Persians.  It  is  at  least  as  old  as  4000  B.C.  The 
Egyptian  mummies  were  placed  in  costly  coiBos 
ready  for  sepulture ;  but  were  frequently  kept 
some  time  before  bemg  buried  — often  at  home 
—  and  even  produced  at  entertainments,  to  re< 
call  to  the  guests  the  transient  lot  of  humanity. 
The  usual  method  of  embalming  among  the 
ancients  was  as  fallows ;  The  intestines  and 
brains  were  tEiken  out,  and  the  cavities  filled  up 
with  a  mixture  of  balsamic  herbs,  myrrh,  cassia, 
etc.;  the  arteries  and  other  vessels  were  injectea 
with  balsams.  The  ancient  Egyptians  filled  the 
cavities  of  the  trunk  with  aromatic,  saline  and 
bituminous  stuff.  The  cloths  in  which  the 
mummies  were  swathed  were  saturated  with 
similar  substances.  So  effectual  were  some  of 
the  processes  that  after  2,000  or  3,000  years, 
the  soles  of  the  feet  are  still  elastic  and  soft  to 
the  touch.  By  700  a.D.,  when  embalming  prac~ 
lically  ceased  in  Egypt  probably  730,000,000 
bodies  had  been  thus  treated ;  many  millions  of 
them  are  still  concealed.  In  1881  upward  of 
30  mummies  of  potentates,  including  that  of 
Rameses  II,  were  discovered  together  at  Deir- 
el-Bahari.  (See  Muuuy).  The  Persians  em- 
ployed wax  for  embalming;  the  Assyrians, 
ooney;  the  Jews  aloes  and  spices.  Alexander 
'■■ ;   Great_  was^  preserved   in   wax   and   honey. 


1  France,  Sidly,  England  and  America,  espe- 
cially in  Central  America  and  Peru.  The  art  of 
embalming  was  probably  never  wholly  lost  in 
Europe.  The  body  of  Edward  I,  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey  in  1307,  was  found  entire 
in  1770.  The  body  of  Canute,  who  died  in  1036, 
was  found  very  fresh  in  Winchester  Cathedral 
in  1776.  The  bodies  of  William  the  Conqueror 
and  of  Matilda,  his  wife,  were  foimd  entire  at 
Caen  in  the  16th  ceatury. 

Chaossier's  discovery,  in  IfiDO,  of  the  preserv- 
ative power  of  corrosive  sublimate,  by  which 
atmnal  matter  becomes  rigid,  hard  and  ^ayish, 
intiodaced  new  meain  of  embalming;  but,  ow- 


in^  to  the  desiccation,  the  features  do  not  i«- 
tam  their  shape.    The  discovery  of  die  preserve 

ative  power  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ace- 
tate and  chloride  of  alumina,  or  of  sulphate  of 
alumina,  by  Gannai,  in  1S34,  and  of  arsenic  by 
Tranchini,  pyroxilic  spirits  by  Babington  and 
Rees  in  1339,  and  of  ihe  antiseptic  nature  of 
chloride  of  zinc,  have  led  to  the  application  of 
these  salts  to  the  embalming  of  bodies  required 
to  be  preserved  for  a  limited  time.  The  latest 
method  common  in  the  United  States  is  an  in- 
jection of  a  fluid  into  the  femoral  artery  and 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  The  most  enicient 
agents  are  mercuric  chloride,  arsenic  and  zinc 
chloride.  Embalming  has  taken  the  place  of 
ice  in  preserving  the  dead  until  funeral  services 
are_  ended.  The  reasons  for  this  are  its  preser- 
vation of  the  body  for  transportation  and 
leisurely  disposal  and  its  absolute  prevention  of 
communication  of  infection,  either  before  the 
body  is  buried  or  after  it  has  crumbled  and 
mingled  with  earth  in  a  cemetery.  Consult 
Budge,  'The  Mummy'  {2d  ed.,  London  18W)  ; 
Dhonan  and  Nunnamaker,  'Hygiene  and  Sani- 
tary Science'  (Cincinnati  1913) ;  Eckles, 
'Practical  Embalmer'  (Philadelphia  1904) ; 
Gannai,  'Traite  d'embaumemert'  (Paris  1838; 
trans,  hy  Harlan,  Philadelphia  1840)  ;  Myers, 
'Champion  Textbook  of  Embalming'  (5th  ed, 
Springfield,  Ohio,  1908)  ;  Pettigrew,  "History  of 
Egyptian  Mummies'  (London  1834)  ;  Smitb,  G. 
E.,  'A  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  Mummifi- 
cation in  E«ypt>  (Cairo  1906)  ;  Sucquet,  'Em- 
baumement'  (Paris  1872).  See  Dead,  DiSFOSAl 
OF  the;  Mummy. 

EMBANKMENT.  See  Levex;  Missis- 
sippi Le;veb  System. 

EMBARGO  IH  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Prohibition  of  foreign  commerce,  to  distress 
foreign  countries  and  obtain  the  revocation  of 
hostile  measures ;  "peaceful  war,"  intended  to  be 
cheaper  than  actual  warfare  and  equally 
efficient,  but  in  fact  injuring  ourselves  deeply 
and  the  others  little,  and  ending  in  real  war  at 
last.  Our  embargoes  belong  exclusively  to  the 
French-English  wars  of  1794^1814.  Their  ulti- 
mate cause  was  that  the  agricultural  classes, 
who  controlled  the  administration,  did  not  be- 
lieve in  commerce,  and  preferred  aboli^ing  it 
to  spending  anythinf;  for  its  protection;  more- 
over, they  were  mainly  SouUicm  and  Demo- 
cratic, the  commercial  interests  mainly  New 
England  and  Federalist,  and  the  former  were 
not  loath  to  spare  themselves  the  cost  of  war  by 
impoverishinR-  the  latter.  The  first  embargo  was 
for  60  days,  doe  to  mutual  orders  of  France  and 
England  for  seizure  of  neutrals  which  placed 
the  United  Stales  between  hammer  and  anvil. 
Jay's  Treaty  (q.v.)  of  19  Nov,  1794,  for  12  years 
measurably  protected  our  commerce,  but  near 
its  end  conditions  became  infinitely  worse.  In 
1806-07  the  thronging  mutual  blows  of  Eng- 
land and  Napoleon,  ending  in  the  formers 
Orders  in  Council  of  11  November,  and  the  lat- 
ter's  Milan  Decree  of  7  Dec.  1807,  made  prac- 
tically every  neutral  vessel  good  prize  to  one  or 
the  other.  Even  more  intolerable  were  the 
rights  of  search  and  impressment  claimed  by 
Great  Britain,  which  swept  several  hundred 
American  sailors  every  year  into  the  British 
fleets,  and  in  one  massacre  (see  Chesapeakb 
Am  Lsovard)  outraged  and  humiliated  this 
eoimtry  beyond  forgiveness.  But  aside  from 
the  reasons  above  given,  few  landsmen  believed 


,^le 


«M 


raiBASBY — EMBaagiiBBHarr 


till  the  victory  o£  Old  Ironsides  (se«  Conbti- 
lUTioN,  The)  that  American  shipa  could  B^A 
English  on  equal  terms,  and  it  was  the  general 
conviclioa  that  in  case  of  war  our  entire  fleet 
would  at  once  be  'Copenhagenued'  (that  b, 
captured  bodily  and  added  to  the  Eritbh  fieet, 
as  was  the  Danish).  At  Jefferson's  recom- 
mendation, therefore,  The  Enibargo  was  passed 
22  Dec.  1807.  forbidding  all  foreign  com- 
merce till  the  obnoxious  decrees  were  repealed. 
The  havoc  not  only  in  trade  but  in  the  interior 
life  of  the  people  was  terrific;  the  exports  fell 
from  $110,064,207  in  1807  to  $22,430,960  in  180a 
The  farming  sections  were  dismayed  to  find 
that  commerce  meant  part  of  their  daily  bread 
as  wdl  33  the  carrier's  profits  and  that  they 
raised  and  sold  much  of  (hat  $87,00Gy000;  but 
they  clung  all  the  more  stubbornly  to  tneir  anti~ 
war  redpe,  though  England  and  France  uj^ 
proved  it  highly.  Napoleon  was  glad  to  see  his 
enemy  drifting  into  war  with  a  western  power; 
England  was  glad  to  regain  her  carrying  trade 
and  see  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia  receive  Amer- 
ican capital.  Meantime  New  England  foiight 
it  with  ihe  fierceness  of  a  stru^le  for  life- 
evaded  it  largely  by  sea  and  sent  armies  of 
smugglers  overland  to  Canada.  Congress  then 
extended  the  act  to  rivers,  lakes  and  bays,  and 
allowed  collectors  to  seize  on  suspicion ;  and 
the  next  Congress,  9  Jan.  1809,  passed  a  savage 
enforcing  ac(  with  all  the  fury  of  baffled  doc- 
trinaires, imposing  enormous  fines,  forfeitures 
and  bonds  and  making;  the  collectors  supretne 
despots  of  their  districts.  New  England  iras 
nearly  in  insurrection ;  the  collectors  were  in 
daoger  of  the  fate  of  those  under  the  Stamp 
Act,  some  resigned,  others  were  sued  in  the 
State  courts;  ihe  judges  would  give  no  findings 
against  smugglers;  finally,  the  States  threatened 
nullification  and  John  Quincy  Adams  (a  victim 
to  its  support)  declared  that  they  bad  resolved 
to  withdraw  from  the  Union  at  least  tempo- 
rarily, if  force  were  used,  and  had  opened  nego- 
tiations  with  Great  Britain.  A  Federalist  de- 
clared in  the  Senate  that  blood  would  flow. 
The  Democrats  were  frightened  and  hastily 
fixed  C3  Feb.  1809)  4  March  for  its  discontinu- 
ance. But  the  next  month  they  had  regained 
courage  and  passed  a  "n  on -intercourse  act*  to 
take  its  place ;  still  prohibiting  intercourse  with 
France 'or  Great  Britain,  but  restoring  it  widi 
other  countries  and  allowing  free  coasting  trade. 
This  policy  was  continued  till  the  War  o£  1812 
opened.  The  hostility  of  New  England  to  the 
war,  only  less  destructive  than  the  embargo  and 
against  her  political  feelings,  induced  the  British 
government  ostentatiously  to  relieve  that  section 
from  the  blockade,  to  sow  discord  and  make  a 
base  of  naval  supplies ;  and  on  17  Dec.  1813  a 
new  embargo  was  laid  to  1  Jan.  1815,  which, 
however,  was  repealed  14  April  1814.  JelTerson 
always  asserted  that  the  policy  was  the  best  and 
the  embargo  would  have  accomplished  its  abject 
ii  New  England  would  only  have  helped.  It  is 
now  pretty  generally  agreed  that  the  lajHng  of 
the  embargo  was  a  threat  political  and  economic 
mistake  and  it  is  certain  that,  as  a  result  of  it, 
American  shipping  sustained  between  1807  and 
1815  almost  irreparable  damage.  Consult  his- 
tories of  the  United  Stales  through  this  period, 
as  Schouler,  UcMaster,  etc;  espedally  Henry 
Adams'  'History,'  covering  1801-lS,  devoted  to 
the  causes  and  consequences  of  these  t 


_jil)  in  its  strict  sense,  signifies .     . 

sided  over  by  an  ambassador,  that  is,  a  diplo- 
matic ^ent  of  the  first  rank,  as  distinguished 
from  a  li^atioD  or  mission  entrusted  to  an  en- 
voy or  agent.  The  difference  between  the  pow- 
ers and  privil^es  of  an  ambassador  aad  an  en- 
voy is,  that  the  former,  as  the  repreacid»tive 
of  the  person  of  his  sovereign,  can  demand  a 
private  audience  of  the  sovereign  to  whom  he 
IS  accredited,  while  the  latter  nuist  communicate 
-with  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

EHBBR-DAT3,  called  in  the  Roman  Mis- 
sal and  Breviary  Qwilluor  Temtora  (the  four 
seasons)  and  in  the  Anglican  'Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer'  'Ember-days  at  the  four  seasons,* 
are  in  the  Roman  and  in  the  Anglican  calendar 
the  Wednesdays,  Fridays  and  Saturdays  which 
come  next  after  13  December,  the  first  Sunday 
of  Lent,  the  Feast  of  Pentecost  (Whitsunday), 
and  14  September,  respectively.  In  both  the 
Latin  Church  and  the  Anglican  these  days  are 
days  of  fasting.  The  Qttattuor  Tempora  were 
observed  at  Rome  in  the  lime  of  Saint  Augus- 
tine (the  bishop  of  Hippo,  early  in  the  Sth  cen- 
tury) and  doubtless  the  oluervancc  was  already 
of  ancient  date.  The  custom  was  brought  into 
Britain  by  that  other  Saint  Augustine  who  was 
the  herald  of  the  gospel  to  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
It  was  anciently  the  custom  for  bishops  to  hold 
ordinations  only  on  the  Saturdays  of  the  Quat- 
iHor  Tempora.  The  orimn  of  the  phrase  Ember- 
days  cannot  be  definitely  ascertained ;  but  it  b 
probably  a  corruption  or  Quattuor  Tempora,  as 
in  German  Die  Quatember  signifies  the  Ember- 

EMBEZZLEMENT  (O.  Fr.  beiiltr,  to 
tifl^  lay  waste)  is  the  fraudulent  apprMriatJon, 
as  by  a  clerk,  public  ofHccr,  agent  or  Other  pei^ 
son  of  property  entrusted  to  him.  It  must  not 
be  confounded  with  laroeay,  which  ia  the 
wrongful  taking  and  carrying  away  of  the  per^ 
tonal  property  of  another,  with  the  felomout 
intent  of  converting  such  property  to  one's  own 
use  without  the  consent  of  the  owner.  This 
'takiug*  impUc3  a  trespass,  which  does  not  ex* 
ist  in  embezzlement.  By  common  law,  cmbez- 
clement  was  not  a  crime,  but  it  has  been  uni- 
versally made  so  by  statute  both  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britaia  The  earliest  statttte 
recc^nizing  the  offense  was  that  of  Henry  VIII, 
c.  7  (1529).  This  act  was  passed  with  the  ob- 
ject of  remedying  an  admitted  defect  in  the 
existent  criminal  law,  by  which  persons  who  had 
fraudulently  appropriated  goods  or  money, 
coming  into  their  possession  legally,  escaped  all 
punistunent,  although  their  moral  guilt  was 
great.  Obviously  iEct  could  not  be  convicted 
of  larceny,  as  their  oSenie  lacked  some  of  the 
essential  elements  of  that  crime.  The  above- 
named  statute,  however,  restricted  the  offense 
to  servants  and  in  17^  another  statute  was 
passed  extending  it  to  include  clerks.  This  act, 
not  proving  completely  satisfactory,  the  Lar- 
ceny Act,  passed  in  Emifland  in  1901,  wtich 
amended  sections  75  and  76  of  the  Larceny  Act 
of  1861,  further  extended  the  offense  to  include 
trustees,  directors  of  companies  and  others. 
This  act  makes  the  offense  a  misdemeanor  and 
provides  that  the  punishment  tbeiefor  shall  be 
penal  servitude  for  a  term  not  exceeding  seven 
years,  or  imprisonment,  with  or  without  hard 


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EHBLBHBNT8— BHBROIDBRY 


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labor,  for  a  term  not  exceeding  two  years.  In 
Scotlant!  certain  designated  courts  have  inher- 
ent jurisdiction  to  punish  all  offenses,  even 
when  not  declared  to  be  crimes  bv  statute,  with 
the  result  that  no  legislation  on  uie  subject  has 
been  found  necessary  in  that  countiy. 

Uost  of  the  statutes  in  the  United  States  are 
based  on  the  English  act  of  1799,  but  are  much 
broader  in  their  scope.  In  this  country  em- 
bezzlement is  a  misdemeanor  or  a  felony,  de- 
pending usually  on  the  value  of  the  property 
appropriated,  although  in  some  States  embez- 
tfentent  by  an  officer  of  a  corporation  or  embei- 
tlement  of  certain  animals  is  a  felony  irrespec- 
tive of  the  value  of  the  property  converted. 
Statutes  often  define  «mbezzlement  and  men- 
tion is  frequently  found  therein  of  the  persons 
who  may  be  guilty  of  the  crime,  as  adminis- 
trators, guarchans,  trustees,  public  officers, 
servants,  agents  and  others  who  occujyy  fidu- 
ciary relations.  It  is  essential  to  constitute  the 
crime  that  the  person  charged  therewith  should 
have  come  into  possession  of  the  property  by 
virtue  of  his  employment  and  that  he  intention- 
ally violated  some  confidence.  There  must  also 
be  a  criminal  intent  to  appropriate  the  property 
of  another.  Thus  one  holding  property  which  is 
le^tlv  in  his  possession  in  the  honest  though 
niistaxen  belief  that  he  owns  it  cannot  be  con- 
victed of  the  crime.  In  some  States,  as  Massa- 
diusetts  and  New  York,  embezzlement  is  in- 
cluded in  the  offense  of  larceny.  The  punisfa- 
nwnt  differs  in  (he  various  States,  usually  bdng 
imprisonment  for  a  term  varying  from  2  to 
10  years. 

EHBLEMEHTS  (O.  Pr.  emblacment. 
from  tmblaer,  to  sow  with  grain),  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  growing  crops  of  land  when  we 
lease  of  a  tenant  for  life  has  expired  by  tiae 
death  of  the  tenant,  or  when  an  estate  at  will 


EMBOLISM,  SraTjo-lizm  (Ot.  tp^^/ior, 
intercalation,  '«>  in,  and  fii^iiv,  to  cast).  In 
the  calendar,  an  intercalation  of  a  day,  as  in 
the  second  month  of  our  year  in  leap-year,  or 
of  a  lunaj  month,  38  days,  in  the  Greek  calen- 
dar. In  medicine,  the  blockina;  up  of  a  blood- 
vessel by  a  clot  of  blood  that  comes  from 
some  distance  till  it  reaches  a  vessel  too  small 
to  permit  its  onward  progress.  The  immediate 
cause  or  clot  is  called  mrombus  and  the  dis- 
ease is  known  as  thrombosis.  Sec  Pathology; 
Thsombus;  Thkombosis. 

EMBOSSING  (Fr.  boste,  a  protuberance), 
the  art  of  producing  raised  figures  upon  plane 
surfaces,  such  as  leather,  paper,  cardboard, 
metal,  textiles,  etc.,  by  means  of  powerful 
presses  furnished  with  dies  of  the  desired  pat- 
tern. Color  embossing  is  done  by  two  proc- 
esses: (1)  By  applying  the  color  to  the  raised 
p(Ut  of  the  design,  in  which  case  the  color  is 
Spread  on  the  die  with  a  brush  and  the  whole 
surface  cleaned,  leaving  the  ink  in  the  depressed 
parts  of  the  engraving  only;  (2)  by  leaving  the 
design  uacolored  and  applying  Uie  color  with  a 
Urinting-roller  to  the  flat  portions  of  the  die. 


faced  with  gutta-percha.    Book-binding  makes 


extensive  use  of  the  art  of  embossing.  Em- 
bossed wall-paper  designs  are  effected  1^  means 
of  copper  cylinders  on  which  the  design  has 
been  engraved,  with  counter  parts  of  rollers  of 
a  softer  surface.  These  arc  mounted  on  cal- 
endar frames.  A  common  type  of  embossing 
machine  has  been  adapted  trom  the  fabric 
printing  cylinder  machine,  by  engraving  the 
cylinders  in  a  suitable  fashion.  For  some  pur- 
poses the  cylinders  must  be  heated  and  kept  at 
a  high  temperature  while  being  used.  Metal 
ornaments  are  likewise  often  made  by  an  em- 
bossing process  and  finished  and  poUsned  later. 
See  Chasing;  Refouss^. 

EMBRACERY  (O.  Fr.  embraar,  to  set 
on  fire),  an  attempt  to  corrupt  or  influence  a 
jury  by  money,  promises,  letters,  threats  or 
persuasions.  This  offense  In  the  United  States 
IS  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment 

EMBRASURE,  em-bra'zur.  in  fortification, 
an  opening  made  in  the  breastwork  or  parapet 
of  a  battery  or  fortress,  to  admit  of  a  gun 
being  fired  through  it. 

EMBRO,  a  corrupted  form  of  the  name 
Edinburgh. 

EMBROIDERY,  the  art  of  working  on  an 
already  existent  material  a  decoration  with 
needle  and  thread.  Form  and  shading  are  ex- 
pressed by  means  of  stitches;  and  it  is  essential 
in  embroidery  that  the  stitches  must  be  frankly 
visible.  Stitches  are  never  concealed,  nor  dis- 
guised. 

Technique.— A  stitch  b  the  thread  left  on 
the  surface  of  the  cloth  after  each  ply  of  the 
needle.  A  piece  of  embroidery  may  be  worked 
in  one  kind  of  stitch  only,  or  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent stitches  may  occur  in  the  one  article. 
Embroidery  stitches  are  ancient  and  have  spe- 
cial names :  Canvas  (including  cross,  tent 
Ifetil'point]  and  cushion),  crewel  (also  ouir 
line  and  stem),  chain  (simple,  twisted,  cable, 
rigzag  and  cnecquered),  button-hole,  feather, 
rope,  fern,  herring-bone,  back,  satin,  basket, 
brick;  braid,  interlocking,  overcast,  plait,  rococo, 
running,  split-stroke,  tambour,  coral,  darning, 
insertion,  snail-trail,  leviathan,  ladder  (Creton), 
two-sided  Italian,  trellis,  old  English  knot, 
German  knot,  French  knot,  Rumanian,  Hol- 
bein and  many  others. 

Couching  is  the  word  used  to  define  the 
method  by  which  one  thread  is  sewn  down  t^ 
another  thread  upon  the  material.  Cord  and 
braid,  or  a  bundle  of  tiny  threads,  may  also  be 
'couched,"  Couching  is  much  used  in  gold 
thread  embroidery.  Geometrical  open  fillings 
of  leaves  and  backgrounds  arc  often  comixised 
of  lines  of  threads  thrown  across  and  couched 
down  at  regular  intervals.  The  basket- stitdi, 
which  imitates  wicker-worl^  is  much  used  for 
couching. 

Laid-work  is  an  elaborate  kind  of  couching. 
The  stitches  are  laid  down  loosely  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  material  and  then  sewn  down  by 
cross  lines  of  stitching.  The  Japanese  use  laid- 
work  more  extensively  than  any  other  nation. 
The  Chinese,  on  the  other  hand,  prefer  to  sew 
through  the  material,  and,  as  a  rule,  dieir  deco- 
ration is  as  beautifully  embroidered  on  the 
wrong  side  of  the  material  as  on  the  right  side. 

"The  Chinese  and  Japanese,*  write*  Ur. 
Townsend,  'are  remarkable  for  flat  treatment 
of  plant-forms  and  are  supreme  in  effects  pro- 
duced with  one  or  two  shades,  partly  through 


8l^ 


■HBHOimBT 


for  a  pleasant  plav  of  li^t  and  shade  acquired 
by  the  placing  of  the  silk.  They  shade  with 
the  intention  of  showing  where  one  shade  ends 


and  another  begins.  They  are  also  fond  _ . 
voiding,  i.e.,  leaving  the  ground  to  show  be- 
tween the  petals  of  flowers,  similar  to  the  use 
of  'ties'   in  stencilling.* 

Raised-work  is  formed  by  a  layer  of  padding 
placed  on  the  matenal  and  worked  over  with 
threads.  It  was  popular  in  the  14th  century  and 
was  carried  to  excess  in  the  18th  century  (par- 
ticularly in  England),  when  stump-woik,  in 
which  figures  were  stuffed  like  dolls,  was  de- 
veloped. Turkey-work,  in  imitation  of  Oriental 
rugs  and  carpets,  appeared  in  the  16th  century. 
It  was  worked  in  worsted  and  was  used  for 
table-covers,  cushions  and  chair-seats.  Eastern 
patterns  were  superseded  by  floral  ones  diar- 
acteristic  of  the  Renaissance;  and  these,  in 
turn,  by  18th  century  designs.  Turkey-work 
chair-seats  were  plentiful  in  American  homes  in 
the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  Pelil-poinI  or  tent- 
stitch,  is  often  used  generically  to  describe  the 
needlework  that  most  nearly  imitates  tapestry. 
It  enjoyed  favor  in  the  16th,  17th  and  18th 
centuries.  Bargello,  or  Florentine,  work  is  pro- 
duced by  the  cushion-stitch  on  a  canvas  foun- 
dation, a  blunt  needle  bein^  used.    Sometima 


other  for  the  background.  Zigzag  patt< 
characteristic.  Bargello  was  muui  used  in  the 
)7th  centuty.  It  has  lately  been  revived  and  is 
now  very  fashionable.  Delicate  line-work  and 
color  in  mass  are  sought  for  by  the  expert  and 
artistic  embroiderer,  who  also  takes  delight  in 
producing  effects  in  shading  and  a  beautifnl 
finish  by  a  perfect  control  of  the  stitches. 
Occasionally  the  worker  uses  a  frame  on  whidh 
the  material  to  be  embroidered  is  stretched. 
The  tambour- frame,  shaped  tike  a  sieve,  or 
drtunhead,  said  to  have  originated  in  China, 
gave  its  name  to  the  tambour-stitch.  Chinese 
embroidery,  exquisite  in  design  and  work- 
manship, has  been  unchanged  for  centuries. 
The  devices  and  motives  resemble  those  on 
|Kircelain  vases  and  cloisonnie  enamels.  Noth- 
ing more  beautiful  than  the  embroidery  on  the 
robes  of  mandarins  and  noble  ladies  has  ever 
been  produced.  Sometimes  to  the  dragons, 
phiEnix,  flowers,  butterflies,  pagodas,  clouds  and 
temples  the  embroiderer  adds  something  from 
his  own  fantastic  imagination.  The  treatment 
of  flowers  in  Chinese  embroidery,  in  color,  form 
and  techniaue.  is  alone  worthy  of  special  study. 


the 


squares,  caHed  fukuia,  used  for  covering  fine 
presents.  The  best  Japanese  embroiderers  live 
in  Kioto.  In  the  Mikado's  collection  at  Nara 
Aere  are  specimens  of  Indian  embroideries 
worked  1,M0  years  ago.  India  is  said  to  have 
bad  some  influence  upon  Japanese  embroidery, 
though   the    chief    source   of    inspiration   was 

Indian  embroidery  is  done  on  silk,  velvet, 
cotton,  wool  and  leather.  Most  famoas  of  all 
is  the  embroidery  on  wool,  both  loom-wrought 
and  by  the  needle,  of  Cashmere,  as  shown  in 
the  Cashmere  shawl.  Muslin  is  embroidered  at 
Dacca,  Patna  and  Delhi.  Rich  embroidery  in 
colored  silk  and  gold  and  silver  is  made  in  Hy- 


derabad and  other  places  in  Stndh.  The  em- 
broidery of  Nauanager  and  Gondal  in  Kathiwar 
(of  which  Cutch  gets  the  credit)  resembles  that 
of  Resht  on  the  Caspian.  GoM  b  also  used  in 
Cutch  for  onbroidenes  in  the  Persian  style  of 
Isphahana  and  DelhL  The  gorgeous  gMd-cm- 
broidered  velvets  of  Lucknow,  Gulbargah,  Au- 
rungabad  and  Hyderabad  in  the  Deccao,  used 
for  canopies  of  state,  umbrellas  of  dignity, 
dephants  cloths  and  slate-housings,  have  re- 
niamed  unchanged  from  the  earliest  periods  of 
Indian  history ;  but  their  sumptuous  gold-scroll 
ornamentation  resembles  Italian  desu^  of  the 
16th  century.  The  Portuguese  usetf  to  send 
satin  to  Inma  to  be  embroidered  in  European 
designs  and  Oriental  workmanship. ,  Of  such 
exquisite  material  were  made  many  of  the  beau- 
tiful coats  and  waistcoats  worn  in  the  European 
courts  in  the  17th  and  18ih  centuries.  The  en- 
broidered  native  apparel  of  Cashmere,  Amritsar, 
Lahore,  Delhi,  Lucknow,  Murshedabad,  Bombay 
and  Vizagap»tam  are  highly  prized. 

History. —  Whether  embroidery  originated 
in  China  or  India  is  a  disputed  point.  The 
Chinese  claim  to  have  practised  it  3,000  yeais 
B.C  India  also  boasts  similar  antiquity  in  this 
beautiful  art-  All  ancient  nations  carried  em- 
broidery to  'perfection;  for  the  art  of  the 
needle  was  developed  before  that  of  the  brush. 
Thousands  of  years  before  the  Bayeux  Tapestry 
(q.v.)  was  worked  with  the  needle  to  chronicle 
the  Norman  Conquest  (1066  A.D.),  if  HtMier 
may  be  believed,  'Helen  embroidered  in  her 
palace  a  large  cloth,  white  as  alabaster,  with 
the  story  of  the  conflicts  in  which  Trojans  and 
Greeks  contended  for  love  of  her.*  Embroidery 
was,  therefore,  not  only  an  artistic  enrichment 
of  material,  but  it  was  used  for  centuries  as  a 
means  of  record  and  coimnemoration.  Sacer- 
dotal vestments,  draperies  and  curtains  for 
temples,  robes  of  ceremony,  clothes  for  ordinary 
use  and  household  articles  were  embroidered 
with  appropriate  symbols  and  designs  in  col- 
ored wools,  silks  and  threads  o£  gold  in 
every  country  of  civiliiation.  The  Egyptians 
excelled  in  embroidep',  rivaling  the  gorgeous 
work    of    the    magnificent    Batq-lonians.      The 

Sews  learned  the  art  from  Egypt,  as  is  proved 
y  the  veil  that  Moses  had  made  for  the  Ho^ 
of  Holies  "of  fine  linen  embroidered  with 
cherubim  of  blue  and  purple  and  scarlet.* 

The  Greeks  attributed  the  invention  of  em- 
broidery to   Athene ;   and   a  magnificently   enJ- 


every  five  years.  Persia  was  also  famous  for 
this  art.  Strabo  speaks  of  the  impression  made 
upon  the  Greeks  by  the  aerial  and  delicately 
embroidered  fabrics,  as  well  as  the  heavy  and 
magnificent  ones.  Fhr^rgia  was  so  celebrated 
that  all  splendid  embroideries  were  known  m 
Rome  as  "Phrygian.*  Roman  emperors  were 
not  behind  others  in  patronizing  the  art.  Even 
more  sumptuous  were  the  B^antine  emperors, 
whose  robes  were  stiff  with  gold  and  of 
enormous  weight  with  woven  stitches.  Hie 
favorite  sdheme  of  Byaintine  embroidery  con- 
sisted of  pairs  of  birds  or  animals  (often  en- 
closed in  circles),  separated  bv  the  sacred  tree 
of  Persia)  a  kind  of  palm  —  tne  "^tree  of  life.* 
This  Byzantine  style  dominated  ecclesiastical 
embroidery  throughout  Europe  during  the 
Middle  Ages  when  monasteries  and  convents 
had  special  rooms  for  male  and  fenale  em- 


BUBROmERT 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


EHBROmERY 


I  FrSDCh.     L«iiii  ZV 

I  EluUih-PerlDd,  Chulet  I.     A  flac  eiun^e  of 
ulinuU,  Jloweii  and  birdt.     (Tn  MctiopoLitaD  Mubpi 


.Google 


SUBHUH  —  BHBRYOLOO  Y 


8T7 


broidereis.  Embioidery  was  also  one  o£  the 
most  important  subjects  of  instntctiou,  tanking 
in  dignity  witli  painting  and  sculpture.  Superb 
articles  were  worked  on  linen  grounds  with 
worsteds,  silk  and  gold  threads.  Sometimes 
the  entire  material  was  covered  with  em- 
broidery in  the  style  o£  the  miniature  paintings 
in  the  illuminated  manuscripts  o£  the  tune;  and 
it  is  noticeable  thai  the  great  period  of  church 
embroidery,  front  the  12th  to  the  14th  century, 
is  also  the  great  period  of  the  illuminated 
manuscripts.  lit  these  "paintings  with  the 
needle,*  as  contemporary  writers  call,  them,  the 
English  were  the  most  celebrated.  Their  special 
work  was  known  as  Opus  anglicum.  It  became 
so  famous  that  great  lords  had  to  have  speci- 
mens in  their  collections  and  many  churches 
throughout  Europe  received  gifts  of  this 
artistic  production.  The  Syon  Cope,  now  in 
the  South  Kensington  Museum,  is  the  most 
celebrated  specimen  in  existence. 

Embroidery  was  lavished  not  only  on  copes, 
chasubles,  dalmatics,  mitres,  gloves  and  shoes 
for  church  ceremonials  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
but  was  also  used  to  decorate  the  costumes  of 
men  and  women  and  for  draperies  and  house- 
bold  decoration.  Beds  were  magnificent  with 
embroidered  draperies  and  counterpanes.  Nor 
was  it  sufficient  to  embroider  one  set  of  bed 
and  window  hangings,  but  several  sumptuous 
*sels  of  hanging?*  were  produced  to  suit  the 
changing  seasons  and  various  occasions.  Hang- 
ings for  tents  were  also  marvelously  em- 
broidered and  so  were  the  armorial  bearings 
of  the  knight  on  his  surcoat  and  on  his  ban- 
ners. Much  of  this  wotic  was  done  in  the  con- 
vents and  monasteries  and  by  the  groups  of 
embroiderers  supported  in  wealthy  homes  and 
much  of  it  was  done  by  the  accomplished  and 
noble  ladies.  We  know  this  from  allusions  in 
contemi>orary  literature  and  in  the  detailed  and 
descriptive  entries  in  inventories  and  wills. 

In  the  16th  century  embroidery  was  no  less 
used.  It  submitted,  however,  to  Renaissance 
influence.  Superb  work  was  produced  in 
Spain,  Italy,  France  and  England.  Beamiful 
specimens  exist  in  private  and  public  collec- 
tions and  in  the  treasuries  of  cathedral  and 
abbey  churches ;  and,  moreover,  we  have  the 
paintings  of  the  old  Italian,  Flemish  atid  Spanish 
masters  to  show  what  gorgeous  embroideries 
peoide  wore.  Household  articles  received  mudi 
woric  from  the  embroiderer  and  also  such 
small  articles  as  pnrses,  bags,  handker- 
chiefs, gloves  and  covers  for  books.  Sets  of 
hangings  for  windows  and  beds  were  em- 
broidered and  'Turkey  work*  and  petit'pomi 
chair-seats  and  cushions  were  made.  Queen 
Mary  and  Queen  Anne,  like  Queen  Elizabeth 
and  their  Stuart  ancestor,  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  were  expert  embroiderers,  ^ey  fol- 
lowed in  their  desi^i  the  general  taste  of  the 
day  led  by  the  artists  of  Louis  XJV  and  in- 
spired by  the  growing  Eastern  infhience.  Still 
employed  to  adorn  costmne,  the  art  of  em- 
broidery grew  ever  more  and  more  delicate; 
and  in  the  days  of  Louis  XV,  when  there  was 
a  rage  for  Qiinese  decoration,  the  handsome 
coats  of  courtiers  and  men  oi  fashion  were 
often  sent  to  China  to  be  embroidered  accord' 
ing  to  order  with  European  patterns.  Floss  and 
spun  silks  were  now  made  up  into  various 
new  threads,  siKh  as  the  fluffy  velvet  chenille, 
or  caterpillar  cord.     Delicatt  gold  aod  silver 


threads  were  also  produced;  and  with  these 
pretty  materials  beads  and  spangles  were  often 
mingled  to  make  the  fantastic  and  ^ceful 
designs  even  loveUer  by  their  added  bpghtness 
and  sparkle. 

Embroidery  was  still  exquisite  in  the  days 
of  Louis  XVI  and  in  the  time  of  Napoleon. 
Josephine  favored  delicately  embroidered  and 
&lmy  muslins,  which  shared  iheir  vogue  with 
Cashmere  shawls.  French,  English  and  Ameri- 
can tiuRers  were  soon  able  to  produce  lovely 
lowered  and  figured  muslins  and  to  decorate 
tulles  and  nets  with  "tambour"  until  machinery 
was  invented  to  make  their  beautiful  work 
unnecessary. 

Within  the  last  30  or  40  years  there  has 
been  a  revival  of  artistic  needlework — a  move- 
ment in  which  Walter  Crane  and  William 
Morris  took  the  lead.  Many  art  schools  have 
been  formed  in  the  United  States  similar  to 
that  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum  in  Lon- 
don in  which  the  stitches  and  styles  of  ancient 
and  decorative  embroidery  are  taught. 

Bibliography. —  Christie,  Mrs.  Archibald  H., 
'Embroidery*  (London  1899);  Day,  Loub  F., 
'Art  in  Needlework:  a  Book  about  Embroid- 
ery' (ib.  1900)  ;  Dreger,  'Weberei  und  Stick- 
erei*  (Vienna  1904);  Drew,  Joan  H.,  *Em- 
broidety  and  Design ;  a  Handbook  of  Pat- 
terns' (London  191S) ;  Higgin,  L.,  and  Alford, 
Lady  Marian.  'Handbook  of  Embroidery*  (ib. 
1880)  ;  Jourdain,  M.,  'English  Secular  Em- 
broidery' (ib.  1910)  ;  Kendrick.  A.  P.,  'English 
Embroidery*  (ib.  1905)  ;  Migeon,  'Les  arts 
du  tissa'  (Paris  1909)  ;  Townscnd,  W.  P. 
Paulson,  ^Embroidery*  (London  1907). 

ESTHCK  SiNGLETOIT. 

EMBRUM.  dA-bruA  (ancient  Eburodunum 
CalurigHm),  France,  town  in  the  department 
of  Hautes-AIpes,  on  a  rocky  eminence  in  the 
centre  of  a  large  plain  watered  by  the  Durance, 
20  miles  east  from  Gap.  It  is  an  ancient  place, 
surrounded  by  walls  and  ditches,  and  of  very 
picturesque  appearance.  The  principal  buildings 
are  a  cathedral  and  the  archi episcopal  palace. 
It  was  pillaged  successively  by  Vandals,  Huns 
and  Saxons,  and  its  inhabitants  almost  ex- 
terminated by  the  Moors  in  966.  It  is  still  a 
bishop's,  and  was  once  an  archbishop's  see. 
The  manufactures  consist  of  broadcloUi,  hats, 
yams  and  farm  tools.    Pop.  3,812. 

EMBRYO.    See  Eubrvology. 

EMBRYOLOGY,  that  branch  of  biological 
science'  which  is  concerned  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  organism  from  the  egg.  The  term 
is  applied  to  the  development  of  plants  as  well 
as  animal  organisms,  but  in  the  present  article 
Qnly  the  latter  will  be  considered.  Though 
every  species  of  metazoan  or  multicellular 
animal  produces  eggs,  not  every  individual 
arises  directly  from  the  egg.  Indeed,  in  some 
groups  asexual  reproduction  is  commoner  than 
sexual.  It  may  occur  by  fission,  or  division  of 
the  organism  into  two  or  several  individuals, 
as  in  certain  flat-worms  and  annelids,  or  by 
gemmation,  where  new  individuals  bud  or 
sprout  out  from  the  older  ones,  and  either 
separate  completely,  or  remain  attached,  form- 
ing colonies  as  in  hydroids  and  bryozoans. 
However,  strictly  speaking,  embryology  applies 
only  to  the  development  of  the  organism  from 
the  zygote  or  fertilized  ^g-cell,  or  in  some 
caocB  fiom  egg*  which  develop  bj  partheco- 


BICBKTOLOGY 


geneEis,i.e., without  ferUUiation  t^a  male  gamete. 
MistonoL— Before  the  invention  of  the 
iniscroscope  observations  on  development  were 
of  die  TQOst  superficial  sort  and  the  genesis  of 
the  organism  from  Che  egg  was  chieny  a  prob- 
lem for  the  philosopher.  The  relation  oi  the 
embryo  to  the  two  parents  was  not  in  any  sense 
comprehended  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  spontaneous  generation  was  be- 
lieved  to  occur  in  some  animals,  even  by  so 
great  a  physiologist  as  William  Harvey.  Dur- 
m^  the  17lh  and  18th  centuries  the  theory  of 
•evolution/  later  known  as  prtformatiim,  of 
which  Bonnet,  Leibnitz  and  Haller  were  among 
the  greatest  exponents,  was  the  dominant  view- 
Evolution  in  this  sense  denotes  mere  unfolding, 
like  the  flower  from  the  bud,  and  has  no  rela- 
tion to  evolution  in  the  sense  of  a  theory  of 
descent  with  modification.  In  brief,  preforma- 
tion is  the  doctrine  that  all  the  structures  of 
the  adult  body  are  present  in  miniature  in  the 
germ  and  that  development  consists  merely  in 
their  unfolding  and  growth.  According  to 
this  theory  nothing  arises  anew;  as  a  corollary, 
known  as  the  "emboitement*  or  box-within-box- 
tbeory,  the  germ  must  contain  in  diminishing 
series  the  germs  of  all  succeeding  generations. 
Naturally,  most  of  the  preformationists  believed 
the  germ  to  be  contained  in  the  egg,  but  after 
the  discovery  of  the  spermatozoa  by  Hamm  in 
1077,  a  new  school  arose  known  as  the  sper- 
mists  or  animalculisls,  who  adopted  the  view  that 
diese  minute  motile  bodies,  so  obviously  living, 
contained  the  germs,  the  egg  serving  merely  as 
a  nutrient  medium  in  which  the  minute  but 
fully  formed  offspring  of  male  origin  was  en- 
abled to  grow.  Some  of  the  sjiermists  even 
ibtisfaed  figures  showing  a  miniature  human 
idy,  the  homunculus,  enclosed  in  the  sperma- 
toEodn. 

An  important  advance  was  made  in  1759 
hy  C,  F.  Wolff,  who  demonstrated,  from 
observations  on  the  developing  ben's  egg,  that 
bodily  parts  are  not  performed  but  actually 
arise  anew  in  an  orderly  sequence,  a  theory 
which  had  been  advocated  thourfi  not  proved 
by  Harvey  a  century  earlier  and  ever  vaguely 
stated  by  Aristotle.  This  conception,  which  is 
termed  epigenesit,  shortly  supplanted  the  purely 
speculative  preformation  theory,  but  what  regu- 
lated this  epigenetic  differentiation  remained  a 
problem  and  still  remains  the  great  problem  of 
embryology,  notwithstanding  a  vast  amount  of 
observation  and  experimental  research.  During 
the  19th  century  great  progress  was  made  in 
morphological  or  descriptive  embryology  and  if 
space  permitted  many  important  discoveries 
might  be  enumerated.  The  greatest  of  the 
early  investigators  in  this  field  is  generally  ad- 
milted  to  be  Kari  Ernst  von  Baer  (1792-1876), 
sometimes  called  *the  father  of  embryology,* 
who,  working  mainly  on  the  chick,  was  the  Krst 
to  give  an  orderly  account  of  the  chief  phe- 
nomena of  development,  including  cleavage  of 
the  egg,  formation  of  germ- layers  and  the 
differentiation  of  organs.  Von  Baer  also  laid 
tiie  founddtions  of  comparative  embryology. 

The  cell  theory,  formulated  by  Schleidcn  and 
Schwann  in  1838,  which  has  so  completely 
revolutionized  biological  thought,  led  only 
gradually  to  the  recognition  of  the  unicellular 
character  of  the  gametes,  egg  and  sperma- 
iQtQoa,  vid  dq^itc   the   much,  earliet   germ 


CI 


theory  of  the  Bpermists  it  was  not  imlil  nearly 
the  middle  of  the  l^th  century  that  the  sperma- 
tozoa were  generally  recogmzed  as  the  agents 
of  f eriilization ;  indeed  by  many  naturalists 
they  were  regarded  as  parasitic  raicro-oivan- 
isms,  accidentally  present  in  the  fertilizing  fluid. 
In  1843  Martin  Barry  witnessed  the  penclratioQ 
of  the  rabbit's  egg  b^  the  spermatozoon,  but 
strange  to  say  the  umceltular  character  of  the 
two  gametes,  a  fact  of  fundamental  importance, 
was  not  clearly  demonstrated  until  after  1860. 
As  a  consequence  of  the  rapid  development  of 
comparative  embryology  during  the  middle  and 
latter  part  of  the  19tn  century,  together  with 
the  newly  awakened  interest  in  orKanic  evolu- 
tion, came  the  recognition  of  embryology  as 
one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  evidence  of 
phyloeenetic  relationship,  and  it  is  not  surpris- 
mg  that  a  generalization  known  as  the  're- 
capitulation Uieory,'  namely,  that  the  individual 
in  its  development  repeats  in  brief  its  racial 
history,  should  have  been  developed.  Thoui^ 
this  theory  has  frequently  been  forced  farther 
than  the  facts  warrant,  it  is  unquestionably  true 
that  embryology  has  yielded  hif^ly  important 
data  as  to  the  relationships  of  classes  and 
smaller  groups  within  the  same  phylum,  thus 
confirming  in  many  instances  evolutionary  evi- 
dence from  comparative  anatomy  and  palseon- 
tology.  The  latter  part  of  the  19th  century  and 
the  earlier  years  of  the  20th  witnessed  the  de- 
velopment of  a  school  of  experimental  am- 
bryology,  concerned  with  the  physiology  and 
the  philosophy  of  development,  with  the  old 
problem  of  what  makes  the  egg  develop  and 
what  factors  regulate  the  progressive  differentia- 
tion of  the  embryo.  In  this  field  of  morpho- 
Bnesis  some  of  the  leaders  have  been  Roux, 
erbst  and  Driesch  in  Europe,  and  Loeb,  Mor- 
gan and  Lillie  in  America.  Experimental  studies 
have  shown  that  while  organs  are  not  preformed 
in  the  egg,  still  in  many  cases  the  egg  substance 
is  differentiated  into  formative  zones  at,  or 
even  before,  fertilization,  that  it  exhibits  in 
greater  or  less  dmree  'germinal  prelocalita' 
tion*  of  material  lor  future  organs,  but  not 
the  organs  themselves.  This  predeterminism  in 
the  egg  has  been  termed  ''promo  rphology.*  In 
eggs  of  some  animals  this  is  so  definite  that 
removal  of  a  portion  of  the  egg  will  result  in 
ifae  building  up  of  an  incomplete  embryo,  while 
in  other  eases  a  fragment  of  an  e^  or  each 
of  the  first  four  or  eight  cells  of  the  segment- 
ing egg  if  artificially  separated,  will  ^ve  rise  to 
an  entire  dwarf  embryo ;  hence  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  make  categorical  statements  regardii^ 
promorphology  in  general.  It  is,  however,  a 
very  different  conception  from  die  old  pre- 
formation theory  and  does  not  imply  a  negation 
of  epigenesis.  In  some  types  the  normal  pro- 
morphology,  even  thou^  very  early  established, 
is  readily  alterable,  in  other  cases  it  ts  not 
As  to  the  general  factors  of  differentiation,  the 
majority  at  physiologists  tmdoubtedly  incline 
toward  a  purely  mechanistic  explanation,  or 
interpretation  in  terms  of  chemical  and  physical 
laws,  but  vitalism  also  has  able  exponents, 
notably  Hans  Driesch.  A  discovery  of  peculiar 
interest  in  connection  with  promorphology  is 
the  i^nomenon  known  as  *polyembryony,*  or 
the  development  of  two  or  more  embryos  from 
a  single  zygote.  The  most:  famiKar  example  i) 
the  production  of  tte  so-calted  ^identica)  twins* 


EMBRYOLOGY 


Spermatogonia  OoijoTiLa 

witti  diploid  numiei-  of  cKromosomes  X 
(>:-4i-n,tlus  dlagmm) 


SYNAPSIS 
uuLon  of-cKTOTnoso-mes  lit  pairs  \ 

■Jornut^  ^  (liaplold  number)  of  bivalcTiirs 


bivalents  longitudiTtaUy  apUt 
FIRST  MATURATION  DIVISION 

<Pm  )     -f-  split  cKromosomes        j  ^  ^  \  E^      0^ 
SECOND  MATURATION  DIVISIONVJ^  /'   \ 

J^     /^cKrfcfc    (<^(j'   )   (^     (#)    g; 

'    5p™l=z«u      Mature  Ovum     '    fe;,"c5a,, 


FERTILIZATION 

Fix.  1     Dia(nin  ot  nuttuitlan  of  DUla  and  It 


FIRST  CLEAVAGE  OF  ZYC3DTE 


99'^0 


i<Coogle 


.yGooi^le 


mCBEYOLOGY 


in  man  ud  oAer  apeocf.  These  sre  ahrayi  of 
the  same  cex.  Orainaiy  or  dufimilar  twins,  of 
ootine,  arise  fratn  dlneretit  ova  and  may  or 
ma^  not  be  of  the  same  lex,  as  is  the  case  in 
ordinaty  litters  of  young  in  mamnals.  In  the 
nine-branded  annadillo  a  litter  contains  four 
3^iing,  all  of  the  same  sex,  and  iheae  -have  been 
conclusively  shown  to  come  from  a  sinrie  eg^ 
and  in  a  related  spedes  tbe  polyembryonic 
litter  contains  eight  or  nine.  in  certain 
farmenopterous  injects  (chaldds)  a  single  ovmn 
produces  a  great  number,  in  some  cases  hun- 
dreds of  individuals.  It  follows  from  the 
method  by  which  sex  is  determined  at  fertiliia- 
tion  that  all  embryos  thus  arising  frooi  a  single 
qigote  roust  be  of  the  same  sex. 

The  Oenn  Ceila.—  The  great  generalization 
on  which  modern  embryology  is  based  is  tbe 
cell  concept  as  applied  to  the  gametes.  Thia  is 
the  fact  that  the  ovum  and  spermatozoon  are 
single  cells  of  the  parent  organisms,  and  cor- 
related with  this  the  relatively  new  knowlet^ 
of  the  physical  basis  of  heredity  as  located  m 
the  chromosomes.  It  is  essential  to  realize  not 
only  that  the  gametes  are  true  cells,  but  that 
diey  are  exactly  equivalent  as  regards  their 
diro  matin  content  and  conse<iuently  their 
heredity- carrying  capacity  (with  the  exception 
of  the  sex-chromosomes,  for  which  see  the 
articles  Cell  and  Hebeotty),  and  that  their 
great  diversity  in  size  and  form  represents  only 
a  physiological  differentiation  by  which  the 
spermatozoon,  minute  and  capable  of  locomotion 
is  enabled  to  reach  the  egg,  which  as  it  is  su^ 
plied  with  food«uff  for  the  future  embryo  is 
much  larger  and  non-motile.  It  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  conceive  of  two  types  of  cells  more 
widely  different  in  form  and  appearance,  yet 
both  are  the  descendants  of  similar  primordial 
germ  cells,  and  (heir  differences,  except  for  the 
sex- chromosomes  above  mentioned,  are  entirely 
in  the  extranuclear  structures.  The  sperma- 
tozoa are  proliferated  in  the  testis  in  enormous 
numbers.  In  their  commonest  form,  often  de- 
scribed as  tadpole-shaped,  there  is  a  head  com- 
posed of  condensed  nuclear  chromatin,  a  middle 
piece  containing  a  centrosome,  and  a  vibratile 
ttagellum  or  tail  by  means  of  which  the 
spermatoEoon  is  actively  propelled  and  enabled 
to  reach  the  egg.  Freijuently  also  a  pointed 
body,  the  acrosome,  is  present  at  the  anterior 
end  and  facilitates  penetration  into  the  ovum. 
There  is  no  rdation  between  size  of  sperma- 
tozoon and  size  of  organism.  In  man  the  entire 
length  is  52-62  thousandths  of  a  millimeter.  In 
many  minute  invertebrates  it  is  very  much 
greater.  In  a  few  animals,  the  spermatozoa  are 
non-motile  and  not  of  the  usual  flagellated  form. 
The  ovum,  or  egg,  is  always  mu<£  larger  than 
the  spennatozodn,  non-motiie  and  usually  of 
spherical  form.  During  the  elaboration  of  the 
egg  in  the  ovary  granules  of  inert  food-yolk  or 
deutoplasm  are  stored  up  in  its  extranndear 
protophksm.  This  food-yollc  is  rich  in  protein, 
fats,  ledthiT],  etc.,  and  serves  during  develop- 
ment as  food  for  the  embryo.  The  difference 
in  size  of  eggs  of  different  spedes  is  largely  a 
difFerence  in  the  amoimt  of  yolk  and  accord- 
ing to  distribution  of  this  substance  egn  are 
deKribed  as  (a)  alecithal  or  homoUeithat^  hav- 
ing very  little  yolk  evenly  distributed  as  m  the 
imnute  ova  of  mammals;  (b)  leloleeithal,  with 
4e  yolk  massed  toward  one  pole  of  tbe  egg, 
4c  condibM  4n..«M(t  ^vertebrate  -  eggi ;    u^ 


protoplasm,  a  type  occurring  in  some  arthro- 
pods. The  amount  of  yolk  affects  the  devdop- 
ment  of  the  .e^  profoundly.  The  largest  e^s 
are  those  of  sEarics,  reptiles  and  .birds,  which 
are  of  extreme  teloledthal  type  and  comprise 
the  largest  cells  known.  Those  o£  placental 
mammals  are  ver^  minute,  that  of  man  only 
17  hundredths  of  a  millimeter  in  diameter. 
In  oviparous  animab  the  eggs  are  usually  en- 
closed in  protecting  envelopes  of  which  some 
are  formed  in  the  ovary  and  others  secreted 
by  the  lining  of  the  oviduct.  In  the  hen's  egg, 
to  dtc  a  familiar  example,  the  delicate  mem- 
brane surrounding  the  yolk  is  of  ovariao  origin, 
while  the  albumen,  shell  membrane  and  shell 
are  oviducal  secretions.  Frequently,  as  in  in- 
secU  and  bony  fishes,  the  egg  membrane  is 
pierced  by  one  or  more  minute  pores,  micro- 
Pylts,  which  permit  ingress  of  the  spermatozoon 
at  fertilization. 

Hatnrationv—  A  phenomenon  long  known  to 
be  of  almost  nniversal  occurrence  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  egg  is  the  successive  extrusion  from 
it  coinddent  with  or  shortly  preceding  fertiliza- 
tion, of  two  minute  globules  known  as  "polar 
bodies.'  The  significance  of  these  bodies  long 
remained  a  problem,  the  solution  of  which  dur- 
ing the  later  years  o£  the  19th  century  consti- 
tuted one  of  the  most  brilliant  discoveries  of 
cellular  biology.  It  invested  chromatin  with  a 
new  importance,  rendered  possible  a  new  un- 
derstanding of  germ-cells  and  fertilization  and 
opened  a  new  avenue  for  the  investigation  of 
the  mechanism  of  heredity.  It  is  a  well-estab- 
lished fact  that  tbe  cdls  composing  the  bo<^ 
<somatic  cdls)  of  every  animal  contain  a  dea- 
ttite  number  of  rods  of  chromatin  called  chrom- 
osomes, this  number  characteristic  of  the  par- 
ticular species;  also  that  these  chromosomes 
are  in  even  number  and  composed  of  two  equiv- 
alent groDps  derived  respectively  from  the  two 
parents  (an  exception  to  this  occurs  in  the 
case  of  the  sex  chromosomes.  See  articles  on 
Cell  and  HsREmrv).  By  a  series  of  researches 
beginning  in  1683,  in  connection  with  which  the 
names  of  £.  Van  Benedeo,  Theodor  Boveri  and 
Oscar  Hertwig  are  especially  identified,  it  was 
demonstrated  that  the  npe  germ-cells  of  botii 
sexes  have  only  one-half  the  somatic  number 
of  chromosomes,  though  in  the  earher  primor- 
dial germ-cells  the  full  somatic  number  ooeur& 
This  reduction  is  accomplidied  through  a  phe- 
nomenon known  as  Synapsis*  or  union  in  pairs 
of  the  chromosomes  of  paternal  and  maternal 
origin.  Thus  tbe  smnatio  "diploid'*  number  of 
singles  chromosomes  becomes  reduced  in  germ- 
cells  to  the  "haploid"  number  of  bivalent  or 
double  chromosomes,  this  I'eduction  occurritig 
in  tbe  spermatocyte  or  oocyte  cdl  generation 
prior  to  the  last  two  cell  divisions  known  as 
maturation  divisions,  by  which  the  definitive 
^metic  cells  are  formed.  During  the  matura- 
tion divisions  die  bivalent  chromosomes  are 
twice  divided  and  the  resultant  univalent 
chromosomes  distributed,  still  in  haploid  numr 
ber,  to  each  of  the  four  resulting  cdls.  Indte 
male  these  four  cdls  all  develop  into  func- 
tional spermatozoa,  but  in.  tbe  female  the  di' 
visions  are  so  unequal  as  to  consist  merely  in 
the  successive  extrusion  from  the  egg  of  two 
abortive  eggs  or  polar  ttodies.  In  some  cases 
die  first  of  tbese^bodies  i^n  divjdes^.tliat 


BlORYOLOay 


the  end  result  is  otw  functional  egg  and  three 
polar  bodies,  which  differ  from  the  egg  only  in 
the  smaller  amount  of  c>[toplasm  and  yollc, 
their  chromatin  content  being  exactly  equiva- 
lent. The  racial  significance  of  the  reduction 
of  the  number  of  chromosomes  to  one-half  in 
both  gametes  wilt  be  obvious  in  connection  with 
the  union  of  these  cells  in  fertilization.    Fi);.  I. 

FertiliTation.—  'Fertiliiation"  as  applied  to 
the  union  of  gametic  cells  is  a  somewhat  in- 
adequate term,  a  relic  of  earlier  days  when  it 
was  supposed  that  the  male  semen  merely  acti- 
vated the  germ  contained  in  the  egg.  While  it 
is  quite  true  that  the  spermatozoon  does  initiate 
development  o£  the  egg  and  thus  'fertilizes* 
it  in  the  same  sense  in  which  artificial  treat- 
ment with  chemicals  may  fertilize  many  kinds 
of  eg^s,  another  essential  fact  of  the  conjuga- 
tion  of  the  two  gametes,  is  the  combination  in 
the  new  zygote  of  two  equivalent  groups  of 
chromosomes  from  the  two  parents.  In  many 
invertebrates  and  some  aquatic  '  vertebrates 
eggs  and  sperm  are  shed  in  the  water,  where 
conjugation  occurs,  but  in  many  other  animals 
the  spermatozoa  are  transferred  to  the  genital 
ducts  of  the  female  and  fertilization  is  internal. 
Only  one  spermatozoon  is  normally  concerned 
m  the  fertilization  of  an  egg,  though  poly- 
spermy, or  the  penetration  otseveral  inbi  the 
egg-cytoplasm,  frequently  occurs,  especially  in 
forms  having  large  eggs,  but  such  supernumer- 
ary sperms  always  degenerate  eventually  and 
taiee  no  part  in  the  formation  of  the  embryo. 
When  a  spermatozoon  cofiKS  in  contact  with 
tbe  ovum  it  penetrates  the  cytoplasm  and  in 
many  cases  a  delicate  membrane,  the  fertiliza- 
tion membrane,  is  instantly  secreted  from  the 
surface  of  the  egg,  thus  preventing  the  entrance 
of  any  more  sperms.  At  the  same  time  other 
marked  evidences  of  disturbance  of  the  physico- 
chemical  equilibrium  occur,  often  with  violent 
streaming  and  new  arrangement  of  formative 
zones  in  the  protoplasm,  and  in  some  eggs  the 
iwomorphologv  is  rapidly  established  it  this 
time.  The  tail,  which  is  of  no  further  use  after 
the  sperm  has  reached  the  egg,  is  frequently 
left  outside.  The  head  upon  entrance  speedily 
enlarges  and  assumes  a  vesicular  appearance, 
becoming  the  mate  pronitcUus.  The  egg  nu- 
cleus after  the  last  maturation  division  is  called 
Ae  ftmalt  pronucleus.  Each  of  these  pronu- 
clei, as  a  result  of  previous  reduction,  has  the 
haploid  or  halved  number  of  chromosomes  and 
by  the  union  of  pronuclei  to  form  the  zygote 
nucleus  the  normal  diploid  number  characteris- 
tic of  the  species  is  restored.  Thus  reduction 
maintains  the  specific  number  of  chromosomes 
from  generation  to  generation.  A  centrosome, 
the  function  of  which  is  to  initiate  the  process 
of  cell-division,  is  also  introduced  by  the  sper- 
matotodtl,  usually  in  the  middle  piece,  replacing 
the  egg  centrosome  which  disintegrates  after 
the  last  maturation  division.  The  zygote,  as 
tiie  fertilized  ovum  is  called,  is  now  a  complete 
cell,  really  a  new  individual  in  the  stage  of  a 
unicellular  embryo,  with  its  chromatin,  the  ve- 
hicle of  heredity,  derived  equally  from  the  two 
parents. 

Cleavage.—  Development  of  the  zygote  may 
be  defined  briefly  as  a  proffressive  oiBerentia- 
tion  accompanied  by  cell-division  and  sooner  or 
later  h^  growth,  but  it  must  not  be  assumed 
that  differentiation  is  determined  by  the  cell 
division,  for  experimental  embryolc^y  indicates 


rather  that  the  converse  is  the  com.  The  term 
cleavupe  or  segmetitation  is  applied  to  the  mi- 
totic Visions  by  which  the  zygote  is  divided 
into  numerous  cdls  or  blastomeres.  When  this 
process  involves  the  entire  zygote,  it  is  described 
as  total  or  holnblastic.  lo  some  cases  tbe  cells 
may  for  some  time  be  equal  in  site,  but  where 
there  is  a  unipolar  aggrcgatioa  of  yoke,  cleav- 
age is  mechanically  retarded  at  the  vegetal 
pole,  the  result  being  unequal  cleav3^;e,  well 
diown  in  the  egg  of  the  frog,  while  if  the  yolk 
be  very  abun^nt  cleavage  imty  be  partial  or 
merob^tic,  limited  to  a  small  disc  of  yolk-free 
protoplasm  at  tbe  so-called  aniinal  pole,  as  in 
the  hen's  egg.  In  such  cases  Ais  small  disc, 
the  blastodisc  or  blastoderm,  gives  rise  to  the 
entire  «mbryo  which  graduaily  aldoses,  diggests 
and  absorbs  the  inert  mass  of  volk.  In  cen- 
trolecithal  eggs  of  arthropods  the  cleavage  is 
superficial  over  the  entire  e^.  Ai  a  result  of 
cleavage  the  egg  in  most  cases  soon  attains  the 
form  known  as  tbe  bioitula,  which  in  its  .most 
typical  condition  is  a  hollow  sfAere  of  cells 
containing  a  central  se^entation  cavity  or 
blastocosl.  Where  yolk  is  very  abundant  the 
bUstula  is  greatly  altered  and  in  some  forms 
there  is  no  tnie  segmentation  cavi^  and  strictly 
speaking  no  blastula.    See  Fig.  2. 

Gmstnila  knd  Primar?  Germ  Lsyersf— The 
single-layered  bUstula  becomes  transformed 
into  a  gastntla,  a  two-layered  sac-like  stage,  in 
which  there  is  an  outer  cell-layer  called  fcto- 
derm  (or  tctoUiut)  and  an  inner  layer,  tbe 
endoderm  ^or  tndoblast).  This  two  layered 
stage  is  vatMUsly  formed;  in  some  case^  as  in 
certain  oslenterates,  cells  wander  tnwani  from 
one  pole  of  the  Uastula  forming  s  solid  inner 
mass  which  later  becomes  hollowed  out,  but  a 
far  commoner  method  oi  gastnilation  is  that 
known  as  tbe  embolic  type,  m  which  a  part  of 
the  gastmla  wall,  generally  the  part  richest  in 
yolk,  becomes  turned  in  or  invaginat^  as  a 
resuh  of  unequal  growth  to  form  a  cup-like 
endoderm.  The  new  cavity  thus  formed  to  the 
endoderm  is  the  archtnUron  or  primitive  gut 
cavih*;  the  mouth  of  the  sac  is  the  blailofore, 
which  in  various  animals  ma]f  form  the  mouth 
or  the  anus  or  neither.  Tnis  simple  sac-Ukc 
gastrula  is  found  only  in  eggi  which  have  very 
little  yolk,  thus  among  vertebrates  it  is  met 
with  in  typical  form  only  in  amphicMcus.  thou^ 
readily  recognizable  in  lamprey,  amphibian  and 
some  other  forms,  while  in  most  vertebrates  the 
abundant  yolk  masks  tbe  sac-Uke  character  of 
this  stage.  Frequently  in  eggs  with  abundant 
ycJk  inv^nation  of  endoderm  is  mechanically 
impassible  aod  in  such  cases  gastrulation  may 
be  effected  by  an  overgrowth  of  the  ectodennal 
layer  which  surrounds  the  large  yolk-fiUed  por- 
tion of  the  tgg.  Such  overgrowth  is  termed 
epiboly  in  contradistinction  to  emboly,  or  in- 
tumiuK  of  endoderm.  However  formed,  the 
gastruu  has  considerable  differentiation  and 
for^hadowB  the  orientation  of  the  future  bo)^ 
and  some  of  the  great  organ  systems.  Its  ec- 
toderm is  the  source  of  the  epidermis  and  the 
nervous  system.  Tbe  endoderm  forms  the  lin> 
ing  of  tbe  gut  and  later  gives  rise  to  out- 
growths which  become  the  duef  digestive 
^ands.  These  two  byen  are  called  the  pri- 
mary germ  layers  and  are  of  well-nigh  universa] 
In  tlMse  vertebrates  which  have 


deavage,  as  well  as  in  'n''T"f*  v 


BHBKYOLOGY 


SSI 


retain  die  devebpfnental  mode  of  fomiK  with 
lacKe  eggs,  the  two-layered  stage  is  so  modi' 
fied  as  to  be  scarcely  recogniiable  as  a  gas- 
tmla  and  in  such  cases  the  blastopore  becomes 
coni[>ressed  and  drawn  out  into  a  longitudinal 
pritnitive  ttreab  which  is  almost  die  earliest 
evidence  of  the  body  axis. 

'*'         '  —  In     all     animals     above     the 


the   two  primaiy   layers   and  gives  rise   to   the 
connective    tissue,    muscles^   blood   system  and 

Knads.  This  layer  arises  m  very  diverse  ways. 
many  worms  it  is  seRregateO  very  £arlv  in 
cleavage  as  special  mesoblast  cells.  Usually  it 
appears  much  later  as  a  difierentiation  from  the 
endoderm  or  in  rare  cases  even  from  the  ecto- 
<krm.  In  its  origin  from  the  endoderm  it 
either  delaminates  as  a  sheet  of  cells  from  the 
outer  surface  of  that  layer,  or  arises  as  a  series 
of  hollow,  sac-like  outgrowths  from  the  endo- 
derm called  enterocosls  or  KUt-poudhes.  When 
formed  by  the  latter  method  the  mesoderm  from 
the  beginning  contains  cavities  which  were 
originally  parts  of  the  orimitive  gut  cavity.  In 
cases  where  it  splits  ott  as  solid  masses  similar 
cavities  appear  within  it  later.  Such  cavities  in 
the  mesoderm  become  the  ccelome  or  true  body 
cavi^.  In  animals  in  which  the  body  is  se|!- 
mented  or  metameric,  such  as  the  Einnelid 
worms,  arthropods  and  vertebrates,  the  first 
evidence  of  segmentation  appears  in  the  meso- 
blast. In  certain  embryos  a  rather  ill-defined 
tissue  appears  composed  of  loose  cells  and  called 
mesencnyme.  It  may  be  produced  very  early, 
before  the  true  mesoderm,  or  it,  may  be  prolif- 
erated from  that  layer.  In  general  it  gives  rise 
to  connective  tissues. 

Germ-Layer  Theory.—  All  metaEoa,  except- 
ing sponges  and  ccelente rates,  exhibit  three 
Erm  layers,  a  fact  to  which  great*  significance 
s  been  attached  by  many  embip^logists.  The 
rn^es  are  so  aberrant  in  their  development 
I  It  is  impossible  definitely  to  identify  their 
two  layers  with  ectoderm  and  endoderm;  while 
the  ccelente  rates,  as  suj[gested  by  Haeckel,  may 
be  regarded  as  a  primitive  group  which  has  not 
progressed  morphologically  beyond  the  gas- 
tnila  stage  of  complexity.-  The  question  of  the 
homology  of  the  three  germ  layers  in  the  other 
phyla  is  one  which  has  evoked  much  discussion 
and  has  led  to  considerable  difference  of  opin- 
ion. As  comparative  embirology  became 
known,  the  well-nigh  universal  occurrence  of 
three  layers  and  the  general  similarity  of  their 
respective  derivatives  naturally  led  to  the  as- 
sumption of  their  homology,  a  generalization 
known  as  the  "germ-layer  theoryT*  though,  as 
Stated  above,  the  middle  layer  differs  greatly  in 
its  mode  of  origin  in  different  groups.  In 
nearly  all  cases,  liowever,  the  ectoderm  gives 
rise  to  the  epidermis,  the  lining  of  the  mouth 
and  anal  region,  the  nervous  system,  and  in 
some  inverte orates,  to  the  kidneys.  The  endo- 
derm, with  which  from  the  banning  the  nutri- 
tive yolk  is  especially  identified,  becomes  the 
lining  epithelium  of  most  of  the  alimentary 
canal  and  the  chief  digestive  glands  and  in 
vertebrates  gives  rise  to  the  germ  cells  which 
later  wander   into   the   mesoderm.     The   meso- 


tem,  the  gonads  with  the  germ  cells  in  most 
cases,  and  usually  the  kicmey  system.  The 
methods  by  which  germ  layers  become  differ- 
entiated into  their  derivative  tissues  and  organs 
are  so  varied  that  limitation  of  space  precludes 
their  present  discussion,  but  it  may  De  stated 
diat  common  accompaniments  of  nisto|;enesis 
are  thickening,  folding  and  delamination 
(splitting)  of  layers  and  also  localized  prohf- 
eration  ot  free  cells.  The  assumption  of  homol- 
ogy of  the  germ  layers  in  diHerent  groups  was 
qmie  natural,  but  of  late  years  evidence  has 
accumulated  which  indicates  that  many  of  the 
developmental  resemblances  of  different  phyla 
are  to  be  interpreted  rather  as  similar  but  quite 
independent  reactions  to  like  environmental  fac- 
tors; or  in  a  word,  as  homoplastic  rather  than 
truly  homologous. 

Nutrition  of  Embryo. —  Throughout  the 
entire  course  of  development  the  mechanical 
effect  of  food-yolk  is  very  marked,  not  only  in 
its  retardation  or  prevention  of  cleavage  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  egg  but  in  its  mechanical  ef- 
fect on  the  formation  of  the  germ  layers  and 
its  fthysiological  relation  to  development  of  the 
nutritive  system.  In  general,  though  there  are 
many  exceptions,  large  eggs  rich  in  yolk  de- 
velop slowly  and  the  resuFting  embryos  hatdi 
in  an  advanced  state,  often  with  essentially  the 
adult  form,  while  small  eggs  poor  in  yolk  must 
early  develop  some  means  of  securing  food  and 
usually  in  such  cases  the  embryonic  period  is 
very  brief,  the  embryo  hatching  in  the  form  of 
a  larva,  often  totally  different  from  the  adult 
Such  larvx  are  especially  common  among  ma- 
rine invertebrates,  in  which  usually  they  have 
the  form  of  minute  free-swimming  organisms, 
often  with  no  resemblance  to  the  adult  either 
in  form  or  habit  Examples  are  the  trocho- 
phores  of  annelids  and  molluscs,  the  nauplius 
of  the  crustacean,  bipinnaria  of  the  starfish, 
etc.  In  some  cases  the  larva  represents  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  future  adult  animal,  occa- 
sionally only  a  portion  of  the  head  precociously 
equipped  with  an  alimentary  system  and  means 
of  locomotion.  These  larv*  feed  on  various 
micro-organisms  and  eventually  become  made 
over  into  the  adult  form  by  a  more  or  less  com- 
plete metamorphosis. 

Eztra-embiyonic  Hembranea. —  In  some 
animals  extra-embryonic  membranes  are  pro- 
duced which  subserve  a  temporary  function  in 
the  protection  or  nutrition  of  the  embryo  and 
which  are  lost  at  hatching  or  at  birth.  In  the 
higher  vertebrates  such  structures  include  the 
(jiorion,  a  membrane  forming  the  outer  wall 
of  the  entire  embryonic  vesicle;  the  amnion,  a 
closed  water-sac  lined  with  ectoderm  and  com- 
pletely enclosing  the  embryo,  and  the  allantois, 
an  extension  outside  the  body  of  the  urinary 
bladder  which  in  reptiles  and  birds  and  also  in 
the  primitive  e^-laying  mammals  known  as 
monotremes  spreads  its  vascular  wall  inside  the 
chorion  close  to  the  porous  egg  shell  and  serves 
physiologically  as  an  embryonic  respiratory 
of^n.  In  the  marsupial  mammals,  such  as  the 
kangaroo  and  opossum,  the  young  are  nourished 
during  the  very  brief  period  of  gestation  by 
•uterine  milk,*  a  secretion  of  uterine  glands 
which  the  embryo  absorbs  by  means  of  its  vas- 
cular membranes,  chiefly  the  yolk  sac.  Uterine 
milk  is  also  an  important  source  of  nutriment  to 
the  embryo  even  in  some  placental  mammals^ 
where  it  ccmtains  leucocytes  and  the  detritus  of 


.,ogle 


EHBSYOIiOOY,  HUMAN 


disintegrated  cells  of  various  sorts  in  addition 
to  glandular  secretion.  The  placental  tnanunaU 
are  so  called  because  an  organ  named  the 
placenta  is  developed,  which  Is  essential ty  com- 
posed of  villi  or  vascular  tufts  developed  on 
the  surface  of  the  chorion  and  supplied  with 
blood  vessels  by  the  ailantois.  These  chorionic 
villi  come  into  intimate  contact  with  the  mucoui 
membrane  linine  the  uterus,  which  becomes 
profoundly  modified  during  pregnane,  and 
throiigh  their  rich  vascular  supply  the  blood  of 
the  embryo  is  brought  into  close  osmotic  rela- 
tion with  that'  of  the  mother,  thus  permitting 
the  diffusion  into  the  embryonic  circulation  oi 
soluble  foods  and  oxygen  from  the  maternal 
blood  and  at  the  same  time  removing  carbon 
dioxide,  so  that  the  placenta  serves  ue  func- 
tions of  embryonic  nutrition  and  respiration. 
It  is  important  to  note  that  there  is  no  admix- 
ture of  maternal  and  embryonic  blood,  the  two 
in  all  cases  being  separated  by  an  osmotic  mem- 
brane. In  some  mammals  the  placental  villi  are 
minute  and  scattered  over  almost  the  entire 
chorion,  forming  what  is  known  as  a  diffuse 
placenta,  as  in  the  horse  an,d  pig.  In  others 
they  are  aggregated'  into  a  ntmiber  of  brush- 
like  tufts,  the  cotyledonary  type,  found  in  most 
of  the  rtmiinants,  as  the  deer,  ox,  etc.  In  other 
cases  the  Villi  are  limited  to  a  broad  girdle 
forming  a  sonary  placenta,  as  in  most  camiv- 
ora  and  in  the  elephant.  In  insectivores, 
rodents  and  most  of  the  primates,  including 
man,  a  discoidal  type  of  placenta  is  found  in 
which  the  villi  are  limited  to  a  single  cake- 
like  mass.  In  many  cases,  especially  the  diffuse 
and  cotyledonary  types,  the  villi  fit  into  cor- 
responding crypts  of  the  uterine  mucous  mem- 
brane from  which  they  are  drawn  at  birth 
without  injury.  In  other  cases,  the  so-called 
deciduate  placenlx,  the  uterine  lining  becomes 
greatly  altered  and  its  union  with  the  villi  be- 
comes so  firm  that  at  birth  portions  of  the 
maternal  tissue  are  torn  away  with  the  em- 
bryonic placenta.  Recent  in ves fiction,  how* 
ever,  favors  the  view  that  even  m  deciduate 
types  the  maternal  portion  is  largely  absorbed 
before  full  term,  so  that  the  placenta  at  birth  is 
almost  wholly  of  fcetal  oripn.  Though  the 
eggs  of  mammals  are  very  minute  and  undergo 
complete  cleavage,  their  development  is  re- 
markably like  that  of  the  large  eggs  of  reptiles 
and  bir<Js  in  the  mode  of  germ-layer  formation, 
organogeny  and  relations  of  extra-embryonic 
membranes,  and  strongly  Indicates  the  descent 
of  mammalia  from  ancestors  whose  eggs  had 
abundant  yolk  and  underwent  partial  cleavage. 
This,  indeed,  is  often  cited  as  one  of  the  classsic 
examples  of  the  persistence  of  ancestral  devel- 
opmental habit.  In  this  particular  case  the  evi- 
dence is  confirmed  by  the  occurrence  of  ovip- 
arous habit,  large  eggs  and  re^itile-Iike  mode 
of  development  in  t&e  primitive  monotreme 
mammals. 

Bibliography. — Among  numerous  works  on 


_j  Comparative  Embryology'  (Vols.  I  and  II, 
London  1885) ;  Ziegler,  H.  E.,  'Lchbruch  der 
rergleichenden  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der 
niederen  Wirbelthiere>  (Jena  1902)  ;  Ullie.  F. 
R..  'Development  of  the  Chick'  (New  York 
1908);  Kellicott,  W,  E.,  'General  Embryology' 
(New  York  1913)  ;    Jenkinson,  J.  W..  .'Verte- 


brate Embryology'  (Oxford  1913);  MftcBride, 
E.  W.,  'Textbook  of  Embryology'  (Vol.  I, 
Invertebrates,  London  1914)  ;  Hertwig,  O.. 
'Elemente  der  Entwickelungsgeschichtc :  Vei^ 
tebrates'  (5th  ed.,  Jena  1915);  Marshall,  F.  H. 
A.,  'The  PhysiolMy  of  Reproduction'  (London 
1910). 

J.  H.  UcGkbcoi, 
Professor  of  Zoology,  C^olumbia  Uninersily. 
EMBRYOLOGY,  Human.  In  the  hnman 
female,  at  birth,  the  ovaries  contain  several 
thousand  ova.  These  remain  quiescent  during 
the  years  of  childhood,  but  beginning  at  pu- 
berty and  continuing  until  the  dimateric  or 
menopause,  ovulation  or  the  dehiscence  of  ripe 
ova  occurs,  usually  a  single  egg  escaping  from 
one  of  the  two  ovaries  at  intervals  of  four 
weeks.  There  is  without  doubt  a  correlation 
between  the  phenomena  of  ovulation  and  men- 
struation, though  difference  of  opinion  exists 
regarding  their  exact  time- relation.  During  the 
reproductive  life,  some  30  vears  or  more,  ap- 
proximately AOO  ova  may  be  thrown  off,  but 
pregnancy  and  lactation  temporarily  suspend 
ovulation  and  menstruation.  After  Hie  climac- 
teric the  ovaries,  which  still  contain  vast  num- 
bers of  ova,  undergo  very  gradual  degeneration. 
Maturation,  fertilization  and  cleavage  have  not 
been  studied  in  the  human  egg,  but  on  the  basis 
of  studies  of  the  early  stages  of  many  other 
mammals,  especially  mouse,  cat,  bat  and  rabbit, 
the  corresponding  conditions  in  man  can  be  in- 
ferred with  great  probability.  Early  embryos 
of  monkeys  and  apes,  which  in  their  later  stages, 
where  direct  comparison  is  possible,  show  prac- 
tical identity  with  human  development,  have 
also  supplied  important  evidence.  The  human 
ovum  at  maturity  is  spherical,  about  .17  milli- 
meter in  diameter,  and  is  surrounded  bj^  a 
transparent  sona  pellucida,  and  a  mass  of  follicle 
cells,  the  corona  radiata,  and  the  whole  enclosed 
in  a  vesicle,  the  Graafian  follicle.  C)vulation  is 
accomplished  by  the  rupture  of  the  follicle,  and 
the  egg  thus  escaping  from  the  ovary  passes 
into  the  funnel-like  end  of  the  oviduct  or  Fal- 
lopian lube,  being  carried  along  by  the  cilia 
which  tine  this  structure.  In  most  mammals  thus 
far  studied  the  egg  undergoes  the  first  matur- 


of  the  oviduct  in  case  spermatozoa  arc  present, 
and  shortly  after  penetration  of  the  eg^  by  a 
Spermatozoon  the  second  polar  body  is  ex- 
truded Fertilisation  in  mammals  is  frequently 
termed  "conception."  Judging  from  conditions 
in  other  mammals,  including  monkeys,  the 
zygote  undergoes  cleavage  in  the  oviduct  while 
it  is  being  slowly  swept  along  by  cilia  and 
reaches  the  uterus  or  womb  in  the  stage  of  the 
early  blastocyst,  a  minute  hollow  sphere  or 
vesicle  of  cells  with  an  inner  mass  of  cells  ad- 
herent at  one  side.  This  inner  mass  is  the  em- 
bryonic mass  and  from  it  come  al!  the  cells 
which  form  the  embryo,  while  the  wall  of  the 
vesicle,  the  irophoblasi,  has  only  protective  and 


'csicle  reaches  the  Uterus  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  that  organ  is  soft,  thick  and  con- 
gested. During  pregnancy  this  membrane  be- 
comes profoundly  modified  and  it  called  the 
decidva     An'^^tly  in  consequence .  el .  9o«^ 


.lOOglc 


EMBRYOLOGY,  HTTMAH 


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Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


SMBKYOLOOV.  HVMAN 


chemical  interac  baa  the  etnbn'Onic  vesicle 
uaderaoes  *ifflplantation,*  sinking  into  the 
superficial  layer  of  the  deddua,  which  grows 
over  and  encloses  it,  thus  separatmg  it  from  the 
uterine  cavity.  Implantation  is  usually  cai  the 
posterior  w^l  of  the  uteras,  though  it  may 
occur  ebewbere,  and  in  abnonnal  conditions  the 
embiyo  may  become  attached  in  the  oviduct, 
causing  a  tubal  (extrauterine)  pregnancy. 

The  earliest  human  embryos  studied  had  ai- 
leady  become  implanted.  In  one  of  these 
(Peters'  ovum)  the  entire  blastocyst  was  about 
one  millimeter  in  diameter,  the  embryo  one- 
fifth  millimeter,  or  about  one  one  hundred  and 
twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  age  was 
estimated  by_  Peters  at  three  or  four  days,  but 
ii  is  now  believed  to  be  several  days  older.  The 
three  germ  layers  are  distinguishable  and  the 
amnion  and  yolk-sac  are  already  formed.  The 
chorion  is  covered  with  villi  which  have  in* 
vaded  the  capillaries  of  the  uterine  mucosa,  thus 
bringing  the  embryo  even  at  this  early  stage 
into  nutritive  relation  with  the  maternal  blood 
by  osmosis.      (Fig.  4). 

In  a  slightly  older  embryo  (Graf  Spec's 
embryo)  measuring  1.54  millimeters  in  length,  the 
neural  plate  or  rudiment  of  the  spinal  cord  and 
brain  is  formed.  Blood-channels  representing 
some  of  the  chief  veins  and  arteries  are  dis< 
tinguEshable,  and  also  the  two  heart  rudiments, 
not  yet  united  in  the  median  line,  The  chori- 
onic villi  already  contain  blood  vessels.  The 
yolk-sac  ihough  quite  empty  of  yolk,  is  of 
considerable    size,    and    the    alia nt 01$    has    ap- 

Kared.  Several  embt>'os  of  the  third  week 
ve  been  described.  At  this  age  the  spinal 
cord  and  brain  form  a  closed  canal,  the  heart  is 
a  twisted  tube,  and  from  comparison  with  other 
mammals  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  heart- 
beat is  already  established.  By  the  2Ist  day  the 
embryo  is  four  or  five  millimeters  in  length, 
and  head,  tail,  gill-clefts  and  rudiments  of  eyes 
and  inner  ears  are  clearly  distinguishable.  By 
the  end  of  the  first  month  the  arms  and  Iks 
appear  as  lateral  buds  and  the  rudiments  of  the 
face  are  formed.  There  is  a  well-marked  tailj 
and  head  and  tail  are  so  flexed  as  nearly  to  meet. 
Measured  from  neck  to  rump  the  embryo  is. 
about  one  centimeter  in  length.  The  yolk-sac 
has  not  kept  pace  with  the  body  and  is  a  small 
pedunculate  vesicle.  Practically  all  the  great 
organs  are  indicated  by  the  b^innin^  of  the 
fifth  week.  For  example,  from  the  alimentary 
canal  the  rudiments  of  ^yroid,  thymus,  lungs, 
liver  and  pancreas  have  budded  out.    In  general 


human.     This 'is  especially  true  of.  the  blood- 
vascular  and  urinary  systems. 

During  the  second  month  growth  is  ratnd, 
and  by  the  end  of  this  period  the  embryo  is 
^xnit  30  millimeters  in  length.  Even  the  layman 
could  now  identify  it  not  merel);  as  a  mammal  but 
as  human,  or  at  least  as  a  primate.  The  face 
is  DOW  fairly  well  formed,  even  to  mouth  and 
nostrils,  and  the  external  ear  is  taking  ^lape. 
The  tall  diminishes  after  the  sixth  week  and 
has  almost  disappeared  by  the  eighth.  Elbow 
and  knee  flexures  are  well  marked  and  band 
and  foot  exhibit  digits.  The  third  month  wit- 
nesses an  increasing  humanness  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  embryo  —  or  'fietus,*  as  it  IS  com- 
monly called  after  tiie  esublishto^t  of  its  .ex- 


ternal form.  About  the  11th  or  12th  we^  it 
bectmies  possible  to  distinguish  the  sex  from 
the  external  genitalia.  Before  this  time  these 
organs  were  present  but  different  in  develop- 
ment, thou^  sex  is  actually  determined  at  fer- 
tilization and  can  be  distinguished  about  the  end 
of  the  first  month  by  microscopic  examination 
of  the  genital  ridges,  the  structures  which  later 
give  rise  to  ovary  or  testis.  About  the  midtUe- 
of  pregnancy,  toward  the  fifth  month,  muscu- 
lar movements  of  the  fcetus  become  strong 
enough  to  be  felt  by  the  mother,  a  fact 
which  has  given  rise  to  a  vulgar  beUef 
that  life  begins  at '  this  period  of  "(juicken- 
ing*  as  it  is  called.  About  this  time  the 
face  and  most  parts  of  the  bocly  become  cov- 
ered by  a  dense  growth  of  fine  hair,  the 
'lanugo.'  This  fcctal  hair  increases  for  a 
month  or  two,  but  is  shed  to  a  great  extent 
before  Krth.  With  the  growth  of  the  foetus 
great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  embryonic 
membranes,  the  later  conditions  of  which  and 
their  relations  to  the  decidua  or  uterine  mucous , 
membrane  are  illustrated  in  the  diagram 
(Fig[.  5).  It  may  be  stated  in  brief  that  the 
ammon  enlarges  greatly,  becoming  adherent  to 
the  chorion.  The  yolk-sac  and  allantois  vir- 
tually disappear.  The  chorionic  villi  disappear 
except  on  the  portion  of  the  surface  directed 
toward  the  original  site  of  attachment,  where 
they  persist,  forming  the  chorion  frondosum, 
which  comes  into  close  relation  with  the  cor- 
responding part  of  the  dccidua,  and  with  it 
forms  the  placenta,  the  vascular  organ  by  which 
the  fcetus,  physiologically  a  parasite,  derives  its 
nourishment  and  its  oxygen  from  the  maternal 

Birth  occurs  approximately  280  days  after 
fertilization,  thoiwh  a  fcetus  born  as  early  as 
the  seventh  month  may  survive.  The  average 
weight  at  birth  is  near  seven  pounds.  The 
fcetus  is  expelled  by  involuntary  contraction  of 
the  uterus,  aided  by  contraction  of  the  ab- 
dominal muscles.  Rupture  of  the  amnion  1^ 
muscular  pressure  precedes  birth,  and  short^ 
after  the  child  is  boYn  the  placenta,  torn  loose 
by  further  uterine  contraction,  is  expelled,  to- 
gether with  the  amnio-chorion.  The  entire 
mass  is  called  the  "afterbirth."  Tremendous 
physiological  changes  occur  suddenly  in  th« 
child  at  birth.  Ossation  of  placental  oxygena- 
tion of  the  bloi>d  stimulates  the  lung-breathing 
reflex.  Dilation  of  the  lungs  at  the  first  breath 
brings  into  service  the  piJmonary  drculation, 
including  the  functiotiing  of  the  left  side  of  tha 
heart,  and  also  efFccts  the  closnre  of  the 
foramen  tniaU,  an  opoiing  between  the  two 
auricles.  Certain  arteries  and  veins,  hitherto 
very  important,  suddenly  become  non-functioiial 
and  undergo  rapid  atrophy.  Thus,  almost  in  an 
instant  a  fundamental  alteration  is  effected  in 
the  respiratory,  circulatory  and  nutritive  me- 
chanisms by  which  the  physiologically  passive 
fo^us  is  transformed  into  (he  active  breathing 
and  feeding  inf tmt 

Bibliography,.— Many  excellent  works  cm 
htrnian  embryology  have  been  published.  AnianK 
the  best  textboolcs  are  McMurrich,  }.  P.,  '■The 
Development  of  the  Human  Body'  (Philadet- 
lAia  1907);  Bryce,  T.  H.,  'Embryology* 
(Vol.  I  of  Quain's  'El^nents  of  Anatomy,* 
London  and  New  York  1908)  ;  Keibel  and 
Mall,  'Maqual  of  Jlumnn  EmbrjMogy^   (V(d). 


■8l^ 


EHBRTOLOGY  OP  PLANTS 


I  and  II,  Philaddphia  and  London  1912)  a 
veiy  exhauitive  work;  Bailey  and  Miller, 
'Textbook  of  Embryology'  {3d  ed..  New  York 
1916). 

j.  H.  McGbbgor, 
Professor  of  Zoology,  Columbia  University. 
EMBRYOLOGY  OF  PLANTS.  That 
phi^e  in  the  liEe  history  designated  as  the  em- 
bryol<%y  begins  within  the  ferlilijed  egg,  but  its 
end  is  not  marked  by  any  such  definite  feature. 
In  general,  the  embryo  represents  the  early 
stages  in  the  development  of  an  individual  from 
the  egg.  In  the  ferns  and  their  allies,  somC' 
what  later  stages,  in  which  one  or  more  leaves 
are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  are  called  spore:- 
lings.  There  is  no  definite  feature  to  mark  a 
line  between  the  sporeling  and  the  adult  plant 
In  the  seed  plants,  the  series  is  embryo,  seed- 
ling, adult,  with  no  features  to  mark  the  tran- 
sitions. The  difficulty  is  the  same  as  that  in  de- 
fining baby,  boy  and  man.  The  early  stages  in 
the  developiiKnt  of  the  embryo  are  fairly  well 
known  in  all  groups  from  the  liverworts  to  the 


inches.  (Figures  of  some  oE  theie  feahires 
may  be  found  under  SFOBOFRrrs,  Evolutk>k 
of).  In  the  ferns  and  their  allies,  the  embryo 
begins  to  develMi  in  the  same  way,  fonning  a 
spherical  mass  of  cells,  but  definite  growiag  re- 
gions soon  appear,  marking  the  root,  stem,  leaf 
and  foot.  The  embryo  is  parasitic  upon  the 
gametopbyte  tmtil  the  root  becomes  developed 
and  begins  to  get  nutrition  from  the  soil  and 
the  leaf  begins  to  secure  materials  from  the 
air.  When  this  stage  has  been  reached,  we  no 
longer  call  the  young  plant  an  embryo,  but  a 
sporeling.  In  the  seed  plants,  which  include  ihe 
Qymnosperms  and  An^osperms,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  erabryo  presents  great  variation 
and  complexity.  In  the  cycads  (q.v.)  which  rep- 
resent the  lower  living  Gymoospcrms,  the  fer- 
tilized egg  does  not  immediately  give  rise  to  a 
mass  of  cells,  but  nuclear  divisions,  without  any 
separating  walls,  take  place,  until  there  may  be 
as  many  as  1,000  nuclei  lying  free  in  the  cyto- 
plasm of  the  egg  (Fig,  1,  Ai.  Cell  walls  then 
afipear  at  the  lower  part  of  the  egg  (Fig.  1,  B). 
The  cells,  thus  formed,  become  differe.  '  "  ' 
into  three  rceions,  (1)  a  group  of  cells  r 
ing  within  the  limits  of  the  tag,  (2)  a  region 
of  rapidly  elongating  cells  called  the  suspensor 
and  (3)  at  the  tip  ol  the  sus^ensor  sotne  small 
cells  with  deitse  protoplasmic  contents  (Fig. 
1,  C).  The  root,  stem,  cotyledons  and  leaves 
of  the  embryo  come  from  these  small  cells,  the 
other  two  regions  being  temporary  structures 


,  the  development  of  the  embryo  from 
the  fertilized  egg  up  to  lie  adult  stage,  and 
even  to  the  deau  of  the  individual,  is  rather 
short.  The  embryo,  and  even  the  adult,  are 
small,  are  parasitic  upon  the  egg-bearing  plant 
(gametophyte),  and  do  not  produce  any  leaves. 
In  the  lowest  liverworts  the  egg  divides  into 
halves,  then  into  quarters  and  continues  divid- 
ing until  a  spherical  mass  becomes  differentiated 
into  an  outer  protective  layer  enclosing  a  large 
number  of  spores.  In  die  hi^er  liverworts 
and  in  the  mosses,  the  embryo  starts  in  the  same 
way,  but  later  becomes  differentiated  into  three 
regions  called  the  foot,  stalk  and  capsule^  the 
latter  producing  the  spores.  In  the  lower  liver- 
worts, the  adult  is  a  unall  spherical  body  not 
more  than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter; 
in  the  higher  liverworts  and  in  the  mosses  the 
diameter  is  not  mudi  greater,  but  there  is  con- 
siderable elongation.  A  couple  of  inches  is 
rather  long;  but  a  few  liverworts  reach  a  lenph 
of  five  or  six  inches  and  one  of  the  higner 
mosset  is  said  to  reach  a  length  of  10  or  12 


seed  and  becomes  inoependent,  it  is  usually 
called  a  seedling.  The  eggs  of  the  cycads  are 
very  large,  reaching  one-eighth  ot  an  inch  or 
even  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length.  In  the 
higher  Gymno  sperms,  the  eggs  are  much 
smaller,  in  most  Pines  not  more  than  one-one- 
hundredth  of  an  inch  in  length.  In  these  higher 
forms  there  is  a  constant  tendency  to  reduce 
not  only  the  size  of  the  egg,  but  also  the  num- 
ber of  free  nuclei.  There  are  still  the  three  re- 
gions mentioned  above,  but  each  consists  of 
only  a  few  cells.  In  a  few  Gymnosperms,  the 
free  nuclear  period  is  entirely  eliminated,  a  cell 
wall  following  the  first  division  of  the  egg  nu- 
cleus. In  the  Angiospenns  the  e^s  ai^  still 
smaller,  alt  being  microscopic  in  size,  and  in  all 
the  cases  the  first  division  of  the  nucleus  of  the 
fertilized  egg  is  followed  by  the  formation  of  a 
cell  wall  so  that  there  is  no  free  nuclear  slan. 
Even  under  the  microscope,  the  eggs  of  this 
group  look  so  exactly  alike  that  it  hardly  seems 
possiole  for  one  to  develop  into  an  herb,  another 
into  a  shrub  and  another  into  a  tree.  We  say 
the  course  of  development  is  dcterrnined  b<f 
heredity,  and  those  wno  are  satisfied  with  the 
mere  naming  of  a  phenomenon  mav  be  satis- 
fied wiUi  this  explanation.  Although  the  eggs 
and  embryos  are  very  small,  modem  technic  is 
so  efficient  that  the  embryoiogr  is  well  known 
from  the  willows  and  crowfoots  to  the  sun- 
flowers and  orchids,  A  simple  and  fairly  twi- 
cal  type  of  embryology  is  illustrated  by  the 
Shepherd's  Purse  (Capsella),  a  familiar  and 
widely-distributed  weed  (Fig.  2),  The  first  di- 
vision of  the  fertilized  egg  is  transverse  (A). 
Divisions  then  take  place  so  that  a  filament  con- 
sisting of  a  single  row  of  cells  is  produced 
(B) :  the  terminal  cell  of  the  row  then  divides 
vertically  and  from  the  two  resulting  cells  the 
stem,  cotyledons,  leaves  and  nearly  all  the  root 


are  produced  (C).  The  cdl  in  wUd)  th«  verti- 
cal division  has  appeared  is  generally  called  the 
embryo  cell,  and  the  rows  of  cells  below  it,  Hie 
lUspensoT.  A  second  vertical  wall  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  first  one  gives  rise  to  four  cells, 
each  of  which  immediately  divides  transversely. 
M   that   eisifat   cells,   apparently  just   alike,   arc 

5 reduced  XD).  Each  of  the  eight  cells  now 
ivides,  forming  a  wall  parallel  to  its  outer  sur- 
face (H).  These  outer  cells  (dotted  in  the  il- 
Insttation)  continue  to  divide,  but  all  walls  are 
perpendicular  to  the  surface,  so  that  the  result 
IS  an  extensive  layer  of  cells  only  one  cell  in 
thickness.  Since  this  layer,  at  maturity,  is  the 
epidermis,  it  is  called  the  dermalogen,  which 
meant  the  epidermis  producer.  In  the  lower 
half  of  the  more  or  less  spherical  embryo,  the 
four  central  cells,  inside  the  dermatogen,  divide 
lon^tudinally  (f).  The  four  inner  cells  re- 
sulting from  this  division  (dotted  in  the  illus- 
tration) constitute  the  plerome  and  give  rise  to 


the  vascular  system  of  the  root;  the  outer  four 
give  rise  to  the  periblem  which  gives  rise  to  the 
cortex  of  the  root.  In  the  upper  half  of  the 
embryo^  which  is  to  form  the  stem  and  leaves, 
the  differentiation  into  cortex  and  vascular  re- 
gion tains  places  much  later,  after  a  large 
number  of  cells  has  been  produced.  Thus  there 
are  three  embryonic  regions,  one  producing 
epidermis,  another  producing  tlie  vascular  sys- 
tem and  the  third  producme  cortex.  These 
three  regions,  established  in  tne  early  develop- 
ment of  the  embryo,  are  also  found  in  the  adult 
plant 

There  are  other  ^pes  of  embryology  in  the 
flowering  plants.  Many  have  no  filamentous 
stage;  some  have  a  single,  very  lar^e  suspensor 
cell,  while  some  have  a  massive  suspensor.  In 
many  the  differentiation  into  the  three  embry- 
onic regions  takes  place  much  later;  some  oo 
not  differentiate  at  all  until  ^e  seed  germinates ; 
white  in  others,  like  the  bean,  the  embryo,  while 
still  in  the  seed,  has  not  only  cotyledons  but 
well-developed  leaves.  Some  special  features  of 
embryology  will  be  found  under  Plants,  Rr- 
CAimiLATiOH  m,  and  Sfobophytb,  Evolutuw 


or.  Consult  *Uon>)>ology  of  Gjmnospenns,) 
l^  John  M.  Coulter  and  Charles  J.  Chamber- 
lain; 'Mor^^ology  of  Angiosperms,'  hy  the 
same  authors;  'College  Botany,*  by  G.  F.  At- 
kinson; 'Mosses  and  Ferns,>  W  D,  H.  Camp- 
bell. Charles  J.  Cham^xlain, 
Professor  of  Cytology  and  Morphology,  Uni- 
venity  of  Chtcago. 


den,  N.'  v.,  August  17?S.  He  joined  John  Wes- 
ley's society  and  became  a  local  preacher  at 
Court- Mattress  in  1738.  Emigrating  to  New 
York  in  1760,  he  began  to  preach  in  his  own 
house  in  1766  and  two  years  later  erected  a 
chapel  on  the  site  of  the  present  'Old  John 
Street  Church.'  Being  a  carpenter  by  trade, 
he  worked  on  the  building  with  his  own  hands 
and  completed  the  pulpit,  in  which  be  preached 
the  sermon  of  decTication  30  Oct.  176S.  This 
was  the  first  Methodist  chapel  of  the  New 
World  and  he  has  been  called  *the  founder  of 
American  Methodism.'  It  wa^  however,  at 
Camden,  Washington  County,  N.  Y.,  that  he 
did  his  greatest  work,  forming  there  a  congre- 

Stion  which  grew  into  the  flourishing  and  in- 
ential  Troy   Conference.     Consult  Buckley, 
■History  of  Methodism*    (VoL  I,  New  Yoric 


of  Hanover,  on  the  Ejbs,  near  where  it  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  Ehtllart  estuary.  Emden 
has   an   excellent   roadstead  and   its   harbor   il 


vessels.  The  Dortmund-Ems  and  other  . 
connect  it  with  the  interior.  The  town  has  a 
Dutch  appearance  due  to  its  quaint  architecture 
and  the  dykes  which  protect  it  from  inundation. 
The  town  ball,  dating  from  the  16tk  century, 
has  a  remarkable  couectioa  of  ancient  annor 
and  13  one  of  the  finest  public  buildings  in 
Germany.  The  town  contains  also  a  12th  cen- 
tury church,  a  museum,  art  gallery,  barracks, 
a  public  library,  trade  and  industrial  schools, 
and  a  deaf  and  dun^  institute.  Emden  has  cable 
commonication  with  Great  Britain,  America, 
and  other  countries.  Its  export  trade  in- 
cludes grain,  dairy  produce,  cattie,  tallow,  wool, 
hides,  etc. ;  and  it  imports  coal,  timber,  wine 
and  colonial  produce.  A  considerable  number 
of  vessels  are  built  here  annually'  and  the  man- 
ufactures include  leather,  paper,  dairying  instru- 
ments, basketware,  cement,  wire  ropes,  bricks, 
soap  and  tobacco.  There  are  also  oil-mill^ 
breweries  and  distilleries.  Emden  was  founded 
in  the  10th  century  or  earlier  and  in  1433  was 
added  to  Hamburg.  It  became  a  free  city  in 
1595,  and  a  free  port  in  1751.  In  1806  it  was 
taken  by  Holland,  but  nine  years  later  was 
added  to  Hanover,  which  in  1866  was  itself 
made  part  of  Prussia.    Pop,  24/138. 

SMEL£,  a-ma-U,  IKTilbelm,  German 
painter:  b.  BucHen,  Odenwald,  1830;  d,  1905. 
He  first  adopted  a  military  career  but  studied 
art  with  Dietz  at  Munich  and  later  at  Antwerp 
and  Paris,  His  canvases  are  noted  for  exact 
knowledge  of  military  detail  and  are  spirited 
in  conception,  his  subjects  being  military.  He 
lived  in  Vienna  after  1861  where  he  attained 
great  popularity  as  a  painter  of  equestrian  por- 
traits and  hunting  scenes.  Among  his  works 
are  'Battle  of  Stockach';  'Capture  of  Heidel- 
berg Bridge  in  1799'  (1857),  purchased  by  the 


8l^ 


Austmn  euMror;  'The  Fifjit  Near  Alden- 
boven*  (1859) ;  'The  Square  of  the  Battle  of 
A»pern>  (1860)  ;  'Capture  of  Camp  Near  Far- 
awrs* ;  'AtWck  on  the  EnKlish  by  French  Cui- 
rassiers at  Waterloo';  'Battle  of  Wuriburg' 
(1867),  his  best  work;  'The  Archduke  Charles 
at  Battle  of  Neerwinden'  (1872);  'Attack  of 
the  Boumemain  Division  Near  EUasshauscti'  ; 
'Battle  of  Dijon' ;  'Meeting  of  Patroli  of  Sev- 
enth and  Fourteenth  Corps,  Prussian  Army, 
Near  VejouP ;  'Headquarters  of  14th  Army 
Corps  in  Battle  of  Belfast' ;  'Episode  of  Battle 
of  Worth'  ;  'Victory  of  George  H  over  the 
French  at  Detlingcn'  (1879).  His  'Cavalry 
Encounter  near  Lan|^nbriick'  gained  first 
medal  at  the  Vienna  Exposition  in  1873. 

BHZRALD  (O.  Fr.  eineraude,  Gr.  e/iipa- 
*>{),  a  gem  of  pure  ^reen  color,  often  very 
rich  and  beautiful.  It  is  a  variety  of  the  min- 
eral beryl  and  is,  therefore,  a  silicate  of  alumi- 
num and  glucinum  (q.v.),  lis  green  color  being 
due  to  the  presence  of  a  little  chromium.  It  is 
usually  found  in  nodules  or  in  distinct  six- 
sided  prisms  of  the  hexagonal  system.  It  is  a 
little  harder  than  quartz  and  has  a  specific  grav- 
ih'  of  about  2.69.  It  is  not  acted  on  by  acids. 
Many  of  the  most  intensely  colored  and  valu- 
able emeralds  that  we  are  acquainted  with  were 
brought  from  Peru,  the  largest  from  Takowaia, 
in  the  Urals,  a  specimen  of  which  is  seen  in  the 
6^ -pound  stone  at  Saint  Petersburg.  Most 
modem  emeralds  come  from  the  republic  of 
Colombia,  which  quite  supplies  the  current  mar- 
ket In  the  United  States  emerald  crystals  up 
to  nine  inches  in  length  and  of  rich  color  have 
been  found  in  Alexander  County,  N.  C.,  while 
extensive  mining  in  Mitchell  County,  N.  C,  has 
yielded  beautiful  eems  and  much  so-called  "em- 
erald matrix."  The  rarity,  rich  color,  brilliancy 
and  hardness  of  emerala  have  made  it  one  of 
the  most  highly  priied  of  gems.  'Orienta! 
emerald"  is  green  sapphire,  "lithia  emerald"  is 
hiddenite  (q.v.),  ■Uralian  emerald*  is  deman- 
toid,  'Brazilian  emerald'  is  tourmaline  (q.v.). 
See  also  Behvl  and  PREcrotJS  Stones. 

EMERALD  GREEN,  known  also  as 
SCHWXINPURTH  or  PARIS  QREEN,  and 
by  a  great  numt<er  of  other  name^  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  green  pigments.  It  appears  to 
oontain  oopper,  arsenic  and  acetic  acid  and  is 
usually  regarded  as  an  aceto-arsenite  of  copper. 
It  is  a  crysialline  powder,  which  becomes  i»ler 
by  grinding,  is  not  affected  by  light  and 
air  and  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  is  de- 
composed by  alkalis.  It  is  employed  as  a 
water  and  as  an  oil  color  and  is  used  for  tinting 
wall-papers,  though  witii  much  less  frequency 
since  the  danger  of  that  practice  has  been 
discovered. 

EMERALD  ISLE,  an  epithet  applied  to 
Ireland,  from  the  freshness  and  bright  color  of 
the  verdure,  produced  by  the  abundant  heat  and 
moisture  continually  reaching  it  from  the  At- 
lantic. This  epithet  was  first  used  by  Dr.  W. 
Drcnnan    (17S4-1820),    in    his    poem    entitled 

EHERSON,  Ednrd  Waldo.  American 
physician,  writer  and  lecturer:  b.  Concord, 
iiiss..  10  July  1844;  son  of  Raljih  Waldo  Em- 
erson (q.v.).  He  was  educated  at  Harvard, 
where  be  was  graduated  in  1866  and  from  the 


Aedical  sdhool  in  1874.  After  ivtiiing  from 
practice  he  was  instructor  in  art  anatomy  at 
the  School  of  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  1885- 
1906l  He  published  'Emerson,  in  Concord' 
(L8^) ;  he  edited  '(xirrespondence  of  John 
Sterling  and  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson'  (1S97); 
'Centenary  Edition  of  Ralph  Waldo  Elmerson,* 
annotated  (1903) ;  'Life  and  Letters  of  General 
Charles  Russell  LowelP  (1907);  'Emerson's 
Joumals,>  with  W.  E.  Forbes  (1909)  ;  joint 
author  with  M.  Storey  of  'The  Life  of  E.  R. 
Hoar'  (1911)  and  many  contributions  to  maga- 

BHBRSON,  Oeorse  BarreO,  American 
educator :  b.  Kennebuiik,  York  County,  Me., 
12  Sept.  1797;  d  Newton,  Mass.,  14  March 
I8SL  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
(1817),  and  was  the  tutor  in  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  there  (1819-21).  In  1SZ3 
he  opened  a  private  school  for  girls  in  Boston, 
which  he  conducted  until  1855,  when  he  retired 
from  professional  life.  He  wrote  the  second 
part  of  the  'School  and  Schoolmaster,*  of 
iriiicb  the  first  part  was  written  by  Bishop 
Potter  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  appointed 
chairman  of  the  commissioners  for  the  loolof^- 
cal  and  botanical  survey  of  Massachusetts,  in 
which  capad^  he  published  a  'Report  of  the 
Trees  and  Snrubs  Growing  Natunl^  in  the 
Forests  of  Massachusetts'  (1846)  ;  and  was  also 
the  author  of  'A  Manual  of  Agriculture'  (with 
C.  Flint,  1861)  and  'Reminiscences'  (1^). 

EHERSON,  Luther  Orbtndo,  American 
composer:  b.  Parsonsfield,  Me.,  3  Aug.  1830; 
d.  Hyde  Park,  Mass,  29  Sejjt.  1915.  He  studied 
music  and  later  taught  for  eight  years  in  Salem, 
Mass.  He  then  served  as  organist  and  musical 
director  in  various  churches  iti  Massachusetts, 
and  was  the  direcior  of  about  3(K)  musical  fes- 
tivals and  conventions.  He  published  'The  Rom- 
berg Collection'  (1853) ;  'The  (kilden  Wreath* 
(1857);  'The  Griden  Harp'  (1858);  'The 
Sabbath  Harmony'  (1860);  'The  Heart  of 
Judah'  (1863)  ;  'Jubilate'  (1866),  etc 

EMERSON,  OUver  Famr,  American  edu- 
cator; b.  Traer,  Iowa.  24  May  1860.  He  studied 
at  Iowa  College,  taking  a  post-graduate,  course 
at  Cornell  University,  where  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.Ph.  in  1891.  After  serving  as 
superintendent  of  schools  in  Grinnell  and  Mus- 
catine, Iowa,  he  was  principal  of  the  Academy 
of  Iowa  College  (1885^)  ;  instructor  in  Eng- 
lish (1889-91)  Cornell  University,  and  assistant 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  English  philology  in 
the  same  institution  (1892-96),  when  he  tot^cthe 
same  chair  in  Western  Reserve  University.  He 
is  member  of  the  Modern  Language  Association, 
American  Dialect  Society,  Simplified  Spelling 
Board,  and  is  a  regular  contributor  to  philologi- 
cal papers.  He  has  published  'History  of  Uie 
English  Language'  (1894);  <A  Brief  History 
of  the  English  Language'  (1896)  ;  an  edition 
of  <Dr.  Jonson's  Rasselas*  (1895);  and 
'Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Edward 


Gibbon'    (1898)  ;   <A  Middle  English  Reader* 
);  'Poems  of  (Hiaucer'  (1911);  <Outline 
History  of  the  English  Languake'   (1906)  ; 


P.505) ; 


hildogfcal   journals 


Concord,  Mass.,  27  April  18S2:  The  celebration 
in  1903  of  the  100th  hirthday  of  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson  served  as  a  meter  to  maHc  how  wide 
and  deep  was  the  influence  which  a  single  origi- 
dbI  thiidccr  gifted  with  literary  expression  can 
exert  at  the  end  of  his  first  century;  for  there 
was  public  recognition  of  his  ethical  and  ^etic 
genius  in  every  quarter  of  the  elobe.  Along 
with  this  appreciation  went  also  the  perception 
that  a  distinct  Emersonian  school  of  thoi^ht 
had  arisen,  modified  in  some  d^ree  by  the 
circle  of  striking  writers  and  talkers  —  men  and 
women  of  thought,  fancy,  imagination  and  elo- 
qnence  —  who  gathered  around  Emerson  early 
W  late  in  his  career  and  now  constitute  the 
group  known  as  the  "Concord  Authors,"  or  the 
Concord  School  of  Philosophy.  Most  of  these 
at  one  time  or  another  lived  in  the  rural  village 
of  Concord  in  Massachusetts,  where  Emerson 
spent  a  half  century  of  his  life.  Such  were 
Alcott,  Hawthorne,  Thoreau,  EUJciy  Chantiing, 
Louisa  Alcott,  George  William  Curtis,  Eliza- 
beth Hoar,  Elizabeth  Peabody,  Tutian  Haw- 
thorne, J,  W.  Chadwidt  W.  T.  Harris,  John 
Albec,  F.  B.  Sanborn,  F.  P.  Steams  — all  of 
whom  lived  for  longer  or  shorter  times  in  Con- 
cord; and  on  the  outside  of  the  circle,  yet  not 
far  away,  Mar^ret  Fuller,  Theodore  Parker, 
Dr,  Bartol,  David  Wasson,  Mrs.  Ednah  Cheney, 
Christopher  Cranch  and  John  S.  Dwight.  AH 
these  stood  in  relations  more  or  less  direct  to 
Emerson,  and  were  influenced  in  varying  de- 
grees by  his  fertilizing  mind  and  gentle  social 
attraction.  Several  at  them,  as  Hawthorne, 
Thoreau,  Channing,  Margaret  Fuller  and  Al- 
cott, were  as  original  as  Emerson,  though  less 
gifted  with  the  qualities  that  form  a  school 


has    been    applied    to    several    of  them. 

Emerson  was  the  eldest  bom  of  all  these,  except 
Alcott.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Boston  pastor, 
Rev.  William  Emerson  of  the  First  Church, 
which  had  become  Unitarian  instead  of  Cal- 
vinistic.  Most  of  his  male  ancestors  as  far 
back  as  the  English  Reformation  were  clergy- 
men, and  his  middle  name,  Waldo,  was  said 
traditionally  to  come  from  one  of  those  Wal- 
denses  who  incurred  the  censure  of  the  popes 
as  heretics  far  away  in  the  Middle  Ages.  His 
eldest  American  /ancestor  founded  the  Christian 
Church  in  Concord  in  1635  (Rev.  Peter  Bulke- 
ley)  and  by  (hat  line  Emerson  was  related  to 
the  noble  English  family  of  Saint  John,  of 
which  was  Pppe's  brilliant  friend  Bolingbroke. 
From  anothyr  clerical  ancestor.  Rev.  William 
Thompson,  Ithrough  the  Cogswells,  he  was  re- 
lated to  W<iidell  Phillips,  Phillips  Brooks  and 
other  men  famous  for  eloquence ;  and  by  an- 
other line  He  descended  from  a  clerical  family 
of  MoodysJ  whose  genius  verged  upon  insanity. 
This  last  I  ame  was  perpetuated  in  Emerson  s 
aunt,  Mary  Moody  Emerson,  his  father's  sister, 
who  had  i  tore  to  do  with  his  intellectual  ana 
spiritual  ti  lining  than  any  other  of  his  early 
instructors.  With  this  strong  clerical  bent  in 
his  ancestt  f  young  Waldo  Qnerson  was  des- 
tined to  tlfe  pulpit  from  his  cradle,  and  was 
carefully  educated  in  Boston  aiid  Harvard  Col- 
lege with  t(ial  view.  He  entered  college  early 
and  came  ,  under  eminent  teachers,  Edward 
Everett  in  ^redt,  George  Ticknor  and  Edward 
'"•■■"■'"t  i»i  literature  and  Caleb  Cushing  in 
■'-»k— but  for  the  last-named  etu&y  he 


had  no  inclination,  and  did  not  stand  high  tn 

Sneral  scholarship  at  his  graduation  in  1821. 
e  read  widely,  however,  and  the  discipline  of 
teaching  in  his  elder  brother  William's  school 
for  young  ladies  at  bis  mother's  house  in  Frank- 
lin street,  Boston,  gave  him  exactness  in  Latin, 
French  and  Greek.  He  presently  (1823)  took 
up  the  study  of  divinity  with  Dr.  Channing  and 
Prof.  Andrews  Norton,  and  began  to  preach 
sermons  in  1827.  He  spent  much  time  in  youth 
at  his  grandmother's,  who  owned  the  Old  Manse 
in  Concord,  and  there  he  preached  for  some 
months  in  1828,  during  the  absence  of  her 
second  husband,  Rev,  Dr.  Ripley.  His  own 
grandfather.  Rev.  William  Emerson  of  Concord, 
who  built  the  Old  Manse,  died  as  a  chaplain  in 
the  Revolutionary  army  in  1776. 

The  clerical  life  of  EJnerson  was  a  distinct 
era,  marked  by;  originality  and  independence  in 
the  young  divine.  His  first  and  only  settle- 
ment was  at  the  Second  Church  of  Boston, 
which  had  been  Cotton  Mather's,  and  was 
Henry  Ware's  when  Emerson  was  ordained  as 
&  colleague  in  1829.  He  became  sole  pastor  in 
1830,  and  in  the  meantime  had  married  a  deli- 
cate young  Bostonian,  Ellen  Louisa  Tucker,  who 
died  in  1832.  In  1833,  upon  a  point  of  doctrine 
concerning  the  rite  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  in 
which  he  found  himself  at  variance  with  his 
deaconsj  he  preached  a  sermon  gently  setting 
forth  his  scruples  and  resigned  his  place,  much 
against  the  wish  of  bis  people.  But  he  had  been 
ill  and  despondent  since  the  death  of  his  wife 
and  the  illness  of  his  brother  Edward ;  and  a 
foreign  tour  was  prescribed  for  him,  which 
broke  the  continuity  of  his  preaching,  although 
he  continued  to  officiate  in  pulpits  here  and 
there  for  some  six  years  after  his  first  visit  to 
Europe,  Miss  Elizabeth  Peabody,  who  had 
often  heard  Emerson  preach,  said  at  the  Con- 
cord School  of  Philosophy  in  18S3 : 

l^om  lft}4  1  DBver  omittad  ui  opportunity  of  heariiiff 
Emenon  prauh.  I  Kusbt  nai  obuuned  leave  to  md  the 
■ennom  he  had  in  nunuKiipt.  Ttiey  were  all  u  tnilr 
"  trenacendentiil "  M  any  at  hit  laut  writinKi  in  proaa  or 
vcne.  If  a  voluine  of  them  Dould  \x  printod  to-day  in  their 
own  tona  it  would  inlErpret  hia  later  leuelilidtn,  of  which 
ther  are  but  a  varied  eiprcseion.  Prom  first  to  lait  he  never 
dlut  in  hi*  viaioo  of  the  livioa  God  to  the  limitaliom  of  hia 
own  or  any  other  individual  conception,    1  onc^  repeated  to 

of  the  Leungton  cooffrecation.  when  oaked  why  they  did 
not  MMlc  an  aaiiwM  pteatber  (Dr.  Hedge),  "  Oh.  we  an 
a  very  nmple  poople  in  Ban  Leungtan:  we  can  hiudljr 
understand  any&dy  bat  Mr.  Bmerun,"  He  did  not  lau^; 
on  the  cootnry,  with  ui  acoent  ahnon  pathetic,  he  leplted, 
"  If  1  had  not  been  cut  off  untimely  in  Che  pulpit,  perhapft 
1  might  have  made  Bomettung  of  the  weekly  sennon." 

No  doubt  he  would  have  made  much  of  it 
But  what  he  did  was  better-  he  turned  the 
lecture  desk  into  a  pulpit,  and  for  more  than 
30  vears  preached  righteousness  there.  From 
1835,  the  date  of  his  second  marriage,  to  Miss 
Lidian  Jackson  of  Plymouth,  lecturing  was  his 
chief  occupation  during  half  the  year.  His  es- 
says were  first  lectures  and  were  generally 
given  to  many  audiences  before  he  thought 
them  good  enough  to  print. 

His  first  book,  'Nature,'  published  in  a 
small  edition  in  1835,  was  not  a  course  of  lec- 
tures, but  rather  genuine  essays,  thought  out 
for  years,  and  mostly  written  out  in  their  final 
form  at  the  Old  Manse,  or  finished  in  his  own 
stnih'  at  the  home  he  made  for  himself  in  1835 
at  the  east  end  of  Concord  village,  and  where 
he  died,  27  April  1882.  The  book  attracted 
little  notice  in  America  or  Ettgland  at  fir«. 


8l^ 


and  a  second  edition  was  not  issued  until 
1849,  a  dozen  years  havinfr  been  required  to  sell 
500  copies.  But  Carlyle,  whom  he  had  visited 
at  Craigenputiock  in  1833,  and  with  whom  he 
formed  then  a  strict  friendship  and  corresponded 
until  Carlyle's  death,  saw  its  value,  and  so 
did  Alcott.  Hawthorne,  Parker,  Thoreau  and  a 
circle  of  high-minded  women,  who  became  his 
constant  hearers.  It  now  takes  rank  as  the 
nearest  approach  to  a  system  of  philosophy 
which  he  put  forth  in  successive  chapters  dur- 
ing his  whole  active  life.  He  planned  another 
and  more  elaborate  work,  which  he  called  'The 
Natural  History  of  Intellect,'  and  of  which  he 
wrote  several  chapters,  intended  to  set  forth 
the  function  and  operation  of  the  qualities  of 
the  human  mind  —  memory,  imagination,  reason, 
volition,  etc.— but  he  never  brou^l  it  to  such 
completion  that  it  could  be  published  as  a 
whole,  either  by  himself  or  his  successive 
editors,  Mr.  Cabot,  Dr.  Emerson,  etc.  When 
invited  to  lectnre  on  philosophy  at  Harvard, 
as  he  was  in  1870,  he  threw  these  chapters  and 
copious  notes  and  readings  into  18  lectures, 
two  in  a  week,  but  the  effort  was  too  great 
for  him  at  his  age  and  in  his  failing  strength, 
and  he  could  never  afterward  bring  the  papers 
into  form  for  printing.  Several  of  the  chap- 
ters appear  separately;  and  perhaps  some  future 
scholar  may  combine  them  with  'Nature'  into 
a  single  work. 

Emerson  was  actually  introduced  to  noisy 
public  notice  by  two  of  his  early  addresses, 
which  are  now  printed  in  the  same  volume 
with  ^Nature* —his  Phi  Beta  Kappa 


mingled  with  surprise;  the  second,  from  i\s 
bold  appeal  to  preachers  to  revise  their  theology 
and  meet  their  hearers  with  original  truths,  not 
with  traditional  forms  of  religion,  aroused  the 
native  intolerance  of  New  England  to  shrill 
protest  and  uncharitable  malediction.  His  own 
college,   of   which  he  was  the  most  illustrious 

Saduate,  drew  back  in  timid  aversion  from 
oughts  alleged  to  be  revolutionary,  and  it  was 
not  until  1867,  30  years  after  his  first  Phi  Beta 
oration,  that  he  was  again  invited  to  address  the 
sludent'body,  or  to  receive  any  collegiate  honor. 
About  the  same  time  (1837-38)  he  identified 
himself  with  the  unpopular  cause  of  negro  eman- 
cipation, with  the  advanced  ideas  of  Alcott  in 
education,  and  with  several  schemes  of  social 
reform,  which  the  commercialism  of  the  period 
viewed  with  dislike  or  scornful  indifference; 
and  so  he  alienated  another  class  in  the  New 
England  and  New  York  communities,  who 
might  otherwise  have  been  charmed  with  his 
literary  skill  and  his  peculiar  eloquence.  Thus 
bis  audiences  continued  small  and  his  writings 
had  little  general  circulation,  until  the  gradual 
education  of  people  in  his  ideas  and  his  phrase- 
ology gave  him  the  heariitg  that  his  genius 
deserved. 

Meanwhile  Emerson  was  drawing  about  him 
in  Concord  and  Boston,  in  Plymouth,  Salem 
and  other  New  England  towns  a  circle  of 
friends  and  a  school  of  thought.  The  num- 
ber of  those  persona  was  small  at  first,  but 
their  enthusiasm  was  fervent,  and  their  in- 
tellectual and  social  force  was  considerable. 
Prominent  among  them  was  Margaret  Fuller,  a 
woman  of  genius  who  drew  other  women  by  her 


talent  and  her  sympathies,  and  who  bad  formed 
a  circle  of  her  own  in  Cambridge  and  Boston. 
Among  men,  the  most  prominent  for  a  time 
was  Bronson  Alcott,  an  educational  reformer, 
who  had  shown  insight  and  eloquence  in  dealing 
with  the  young,  but  whose  talent  for  conversa- 
tion was  not  accompanied  by  any  corresponding 
gift  of  expressing  himself  in  writing.  Others 
of  the  circle  were  F.  H.  Hedge,  an  accom- 
plished student  of  German  literature,  afterward 
distinguished  in  theology;  Dr.  Convers  Frands, 
a  learned  pastor  and  professor  at  Cambridge; 
Theodore  Parker,  equally  learned  and  more 
radical  in  opinion ;  with  younger  man  like  Wil- 
liam Henry  Qianntng,  James  Freeman  Garke, 
Henry  Thoreau,  Wentworth  ISgginson,  EUery 
Channing,  S.  G.  Ward,  Marston  Watson  of 
Plymouth,  J.  Elliot  Cabot;  and  tn  his  own  im- 
mediate acquaintance,  Mrs.  Sarah  Ripley,  the 
most  learned  woman  of  New  Eiwland,  who 
had  married  Emerson's  uncle,  Rev,  Samuel  Rip- 
ley; her  brother.  George  Bradford;  Miss  Eliza- 
beth Hoar,  aa  accomplished  woman,  betrothed 
to  Emerson's  brother  Charles  (who  had  died  in 
1836),  and  Emerson's  own  aunt,  Mary  Emer- 
son, who  at  times  favored  and  at  times  opposed 
the  movement  in  which  her  nephew  was  en- 
gaged. This  movement  presently  was  called, 
rather  than  called  itself,  ■'Transcendental*  —  the 
term  borrowed  from  the  phraseology  of  Ger- 
man rfiilosophy,  but  hardly  corresponding  in 
New  England  to  the  meanmg  it  had  in  Ger- 
many, and  indeed  used  loosely  in  America  with 


thought  and  speculative  philosophy,  whose  or- 
gan, the  quarterly  review  called  The  Dial,  ex- 
isting four  years  (1840-44),  became  the  recep- 
tacle of  much  youthful  literature  and  many 
earnest  essays  toward  the  reformation  of  socie^ 
in  education,  morals  and  politics.  Its  first  editors 
were  Margaret  Fuller  and  Rev.  George  Ripley, 
the  founder  of  the  famous  community  at  Bro<w 
Farm;,  but  from  Ihe.fii^  Emerson  had  great 
mfluence  in  its  councils,  afld  ultimately  became 
its  proprietor  and  editor,  jissociating  Thoreau 
with  himself  in  editing  it.  Hence  much  of 
the  earlier  writing  of  Thoreau  first  came  out 
in  The  Dial,  as  did  that  of  Emerson  and 
Margaret  Fuller  and  Theodore  Parker.  For 
this  review  Emerson  wrote  the  introductory 
essay,  as  he  did  in  December  184?  for  a  kindred 
venture,  the  Massachusetts  Quarterly  Review, 
in  which  Parker  and  Elliot  Cabot  were  frequent 
writers.  In  these  two  brief  essay&must  we  snll 
look  for  a  characterization  of  the  so-called 
transcendental  movement,  so  unimportant  in  its 
first  appearance,  yet  so  momentous  iafterward  in 
determining  some  of  the  chief  results  of  the 
Civil  War  of  I861-«5.  In  The  Dial  &iierscm 
spoke  of  it  as  "the  progress  of  a  revolution,' 
and  such  it  proved  indeed  to  be.    He  added: 


TlioM  who  ihm  in  .. _. 

■dge,  DO  cned.  no  nuns.  TlicT  do  Dot  you  ol 
iHt  tcffctlwr.  Tlwy  io  not  know  eub  at 
They  art  nnHH  onlir  ir 


e 


■nd  iBd 


il  ofwointion.  m 


!  populu  oplsiinu  will  wbH  iSkm. ' 

Seven  years  later,  aproaching?  the  sam« 
topic  from  another  point  of  view,  amd  with  nwre 
experience  of  hit  countrymen,  £m«;raOR  uid  ■<■ 


RALPH  WALDO  EHERSOH 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


.yGooi^le 


ihe  first  number  of  the  Matsochusetts  Quor- 
Urly: 

The  upect  thii  country  pnamts  it  %  certAin  Tnanu^t 

-'-"—     -  -    ' ftppAraliB   of   cuDDing   machinery, 

— B  Nunmben  toyt.    Ha*  it  adc' 
-   V  intellectialpc— -'     '^- 

tngnsibj  und  iti  matciial  a 

llie  bRsIlKtual  afiscti  nn  sot  on  t 
tAde  and  prodoctirjn,  .  ,  .  It 
that  the  country  Hit  k  precodolK,  a 


bj  deft  pnrti«»n«,  good  c 
empcv  or  any  euperctitio 
indiriiluat.  abould  rot  on 


I  kTnhig,  irieadahu), 

^ta  -:-  tne  priica  of 


priica  of  office 


u-  polhiteid.  and  their  f  olkiiren  outcaata. 


./orldng   in    the    mass    of    the    Northe 

Kple,  as  well  ae  in  this  snail  nucleas  of 
tonists  and  agitators  of  New  England,  New 
York  and  Ohio.  While  The  Dial  had  to  perish 
(or  want  of  subscribers,  the  Tribune  of  New 
York  rose  up  to  more  than  fill  its  place;  and 
Margaret  Fuller,  Thoreau,  George  Ripley  and 
George  William  Curtis  found  Greeley  ready  to 
give  them  a  hearing  in  his  daily  and  weekly 
newspaper,  which  had  readers  everywhere.  It 
reported  Emerson's  leclures,  the  sermons  of 
Parker  and  printed  the  higher  criiicism  of  Rip- 
ley, Dana  and  Margaret  Fuller.  Political  parties 
began  to  be  formed  on  ideal  issues  and 
courageous  minorities  b^an  to  grow  into  tri- 
amphant  majorities  here  and  there. 

In  this  escape  oot  of  the  ideal  into  the  prac- 
tical Emerson  rather  unwillingly  found  himself 
involved.  He  began  to  be  popular,  and  his 
books,  which  up  to  1S50  had  scarcely  paid  for 
the  cost  of  publishing  them,  became  a  source 
of  moderate  income.  He  had  followed  up  the 
publication  of  essays  in  Tht  Dial  by  the  issue 
in  IMl  of  a  volume  selected  from  his  earlier 
lectures  and  essays,  a  second  series  iii  18«,  a 
cdlection  of  his  orations  annexed  to  a  reprint 
of  'Nature'  in  1849,  and  in  1850  his  most 
effective  book  for  European  recognition  of  his 
high  quality,  the  'Representative  Men.'  All 
these  books  had  been  lectures  mainly,  though 
much  changed  in  publication,  as  ma^  be  seen  .by 
reading  the  omitted  passages  cited  in  the 
•Notes'  to  Dr.  Emerson's  'Centenary  Edition' 
of  his  father's  books,  issued  in  1904.  And  by 
18S0  Emerson  had  become  a  widely-sought  lec- 
turer and  went  as  far  west  as  Galena  and  Saint 
Louis,  though  practically  shut  out  of  the  slave- 
holding  States  by  his  pronounced  anti-slavery 
opinions  which  began  to  be  made  public  by  him 
in  IgiM.  This  wider  hearing  as  lecturer  was 
needful  to  him  now  pecuniarily,  for  his  small ' 
fortune  which  had  made  him  independent  since 
1832  had  become  involved  in  railroad  specula- 
tions by  the  ambition  of  a  classmate  at  college 
and  yielded  him  little  revenue  for  years.  The 
way  had  been  prepared  for  his  extetided  reputa- 
tion in  England  and  on  the  continent  by  his 
visit  there  in  1847-48.  when  he  lectured  exten- 
sively in  England  ana  Scotland  under  arrange- 
ments made  for  him  by  Alexander  Ireland  of 
Ae  Manchester  Guardian  and  by  his  friend 
Carlyle  and  others  in  London,  He  had  even 
aroused  the  envy  of  Mrs,  Cariyle  by  his  wel- 
come in  England  aniong  the  aristocratic  circle 
to  whidi  he  had  access  throu^  his  friends 


R80M  M6 

George  Bancroft  and  Charles  Sumner,  as  well 
as  by  the  simple  dignity  of  his  own  manners, 
which  admitted  him  everywhere  in  the  exclusive 
society  of  great  cities.  On  this  visit  he  saw 
something  of  the  French  Revolution  of  1848, 
and  made  acquaintance  in  England  with  Arthur 
Hugh  Qough.  Matthew  Arnold,  Froude  and 
others  of  the  rising  young  men  in  literature,  as 
well  as  the  older  men  of  letters  whom  he  met 
at  the  breakfasts  of  Rogers  and  in  the  circle  to 
which  Carlyle,  long  resident  at  Chelsea,  be- 
longed. 

Emerson  had  ever  been  more  forward  to 
publish  his  friends'  books  than  to  hasten  to  the 

e-ess  with  his  own.  The  first  edition  of  'Sartor 
esartus'  in  America  was  introduced  by  him  in 
a  preface,  and  he  took  charge  later  of  American 
editions  of  the  'French  Revolution'  and  the 
earlier  essays  of  Carlyle,  by  all  which  the 
author  received  from  sales  in  America  before 
1842  about  $1,000,  which  he  assured  Emerson 
was  more  than  he  had  then  got  from  his  books 
(not  his  review  articles)  in  Great  Britain.  Emer- 
son also  edited  the  first  edition  of  Jones  Very  in 
1839,  and  promoted  the  earlier  volumes  of 
Ellery  Channing  and  Thoreau  from  1840  to 
1854,  when  Thoreau  issued  the  second  of  the 
only  two  volumes  published  in  his  lifetime. 
Altogether,  for  Cariyle,  Margaret  Fuller  and 
his  other  friends,  he  had  caused  to  be  printed 
three  times  as  many  volumes  as  appeared  of  his 
own  writing  during  the  20  years  after  his 
second  marriage  in  1835.  In  1852,  while  in  the 
midst  of  his  lecturing  popularity,  he  paused  at 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  from  one  of  his  extended  tours 
to  urge  on  his  friends  at  Plymouth  to  gratify 
the  ambition  of  Ellery  Channing,  who  would 
figure  as  a  lecturer  as  well  as  a  poet.  Emerson 
wrote  then  to  Marston  Watson,  the  •Plymouth 
Evelyn,'  as  Alcott  styled  him,  thus  (4  Jan. 
1852): 

T  [mpcr  penon  to  tala-a  part  in 
etuni,  and  will  gladly  do  to.  Otw 
IfB  veil  to  have  engaced.  my  (riand 

_    .  I  dare  not  unite  ny  he  has  any 

iKtun  lor  VDui  curpoae.  until  I  b«r  hii  lectnn  on  the 
'  Future.'  Botb  the  others  of  hit  Ihiee  I  have  hard;  and 
though  they  aie  full  Df  wit  and  cnticiim  or  urcasm  aU 
round  the  compaas,  he  needs  practice  and  pruning.  1  am 
lorry  on  hia  Tery  account  to  leave  home  ji»t  now;  for  1  wilh 
more  that  be  ibould  lectuie  than  that  1  ihould. 

As  a  poet  Emerson  had  been  slightly  known 
to  his  youthful  associates  in  college  and  else- 
where, and  in  1834  he  had  been  invited  to  write 
the  customary  poem  for  the  Phi  Bella  Kappa 
anniversarj'  at  Harvard  and  did  so.  But  ne 
was  dissatisfied  with  it  and  for  some  years  after 
did  not  publish  verses.  In  1837  he  sent  to  bis 
friend  J.  F.  Clarke  at  Louisville,  Ky„  for 
printing  in  the  Weslim  Messenger  of  Louis- 
ville and  Cincinnati  three  poems  of  his  earlier 
composition,  and  he  continued  to  print  others  in 
The  Dial.  In  1846  he  collected  these  and 
others  in  a  small  volume,  printed  in  Boston  and 
London  in  1847,  and  he  issued  another  volume, 
largely  made  up  from  contributions  to  the 
Atlantic  Monthly,  in  1867.  His  son  has  added 
many  poems  and  fragments  in  the  final  edition, 
so  that  it  is  now  possible  to  judge  of  Emerson 
as  poet  by  a  perusal  of  all  that  he  wrote  in 
metre.  At  first  his  verse  attracted  little  atten- 
tion, except  by  parodists,  who  viewed  it  as 
something  comical  and  to  be  satirieed;  this  he 
had  expected,  for  it  faad  happened  with  his 


si^ 


proK  alio.  But  tvat  those  wbo  admired  and 
<)UOled  his  poetical  prose  were  rebuffed  by  his 
irregular  and  diificult  verse,  and  onl^  some  20 
years  after  the  volume  of  1847  did  it  begin  to 
be  recognized  that  here  was  a  philosopher  put- 
ting his  thought  into  oracular  verse,  some  of 
which  waa  becoming  proverbial,  as  oracles  are 
wont  to  be.  Since  1^4,  when  at  the  summer 
session  of  the  Concord  School  of  Philosophy 
this  feature  of  hts  poetry  was  set  forth,  it  has 
become  a  fashion  to  interpret  it  in  readings ; 
and  the  essence  of  his  deeper  philosophy  is  best 
given  in  his  verse;  a  "key  to  the  whole  Emer- 
sonian theory  of  the  universe  being  found  in 
the  oracular  'Sphinx*  of  the  first  'Poems,' 
where  it  stands  at  the  beginning  as  befits  a  k^. 
Besides  this  philosophic,  quality  there  is  also 
much  of  the  nigh  literary  character  in  sitigle 
poems  devoted  to  love,  friendship,  patriotism 
and  the  cause  of  liberty. 

Had  it  been  predicted  in  1847,  when  Harvard 

Srotessors  were  scoffing  at  Emerson's  verse  and 
eciaring  his  philosophy  unintelligible,  that  60 
years  later  Harvard  would  be  teacning  philoso- 
phy in  a  spacious  hall  named  for  Emerson  and 
Duik  in  part  by  the  contributions  of  his  followers 
and  friends,  the  prophecy  would  have  been 
classed  with  almanac  presages  of  the  weather. 
Yet  that  very  thing  has  happened  and  happened 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  10  years'  continu- 
ance, from  1879  to  I8S8,  of  the  summer  school 
of  philosophy  and  literature  just  mentioned. 
This  school  carried  out  an  early  dream  of 
Emerson  and  Akott,  who  both  took  part  in  it 
till  Emerson's  death  in  April  1832  and  Alcott's 
Stroke  of  paralysis  in  the  following  October.  It 
brought  together  speculative  men  of  different 
schools,  all  in  their  way  idealists,  and  it  raised 
into  prominence  Emerson's  share  in  quickening 
and  deepening  philosophic  ideas  in  America. 

Emerson  had  published  his  'English  Traits,' 
a  masterly  summary  of  English  history  and 
character,  in  1856;  in  1857  be  became  a  leading 
writer  for  the  new  Allanlie ;  in  1860  published 
the  'Conduct  of  Life';  in  1864,  'Society  and 
Solitude' ;  in  1874  a  selection  of  poems  (omit- 
ting his  own)  called  'Parnassus';  and  in  1876 
'Letters  and  Social  Aims,'  edited  by  bis  subse- 
quent biographer,  Elliot  Cabot  During  the 
Civil  War  he  was  a  frequent  orator  for  the 
Union  and  emandpatian,  and  his  pohtical 
speeches  have  been  posthumously  collected  in  a 
volume  of  'Miscellanies,'  published  in  1^  and 
enlarged  in  the  Centenary  edition.  A  volume  of 
'Lectures  and  Biograrfiical  Sketches'  (1883  and 
1904)  gives  his  posthumous  lectures  and  per- 
sonal tributes,  and  a  final  volume  (1693  and 
1904),  'Natural  History  of  Intellect,*  gives 
others,  and  a  general  index,  long  needed. 

The  classiScation  of  topics  in  these  later 
books  does  not  well  agree  with  the  titles,  and 
there  are  still  other  volumes  promised  from 
Emerson's  journals  and  letters,  although  these 
have  been  much  drawn  upon  in  notes  to  the  12 
volumes  already  issued.  It  remains  for  some 
future  editor  to  arrange  the  writings  with  a 
better  regard  to  their  chronological  sequence, 
since  the  estimate  of  Emerson  as  a  writer  de- 
pends somewhat  on  the  observed  growth  and 
decline  of  his  powers  as  in  the  analogous  cases 
of  Plato  and  Goethe. 

It  is  in  the  class  with  these  two  world- 
renowned    authors    that    Emerson    will    stand 


.  .  _  . _._  -__   guided  by 

a  taste  often  better  than  theirs.  Much  man- 
nerism and  many  repetitions  are  found  in  his 
books  as  in  theirs;  many  apparent  inconsisten- 
cies also,  as  with  them.  But  these  last  grew  oot 
of  the  development  of  his  thought  and  his  in- 
creasing perception  of  the  complexity  of  the  two 
worlds.  Nature  and  Man.  Of  his  many  biogra- 
phers and  critics  few  have  fully  comprehended 
him  —  they  furnish  material  for  final  judgment 
rather  than  a  statement  to  satisfy  future  readers. 
The  best,  in  this  view  are  Elliot  Cabot  and  Dr. 
Emerson,  to  whom  tne  world  is  indebted  for 
much  material  drawn  from  the  manuscripts  and 
not  found  in  type  elsewhere. 

Emerson's  health  and  vigor  failed  after  the 

Iiartial  burning  of  his  house  in  1872,  and  his 
ast  tour  abroad,  in  1872-73,  did  not  restore  him. 
He  continued  active  for  years,  though  with- 
drawing more  and  more  from  publicity  by 
reason  of  his  failing  memory.  Hit  virtuous 
and  serene  nature  remained  tmabaken  bj^  tliese 
accidents  of  mortality,  and  his  final  illness, 
though  pathetic  from  ms  anxiety  to  avoid  bur- 
dening others,  was  short  and  hardly  afflictive. 
His  wife  and  three  of  bis  four  children  survived 
him  —  Mrs,  Emersoii,  the  mother  of  all,  dying 
in  1892  at  the  age  of  90.  His  descendants  are 
numerous,  by  various  names;  his  friends  are 
numberless,  for  he  never  had  a  personal  enemy 
and  he  inspired  affection  afanost  as  much  as 
admiratioQ.     See    Eunsmf's    Ess  at  s;    Trak- 

HCEHDENTAL    PHUjOaOPKY. 

BtbUocT^>I». — .Memoirs  of  Emerson  in 
various  forms  began  to  appear  even  before  bis 
death  in  1882,  the  first  good  one  being  by  G.  W. 
Cooke  (Boston  1881),  'Ralph  Waldo  Emerson, 
His  Life,  Writings  and  Philosophy' ;  followed 
in  1882  by  Alcott  s  last  book,  'An  Estimate  of 
Emerson's  Character  and  Genius  In  Prose  and 
Verse.'  In  1883,  supplemented  in  1885.  appeared 
'The  Correspondence  of  Carlyle  and  Emerson,' 
edited  by  Prof,  C.  E-  Norton,  containing  much 
not  found  in  any  biogracAiy  of  either.  'The 
Genius  and  Oiaracter  of  Emerson.  Lectures  at 
tbe  Concord  School  of  Philosopny'  (Boston 
1884)  contains  estimates  by  12  or  15  literaiy  and 
philosophic  friends.  The  authentic  biography 
IS  'A  Memoir  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson*  t^ 
J.  Elliot  Cabot  (Boston  1887);  the  best  brief 
bi<«raphy  is  Dr.  Richard  Gamett's  'Life  of 
Ra^h  Waldo  Emerson'  (London  1888).  Dr. 
E.  W.  Emerson's  'Emerscm  in  Concord,  a 
Memoir'  (Boston  1889),  is  a  supplement  to 
Cabot's  memoir,  dealing  chieHy  with  Concord 
incidents.  The  largest  recent  addition  to  our 
knawle<^e  of  Emerson's  life  and  writing  is 
found,  however,  in  Dr.  Emerson's  12  volumes 
of  the  Centenary  edition  of  1904,  containing  at 
least  1,000  pages  of  new  matter,  with  many 
dates  and  incidents  not  elsewhere  recorded 
(Boston  1903-04).  Consult  also  'Letters  from 
Ralph  Emerson  to  a  Friend,'  edited  by  C  E. 
Norton  (ib.  1899);  Cooke,  G.  W.,  'BibUogra- 
phy  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emer3on>  (ib.,  1908>! 
Howells,  'Literary  Friends  and  Acquaintance' 
(New  York  1900)  ;  Eliot,  'Emerson  as  a  Seer' 
(Boston  1904)  ;  Morley,  John^  'Critical  Miscel- 
lanies' (Vol.  I,  London  1893);  Cary.  'Emer- 
son.  Poet  and  Thinker'    (New   Yoric  1904); 


BHSSSOITB  BSB ATS  — EMERY 


Sanbotn,  F.  B.,  'Peraonali^  of  Emmon'  (ib. 
1904);  Dueard,  M^  iRalpb  Waldo  Emerson; 
sa  vie  et  son  ofnvre'  (Paris  19(ff) ;  Harrison, 
I.  S.,  ^Teachers  of  £fnerson>  (New  York 
1910) ;  Maeterlinck,  Maurice,  'Emerson  and 
other  Essays'  (Englidi  traps.,  ib.  1912).  An 
extensive  literature  concemitig  Emerson  erists 
in  French,  German  and  Italian,  and  he  is 
studied  to  some  extent  in  Scandinavia,  Rnssia, 
Greece,  Persia  and  India.  The  antobtograpfaies 
of  M.  D.  Conway  and  A.  D.  White  (1904-OS) 
contain  something  on  titeie  points. 

F.  B.  SAmoBK, 
Author  oi  'Life  of  Etntrion.'' 
KHERSON'S  ESSAYS.  In  1341  Emerson 
published  a  volume  which  be  called  simply 
'Essays.*  When  he  published  another  volume 
of  Ae  same  kind  he  called  it  'Essays:  Second 
Series.'  So  these  two  books  —  the  First  and 
Second  Series  — may  properly  be  called  'Em- 
erson's Essays.'  The  name,  however,  may  also 
be  taken  to  cover  all  of  Emerson's  work,  for 
although  his  later  volumes,  which  were  gener- 
ally collections,  often  had  lectures  as  well  as 
essays,  there  was  no  vei7  striking  difference 
between  the  two  forms.  Emerson  usually 
wrote  as  if  he  were  speaking  to  some  one,  so 
that  his  essays  always  have  the  spoken  tone; 
and  in  the  actual  lectures  which  he  really  de- 
livered, he  gave  his  thoughts  much  the  same 
turn  as  if  he  were  writing  a  book.  The  'Es- 
says :  First  Series'  are,  however,  both  in 
thought  and  expression  the  most  characteristic 
thing  Emerson  ever  did.  In  the  matter  of 
style  'Emerson's  Essays'  are  like  Bacon's 
(q.v.)  in  one  way;  they  are  series 'of  reflections 
and  meditations  rather  than  finished  treatises. 
If  Elmerson  writes  on  history  or  on  art,  we  are 
not  to  expect  a  systematic  account  of  the  sub- 
ject, complete  within  the  range  allowed  by  its 
lensith;  we  have  something  very  different 
While  the  course  of  thought  is  not  rambling 
or  disconnected,  yet  the  essay  makes  its  im- 
pression chiefly  by  the  sense  and  meaning  of 
each  idea  as  we  come  to  it,  by  the  illustrations 
or  the  figures;  by  the  interest  of  each  element, 
in  short,  rather  than  by  the  round  of  completed 
thought  which  it  presents.  This  kind  of  ex- 
pression has  one  great  advantage  at  least,  for 
It  gives  us  Emerson's  thought  with  the  utmost 
sincerity  and  genuineness  and  permits  him  to 
say  exactly  what  he  wants  to  say  and  exactly 
as  he  wants  to  say  it.  His  method  of  writing 
aided  in  this  eHort;  he  used  to  write  down  his 
thoughts  day  by  day  in  a  'Journal,'  and  when 
he  wrote  an  essay  on  any  subject  he  would 
gather  up  whatever  he  had  said  on  the  matter 
at  any  other  time  and  use  it.  His  'Journals' 
have  relatively  little  as  to  his  goings  and  com- 
ings about  Concord  or  about  the  house,  but 
they  are  very  full  of  what  he  was  thinking 
about.  And  his  thoughts  were  veiy  likely  to 
be  not  about  everyday  things^  but  about  lazier 
questions  and  the  pnitoso^ies  of  life.  One 
finds  in  the  'Essays,'  then,  riie  real  essence 
of  Emerson's  thought  —  sincere,  originalj  inde- 
pendent, undtstorted,  unadorned,  unmingled. 
Here  we  have,  not  merely  what  he  might  think 
on  sitting  down  to  write,  but  the  sum  and  sub- 
stance of  his  thinking  on  the  matter,  as  it  had 
for  years  simmered  and  distilled  in  his  mind 
till  it  left  the  pure  and  concentrated  essence. 
Thns  bis  writing  has  a  very  personal  qoality. 


although  there  Is  nAne  of  the  gossipy  ehtt- 
acter  which  we  often  diink  of  as  bekm^ng  to 
the  personality  of  the  essayist,  it  is  Emerson 
himself,  so  intent  on  his  thought  that  we  for- 
get that  it  is  Emerson.  As  to  what  the  thought 
IS.  that  will  be  better  found  in  the  article  on 
Emerson,  It  may  be  said  here,^  however,  that 
Emerson  was  interested  in  philosophy  m  its 
broad  sense,  namely  as  the  knowledge  of  him- 
self and  the  universe  that  enables  a  man  to  get 
the  best  out  of  life.  Two  comments  may  be 
quoted:  one  by  Lowell  from  'My  Study  Win- 
dows' who  said  of  Emerson's  later  lectures 
that  even  if  the  meaning  were  not  always  clear, 
one  always  felt  that  something  beautiful  had 
passed  that  way;  and  the  other  by  Matthew 
Arnold  in  'Discourses  in  America,'  that  what- 
ever Emerson  might  be  as  poet  and  philosopher, 
he  was  'pre-eminently  the  guide  and  companion 
of  those  who  wish  to  live  by  Hie  spirit  The 
'Essays*  and  'Journals'  may  be  compared  in 
the  recenir  authorized  editions  edited  by  Edward 
Widdo  Emerson  and  Waldo  Emerson  Forbes. 
Edwabd  E.  Hals. 
IlfERTON,  Ephntim.  American  histo- 
rian: b.  Salem,  Mass.,  18  Feb.  18St.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  1871  and  studied  in  L«p- 
zig,  becoming  instructor  in  Harvard  1876,  and 

B-ofessor  of  ecclesiastical  history  there  1882. 
is  works  include  r  'Synopsis  of  History  of  Con- 
tinental Europe';  'The  Study  of  Church  His- 
tory' ;  'The  Practical  Method  in  Higher  His- 
torical Education'  (1885) ;  'An  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ag«a>  (1888);  'Me- 
disBval  Europe'  (1894) ;  'Desiderius  Erasmus*; 
'Heroes  of  the  Reformation';  'Sir  William 
Temple  und  die  Tripleallianz  vom  Jahre,  1668» ; 
'Unitarian  Thought'  (1911), 

BHERTON,  James  H.,  American  natural- 
ist and  illustrator:  b.  Salem,  Mass.,  1S47.  He 
is  the  illustT^lor  of  Packard's  'Guide  tt>  the 
Study  of  Insects';  Scudder's  'Butterflies  of 
North  America';  VerriH's  papers  in  'Reports 
of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission'  (lw4>; 
and  Minot's  'Embryology.'  He  is  the  author 
of  seven  papers  on  'New  England  Spiders*  in 
die    'Transactions'   of  the  Connecticut  Acad- 


States'  (1902).  Emerton  constructed  anatomi- 
cal and  zoological  models  for  museums  dt 
Cambridge,  New  Haven,  New  York  and  Wash- 

EHBRY,  Henry  Crosby,  American  econo- 
mist :  b.  Ellsworth,  Me.,  21  Dec.  1872.  In  1892 
he  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin  and  later  studied 
at  Harvard,  Columbia  and  Berlin.  From  1894 
to  1900  he  was  instructor  and  professor  of 
political  economy  at  Bowdoin  and  from  1901 
to  1909  was  professor  of  political  economy  at 
Yale.  In  1909  he  was  made  chairman  of  the 
United  States  Tariff  Board,  but  retnmed  to  his 
chair  at  Vale  in  1913,  He  has  written  'Specu- 
lation on  the  Stock  and  Produce  Exchanges 
of  the  United  States'  (in  'Columbia  Univer- 
sity Studies'  (1896);  'The  Tariff  Board  and 
Its  Work'  (1910);  'The  Work  of  the  Tariff 
Board  in  Connection  with  the  Cotton  Industry' 
(1911);  'Politician,  Party  and  People'  (1913); 
'Some  Economic  Aspects  of  War'   (1914). 

EMERY,  John  Rnnkle,  American  ttin'st: 
b,  Flemington,  N,  J..  6  July  1842;  d.  Morris- 
.  town,  N.  J.,  30  Jan.  1916.    He  was  graduMed 


8l^ 


BMBR  Y  —  SHS11HB 


at  Princeton  in  1861  and  at  the  Harvard  Law 
School  1664.  He  was  admitted  to  the  New 
Jersey  bar  in  1865.  He  was  vice-chancellor  of 
New  Jersey  from  1895  to  1  Jan.  1916,  when  he 
retired  under  the  veteran  retirement  act. 


at  Leipzig  where  among  his 

lights  as  Hauptmann,  Plaidy  and  Richter.  He 
removed  later  to  Dresden  and  continued  his 
studies  under  Spindler.  Shortly  after  his  re- 
turn to  America  he  became  instructor  at  the 
New  England  Conservatory  in  Boston.  He 
was  three  years  in  (his  position  when  he  be- 
came professor  of  harmony  and  counterpoint 
at  the  newly  founded  College  of  Music  of  Bos- 
ton  University.  He  wrote  pianoforte  pieces, 
songs,  string  quartets  and  textbooks  on  piano- 
forte playing  and  the  elements  of  harmony. 

EMERY,  an  impure  variety  of  the  mineral 
corundum  (q.v.)<  reddish  brown,  black,  blue 
black  or  gray  in  color  and  next  to  the  diamond 
the  hardest  mineral  known  but  is  not  crystal- 
lized. It  consists  of  nearly  pure  alumina  (65 
to  75  per  cent)  and  oxide  of  iron  and  a  small 
amount  of  silica  and  water.  Emery  occurs  in 
large  boulder-like  masses,  closely  resembles  a 
fine-grained  magnetite  ore  in  texture  and  is 
often  mistaken  lor  it.  In  its  native  form  its 
value  as  an  abrasive  has  been  known  from  the 
earliest  times  and  many  references  are  made 
to  it  in  books  by  Greek  authors.  Then  as  now 
it  was  used  in  cutting  and  polishing  jewels  and 
intadii  in  the  sculpture  of  statuary  from  the 
harder  rocks  and  in  polishing  marble.  It  was 
undoubtedly  used  by  the  Egyptians  and  there 
are  many  evidences  of  the  use  of  it  or  as  hard 
a  substance  in  the  manufacture  of  prehistoric 
stone  implements. 

As  now  used,  in  its  pulverized  form,  it  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  suDstances  known  to  the 
arts.  The  rock  is  broken  in  powerful  crushers 
and  stamping-mills  and  separated  into  .powders 
of  varying  degrees  of  fineness  by  screens  or  by 
elutriation.  These  powders,  varying  from  par- 
ticles one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  to  the 
finest  flour,  are  sprinkled  with  water  or  oil  upon 
the  lead  wheel  of  the  lapidary,  or  spread  upon 
wood,  paper  or  cloth  to  which  a  thm  layer  of 
'glue  has  been  previously  applied ;  or  as  has  been 
found  to  be  its  most  effective  application,  mixed 
with  various  adhesive  substances  and  molded 
into  solid  wheels.  Emery-stones  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes  are  also  made  in  the  same 

Emery-wheels  are  now  nude  up  to  36  inches 
in  diameter  and  from  four  to  six  inches  in  thick- 
ness and  in  every  variety  of  coarseness  from 
rough  shapers  to  fine  polishers  for  brass  and 
steel.  The  cementing  material  is  usually  a 
secret  with  the  mamifacturer  and  upon  this  and 
upon  the  quality  of  emery  used  depends  the 
cost  and  the  subsequent  life  and  usefulness  of 
the  wheel.  Properly  mounted  and  turned  at  a 
proper  speed  it  is  our  most  effective  cutting 
tool,  teanng  its  way  rapidly  into  chilled  castings 
that  the  best  file  will  not  cut,  or  taking  the  teeth 
instantly  off  the  hardest  file.  Special  points  to 
be  observed  are  uniformity  of  texture,  that  the 
.wheel  may  wear  away  evenly  under  uie;  care- 
fully fitted  beariniFS.  that  there  may  be  no  vibra- 
tion under  the  high  speed  at  which  tt  is  run; 


the  wheel  must  not  be  fitted  closely  to  «thcr 
mandrel  or  flanges,  lest  expansion  by  heat  burst 
the  wheel;  and  the  cementing  material  of  die 
wheel  must  be  able  to  resist  the  tendencies  to 
centrifugal  disruption  and  to  melting  under  the 
heat  generated  by  its  friction  with  die  object 
being  cut.  Its  effective  speed  must  have  been 
determined  and  tested  and  the  degree  of  pres- 
sure with  which  the  work  is  to  be  applied  must 
likewise  be  ascertained  Emery  wheds  that  have 
become  misshapen  through  use  are  turned  tme 
hy  various  special  contrivances,  all  of  wbicb 
must  have  a  cutting  edge  of  rou^  diamond. 
Wheels  are  often  shaped  for  special  work  in  the 


The  present  supply  of  emery  is  chiefly  from 
the  island  of  Kaxos  and  from  near  Smyrna, 
Turkey.  A  smalt  amount  is  mined  near  Chester, 
Mass.,  and  Peekskill,  N.  Y„  and  it  is  found  in 
insignificant  quantities  elsewhere  in  the  United 
States.  Corundum  and  predous  sapphire  have 
been  found  in  Georgia  and  North  Carolina. 
Consult  Merrill,  'Non-Metallic  Minerals'  (New 
York  1910)  and  Pratt,  'North  Carolina  Geolog- 
ical Survey'   (1905). 

EMERYVILLE,  Cal.,  city  in  Alameda 
County,  on  San  Francisco  Bay,  near  Oakland, 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Rail- 
road. It  has  lar^e  stockyards,  packing-houses, 
iron  foundries,  paint  and  rubber  works,  cracker 
factories  and  fertilizer  plants.  Shell  Mound 
Park,  so  named  from  an  Indian  mound,  is  the 
most  noteworthy  feature.     Pop.  2,613. 

BHBSA,  an  andent  town,  now  called  Hems. 
See  Hems. 

EMETIC,  any  agent  used  to  induce  votnit- 
ing.  In  medicine  the  emetics  that  are  used  are 
now  few  in  number.  The  main  object  to  be  at- 
tained by  their  use  is  to  empty  the  stomach  of - 
irritating  or  poisonous  contents.  As  most 
emetics  act  strongly  on  the  sjmipathetic  nervous 
system,  they  also  cause  muscular  relaxation,  di- 
lated arteries  and  a  sense  of  weakness,  amounF- 
ing  at  times  to  collapse.  Emetics  are  usually 
classified  as  local  or  as  systemic  —  those  act- 
ing directly  on  the  stomach  walls,  such  as  luke- 
warm water,  mustard,  alum  and  the  more  vio- 
lent corrosive  metallic  salts,  or  those,  as  copper 
sulphate,  whose  influence  is  exerted  on  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system,  after  first  being  absorbed 
into  the  blood.  Of  these  tartar  emetic,  ipecac- 
t:anha  and  apomorphine  are  examples.  Emetics 
should  be  given  with  caution.  In  children  par- 
ticularly the  stronger  emetics  often  cause  great 
prostration  and  if  a  child  be  suffering  from  a 
disease  that  causes  heart  weakness,  such  as 
diphtheria,  emetics  are  not  advisable.  In  cases 
of  poisoning  emetics  should  be  promptly  given, 
but  washing  out  the  stomach  by  means  of  a 
flexible  rubber  tube  is  preferable.  It  is  some- 
times justifiable  to  give  emetics  when  (beit 
seems  to  be  danger  of  asphyxiation  from  re- 
tained mucus  in  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  relax- 
ation following  emesis  Is  sometimes  remarkable. 
See  Toxicology. 

EMETINE,  an  alkaloid  occurring  in  ipe- 
cacuanha and  constituting  its  chief  active  prin- 
ciple. It  can  be  extracted  from  ipecacuanha 
by  moistening  the  finely  powdered  root  with 
ammonia  and  extracting  with  alcohol.  From 
the  total  alkaloids  so  isolated,  emetine  is  sepa- 
rated by  extraction  with  ether  in  the  presence 


BHBU— BUI08B8 


of  alkali.  Its  chemical  formula  has  not  been  es- 
tablished with  certainty,  but  is  considered  to  be 
C*HhO(Ni.  Emetine  is  sparingly  soluble  in 
water  and  in  ether,  thou^  it  dissolves  readily 
in  alcohol,  chloroform,  carbon  disulphide  and 
various  essential  oils.  It  is  colorless,  bat  is 
turned  to  a  yellow  by  the  action  of  sunli^t. 
When  taken  mtemally  in  considerable  doses  it 
acts  as  a  powerful  emetic,  to  which  circum- 
stance it  owes  its  name. 

EHEU.    See  Emu. 

EMIGRATION,  the  removal  of  the  popula- 
tion of  3  country  or  region  for  the  purpose  of 
settling  elsewhere.  Within  the  United  States 
the  movement  of  poptilation  from  the  Eastern 
Stales  to  the  Western,  or  from  the  Northern 
to  the  Southern  is  properly  termed  emigration, 
but  no  statistics  are  kept  as  to  such  movements. 
The  removals  from  the  United  States  to  for- 
eign countries,  however,  are  fecorded  by  the 
Commissioner  General  of  Immigration  and 
embodied  in  his  annual  report  to  the  Secretary 
of  Labor. 

In  the  United  States  two  classes  of  emigra- 
tion are  recognized ;  first,  the  flow  of  aliens 
who  came  into  the  country  as  immigrants  back 
to  their  native  lands;  second,  the  emigration 
of  United  States  citiiens  to  other  countries. 

For  the  fiscal  year  ended  30  June  1917  the 
departing  emigrants  included  in  the  first  class 
numbered  66,2?7 —  a  figure  which  must  be 
compared  with  those  of  previous  years  to  gain 
a  fair  estimate  of  emigration  under  normal 
conditions.  In  1915-16  the  number  was  129,765 ; 
in  1914-15,  204,074;  in  1913-14,  303,338;  in 
1912-13.  308,190;  in  1911-12.  333,262— the  larg- 
est record  for  any  one  year.  The  influence  of 
the  war  is  readily  noticeable.  Of  the  total  alien 
emigration  for  the  year  1916-17,  15,924  were 
women  and  children.  The  chief  occupations 
of  the  38,649  men  who  emigrated  were  as 
follows:  laborers,  24,801;  mechanics,  5,700; 
servants,  4A>5;  professional  men,  1,930;  miners, 
1,049.  The  destinations  of  the  larger  groups 
of  these  departing  aliens  were ;  British  North 
America,  18,994;  Italy,  12,542;  Russia,  5,947; 
West  Indies,  5.89 1 ;  En^and,  2,798;  Spain, 
2,491;  France,  2,064;  Greece,  2,034;  China, 
1371;  Norway,  1,633;  Portugal,  1,353;  Ireland, 
1/127;  South  America,  993;  Sweden,  969; 
Mexico,  612. 

The  number  comprised  in  the  second  class 
cannot  be  determined   from  the  United  States 


the  figures  must  be  obtained  from  the 
of  the  Canadian  Immigration  OfBce.  From 
these  it  appears  that  61,389  former  residents  of 
the  United  States  entered  Canada  as  immigrants 
in  the  fiscal  year  ended  30  June  1917.  It  is  a 
si^ificant  fact  noted  by  Canadian  officials  that 
this  immigration  from  the  United  States  con- 
stituted 81  per  cent  of  the  total  immigration 
for  that  year.  In  addition  to  this  large  num- 
ber admitted,  17,988  residents  of  the  United 
Slates  who  attempted  to  enter  Canada  in  that 
year  as  immigrants  were  rejected  as  undesir- 
ables. It  is  of  interest  to  note  in  passing  that 
the  Canadian  reports  show  that  since  emigra- 
tion from  the  United  States  into  Canada  be- 
gan in  1898  and  1899,  the  number  of  such  immi- 
grants totals  1,178,764  persons  —  out  of  a  grand 
total  of  immigration  of  about  3.250,000  from 


all  countries;  and  about  225,000  other  residents 
of  the  United  States  have  been  refused  admis- 
sion in  the  same  period  because  of  their  un- 
desirable character  or  destitute  circumstances. 
The  earlier  emigrants  were  chiefly  former 
Canadians  who  had  settled  in  the  United -Slates, 
but  returned  to  take  advantage  of  improved 
conditions.  Later  there  were  added  to  this 
group  numbers  of  European  immigrants  who 
did  not  become  naturaliEed  in  the  United  States. 
The  larger  part  of  the  more  recent  emigration 
from  the  United  Slates  into  Canada  has  been 
of  American-bom  citizens  who  have  been  at- 
tracted bv  the  inducements  of  the  Canadian 
Provincial  land  offices  and  by  the  great  mining 
□pportunities  in  Western  Canada,  made  avail- 
able by  the  completion  of  the  Canadian  trans- 
continental  railroads.     See  United   States  — 

lUUIGRATIOH  TO. 

EMIGSdS,  i-mE-grS',  a  French  term  for 
those  who  have  been  compelled  to  leave  their 
country  on  account  of  religious  persecutions,  as 
did  the  Huguenot,  for  instance,  m  the  17th  cen- 
tury, or  for  some  other  causes.  The  term, 
however,  is  now  most  commonly  applied  to 
those  Frenchmen,  manv  of  them  of  noble  family, 
who  left  France  at  the  commencement  of  the 
first  French  Revolution.  Princes,  nobles  and 
prelates  crossed  the  frontier  into  Switzerland, 
Germany  and  Holland,  and  even  penetrated  as 
far  as  Italy.  Their  conduct  made  the  position 
of  Louis  as  a  constitutional  monarch  untenable, 
for  they  were  constantly  plotting  with  the 
enemies  of  France.  Proscription  followed :  be- 
tween October  1792  and  the  dissolution  of  the 
convention  more  than  300  laws  were  passed 
against  the  emigris  and  their  relatives.  The 
relatives  who  remained  behind  were  formed 
into  an  ostracised  class,  deprived  of  dvil  ri^ts 
and  obliged  to  live  under  police  supervision, 
and  exposed  to  all  manner  of  special  fines  and 
exactions.  In  1796  relatives  were  on  the  list 
of  proscribed.  Vast  interests  depended  on  the 
maintenance  of  the  laws  against  them :  their 
property  formed  part  of  the  security  on  which 
the  assignats  had  been  issued,  and  the  granting 
of  an  amnesty  and  reclamation  would  have 
made  the  assignats  so  much  waste  paper  and 
brought  the  social  fabric  to  ruin.  At  the  head 
of  the  emigrants  stood  the  royal  princes  of 
Condi,  Provence,  and  Artois,  the  first  of  whom 
collected  a  part  of  the  fugitives  to  co-operate 
with  the  allied  armies  in  Germany  for  the 
restoration  of  the  monarchy.  At  Coblentz  a 
particular  court  of  justice  was  established  to 
settle  causes  relating  to  the  French  emigris. 
But  the  invasion  of  the  Netherlands  hy 
Dumouriez  drove  them  from  these  provinces  in 
mid- winter  in  a  deplorable  condition,  while 
their  nimiber  was  daily  increased  by  the  S}'Siem 
of  violence  and  terror  carried  on  in  France. 
The  corps  of  Cond£  was  finally  taken  into  the 
Russian  service,  and  was  disbanded  in  the 
Russo- Austrian  campaign  in  1799.  When 
Napoleon  became  emperor  it  was  one  of  his 
first  acts  of  grace  to  grant  permission  to  all 
but  a  few  of  the  emigris  lo  return  to  their 
country,  but  by  the  terms  of  the  charter  of  1814 
they  were  precluded  from  regaining  either  their 
status  or  their  ancient  privileges.  During  the 
Restoration  period  they  persistently  petitioned 
Louis  XVIII  and  subsequently  Charles  X  for 
reinstatement  and  indemmfication,  but  though 


KUILE— EKmiNT  DOMAIN 


a  gDrentment  grant  w&5  made  for  their  com- 

Csation,  the  measure  was  rendered  abortive 
the  July  revolution.  One  of  the  largest  aet- 
llements  comprising  several  thousand  acres  rear 
Towanda.  Pa.,  was  made  at  the  place  now  called 
Rummerstield  on  the  Lebt^h  Valley  Railroad  in 
Bradford  (and  fomerly  in  Luzerne)  County. 
Here,  from  1793  to  1800,  was  a  centre  of  French 
refinement,  to  which  luxury-loving  parties  from 
the  coast  cities  came  for  the  purchase  of  articles 
fiom  Paris  and  students  for  the  language.  The 
place  was  called  Azitum,  As^nm  or  Frenchtown. 
Consult  Murray,  'The  Story  of  Some  French 
Refugees  and  their  Asilum'    (1903). 

BHILB.  After  all  deductions  have  been 
made  Rousseau's  'Emile'  or  <EmiIius'  (1762) 
remains  our  most  important  treatise  on  educa- 
tion. It  is  so,  not  necessarily  because  its  prin- 
ciples are  sound  or  its  logic  always  convincing, 
but  because  it  is  a  dear  and  uneqnivocaJ  state- 
ment of  a  theory  formulated  by  one,  who  what- 
ever his  weaknesses  as  philosopher,  was  Incoa- 
testably  one  of  (he  greatest  artists  of  the  18tli 
century. 

Rousseau's  artistic  instinct  led  him  to  cast  his 
work  in  the  form  of  a  romance,  as  is  indicated 
by  the  title  'Emile'  and  it  should  be  considered 
as  such,  the  story  of  a  lad's  progress  from  in- 
fancy to  maturity,  from  helidessness  and  de- 
pendence to  complete  mastery  of  self  and  as- 
surance in  independent  activity.  It  is  unfair 
therefore  lo  consider  it  as  a  practical  manual  or 
guide  for  teachers,  the  details  of  which  can  be 
transferred  without  change  to  the  schoolroom. 
It  was  its  character  as  romance,  furthermore, 
that  helped  give  it  its  astonishing  popularity. 
Rousseau  r«alized  that  the  situation  there  as- 
sumed was  most  unusual  and  could  not  often, 
if  ever,  be  duplicated  in  real  life.  He  sou^t,  . 
therefore,  (□  inculcate  not  so  much  a  practical 
method  of  procedure  as  the  principles  on  which 
any  such  method  should  be  based.  These  prin- 
ciples attach  themselves  very  closely  to  his 
general  philosophy,  and  it  is  by  them  that  his 
theory  of  education  must  stand  or  fall. 

Underlying  his  treatise  we  find  everywhere 
the  two  cardinal  Rousseauistic  assumptions 
which  are  the  heart  of  his  doctrine  —  man  is 
hy  nature  good,  society  and  civilization  corrupt 
his  native  goodness.  For  this  reason  a  large 
part  of  the  work  of  Emile's  tutor  is  negative, 
consisting  in  preventing  misleading  contacts, 
and  the  remainder  lies  in  guiding  and  directing 
natural  desires  and  tendendes  rather  than  in 
inculcating  aims,  aspirations,  or  what  is 
generally  termed  culture.  His  object  is  not  to 
teach  any  traditional  body  of  knowledge,  but 
is  eptirely  utilitarian,  directed  toward  develop- 
ing a  healthy,  vigorous,  right-minded  citizen. 
He  insists  everywhere,  on  the  natural,  the 
normal  and  the  favor  which  these  words  have 
since  enjoyed  in  connection  with  education  is 
sufficient  testimony  to  his  influence.  As  any 
'  im  of  Rousseau's  philosophy  involves 

1   of   his   doctrine   of    education,    we 

.   the    article    on    Rousseau    where    his 
;  considered  more  at  length. 

Ckhstian  Gauss. 


derived  from  the  a 


t  Via  £milia  and  v 


built  by  the  coKor  £imllus  L^das  in  B.C 
186.  It  is  a  continuation  of  die  Via  Flaminia, 
which  passed  through  these  territories.  Area 
7,993  square  miles;  pop.  2,740,316,  Prior  to  its 
inclusion  in  the  kii^dom  of  Italy,  in  1S60,  it 
consisted  of  the  former  duchies  of  Paima  and 
Modena  and  the  papal  Romagna. 

BHIN  PASHA,  a'men  pash-a,  or  pash'q 
(Eduard  ScHNiTZtJi),  African  army  surgeon, 
governor  and  explorer :  b,  of  Jewish  parents  at 
Oppeln,  Prussia,  28  March  1840;  d.  October 
189^.  He  was  educated  at  Breslau,  Berlin  and 
Konigsberg,  going  to  Turkey  in  1364  and  being 
appointed  surgeon  in  the  "Turkish  army  1865. 
In  1875  he  went  to  Egypt,  becoming  surgeon- 
general  of  the  Egyptian  army  under  General 
Gordon,  who  made  him  governor  of  the  equa- 
torial jtrovinces  in  Sudan.  He  made  several 
exploring  expeditions,  bis  route  surveys  extend- 
ing to  over  4,000.  miles,  and  gave  to  the  world 
much  information  in  reference  to  the  fauna 
and  flora  of  that  region,  together  with  much 
geographical  knowledge.  He  also  showed  him- 
self an  enlightened  ruler,  and  was  strongly  op- 
posed to  the  slave  trade.  He  was  cut  oS  from 
relations  with  the  rest  of  the  world  by  the  insur- 
rection of  the  dervishes  under  the  Mahdi  in 
1883,  although  maintaining  bis  position.  The 
Egyptian  government  made  him  a  pasha  1887. 
Rescued  hy  Stanley  in  1888  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  German  East  Africa  Company 
in  1890.  He  went  with  Dr.  Stuhtman  to  East 
Africa  upon  an  axploring  expedition  and  was 
assassinated  at  the  instigation  of  Arab  slave 
raiders.  Consult  Schweitzer,  G.,  *£min  Pasha* 
(2  vols..  London  1898), 

BHJNBNCB,  as  a  designaHon  of  cardinal- 
itial  dignity,  is  of  comparatively  recent  introduc- 
tion; it  dates  from  the  17th  century.  Down  to 
that  time  the  cardinals  were  addressed  by  the 
titles  Most  Illustrious  (lUustritiimuj),  and 
Most  Illustrious  Lordship  (Illuslriisima  Domt' 
natio)  i  but  in  1630  Pope  Urban  VIII  pro- 
mnlgated  a  decree,  drawn  up  in  accordance 
with  a  report  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites, 
substituting  for  the  previous  formulas  Most 
Eminent  (EwinenlUsimus) ,  and  Eminence 
{Eminfntia),  respectively.  No  dignitary  but  a 
cardinal  (or  by  exception  the  Grand  Master 
of  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  the  Order  of 
Saint  John  of  Jerusalem)  was  to  be  addressed 
in  this  form.  Further,  a  cardinal  was  to  ignore 
any  communication  addressed  to  him  in  any 
other  form;  and  any  prelate  who  assumed  the 
title  Eminence,  or  Most  Eminent,  was  made 
liable  to  penalties.  The  title  was  also  applied 
in  the  Roman  Empire  in  its  later  days  to  the 
emperors  and  the  highest  officials. 

BMINENT  DOUAIN,  the  power  of  the 
State  to  appropriate  private  property  for  pub- 
lic use  on  payment  of  iust  compensation  to  the 
owner.  A  superior  right  of  property  subsists  in 
a  sovereignty,  by  which  private  property  may, 
in  certain  cases,  be  taken,  or  its  use  controlled 
for  the  public  benefit,  without  regard  to  the 
wishes  of  the  owncj.  The  highest  and  most 
exact  right  of  property  is  immanent  in  the 
government  or  in  the  aggregate  bod^  of  the 
people  in  their  sovereign  capacity,  giving  the 
power  to  resume  the  possession  of  the  property,  ■ 
IB  the  manner  pointed  out  by  the  constitution 
and  the  laws  of  the  various  States,  when  the 


.lOOg  Ic 


BHIHEBCtI — BMKA 


public  good  requires  it.    There  si 


ship  retained  by  the  sovereipi  power  in  grant- 
ing lands  or  franchises  to  individuals  or  corpora- 
tions, wherever  the  common-law  theory  of 
oriKtna)  proprietorship  prevails.  Extraordinary 
and  unforeseen  occasions  arise  in  cases  of  ex- 
treme necessity  in  time  of  war,  or  of  immediate 
and  impending  danger,  in  which  private  prop- 
erly may  he  impressed  into  the  public  service, 
or  may  be  sdeed  and  appropriatea  to  the  public 
use,  or  may  even  be  destroyed,  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner.  The  power  exists  only 
in  cases  where  pnblic  exigency  demands  its 
exercise.  It  makes  no  difference  whether  cor- 
poreal property,  as  land,  or  incorporeal,  as  a 
franchise,  is  to  be  affected  by  the  exercise  of 
the  ri^t.  It  is  part  of  the  constitutional  law 
of  the  United  State*  that  no  persmi  can  be  de- 
prived of  bis  property  by  eminent  domain  ex- 
cept it  be  taken  for  public  use,  by  dueprocess 
of^  law,  and  for  just  compensation.  The  first 
condition  has  been  held  by  the  courts  to  in- 
clude not  only  public  improvements  carried  on 
directly  hy  the  State,  as  the  construction  of 
docks,  fortifications,  etc,  but  also  private  or 
.^emi-public  undertakings,  as  railroad  bridges, 
etc  There  exists  some  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  whst  constitutes  *duc  process  of  law." 
The  usual  method  is  by  condemnation  proceed- 
ings, determined  by  general  law.  These  are 
instituted  before  a  court  of  competent  jurisdic- 
tion, or  a  referee  appointed  for  the  purpose, 
just  ta  any  egui^  suit.  The  final  step  is  an  or- 
der of  condemnation  and  award.  The  legisla- 
ture may.  however,  substitute  any  other  process, 
provided  the  owner  is  given  notice  of  the  pro- 
ceedings contemplated.  Just  compensation 
means  payment  oi  the  full  value  of  the  property 
taken  or  of  any  interest  therein,  whether  vested 
or  contingent,  present  or  future  (See  Soves- 
Eignty;  TAXAnON).  Consult  Coolcy,  'Treatise 
on  the  Constitutional  Limitations  which  Rest 
upon  the  Legislative  Power  of  the  State*  (7th 
ed..  Boston  1903)  ;  Kent  'Commentaries  on 
American  Law' ;  Lewi^  'Eminent  Domain'  ^2d 
ed.,  Chicago  1900}  ;  Mills,  'Eminent  Domain' 
(Zd  ed.,  Saint  Louis  1888)  ;  Randolph,  'Eminent 
Domain*    (Boston  18M). 

SMINBSCU,  a-men-£s'koo,  Uichael,  Ruma- 
nian lyric  poet:  b.  Botuschani  1849;  d.  Bu- 
charest, 27  June  1889.  After  receiving  his  edu- 
cation at  Vienna  and  Berlin,  he  returned  to 
Rumania  and  was  appointed  librarian  at  the 
University  of  Jassy.  He  was  for  a  time  editor 
of  Timpil,  a  strong  Conservative  journal,  and 
the  fierceness  of  political  strife  would  ^e 


ume  of  'Poems'  (Ist  ed,  1834):  they  ».^ 
mostly  elegiosatiric,  and  touch  questions  politi- 
cal, socialT  religious  and  moral^  all  of  hit 
thought  beii^  pervaded  t^  the  philoscqihic  pes- 
simism of  Schopenhauer,  v^o  influenced  him 
profoundly. 

EUIR,  i'mit,  or  AMEER,  e-mer*  (that  is. 


descent  from  Mohammed  and  his  daughter  Fa- 
tima.  These  emirs  are  found  in  Arabia,  where 
they  are  the  chieftains  of  the  Bedouins.  Their 
origm,  bowercr,  is  doubtful.      In  Turkey  rtiey 


form  a  kind  of  herediiaiy  nobility,  and  wear  as 
a  badge  a  green  turban,  as  Mohammed  is  said  to 
have  done.  Tbw  have  certain  imvileges,  but 
otherwise  no  hi^cr  claims  to  civil  offices  than 
other  Mussulmans.  The  word  emir  is  also  ap- 
plied to  certain  offices  and  employments,  for 
example,  emir  hadii,  conductor  of  the  pilgrims 
to  Mecca;  trntr-akhor,  commander  of  the  Turk- 
ish horse  [  emir-biuar,  overseer  of  the  markets; 
emtr-oltfH,  the  Turkish  standard-bearer;  emiV- 
al  Umara,  prince  of  princes.  The  title  emtT'Ol- 
mumenin,  comnunder  of  the  faithful,  was  borne 
by  the  caliphs.  In  earlier  times  the  title  emir 
was  much  more  generally  assumed  by  nobles  and 
princes  of  high  I'ank.  It  was  borne,  for  instance, 
by  the  Thaherids  and  Samanids  in  Persia,  by 
the  Tulunids  in  Egypt  and  by  the  first  seven 
Ommiads  of  Cordova,  Spain.  There  were  also 
Christian  emirs  in  the  Lehanon  region  of  Pales- 
tine, who  represented  Mohammetun  clans  con- 
verted to  Christianity. 

BUHA,  Adelheid  Wilhrimiag  ThcnM, 
queen  dowager  of  Holland:  h.  Arolsen,  Ger- 
many, 2  Aug.  t85&  She  was  the  second  daugh- 
ter of  Prince  George  Victor  of  Waldeck  and 
Pyrmont,  and  was  married  7  Jan.  IS79  to  King 
William  III  of  Holland.  She  is  the  mother  of 
Queen  Wilhelmina  of  Holland,  and  was  queen 
regent  of  the  Netherlands  after  the  deaUi  of 
Williani  III  23  Nov.  1890  until  6  Sept  1898, 
when  her  dauj^ter  ascended  the  throne.  She 
look  an  active  interest  in  charities,  especially 
hospitals  for  consumptives. 

EUHA.  From  the  time  of  its  publication  in 
181&  this  has  been  one  of  the  most  highly  re- 
garded of  the  novels  that  Jane  Austen  wrote 
It  is  the  fruit  of  matured  artistry,  meditated 
observation  and  ripened  judgment.  The  plot 
involves  rather  more  strands  than  is  customa^ 
in  her  work,  but  the  maia  line  of  action  is 
simide.  Emma  Woodhouse,  the  youthful  hero-. 
ine,  is  much  given  to  matchm^ns.  Having 
married  off  her  governess  before  the  opening 
of  the  story,  she  sets  herself  to  bring  about 
other  marriages  among  her  friends  and  ac- 
quaintances. But  the  men  and  women  around 
ner  are  not  mere  pawns;  they  act  in  unantici- 
pated ways  j  unsuspected  factors  alter  situa- 
tions; and  in  the  resulting  comedy  oi  errors 
Emma  eventually  awakens  to  the  fact  that  she 
herself  has  fallen  in  love.  Difficulties  and  mis- 
understandings are  smoothed  away  and  she  is 
happily  married.  The  easy,  natural  develop- . 
men!  of  the  action,  by  means  of  incidents  and 
conversations  so  normal  in  aspect  as  to  con- 
ceal the  artistry  of  their  conception,  is  cspe-. 
cially  noteworthy.  Plot,  however,  is  subsidiary 
Co  cnaracterizatiotL  The  hook  abounds  in  living- 
personalities:  the  aE[gressive,  vulgar  Mrs.  Ei- 
ton;  the  valetudinanan  father  of  Emma,  with 
his  taste  for  thin  gruel ;  the  imfflortally  loqua- 
cious, tender-hearted  Miss  Bates;  the  admi- 
rable, thoroughly  sensible  Kmghtley;  and  Emtna 
herself.  It  is  one  of  the  triumphs  of  Miss 
Austen's  art  that,  despite  the  writer's  fears -;- 
*I  am  going  to  take  a  heroine  whom  no  one 
but  myself  will  much  like,'  she  had  obserred — 
Emma  is  one  of  her  most  fascinating  creations: 
the  girl  is  fundamentally  generotis,  sincere  and 
affectionate;  her  obvious  faults  but  serve  to 
make  her  more  richly  human  and  appealing^ 


In  recounting  the  experience  of  these' dcli^- 
tutty  normal   but  hi^f  indJvidiiaBied  char'- 


BHHANUSL  COLLEGE  —  BMMSRICH 


acters,  the  author  has  presented  us  with  an 
account  of  English  village  life  remarkable  for 
vitality,  wholeaomeneSE  and  unassuming  in- 
si^t,  related  with  amused  tolerance  and  unob- 
trusive irony,  in  a  style  easy,  limpid  and  abso- 
lutely adequate.  The  novel  is  not  a  complete 
picture  of  life.  The  awe  aad  mystery  of  the 
VTOTJd,  the  stormy  passions  of  men,  have  no 
place  here.  But  what  is  done  is  done  su- 
premely well.  The  ordinary  occurrences  of 
ordinary  lives  are  transmuted  into  the  pure 
gold  of  literature.  Consult  Howells,  W.  D., 
'Heroines  of  Fiction';  Cornish,  Francis  Ware, 
'Life  of  Jane  Austen' ;  Smith,  Goldwin,  'Life 
of  Jane  Austen';  Scott,  Sir  Walter,  'Review 
of  Emma>  (Quarterty  Review.  Vol.  XIV,  188). 
George  B.  Dutton. 

EMMANUEL  COLLEGE,  founded  in 
connection  with  Cambridge  University  in  1584, 
by  Sir  Walter  Mildmay  as  a  Puritan  institu- 
tion. The  chapel  was  designed  by  Wren.  John 
Ifarvard,  who  gave  so  liberally  to  education  in 
America,  was  from  this  college.  It  consists  of 
a  master,  16  fellows  and  36  scholars.  In  1913-14 
there  were  74  undergraduates. 

EMMANUEL  MOVEMENT,  The,  so 
named  after  the  Emmanuel  Church,  Back  Bay, 
Boston,  Mass.  The  movement  was  started  by 
the  rector  of  the  church,  Rev.  El  wood  Wor- 
cester, D.D.,  and  his  associate.  Rev.  Samuel 
McComb,  D.D.  Dr,  Worcester  had  been  re- 
siding in  Philadelphia,  where  he  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  one  of  the 
great  nerve  specialists  of  the  country.  Neither 
of  the  leaders  of  the  movement  had  studied 
medicine,  but  Dr.  Worcester  had  not  only 
studied  psychology  under  Wundt  at  Leipzig 
but  for  several  years  had  taught  the  subject 
at  Lehigh  University.  Dr.  McComb  had  studied 
the  subject  at  Oxford  Universi^.  In  1905  work 
was  begun  with  a  tuberculosis  class  and  in  1906 


t  had  the  co-operation  of  several  lead- 
ing physicians.  Dr.  Cabot  of  Boston,  Dr. 
Barker  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Dr.  Put- 
nam and  others  discussed  before  the  class  such 
subjects  as  worry,  anger,  habit,  suggestion,  in- 
somnia, nervousness,  what  the  will  can  do,  what 
prayer  can  do  and  similar  topics.  Patients 
were  given  mental  treatment  along  with  the 
reading  of  Scripture  and  prayer.  For  some 
time  tne  movement  attracted  considerable  at- 
tention and  the  Emmanuel  Church  had  many 
hnitators  in  nearly  all  denominations.  At  the 
pretent  time  it  seems  to  have  nearly  passed 
away.  Consult  'Religion  and  Medicine  —  The 
Moral  Control  of  Nervous  Disorders,'  by  EI- 
wood  Worcester,  Samuel  McComb  and  Isador 
H.  Coriah,  M.D.  (1908) ;  'Faith  and  Health,' 
by  Charles  Reynolds  Brown   (1910), 

EMMAUS,  e-mi'us  or  iEm'm&-us,  Palestine, 
(1)  A  village,  about  eight  miles  from  Jeru- 
salem, the  place  mentioned  in  Luke  xxiv,  13. 
The  exact  location  of  this  village  is  not  known; 
the  modem  El  Kubebe,  60  furlongs  northwest 
of  Jerusalem,  on  the  road  to  Lydda,  has  in  its 
favor  as  the  location  of  Emmaus  its  distance 
from  Jerusalem  and  the  fact  that  in  1099  a.d, 
the  Crusaders  found  the  name  Castellum 
Emmaus 'given  to  the  place.  Recently  the  mod- 
em   Koloniyeh  has   been    favored   by   expert 


opinion  as  the  site  of  Emmaus.     In  its  favor 

is  cited  the  evidence  of  its  name  to  the  coloniz- 

;  of  the  place  and  the  statement  by  Joseidius 


salem.  (2)  Modem  Amwas,  the  place  men- 
tioned in  Mace,  iii,  iv  and  ix.  In  ancient  times 
and  down  to  the  conquest  of  the  Moham- 
medans, this  Emmaus  was  a  place  of  import- 
ance. Its  position,  about  18  miles  northwest 
of  Jerusalem  and  near  the  Roman  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Jaffa,  on  the  seacoast,  made  it 
prominent.  It  was  the  capital  of  one  of  the 
10  toparchies  into  which  Judsa  was  for  a 
time  divided.     It  was  known  as  Nicopolis  after 


the  3d  century.  Consult  Sanday,  'Sacred  Sites 
of  the  Gospels'  (Oxford  1903),  and  Schiirer. 
'History  of   the  Jewish   People'    (Eng,   trans.. 


5  vols.,  New  York  1896). 

EMMENAGOGUES,  «-m^'a-gfigz,  are 
agents  that  stimulate  the  pelvic  organs  and  are 
used  to  bring  about  a  restoration  or  regvlatioD 
of  the  menstrual  function  if  it  should  be  absent 
or  abnormal.  Occasionally  absence  of  men- 
struation is  due  to  anannia  or  lack  of  iron  in 
the  blood,  in  which  case  taking  iron  internally, 
by  overcoming  the  anemia,  restores  menstni-  ■ 
ation  and  may  be  thus  termed  an  emmenagogue. 
More  properly  speaking,  however,  the  term  is 
applied  to  such  drugs  as  ergot,  quinine  and 
hydrastis.  These  bring  about  direct  stimulation 
of  the  unstriped  muscles  of  the  body  and  hence 
act  most  forcibly  on  the  uterus,  it  being  the 
largest  mass  of  unstriped  muscular  tissue  in 
the  body.  Aloes,  myrrh  and  the  active  cathar- 
tics act  as  emmenagogues  by  increa^ng  the 
amoimt  of  blood  in  the  large  imestioe  and  other 
pelvic  organs,  thereby  increasing  the  nutrition 
of  the  uterus.  Occasionally  massage  and  elec- 
trical applications  are  used  to  bring  about  the 
restoration  of  the  menstrual  flow  and  hence 
may  be  included  in  this  group. 

EMMERAN,  or  EMMERAM,  Saint,  mar- 
tyr, bishop  of  Poitiers :  b.  the  last  of  the  6th 
century;  d.  653.  His  feast  is  kept  on  22  Se^ 
tember,  but  the  exact  date  and  place  of  Ms 
death  is  not  known.  In  his  own  day  he  was  re- 
nowned for  his  piety  and  learning.  His  biogra- 
pher says  of  him  "For  his  great  learning  and 
sanctity  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Poitiers  in  the 
7th  century;  he  preached  the  pure  maxims  of 
the  gospel  with  indefatigable  zeal,  without 
respect  of  persons."  After  a  time  his  leal  led 
him  to  ask  permission  to  go  to  Bavaria  to  preach 
to  the  "infidels  and  idolators?  After  three 
wars'  work  in  Bavaria  he  began  a  journey  to 
Rome.  On  the  way  he  was  assassinated  by  men 
who  believed  false  accusations  which  a  wicked 
woman  had  made.  He  is  the  patron  saint  of 
Ratisbon,  where  he  was  buried. 

EMMERICH,  Sm'mcr-lH,  Germany,  tows 
in  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Rhine,  five  miles 
northeast  of  Cleves,  It  is  enclosed  by  walls  and 
ditdies,  contains  several  ancitiit  _  and  modem 
churches,  a  gymnasium,  ecclesiastical  senunary 
and  orphanage,  and  has  manufactures  of 
woolen  and  linen  cloth,  hosiery,  leather,  ma- 
chinery, oil,  soap,  cigars,  tobacco,  etc ;  some 
shipping  and  a  tree  port,  at  which  an  active 
trade  is  carried  on,  chiefly  with  Holland.  Its 
history  dates  from  the  7th  century.  In  1233  it 
came  under  the   dotnimon  of   the  counts  of 


.lOOg  Ic 


EHMERSOH — BUHOHS 


387 


Geldera,  by  whom  it  was  raiMd  to  tbe  nmk  of 
a  city,  but  in  1402  it  mssmI  to  Qeves.  In  1407 
it  belonged  to  tbe  Hanseatic  League  and  is 
believed  to  have  contained  then  a  populatioD  of 
AOflOSS.  It  subsequently  shared  the  fortunes  of 
the  duchy  of  Qeves.    Pop.  13,418. 

EHHBRSON,  Henir  Robert,  Canadian 
lawyer  and  pohtician:  b.  Maugerville,  N.  B.,  25 
SepL  ]K3.  He  entered  the  New  Brunswick 
legislature  in  1888  and  was  Premier  of  the 
province,  1896  to  1900,  when  he  was  elected  to 
the  Dominion  House  of  Commons  and  was 
Minister  of  Railw 
administration,  19 

EMMBT,  Robert,  Irish  patriot:  b.  Dublin 
I77S;  d.  20  Sept  1803.  He  intended  to  practise 
law  and  with  that  view  studied  at  TriniQMCol- 
lege,  Dubhn,  from  which,  however,  in  1/98  he 
was  expelled  on  the  ground  of  exciting  re- 
bellion. Subsequently  he  became  an  object  of 
suspicion  to  the  government  and  accordingly 
quitted  Ireland  and  traveled  on  the  Continent 
He  interviewed  Napoleon  and  Talleyrand,  the 
former  of  whom  prombed  aid  to  the  Irish  revo- 
lutionary movement.  He  returned  to  Ireland 
on  the  repeal  of  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act  He  now  became  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  United  Irishmen,  whose  object  was 
the  establishing  the  independence  of  Ireland. 
In  July  1803  he  was  the  rii^leader  in  the  badly 
planned  rising  which  had  for  its  object  the 
snzing  of  Dublin  Castle,  and  in  which  Lord 
Kilwarden  and  several  other  persona  were 
killed,  but  which  was  almost  immediately  sup- 
pressed Emmet  was  arrested  a  few  days  after- 
ward, tried  and  executed  by  the  sentence  of  a 
special  court  His  fate  excited  considerable  in- 
terest from  the  circumstance  of  his  attachment 
to  Sarah  Curran,  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
barrister.  Moore  has  immortaliied  his  memory 
in  *0  breathe  not  his  name,>  and  that  of  Miss 
Curran  in  the  poem  beginning  'She  is  far  frcmi 
the  land  where  her  young  hero  sleeps.*  Con- 
sult Madden,  'Life  and  Times  of  Robert 
Emmet'  (Glasgow  19CG) :  O'Donwhue,  'Life' 
(Dublin  1902}  ;  'Robert  Emmet:  Causes  of  the 
Rebellion*  (London  1871). 

BHHXT,  RmIiu.    See  Sheiwood,  Rosiita. 

BHHBT,  Thomfts  Addia,  American  law- 
yer: b.  Ckirfc,  Ireland,  24  April  1764;  d.  New 
York,  14  Nov.  1827.  He  was  a  brother  of 
Robert  Emmet  (q.v.),  and  being  tried  for  the 
crime  of  treason  was  sentenced  to  exile.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  and  became  a  noted 
lawyer  in  New  Yorit  In  1812  he  was  elected 
attorney-general   of  the   State. 

BHHBT,  Tbonui  Addia,  American  gyne- 
colc^st:  b.  Charlottesville,  Va.,  29  May  1828. 
He  is  of  a  distinguished  Irish  family.  His 
fadicr  was  professor  at  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia and  his  grandfather,  after  whom  he  was 
named,  was  a  prominent  leader  of  the  Irish 
movement  for  independence  in  1798  and  after 
coining  to  America  served  as  attorney-general 
of  New  York.  He  was  a  brother  of  Robert 
Emmet  (q.v.).  He  was  graduated  at  Jefferson 
Medical  (Allege  1850.  He  served  as  physician 
at  the  Ward's  Island  Hospital  for  Immigrants 
and  established  his  practice  in  New  Yoric  in 
1852.  He  was  successively  assistant  surgeon, 
after  1962.  chief  surgeon  after  1872,  and  visit- 
ing suiyeon  tifttr  1900  at  the  Women's  Hoi- 


S'tal.  He  was  also  consultant  of  Roosevelt 
ospital.  He  has  published  'Principles  and 
Practice  of  Gynecology'  and  'Ireland  under 
English  Rule'  (2  vols..  New  York  1903}.  He 
is  mventor  of  several  special  surgical  instru- 
ments and  operations. 

BUMBTSBURO,  Iowa,  city,  county-seat 
□f  Palo  Alto  County,  on  the  Des  Moines  River, 
the  Burlington  and  M.,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  Saint  Paul  and  the  Cedar  Itapids  and  other 
railroads,  about  123  miles  northeast  of  Sioux 
Citv.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  section  of  the  State 
ana  it  has  several  grain  elevators.  Some  of  the 
industries  are  the  manufacturing  of  butter, 
cheese,  flour,  brick,  cement  and  tile  works.  It 
contains  a  fine  take  and  a  Carnegie  library  and 
owns  its  waterworks.     Pop.  2,325. 

BMHETT,  Daniel  Decatur,  American 
song  writer  and  negro  minstrel :  b.  Mount  Ver- 
non, Ohio,  1815.  He  served  in  the  army,  joined 
a  circus  company .  1835  and  formed  the  first 
negro  minstrel  company  1842  with  Frank 
Brown,  William  Whitlock  and  Richard  Pelham, 


where  Emmett  remained  till  1844.  He  was  with 
Dan  Bryant  1854-65,  writing  the  famous  song 
'Dixie'  in  1859.  He  became  a  manager  186^ 
returning  to  his  native  town  1878.  He  was  a 
most  prolific  song  writer  and  among  his  pro- 
ductions were  'Old  Dan  Tucker';  'The  Road 
to  Richmond'   and   'The  Boatman's  Dance.' 

EHUITSBURO,  Md.,  town  in  Frederick 
County,  on  a  branch  of  the  Western  Maryland 
Railroad,  about  45  miles  northwest  of  Balti- 
more. The  town  is  known  chiefly  for  its  two 
large  educational  institutions,  Mount  Saint 
Mary's  Theological  Seminar);  (q.v.),  just  out- 
side the  town's  limits,  and  Saint  Joseph's  Acad- 
emy, within  the  town.  It  contains  also  the 
mother-house  and  seminary  of  tbe  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,  from  Paris. 
Emmitsbur^  was  the  scene  of  the  labors  of 
Mother  EAiza  Seton  (q.v.)  when  establishing 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  about  1,800  sisters  working  in  differ- 


and  a  museum.  Its  industries  include  cattle 
raising  and  the  manufacture  of  furniture, 
brooms  and  hosiery.  Settled  about  1757,  Em- 
mitsburg  received  its  present  name  in  1785, 
was  incorporated  in  18^,  and  under  a  charter 
of  1911  is  governed  by  a  burgess  and  three 
commissioners.     Pop.  1,054, 

BHHONS,  Ebenexer,  American  geologist: 
h  Middlefield,  Mass.,  1799;  d.  1863.  He  was 
educated  and  afterward  taught  at  Williams 
ColleEe,  later  becoming  geologist-in-chief,  sec- 
ond district.  New  York  State  Geological  Sur- 
vey. He  introduced  the  new  Taconic  strati- 
graphic  system,  not  now  in  vogue.  He  was 
made  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  medical 
college  at  Albany  1838,  and  had  charge  of  the 
geological  survey  of  North  Carolina  1858.  His 
works  include  'Manual  of  Mineralogy  and 
Geology'  (1826) ;  and  'American  Geology* 
(1856),  and  the  monographs  published  in  the 
reports  of  the  gcolt^cal  surveys  of  New  York  . 
and  North  Carolina. 

BHHONS,  George  Potter,  American 
naval  officer:  b.  Clarendon,  Vt,  23  Aug.  1811; 
d.  PrtncettMi,  N.  J.,  2  July  18S4.   He  entered  the 


8l^ 


vaatov»—>M0rt<m 


navy  as  midshipman  in  IS28;  vas  promoted 
lieutenant  in  1841;  rear-admiral  1872;  and  was 
retired  the  next  year.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
South  Sea  exploring  expedition  under  Captain 
Wilkes  in  1838-42;  took  part  in  the  Mexican 
War;  and  during  the  Civil  War  captured  Cedar 
Keys,  Fla.,  and  Pass  Christian,  Uiss.,  with  20 
prises,  in  1862.  He  served  as  captain  al  the 
fleet  under  Dahl^en,  oS  Charleston^  1863;  and 
raised  the  American  flag  over  Alaska  in  1868. 
He  published  'The  Navy  of  the  United  States, 
177S-1853*    (1853). 

EMMONS,  Smmuel  Franklin,  American 
geologist :  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  29  March  1841 ;  d. 
1911.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  t^ng  post- 
graduate courses  at  the  Ecole  Imperiale  des 
Mines,  Paris,  and  Freiberg,  Saxony,  Mining 
School,  and  was  a  member  of  several  scientific 
societies,  including  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  the  Geological  Society  of  Amer- 
ica, of  which  he  was  president  in  1896  and  1903. 
H^  was  in  the  employ  of  the  government  almost 
uninterruptedly  after  1867  and  geologist  upon 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Colorado 
division,  after  1879.  He  made  a  survey  in  1870 
of  Mount  Rainier,  the  loftiest  point  in  the 
State  of  Washington.  Among  his  writings  are 
'Descriptive  Geology  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel 
Region>  (1877)  ;  'Statistics  and  TechnoU^y  of 
the  Precious  Metals>  (1385)  ;  'Geolony  and 
Mining  Industry  of  -Leadville,  Colorado' 
(1886)  ;  'Geology  of  Lower  California'  (1890)  ; 
'Geological  Distribution  of  the  Useful  Metals 
in  the  United  States'  (1893) ;  'Progress  of  the 
Precious  Metal  Industry  o£  the  Umted  States' 
(1893) ;  'Geology  of  the  Denver  Basin  in 
Colorado'  (1896) ;  'Ten-mile  District,  Colo- 
rado'(1898):  'TheDowntownDistrictof  Lead- 
ville, Colorado'  (1907);  'Ore-Deposits'  (1913). 

EMODIN,  one  of  the  active  constituents  in 
Cascara  sagrada  and  in  other  species  of  the 
genus  Rhamtuu.    Emodin  acts  as  a  cathartic. 

EMORY  COLLEGE,  an  educational  insti- 
tution In  Oxford,  Ga.,  founded  in  1836  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church: 
reported  at  the  close  of  1915 :  Professors  and 
instructors  17;  students,  260;  volumes  ia  the 
library,  35,000. 

EMOTION,  a  complex  mental  state  inti- 
mately associated  with  our  actions  and  with 
extensive  and  often  sudden  physio  I  o^cal 
changes.  Among  the  more  familiar  emotions 
are  fear,  anger,  hate,  joy,  love,  pity,  pride, 
shame,  ^rief,  awe,  contempt  and  surprise.  They 
almost  invariably  seem  to  involve  all  the  fol- 
lowing factors:    (1)    an  experiencing  subject; 

(2)  an  object  toward  which  they  are  directed; 

(3)  a  set  of  coexisting  actions  and  physiological 
changes  on  the  part  of  the  ex^nencing  sub- 
ject; (4)  the  mental  representation  of  a  future 
course  of  action,  together  with  the  intention  to 
pursue  or  to  avoid  it;  (S)  a  general  pleasant- 
ness or  unpleasantness.  The  best-known  theory 
of  the  emotions  ia  that  due  to  William  James 
and  C.  Lange.  These  authorities  regard  an 
emotional  state  as  entirely  constituted  by  fac- 
tor (3),  the  set  of  coexistent  actions  and  more 
especially  of  physiological  changes  on  the  ^art 
of  the  experiencing  subject.  In  their  opinion. 
fear  consists  in  a  feeling  *,  .  .  of  quickened 
heart-beats,  ...  of  shallow  breathing  ...  of 
tremblioB  lips,  ...  of  nicalteiicd  limbs,  ...  of 


gooseflesb  .  .  .  [and)  of  visceral  stirrings.* 
Rage  is  constituted  by-  '.  .  .  ebullition  in  the 
chest,  .  .  .  flushing  of  the  face,  .  .  .  dilatation 
of  the  nostrils,  ,  .  .  clenching  of  the  teeth,  .  .  . 
[and  an]  impulse  to  vigorous  action.'  Each  of 
our  emotions  is  subj«ct  to  a  similar  analysis 
and  nothing  is  found  beyond  our  awaio^ess  of 
an  active  response  to  some  excitant  object. 

The  consciousness  of  our  own  reactions  is 
indeed  a  factor  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the 
generation  of  an  emotional  state.  Whether 
It  is  the  sole  factor  is  a  disputable  point  Cer- 
tain recent  experiments  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
vascular  and  organic  changes  dlaracteristic  of 
emotional   states   appear   to    tell   very   stronfi^ 

Sinst  the  James-Lange  theory.  As  Prof.  WrS. 
inon  writes  in  his  'Bodily  Changes  in  Pain, 
Hunger,  Fear  and  Rage,'  'In  terror  and  rage 
and  mtense  elation,  for  example,  the  responses 
in  the  viscera  seem  too  uniform  to  offer  a  sat- 
isfactory means  of  distinguishing  stales  which, 
in  man  at  least,  are  very  different  in  sub- 
jective quality.  For  this  reason  I  am  inclined 
to  urge  that  the  visceral  changes  merely  con- 
tribute to  an  emotional  complex  more  or  less 
indefinite,  but  still  pertinent,  feelings  of  dis- 
turbance in  organs  of  which  we  are  not  usually 
conscious.'  Tne  peculiar  marks  which  separate 
emotion  from  emotion  cannot  always  reside  in 
the  grosser  concomitant  actions,  for  these  arc 
by  no  means  invariably  present,  while  on  the 
l^sis  of  what  Professor  (Tannon  has  shown, 
the  visceral  aspect  of  the  immediate  emotional 
act  is  too  generalized  to  serve  as  a  principle 
of  individuation.  The  main  differenlix  of  the 
emotions  arc  to  be  found  in  tiie  courses  of  pur- 
posive conduct  intended  by  the  subject  and  the 
shaiKngs  of  pleasantness  or  tmpleasantness  with 
which  the  emotional  states  are  tinged.  It  is 
not  the  involuntary  organic  preparation  for 
flight  whkh  makes  fear  distinct  from  rage,  but 
the  conscious  intent  to  flee;  while  no  state  of 
excitement  can  be  called  elation  unless  it  is 
distinctly  and  intensely  a  state  of  pleasure. 

The  intimate  association  between  emotion 
and  bcdonic  tin^e  demands  a  more  thorougfi 
analysis,  for  it  is  closely  connected  with  one 
of  the  most  interesting  features  of  an  emotion 
—  its  dirtctfdnftj.  Both  pleasure  and  the  most 
complex  emotion  may  have  an  object  To  be 
pleased  or  angry  or  afraid  is  lisually  to  be 
pleased  or  angry  at  something,  or  in  fear  of 
something.  Tne  relation  between  the  emotion 
and  its  object  is  not  one  of  the  simple  coexist- 
ence of  an  awareness  of  die  object  and  the 
it  is  possible,  for  example,  to  be 
of  many  things  and  to  be  annoyed 
at  out  one  of  them.  The  object  need  not  be 
the  eflkient  cause  of  the  emotional  state  —  one's 
annoyance  may  be  caused  by  indigestion,  but 
directed  toward  those  whom  one  diances  to 
meet  Furthermore,  tbe  object  of  an  emotioD 
does  not  gain  its  rank  as  object  by  virtue  of  a 
place  in  the  focus  of  attention.  One  may  be 
annoyed  at  the  buzzing  of  a  mosquito  of  vrhich 
he  is  but  dimly  aware,  while  bis  main  atten- 
tion is  directed  toward  a  book  which  he  is 
reading.  It  is  by  no  sudi  extraneous  means 
as  these  that  tiie  reference  of  mental  states, 
can  be  explained.  The  reference  of  one  ex- 
perience to  another  is  due  to  ihe  fact  that 
the  unity  of  the  content  of  the  mind  is  the 
unity  of  a  system  and  not  the  unity  of  a  mere 
fortuitous  aggregate.'   Ihs  dcGidM-diitCtipWoi  ■ 


Google 


KUPALBHBHT  —  KlfPXDOCLES 


definite  reference.  However,  pli.  . . 
and  emotion  are  not  themselves  simple  «n- 
analyzable  directed  states.  From  what  had  aJ- 
reaav  been  shown  of  emotion,  it  is  clear  that  it 
inviMves  many  undirected  expniences  of  the 
nature  of  organic  and  kinsEsthetic  sensations  or 
images.  Pleasure  likewise  appears  to  have  the 
dual  aspect  of  a  mass  of  orpinic  experiences, 
going  to  make  up  what  may  oe  ealtea  a  sense 
□f  well-heing  and  of  an  attribute  of  other 
mental  states.  Now,  if  we  strip  all  sense  of  well- 
being  from  our  pleasure,  say,  at  a  dinocr,  all 
that  remains  is  an  act  of  bare  approval.  This 
approval  does  not  appear  to  be  qualitativet^  dis- 
tinct from  that  involved  in  an  sesthetic  judg- 
ment, an  ethical  judgment  or  a  normative  judg- 
ment of  any  kind.  (See  Norm).  Similarly, 
active  displeasure  is  apparentlv  composed  of  a 
sense  of  ill-being,  accompaniea  by,  and  possibly 
forming  a  portion  of  the  object  of,  an  act  of 
disapproval.  The  hedonic  tone  of  an  emotional 
experience  thus  generally  seems  to  involve: 
(a)  a  diffuse  organic  experience  of  well-being 
or  ill-being;  and  (b)  an  act  of  approval  or  dis- 
approval directed  toward  some  definite  object 
Ii  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  impossible  to  think  of 
a  ease  where  an  emotion  involves  an  act  of 
approval  or  disapproval  of  this  sort,  but  where 
the  objects  of  the  emotion  and  those  of  the 
act  are  distinct  There  seems  to  be  no  valid 
objection  to  identifying  the  objective  reference 
of  the  emotion  with  the  objective  reference  of 
the  act.  On  the  basis  of  this  and  of  what  has 
been  said  previously  concerning  the  emotions, 
it  is  easy  to  account  for  the  coexistence  of 
different  emotions  in  the  same  individual:  the 
physiological  excitement  characteristic  of  all 
emotion  is  present ;  but  it  is  accompanied  by  a 
background  of  organic  sensations  conforming 
in  its  entirety  neither  to  that  of  well-being  nor 
to  those  of  definite  ill-being  though  sensations 
of  both  sorts  are  nresenl;  by  the  approval  of 
certain  objects  ana  the  disapproval  of  others; 
or  by  the  intention  of  pursuing  different  courses 
of  conduct  with  regard  to  the  different  emo- 
tional objects. 

The  emotions  are  clearly  indispensable  for 
the  propagation  of  the  species,  the  nurture  of 
young,  the  protection  of  the  individual  in  times 
of  danger,  and  for  many  other  essential  needs 
of  the  race.  They  have  undergone  a  strict 
process  of  natural  selection.  Among  the  emo- 
tions showijig  the  deepest  and  most  recent 
effects  of  this  natural  selection  are  those  that 
form  the  basis  of  the  moral  conduct.  In  many 
ways  our  emotions  and  their  modes  of  expres- 
sion show  traces  of  the  needs  of  a  more 
primitive  existence  ^ — thus  a  sneer  is  a  rudi- 
mentary unfleshing  of  the  teeth  for  combat 
(See  .Esthetics;  Feeling).  Consult  Cannon,  W. 
B.,  'Bodily  Changes  in  Pain,  Hunger,  Fear  and 
Rage'  (New  York  1915)  ;  Darwin  C,  'Ex- 
pression of  the  Fjnotions*  (London  1873) ; 
James,  W.,  'Principles  of  Psychology'  (New 
York  1890)  ;  Mantegaiza,  'Pby*ioRnoray  and 
Expression'  (tr.  London  1904)  ;  Ribot,  'Psy- 
chologic des  sentiments'  (Pans  1896)  ;  Stout, 
'Manual  of  Psychology'  (London  1899). 

NojtBEBT    WlEIfEB, 

Edilorial  Stag  of  Jhe  AmericoHo. 


BHPALBHSNT,  a  mode  of  executing 
criminals,  mentioned  by  Juvenal,  often  inflicted 
in  Rome,  and  still  used  m  Tuikey  and  Arabia. 
In  England  die  dead  bodies  of  murderers  were 
sometimes  staked  in  this  manner,  previous  to 
being  buried;  but  the  custom  was  abolished  in 
1823. 

BUPJCrAN,  Diego  de,  di-S'gS  da  «m- 
pa'ran,  Uexican  writer:  b.  Puebla,  5  April  1718; 
d.  Ravenna,  Italy,  about  1807.  His  book,  'The 
Jesuits  and  the  Pope'  (1746),  published  soon 
after  entering  the  priesthood,  gained  him  live 
years'  imprisonment.  The  year  after  his  re- 
lease he  issued  a  bitter  criticism  of  Church 
di^ilaries,  for  which  he  was  deposed  from  the 
priesthood  and  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  of 
Sant"  Angelo,  but  released  later.  His  work 
was  burned  by  the  exe:mtioner.  His  other 
works  include  'The  Tombs  of  Mohammed  and 
Christ*;  'Voltaire  and  His  School';  'Science 
and  Superstition' ;  and  'Relif^on  and  Hygiene.' 

EMPKCINADO,  fm-pS-the-nii'do.  Don 
Jnan  Martin  Diazel,  Spamsh  patriot :  b.  Ces- 
trillo  de  Duoso,  Valladolid.  1775 ;  d.  1825.  He 
joined  the  army  at  17,  and  for  his  activity  in  the 
war  against  the  French  in  ihe  Peninsula  was 
appointed  cotoael  and  later  made  a  field  mar- 
shal. Losing  favor  with  King  Ferdinand  VII 
on  account  of  his  action  in  petitioning  him  to 
restore  the  Cortes,  be  was  thrown  into  prison, 
his  imprisonment  being  followed  by  banish- 
ment to  Valladolid.  T^ng  part  In  the  insur- 
rection 1820  he  saw  much  fighting,  but  was  cap- 
tured 1823,  cruelly  treated  while  a  prisoner  and  . 
after  two  years  lie  was  stabbed  while  resistii^ 


EMPBDOCLES,  Greek  philosopher:  b. 
A^gentum,  Sicilv,  about  460  b.c  His  fellow- 
citiiens  esteemed  him  so  highly  that  they 
wished  to  make  hira  king;  but  bemg  an  enemy 


and  prevailed  on  them  to  abolish  aristocracy 
and  introduce  a  democratical  form  of  govern- 
ment Aristotle  states  that  he  died  in  ob- 
scurity at  the  age  of  60  years,  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, but  there  are  various  legends  respect- 
ing the  manner  and  place  of  his  death. 
Empedocles  presented  his  philosophy  in  a  poet- 
ical form.  His  general  point  of  viewis  deter- 
mined by  the  influence  of  the  Kleatic  school 
upon  the  physical  theories  of  the  Ionic  philos- 
ophers. He  assumed  four  primitive  independent 
substances  —  air,  water,  fire  and  earth,  which 
he  designates  often  by  the  mythical  names  Zeus, 
Hera,  etc.  These  tour  elements,  as  they  were 
called,  kept  their  place  till  modern  chemistry  dis- 
lodged them.  Along  with  material  elements  he 
afhrmed  the  existence  of  two  moving  and  oper- 
ating powers,  love  and  bate,  or  afiinity  and  an- 
tipathy, the  first  as  the  uniting  principle,  the 
second  as  the  separating.  The  contrast  between 
matter  and  power,  or  force,  is  thus  brought  out 
more  strongly  by  Empedocles  than  by  previous 
philosophers.  His  theory  of  the  universe  seems 
to  assume  a  gradual  development  of  the  perfect 
out  of  the  imperfect  and  a  periodical  return  of 
things  to  the  elemental  state,  in  order  to  be . 
again  separated  and  a  a«w  world  of  pbenomeoa 


8l^ 


EHPBDOCLBS  ON  BTNA—  BHPHT6BMA 


by  whii.   , 

luce  is  known  only  by  like,  he  thouglit 
plain  the  nature  of  perception  by  the  senses.  He 
attempted  to  give  a  moral  application  to  the  old 
doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  bis  views 
of  which  resembled  those  of  Pythagoras.  The 
fragments  of  Empedocles  have  been  edited  by 
Stur^  (1805);  ECarsten  (1838);  and  Stein 
(1852).  Consult  monographs  by  Lommatsch 
(1830)-  Raynaud  (1848);  and  Gladtsch  (1858)-, 
also  Windelband,  '(jescluchte  der  eriechischen 
Philosophic'    (3d  ed..  Munich  1912). 

EMPEDOCLES  ON  ETNA  is  a  dramatic 
poem  by  Matthew  Arnold,  based  od  legendary 
accounts  of  a  Greek  philosopher  who  lived  in 
Agrigentum,  Sicily,  in  the  Sth  century  before 
Christ  The^terest  of  the  drama  centres  in  the 
philosophical  despair  of  Empedocles  and  his 
suicide,  which  he  accomplishes  by  leaping  into 
the  crater  of  the  volcano.  Before  his  death 
he  discourses  at  length  on  the  consolations  o£ 
philosophy  for  the  benefit  of  his  friend,  the 
physician  Pausanias,  who  accompanies  him  part 
way  to  the  summit.  Dramatic  relief  and  con- 
trast are  provided  by  CaUicles,  a  young  harp- 
player,  who  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountain 
siti^  with  unshaJcen  faith  in  the  traditional 
divinities  and  the  eternal  freshness  and  delight- 
fulness  of  nature. 

Arnold  first  ^lublished  this  drama  in  1852, 
but  the  volume  in  which  it  was  contained  was 
withdrawn  from  circulation  before  50  copies 
were  sold.  He  reprinted  fragments  of  it  in  1853, 
'54,  '55,  '57,  and  in  1867  revived  it  in  its  entirety 
at  the  instigation  of  Robert  Browning.  In  an 
interesting  preface  to  a  volume  of  verse  pub- 
lished in  1853  he  explains  both  why  he  wrote 
the  poem  and  why  he  withdrew  it.  He  had  been 
attracted  to  the  meme  because  £mi>edocles,  like 
Arnold  himself,  was  a  troubled  spirit  wander- 
ing between  two  worlds,  one  dead,  the  other 
powerless  to  be  born— "tiie  calm,  the  cheerful- 
ness, the  disinterested  objectivity  have  disap- 
peared ;  the  dialogue  of  the  mind  with  itself  has 
commenced;  modem  problems  have  presented 
themselves;  we  hear  already  the  doubts,  we  wit- 
ness the  oiscouragement,  of  Hamlet  and  of 
Faust.'  He  had  seized  upon  this  parallelism 
between  his  position  in  the  19th  century  and 
that  of  the  (ireek  philosopher  in  the  5lh  cen- 
tury B.C.  to  express  with  penetrating  power  the 
profound  melancholy  of^  religious  disillusion 
which  sorely  afflicted  his  early  manhood.  As  a 
critic,  however,  be  felt  bound  to  condemn  as 
morbid,  monotonous  and  painful  the  representa- 
tion of  a  situation  "in  which  a  continuous  state 
of  mental  distress  is  prolonged,  unrelieved  b^ 
incident  hope,  or  resistance ;  in  which  there  is 
everything  to  be  endured,  nothing  to  be  done' ; 
and  accordingly  he  suppressed  the  work.  Its 
restoration  was  justified  by  its  poetic  beauty 
and  power,  by  its  importance  to  an  imderstand- 
UiB  of  Arnold's  intellectual  development  and  by 
its  illustrational  value  in  the  history  of  iVelt- 
jehmerg  in  the  Victorian  Age.  For  periodical 
criticism  consult  T.  B.  Smart's  'Bibliography 
of  Matthew  Arnold'  (1892);  books  on  Arnold, 
by  George  Saintsbury  (1899)  ;  H.  W.  Paul 
(1902)  ;  G.  W.  E.  Russell  (1904)  ;  W.  H.  Daw- 
son (1904);  J.  M.  Dixon  (1906);  S.  P.  Sher- 
tnan    (1917). 

Stuaw  p.  Shekkam. 


EMPEROR,  the  title  of  the  highest  rank 
of  sovereigns.  The  word  imptrator,  from  tm- 
perare,  to  command,  had  very  different  meanings 
among  the  Romans  at  different  periods.  It  sig- 
nified one  who  exercised  imperium  authority, 
whether  in  a  civil  or  military  capacity.    In  the  I 

time  of  the  republic  consuls  were  called  ifnpef- 
atores  before  they  entered  on  their  ofiice.    The  i 

soldiers  afterward  conferred  the  title  on  their  i 

general,  after  a  victory,  by  hailing  Utm  imper-  \ 

alor;  the  Senate  also  cailled  a  victorious  general  i 

imperatOT  until  he  had  celebrated  his  triumph.  I 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  republic  imperalor  ' 

became  the  title  of  the  rulers  or  emperors  who 
assumed  to  themselves  personally  every  depart- 
ment and  privilege  of  civil  and  military  impe- 
Hmm.  Victorious  generals  were  still,  however, 
sometimes  saluted  with  the  title  imperalor,  in  its 
original  sense.  With  the  fall  of  Rome  the  title 
was  lost  in  the  West,  but  was  kept  up  in  the 
Elaslern  or  Byzantine  empire  for  nearly  10  cen- 
turies. In  800  it  was  renewed  in  the  West  when 
Charlemagne  was  crowned,  by  Leo  III,  as  'Car- 
olus  Augustus^  the  God-sent  and  pious  emperor 
of  Rome,"  wliich  title  was  borne  by  his  succes- 
sors until  the  dissolution  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  in  1806. 

The  Eastern  Empire  having  been  finally 
overthrown  by  the  conquest  of  Constantinople 
in  1453,  the  imperial  dignity  in  the  East  became 
extincL  The  sultans,  who  succeeded  the  emper- 
ors, have  never  received,  in  official  language,  the 
title  of  emperor.  This  title  was  adopted  in  Russia 
by  Peier  I  in  1721.  but  the  right  of  the  Russian 
sovereign  to  its  possession  was  not  acknowledged 
by  the  German  Empire  until  1747,  by  France  in 
1745,  and  by  Spain  1759.  Napoleon  adopted  the 
old  idea  of  an  empire,  as  a  general  union  of 
stales  under  the  protection,  or  at  least  political 
preponderance,  of  one  powerful  state.  Napoleon 
crowned  himself  as  emperor  in  1804;  the  title 
fell  into  disuse  at  his  deposition  in  1815.  but 
was  revived  ly  his  nephew  in  1852.  with  whom  it 
again  ended  on  5  Sept.  1870.  In  1806  the  first 
German  Empire,  1,000  years  old,  became  extinct 
and  the  German  emperor,  Francis  H,  adopted 
the  title  of  Francis  I,  Emperor  of  Austria.  In 
December  1870  the  second  German  Empire  was 
formed,  King  William  of  Prussia  having  ac- 
cepted the  imperial  oiSce  and  title  ofFereJ  him 
at  Versailles  while  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
Paris. 

Great  Britain  is  considered  as  an  empire,  the 
crown  as  imperial  and  the  Parliament  is  styled 
the  Imperial  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland;  hut  the  sovereign  has  not  the  imperial 
title  in  reference  to  the  home  dominions,  thourfi 
the  king  bears  the  title  of  emperor  of  India. 
The  sovereigns  of  Japan  and  Morocco  arc  aften, 
though  with  little  propriety,  called  emperors. 

EMPEROR,  or  PURPLE  EMPEROR, 
name  of  a  butterfly  of  the  genus  Apalura.  The 
antentue  are  rather  long,  the  ground  color  of  the 
wings  is  rusty  black,  decorated  in  the  male  with 
a  purple  lustre  wanting  in  the  female;  seven 
white_  spots  in  the  male;  as  many  faint  yellow 
ones  in  the  female;  on  the  four  wings  above  a 
transverse  white  band;  an  ocellated  spot  and  a 
darker  marginal  bar  on  the  hinder  ones. 

EMPHYSEMA.  im-H-se'm^  a  disease  of 
the  tun^s,  in  which  there  is  a  dilatation  of  the 
air  vesicles  with  lack  of  elastic  recoil.  It  is 
most  frequently  the  result  of  persistent  high 
■ntra-alveol^r  tension,  acting  upon  weak  lung 


BHPHTHnrSIS—  EHPIRlCtgU 


tissue.  Th«  most  important  symptoms  are 
bronchitis,  loss  of  breath  with  harsli  and  wheezy 
respirations,  and  a  certain  anuiunt  of  cyanosis 
or  blueness  of  the  face,  due  to  insufficient  oxida- 
tion in  the  lungs. 

EMPHYTEUSIS,  em-ff-tfl'sis  (Gr.  •im- 
planting*), in  Roman  law,  a  perpetual  r^t  in  a 
piece  of  land,  for  which  a  yearly  stun  was  paid 
to  the  proprietor.  It  was  secured  by  contract 
on  condition  of  improvement,  as  well  as  pay- 
ment of  rent,  and  much  resembled  s  feudal 
holding  in  the  features  of  perpetuity,  etc.  See 
Feudal  System. 

EMPIRE  STATE,  a  name  p:iyen  to  New 
York  State  because  of  its  predominant  wealth 
and  commerce.  The  expression  *Empire,"  prob- 
ably rendered  more  vivid  by  Berkeley's  proph- 
ecy made  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  a  generation 
previous.  *Westward  the  course  of  empire 
takes  its  way*  was  quite  common  after  the 
Revolutionary  War.  It  was  not  necessarily  of 
political  significance,  as  relating  to  a  form  of 
government,  but  referred  rather  to  the  course 
of  progress  in  civilization;  or,  as  we  say  "ex- 
pansion." As  such,  it  was  applied  especially  to 
New  York.  When  the  Free  Quakers  of  Phila- 
delphia, led  by  Colonel  Eyre,  built  their  first 
temple,  at  Fifth  and  Arch  streets,  in  Phila- 
delphia, they  dedicated  it,  as  the  stone  inscribed 
and  set  in  the  facade  declared,  "Erected  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord,  1783,  of  the  Empire." 

EMPIRICAL  SCHOOL.  See  EwPniiasM. 

EMPIRICISM  (Greek,  emfieiria,  trial,  ex- 
perience, from  the  adjective  empeiros,  which 
means  expert,  or  experienced  in).  The  philo- 
sophical view  that  experience  is  the  source  and 
the  criterion  of  all  loiowledge;  the  theory  that 
all  loiowledse  is  derived  from  material  or  data 
existing  in  nie  form  of  particular  states  of  con- 
sciousness. As  sense,  outer  and  inntv",  is  re- 
garded as  the  source  of  this  maWrial',  empiri- 
cism, as  a  theory  of  the  origin  of  knowledge,  is 
nearly  synonymous  with  Sensationalism  (q.v,). 
Moreover,  since  historically  it  has  been  custom- 
ary for  represenlativcs  of  empiricism  to  explain 
the  connections  and  relations  of  ideas  by  means 
of  the  principle  of  association,  the  theory 
is  closely  connected  with  Associitionism. 
Empiricism,  however,  is  not  alone  in  its  appeal 
to  experience;  all  modem  systems  profess  to 
draw  their  conclusions  from  this  source.  But 
as  a  philosophical  theory,  it  is  distin^ished  by 
■be  particular  way  in  which  it  envisages  the 
mind  and  its  content.  For  it,  the  mind  is  either 
merely  the  place  or  support  of  idead  (as  for 
Locke),  or  (with  later  writers)  simply  a  general 
name  that  is  given  I9  the  stream  of  conscious 
processes;  it  is  not  itself  a  contributing  factor 
m  experience  and  has  no  power  to  supply  ideas  ' 
or  principles  which  are  not  already  furnished , 
to  it  by  trie  original  data.  At  birth  the  mind  is 
like  a  blank  sheet  of  paper :  it  contains  no  innate 
ideas,  and  has  no  original  capacity.  In  this 
respect  empiricism  is  opposed  to  Nativism 
(q.v.),  Transcendentalism  (q.v.),  and  all  theo- 
ries which  find  in  experience  some  expression 
of  the  nature  of  reason  or  intelligence. 

As  a  theory  of  the  origin  of  knowledge,  em- 
Taridsm  has  the  task  of  explaining  how  the  more 
complex  and  general  aspects  of  knowledge  and 
of  concrete  experience  have  been  derived  from- 
the  simple  psychological  elements  which  it  as- 
sumes as  its  data.    As  these  elements  are  par- 


ticular and  isolated  states  of  consciousness,  the 
most  difficult  problem  for  empiricism  has  been 
to  explain  the  comiectedness  of  experience,  and 
more  es^ially  the  nature  and  validity  of  general 

C positions.  How  can  experience,  whicb  is  by 
.  .lothesis  originally  constituted  of  particular 
states,  guarantee  the  truth  of  univei^  state- 
ments, such  for  example  as  are  arrived  at  by 
Bcieoce?  Since  for  this  theory  the  mind 
possesses  no'  general  principles  in  the  form  of 
mnate  truths  from  which  it  mi^t  deduce  con- 
clusions, it  is  evident  that  empiricism  will  em- 
phasize induction  as  its  method  of  reasoning 
explain  universal  propositions  as 


derived  in  this  way  from  particular  experiences. 
_.    __„ ._   _e  validity  of  knowledge,  em- 
piricism holds  that  only  tnose  ideas  are  valid 


In  regard 


that  have  their  source  in  and  can  be  traced  back 
to  some  original  data  which  can  be  exhibited  in 
the  form  of  actual  impressions  or  contents  of 
consciousness.  In  Hume's  statement,  all  ideas 
are  derived  from  some  original  impression.  If 
then  it  b  impossible  in  any  case  to  point  to  the\ 
impression  from  which  our  supposed  idea  is  de- 
rived, we  have  to  conclude  that  the  idea  is  no 
proper  idea  at  all,  but  only  a  "fiction*  of  the 
imagination.  It  is  by  means  of  this  pmiciple 
that  Hume  and  the  empiricists  who  havii  con- 
stantly followed  his  lead  discredit  the  idea  of 
the  self  and  all^un^ersal  principle  and  catego- 
ri«TvBtch-cSBmot~BeTf3Ccd-bacfc-4».some  par- 
ticular experience  or  group  of  experiences.   ^ 

Empirical  views  regarding  the  oriBin~and 
criterion  of  knowledge  were  maintained  by  the 
Greek  Sophists,  and  more  systematically  by 
both  Stoic  and  Epicurean  schools.  In  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  doctrine  was  maintained  in 
the  formula,  'Nihil  est  in  intellectu  quol  prius- 
quam  non  fuerat  in  sensu.'  But  it  has  been  in 
the  modem  period  that  empiricism  has  been 
systematically  developed  and  applied  as  a  philo- 
sophical doctrine.  'Hie  name  ts  especially  con- 
nected with  the  English  school  that  begins  with 
John  Locke  and  includes  as  its  chief  represents-' 
tives,  George  Berkeley,  David  Hume,  David 
Hartley,  Joseph  Priestley,  James  Mill.  J.  S. 
Mill  and  A.  Bain.  The  views  of  H.  Spencer 
also  are  very  largely  determined  by  the  influence 
of  this  school,  though  his  application  of  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  leads  him  to  some  new 
conclusions.  It  should  be  recognised,  however, 
that  the  influence  of  empiricism  has  not  been 
confined  lo  any  single  group  of   thinkers,   but 


viding  a  set  of  conceptions  through  which  the~ 
inner  life  can  be  readi^  ordered  anil  made  com- 
prehensible^ empiricism  came  to  be  accepted  as 
a  matter  "of  course  by  writers  on  psydiolt^, 
ethics,  sociology  and  education,  oftentimes  wiui- 
out  even  being  aware  that  their  procedure  had 
committed  them  to  any  philosophical  position. 
During  the  past  generation  the  empirical  view  of 
mind  and  experience  has  furnished  the  frame- 
work which  has  largely  determined  the  course 
of  investigations  in  these  fields,  even  when,  as 
in  the  case  of  Spencer,  they  have  been  accom- 
panied by  professions  of  allegiance  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  development.  The  truth  is  that  the 
empirical  way  of  representing  experience,  as 
constituted  out  of  atomic  "states*  or  'elements* 
which  unite  in  accordance  with  certain  prin- 
ciples to  form  "complexes,*  is  so  convincing  to 
■common  sense*  and  at  the  same  time  so  sue- 


■^Ic 


EMPIRICISM  — BHPLOTSRr  ASSOCIATIONS 


cessful  in  renderii^  the  mind  picturable  and 
describable  in  terms  of  sdence  that  it  appears 
M  be  both  natural  and  indist>«nsable.  It  has 
accordingly  happened  that  the  demonstrations 
of  the  shortconuags  of  empiricism  as  a  philo- 
sophical doctrine  which  have  been  furnished 
notably  from  the  point  of  view  of  Kant  and  the 
idealistic  school  (cf.  T.  H.  Green,  'Introduction 
to  Hume')  have  failed  to  overthrow  the  influ- 
ence and  standing  of  this  doctrine  in  popular 
favor.  The  rival  view  o£  experience  put  for- 
ward by  Kant  and  his  followers,  being  more  , 
difficult  to  understand  and  to  envisa^,  did  not 
so  readily  form  the  basis  for  investigation  and 
discussion  in  this  field,  and  so  the  dominance  of  ■ 
empiricism  remained  almost  unshaken.  In 
recent  jrears,  however,  there  are  signs  that  in- 
vestigations into  psiycholof^cal  and  social  phe^ 
nomena  are  becoming  more  fully  penetrated 
with  historical  and  developmenlnl  conceptions, 
and  are  being  carried  beyond  the  atomic  and  ' 
mechanical  logic  of  the  older  empiricism.  This 
movement  beyond  emptrictsra  is  illustrated  by  ■ 
the  importance  attached  to  studies  of  behavior 
and  function  at  the  present  time,  and  especially 
by  the  tendency  shown  to  interpret  mind  and  i^ 
various  types  of  experience  in  the  light  of  the 
cat»orie;  of  historical  development 

Radical  Bmpiricistn. —  Wtttt  the  movements 
described  in  the  last  sentences  there  may  he 
connected  the  position  outlined  by  William 
Jame^  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  'radical 
empindam.*  James  distinguishes  his  own  etn- 
pincism  from  that  of  Hume  and  the  English 


Stantive  states  of  consciousness  to  which  the 
latter  had  called  attention,  there  are  also  cer- 
tain "conjunctive  relation  P  given  directly 
through  experience,  and  so  to  be  accepted  as 
equally  real  in  a  true  empirical  theory.  Radical 
cnqiincism  thus  professes  to  give  a  more  accu- 
rate description  of  experience  than  that  of  the 
eariier  school  ^  it  reco^ies  the  fact  that  experi- 
enoc  presents  itself  as  whole  and  continuous  and 
not  as  a  series  of  discrete  substantive  states 
or  atoms.  James'  object  is  to  maintain  the 
wholeness  and  continuity  of  experience,  and  ^t' 
the  same  time  to  avoid  any  appeal  to  rational 
dements  which  cannot  be  themselves  experi- 
s  facts.     'Radical  empiricism,"  just  by 


experienced,  without  imposing  upon  it  any  con- 
ceptual form  through  logical  interpretation. 

Bmpiridsin  in  Hedidne.— The  Empiric 
school  of  medidne  arose  in  Alexandria  in  the 
3d  century  b.c,  in  opposition  to  Dogmatism. 
The  latter  supported  itself  b:^  appeal  to  the 
theories  of  Plato  and  eariier  philosophers,  white 
the  empirics  took  Aristotle  as  their  leader. 
They  avoided  the  one-sided  theorizing  tenden- 
cies of  the  dogmatists  regarding  the  ultimate 
causes  of  disease,  and  ero]Miasized  the  practical 
ends  of  medidne  as  an  art  of  therapeutics. 
Though  the  influence  of  this  school  was  in  many 
respects  beneficial  in  leading  to  the  study  of 
cases  and  to  careful  methods  of  observation, 
it  tended  in  the  end  to  resolve  itself  into  char- 
latanism, and  to  occupy  itself  exclusively  with 
a  search  for  specifics.  Consult  Locke,  J.,  'An 
Essay  Concerning  Human  Understanding' 
(16») ;  Mill,  J.,  'An  Analysis  of  the  Phenomena 
of  the  Human  Mind'  (1829)  ;  Hodgson,  S.  H., 
^Metaphysics  of  Expeneacc>  (1898) ;  Green,  T. 


H.,  'IntrodiKtion  to  Hume>  <1874}  ;  Jamea,  W., 
'Essays  in. Radical  Empirid5m>  (1912) ;  Moon, 
R.  O.,  'The  RelatLon  of  Medidne  to  Pbiloaoffby* 
(1909).  jAifEs  E.  Cbeighton, 

Professor  of  Logic  and  Metaphytia,  ComeU 
Utm/trsity. 

KUPISICI8H,  tN  medicine,  refers  to  at 
least  two  different  thini^s.  In  the  age  of  reno- 
vation, or  the  reform  period  in  medidne,  a 
special  group  of  men.  Phalinus  and  Serapis  at 
thdr  head,  founded  what  was  called  the 
EJnpirical  School.  They  were  disciples  of 
Herophilus  and  Erasistratus,  and  from  200  to 
300  A.D.  tbey  formed  one  of  the  most  important 
Alexandrian  schools.  Their  followers  were 
mostly  opposed  to  the  teaching  of  the  Doeroatk 
School,  Thdr  chief  point  of  view  was  uiat  of 
practical  observation,  as  opposed  to  the  theoreti- 
cal specidations  of  the  Do^atic  School.  Thdr 
chief  alliances  were  with  the  skeptics.  Anatomy, 
insomuch  as  it  could  teach  nothing  of  phy- 
siology, they  beUeved  was  of  secondary  im- 
portance. 

At  the  present  day  what  is  meant  bv  eminri- 
cism  is  the  following  of  accumulatea  experi- 
ence independent  of  rational  explanation.  A 
physidan  uses  a  drug  empirically  because  he, 
or  others,  believe  it  to  be  of  service,  although 
no  reason  can  be  given  by  him,  nor  by  others, 
why  it  should  be  of  service.  Little  hy  little, 
the  real  causes  of  the  action  of  drugs  tlut  phy- 
sidans  have  used  from  time  immetnorial  has 
been  revealed  by  students  of  medicine  and  the 
reproach  that  medidne  is  an  empirical  sdence 
has  little  weight  at  the  present  time.  See 
EunsTCTSU,  in  philosophy. 
'  EMPLOYERS'  ASSOCIATIONS,  com- 
binations of  business  establishments  for  the  [lUr- 
IK>se  of  dealing  with  or  fitting  labor  or^niza- 
tions.  They  are  a  special  form  of  capitalistic 
organization,  exclusive  of  those  general  com- 
binations (see  Combination,  Industsiai.) 
which  have  been  formed  to  advance  the  political, 
commercial  or  legal  interests  of  employers. 
Thdr  history  follows  the  history  of  trade 
unions  —  they  have  been  weak  or  strong  ac- 
cording to  the  strength  of  the  unions.  Two 
distinct  ty^s  of  employers'  associations  prevail 
(1)  bargaming  assodations;  (2)  hostile  asso- 
ciations. The  former  recognize  the  unions 
while  the  latter  are  opposed  to  every  form  of 
collective  bar^ning. 

The  bargaming  associations  aim  to  check  the 
abuses  and  excesses  of  organized  labor  by  en- 
deavoring through  deliberation  and  discussion 
to  work  out  some  system  of  agreement  with 
their  employees.  The  employment  of  labor  is 
treated  as  a  simple  business  proposition.  The 
first  employers'  assodation  of  national  im- 
portance of  this  type  was  the  United  States 
Potters'  Assodation  formed  in  187S.  The 
Stove  Founders'  Assodation  formed  in  1^6 
stimulated  similar  organizations  in  all  branches 
of  that  industry.  By  1905  national  employers' 
associations  representing  the  stove  and  furnace 
making,  metal  foundry  work,  lake  transporta- 
tion, machine  construction,  publishing  and  print- 
ing, marble  cutting  and  ready-made  clothing 
industries  were  successful  in  making  working 
aij;reetnents  with  employees.  Employers'  asso- 
ciations have  been  steadily  on  the  increase. 
Their  organization  is  essentially  similar  to  that 
of  the  unions.    Th^  have  local  bodies  with 


XMPL0YBK8*  UABIUTV 


narionat  federations,  and  neariy  all  maintain 
employment  agencies,  secret  lervice  depart- 
ments (analogous  to  the  waHong  delegate  ^- 
tem)  ;  control  the  members  wfao  are  forced  to 
Agree  to  meaiures  adopted  by  the  central  or- 
ganization: issue  publications;  and  hav«  a  de- 
fense fund. 

The  class  of  hostile  employers'  associations 
U  a  comparatively  recent  development  and 
represents  ibe  counteraciion  of  the  forces  of  ag- 
gressive industrial  nnionism.  In  many  cases 
UK  assodations  were  first  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  negotiatiDg  joint  agreements  with  the 
miions,  but  after  tne  failure  of  neebdations  or 
the  breakdown  of  an  aKrcemcM,  tney  assumed 
their  present  form.  Tn  some  cases  associations 
which  have  been  hostile  have  resumed  rela- 
tions with  unions. 

But  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  an  or- 
gamzation  of  this  type  to  develop  exclusive 
principles  and  policies  which  make  an  agree- 
ment with  the  unions  impossible.  Their  plat- 
form shows  abtolute  cKsagreement  with  unionist 
principles.  They  insist  tnat  the  conditions  of 
employment  shall  be  determined  hv  the  indi- 
vidual workman  and  the  individual  employer. 
This  generally  means  diat  employers,  either  is 
an  association,  or,  in  many  cases,  as  individuals, 
have  the  right  to  dictate  the  terms  of  employ 
ment  and  of  discl»rge.  Discrimination  is 
made  either  against  all  union  workers,  or  else 
their  number  is  so  limited  as  to  prove  in- 
effective in  agitation.  Any  indication  of  spread 
of  unionist  principles  is  watched  for  and  in- 
stantly suppressed.  They  deny  the  privileges 
of  boycott,  strike,  etc,  but  do  not  hesitate  to 
seek  redress  in  event  of  such  crises  by  em- 
ploying strike  breakers  and  spies.  This  extreme 
form  of  hostility  takes  on  a  highly  anti-sadal 
aspect  But  the  more  cnH^^iened  employers  of 
the  hostile  associationa  have  begun  to  realiee 
the  vast  p^chological  problems  underlying  ua- 
TC*t  and  opposition  of  laborers;  and  they  at- 
tempt to  change  conditions  where  there  b  evi- 
dence of  dissatisfaction.  They  also:  endeavor 
to  amelidrate  aflairs  by  profit-eharing  and  wel- 
fare systems,  safety  devices  and  offering  op- 
portunities for  advancement.  This  minimizes 
the  advantages  of  unionism  and  secures  satis- 
factory results.  A  striking  example  of  this 
type  of  reform  was  evinced  by  the  voluntary 
introduction  of  the  eight-hour  law  into  tbc 
Western  Umon  Telegraph  Company  in  1917. 
Among:  noteworthjr  hostile  emidoyers'  associa- 
tions may  be  mentioned  the  National  Assooia- 
tion  of  Manufacturers  (q.v.)  and  the  Qtiaeiu' 
IndustriaJ  Association  of  America. 


nmnber  of  emplc^ers,  thou^  accepting  results 
of  collective  baigaining,  do  not  belong  to  the 
assodationa  and  tiitis  lessen  the  force  of  bar- 
gaining power.  The  United  States  government 
throu^  its  Board  of  Mediation  and  Concilia- 
tion recognizes  the  fact  that  agreements  made 
between  employers'  associations  and  trade 
unions  form  a  basis  for  settling  trade  problems 
which  is  eqtii table,  elastic  and  intrinsically 
democratic.  Consult  Hollander  and  Bamett, 
'Studies  in  American  Trade  Unionism'  (Chap. 
12,  1912);  Mitchell;  'Organized  l^abor'  (Chap. 
22,  Philade)phia  1Q03)  ;  Oilman,  N.  P..  <Med)ods 
of  Industrial  Peace'  (Otaip.  3,  1904).  The  •Re- 
port! of  the  tjnltsd  Sutea  Indttsttial  Comtnis- 


sion'  contain  valuable  studies  in  mediation  and 
condHation  which  are  pertinent  to  the  woridnKS 
of  these  associations.  Consult  espedB% 
'Senate  Doctmients*  (VoL  XIX,  Washington 
1W6). 

EMPLOYERS'  LIABILITY,  a  term  gen- 
erally used  to  denote  the  liatnlity  of  em[)loyers 
for  injuries  inflicted  upon  workmen  in  tbeir  em- 
ploy. In  many  States  workmen  injured  in  the 
course  of  their  employment  can  recover  damages 
from  their  employers  only  if  the  employers  be 
proved  guilty  of  negligence  and  if  such  negli- 
gence resulted  in  the  injury.  Employers  arc 
not  liable  for  injuries  resulting  from  the  obvious 
occupational  risks  or  for  accidents  that  are  in- 
evitable or  for  which  blame  cannot  be  £xed. 
Since  an  employer  is  responsible  for  injuries 
due  to  his  own  negligence  or  that  of  his  serv- 
ants, an  employee  thus  injured  supposedly  would 
be  entitled  to  recover  damages  from  the  em- 
ployer. But  under  the  common-law  relation  of 
master  and  servant,  as  interpreted  in  forei^ 
countries  until  recently,  and  now  discarded  m 
nearly  all  ctvilited  countries  save  the  United 
States,  an  employee,  on  entering  service,  agrees 
to  run  all  the  ordinary  risks  of  the  service,  in- 
cluding injuries  that  might  befall  him  through 
negligence  on  the  part  of  fellow- employees.  lAe 
so-caJled  absolute  duties  of  the  employer  are  to 
furnish  a  reasonably  safe  and  jproper  place  in 
,  which  employees  may  engage  in  their  work, 
suitable  appliances,  reasonably  coihpetest  em- 
ployees, such  as  superintendents,  foremen  and 
other  servants,  and  rules  and  instructions  when 


liable  (or  gross  oe^igence,  for  risks  o 

traordinary  nature  involved  in  the  service,  and 
for  all  acts  of  negligence,  whether  committed 
W  himself  or  by  employees,  occurring  outside 
the  regular  service.  Modem  industrial  condi- 
tions necessitated  a  modification  of  these  com* 
mon-law  rules,  espedally  in  England,  where  the 
liabilities  of  esiployers  has  been  greatly 
extended  by  such  acts  as  the  Em^oyers'  Lia- 
bility Am  of  1880  (43  and  44  Vict.  c.  42)  and 
the  Workmen's  Compensation  Acts  of  1897, 
1900  and  1906  (60  and  61  Vict,  c  37;  63  and  64 
Vict.  c.  22;  and  6  Edw.  VII  c  58).  Under 
this  legislation  empk>yees  are  virtually  insured 
by  the  employer  against  injury  while  in  his 
empkiy,  the  employer  being  compelled  to  pay  a 
limited  sum  to  the  injured  or  to  the  families  of 
anployees  killed  by  such  acddents,  whether  or 
not  due  to  the  negligence  of  the  employer  or  to 
that  of  fellow-employees. 

In  the  United  States  the  employee  mutt 
prove  that  in  a  given  instance  the  master  has 
failed  to  fulfil  one  of  the  above-mentioned 
abscdute  duties.  In  contesting  such  an  action 
the  employer,  in  general,  may  rely  on  three  de- 
fenses: (1)  that  the  injury  sustained  by  the 
employee  was  among  the  ordinary  occupational 
risks  which  he  assumed  when  entering  the  em- 
I^oy  of  the  master,  or  was  caused  by  a  danger 
of  which  lie  employee  either  was  or  should 
have  been  cognizant,  but  in  spite  of  which  he 
continued  to  work;  (2)  that  the  injury  infiicted 
upon  the  employee  was  not  due  to  negligence 
on  the  employer's  part  but  on  the  part  of  a 
fellow- servant  of  the  plaintiff,  wherefore  the 
employer  is  not  liable  since  the  employee  as- 
sumed this  risk,  loo;  (3)  that  the  injured  em- 
ployee   failed    to    use    reaaonable    precautions 


8l^ 


SM 


BHPLOTUXKT  BUREAUS 


against  accident  and  tbat  this  contributory  neg- 
ligence had  resulted  in  his  injury.  During  the 
Kst  few  years  several  of  the  United  States 
ve  enacted  laws  of  a  very  diverse  character 
which  differ  widely  from  the  general  principles 
of  the  American  system  as  above  set  forth 
and  considerably  extend  the  liabihcy  of  em- 
ployers. Attempts  have  been  made  to  offset 
the  liability  laws  by  compelling  employees  to 
sign  contracis  waiving  the  benefits  of  such 
legislation,  but  subsequent  'enactments  have 
Overcome  this  evasion  of  the  law  by  forbidding 
such  contracts  or  rendering  them  null  and  void. 
The  liability  laws  should  Be  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  the  new  compensation  laws  which 
have  been  enacted  to  replace  the  former  in 
order  to  provide  a  system  of  definite  compen- 
sation for  accident  without  litigation.  Some  of 
these  laws  have  been  attacked  as  unconstitu- 
tional on  the  ground  that  the  forcible  grant  of 
compensation  to  an  employee  injured  through 
no  fault  of  the  employer  was  confiscation  of 
property  for  no  public  purpose  and  without  due 
process  of  law.  Where  the  courts  have  sus- 
tained such  contentions  the  tendency  has  been 
to  amend  the  constitutions  so  as  to  permit  such 
legislation,  and  acts  passed  under  such  amend- 
ments have  been  uptield  in  the  court  of  last 
resort.  The  rapid  advancement  of  the  move- 
ment to  compel  compensation  to  injured  work- 
men ted  to  the  extension  of  the  field  of 
insurance,  some  companies  now  issuing  employ-. 
ers'  liability  policies,  under  which,  for  a 
stipulated  premium,  the  employer  is  insured 
against  loss  resulting  from  accidents  to  em- 
ployees, any  damages  for  which  the  employer 
may  be  legally  liable  being  paid  by  the  insur- 
ance company.  The  most  recent  laws  make 
such  insurance  compulsory,  while  State  insur- 
ance funds,  placed  on  a  sound  actuarial  basis, 
hare  been  created  in  some  States,  since,  as  the 
New  Jersey  commission  on  employers*  liability 
reported  in  1915,  previous  laws  have  not  ensured 
the  payment  of  compensation  in  case  the  em- 
ployer should  become  insolvent.  Most  of  the 
States  have  compensation  laws  which  apply  to 
public  as  well  as  to  private  etnployees,  while 
the  Canal  Zone  order  and  the  Federal  statute 
apply  to  public  employees  and  to  persons  en- 
gaged in  mterstate  commerce.  In  general  either 
compensation  or  insurance  is  provided  and 
either  type  of  law  may  be  elective  or  compul- 
sory. Alaska,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Illinois, 
Indiana  Iowa,  Kansas,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Mich- 
igan, Minnesota,  Montana,  Nebraska,  New 
Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 
Island,  Vermont  and  Wisconsin  provide  elective 
compensation ;  while  in  Ariiona,  California. 
Canal  Zone,  Hawaii,  Maryland,  New  York  ano 
Oklahoma  the  compensation  is  compulsory  as 
it  is  under  the  Federal  statute.  Massachusetts, 
Nevada  Oregon,  Texas  and  West  Virginia  have 
elective  insurance  laws,  while  Ohio,  Washington 
and  Wyoming  have  compulsory  insurance  laws. 
See  Accidents;  Workmen's  Compensatiom ; 
Labob  ;  FAiin.Y  Law  ;  Factories  and  Factorv 
Insi-ection;  Diseases,  Occupational. 

Bibliography.^  Consult  the  files  of  the 
American  Labor  LtgisloHon  Review;  Bamett, 
H.  N,,  'Accidental  Injuries  to  Workmen*  (Lon- 
don 1909);  Beyer,  D.  S.,  'Industrial  Accident 
Prevention*  (Boston  1916) ;  Boyd,  /.  H., 
'Workmen's  Compensation  and  Industrial  In- 
snrance^    (Indianapolis  1913);   Cowee,  G.  A^ 


'Practical  Safety  Ucthods  ud  Devices*  (New 
York  1916);  Connor,  J.  F.,  'Employers'  Lia- 
bility, Workmen's  Compensation  and  Liability 
Insurance*  (New  York  1916) ;  Qark,  L.  D., 
'Law  of  the  Employment  of  Labor'  (New  York 
1911);  Dawson,  M.  M.,  'ConstitutionaUty  of 
Workmen's  Compensation  and  Compulsory  In- 
surance Laws*  (in  Cow  amd  Contment,  Vol 
XXII,  pp.  275-280  New  York  191S) ;  Doherty, 
P.  J„  "Liability  of  Railroads  to  Interstate  Em- 
ployees* (Boston  1911);  Eastman  C,  'Work- 
Accidents  and  the  Law*  (New  York  1910); 
Forsyth.  C.  H.,  'Workmen  s  Compensation  in 
the  United  States*  (in  Amerifon  Underwriler, 
VoL  XLV,  pp.  89-99,  136-145,  239-250.  New 
York  1916)  ;  Glass,  W.  M„  'The  Law  of  Work- 
men's Compensation'  (Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1916)  ; 
Henderson,  C.  R^ 'Industrial  Insurance  in  the 
United  States*  (Chicago  1911),  and  'Working- 
men's  Insurance'  (PhUadelphia  1912) ;  Hotch- 
kiss,  W.  H.,  'The  Case  against  State  Insurance' 
(New  York  1913)  ;  'Legal  Liability  of  Employ- 
ers for  Injuries  to  their  Employees  in  the 
United  States'  (U.  S.  Labor  Bureau  'Bulletin' 
No.  74,  Washington  1908) ;  Otis,  S,  L.,  'Manual 
of  Compensation  and  Liability  Insurance'  (New 
York  1914) ;  Paterson,  J,  V.,  <Wo[lBnen'a  Com- 
pulsory Compensation  System'  (Seattle  1912); 
'Risks  in  Industry'  (in  'Annals  of  die  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,' 
Vol.  XXXVIII,  Philadelphia  1911);  Sherman, 
P.  T,  'The  Consequence  of  Accidents  under 
Worlnnen's  Compensation  Laws'  (in  University 
of  Pennsylvania  Law  RevUw,  Vol.  LX1V,  pp. 
417-^48,  Philadelphia  1916)  ;  Seagcr,  H.  R..  'So- 
cial Insurance'  (New  York  1910) ;  Thornton, 
W.  W..  <Treatise  on  the  Federal  Employers' 
Liability  and  Safety  Appliance  Acts'  (Cinon- 
nati  1916) ;  'Workmen's  Compensation  Laws  of 
the  United  States  and  Foreign  Countries*  (U. 
S.  Labor  Statistics  Bureau  'Bulletin*  No. 
126,  Washington  1914);  Walgren,  j.  A.. 
'Federal '  Employers*  Liability  Act'  (Oiicasa 
1916). 

EKPLOYHSNT  BUREAUS,  establish- 
ments, whether  private  or  public,  at  which  those 
seeking  employment  are  put  into  communication 
with  those  who  are  ottering  it.  Private  em- 
ployment bureaus  are  found  in  every  large  dty, 
but  they  are  often  conducted  without  judgment, 
sometimes  have  been  accused  of  dishones^,  in 
many  cases  are  mercenary,  and  their  usefulness 
is  at  least  problematical.  In  order  to  corrccl 
the  evils  arising  from  the  practice  of  these 
bureaus,  much  remedial  legislation  has  been 
passed.  No  agency  is  now  allowed  to  charge 
a  fee  before  informing  an  applicant  of  a  situa- 
tion that  is  actually  open  to  him,  and  should 
such  position,  through  no  fault  of  the  applicant, 
he  found  not  open  to  him  as  understood  when 
the  fee  was  paid,  such  fee  is  required  to  be 
returned  promptly.  All  employment  bureaus 
are  under  the  supervision  of  some  State  bureau, 
while  some  cities  impose  license  fees  and  bonds 
of  varying  amounts  and  limit  the  amounts  of 
the  fees  to  be  charged  for  registration,  also 
requiring  the  return  of  fees  should  applicants 
fail  to  secure  positions  within  a  prescribed  time. 
Public  bureaus,  opened  by  the  national  or 
dty  government,  are  non-mercenary  and  the 
motive  that  has  prompted  their  establishment  is 
a  sound  humanitarian  and  political  motive.  Sudi 
bureaus  have  two  practical  objects.  TTiey  are 
a  meuis  of  conunnoication  betweoi  em^tver 


sut>£^VMlcirp  iicrleftxtts  ■ 


and  empl^we— labor  exchai^n,  as  they  are 
calle<!  in  France.  In  the  second  place  they  do 
something  toward  settling  the  wage  questiotu 
by  giving  (^notations  of  the  atnoont  offered  and 
asked.  Ohio  was  the  pioneer  in  the  movement 
for  free  public  employment  offices  in  the  United 
States,  instituting  hers  in  1890,  and  the  move- 
ment has  spread  so  that  19  States  now  have 
more  or  less  effective  systems  of  public  employ- 
ment offices  in  aboot  60  different  cities,  the 
offices  usually  being  under  the  supervision  of  a 
superintendent  of  free  employment  offices,  or 
some  Other  State  official,  such  as  the  commis- 
sioner of  labor  or  the  chief  of  the  bureau 
of  statistics.  These  offices  find  employmeitt 
annually  for  about  300,000  wage-earners  at 
exceedin^y  low  cost,  ranging  from  four  cents 
for  unskilled  workers  in  Seattle  to  $2  or  more 
in  some  small  offices.  With  two  exceptions  the 
various  laws  stipulate  that  there  shall  be  no 
charge  to  employer  or  employee  for  the  service 
rendered.  Municipal  bureaus  are  operated  in- 
dependently in  seven  States.  In  1914  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor,  through  a  burezu 
called  the  Federal  Employment  Bureau,  began 
the  establishment  of  38  branch  offices  in  various 
parts  of  the  country  and  subsequently  broad- 
ened the  scope  of  the  work  so  as  to  include  a 
woman's  division.  The  country  is  divided  into 
18  lones  of  (Ustribmion,  each  with  head- 
qnarters  in  a  large  ci^;  besides  the  station 
headquarters  there  are  80  sub-branches. 

The  public  governmental  employment  burean 
originated  in  France.  In  1848  one  such  bureau 
was  established  in  each  of  the  mairies  of  Paris. 
The  institution  languished  and  in  1851  a  meas- 
ure  submitted  to  the  le^dative  assembly  for 
die  establishment  of  a  comprehensive  system  of 
employment  bureaus  throughout  the  country 
failed  to  be  adopted  and  notning  of  importance 
was  accomplished  until  1888  when  the  Bourse 
de  Travail  was  opened  at  Paris,  which  institu- 
tion received  a  subsidy  of  150,000  frafics  from 
the  government.  In  1893  a  large  building  was 
erected  and  became  the  headquarters  of  labor 
syndicates,  but  a  year  later  this  was  closed 
tiecause  of  a  dispute  between  the  government 
and  the  labor  syridicates.  In  18%  it  was  re- 
opened under  the  manageincnt  of  a  cothmission 
appointed  jointly  ^  the  government  and  the 
labor  syndicates.  Tliere  are  also  numerous  bu- 
reaus in  France  operated  and  managed  by 
unions  of  labor  syndicates  whose  chief  endeavor 
is  to  place  members,  of  syndicates  but  who  may 
aid  other  workmen  in  the  hope  that  they  wiU 
join  the  syndicate.  In  order  to  equalize  the 
supply  of  labor  in  the  various  sections  of  the 
country,  a  national  bureau  was  established,  but 
though  this  received  government  aid  in  1900, 
such  aid  has  sioce  been  withdrawn  because  the 
bureau  endeavored  to  restrain  workers  from 
entering  districts  wherein  strikes  were  in  prog- 
ress. About  50  cities  have  labor  bureaus  of 
some  sort.  Bcl^um  established  such  a  system 
in  1870;  Switierlard  followed  suit  with  a  labor 
burean  at  Bern  in  18S8  and  with  another  at 
Basel  in  1889;  and  since  that  lime  Italy  has 
developed  a  system,  the  most  important  ex- 
change being  at  Milan. 

The  first  employment  bureau  in  England  was 
opened  at  Egham,  near  London,  in  188S,  but 
when  the  Local  Government  Act  of  18W  went 
into  effect  this  was  discontinued.  From  1885  to 
1906  a  voluntary  btircaii  was  in  operation  at 


Ipswich  but  in  the  latter  year  the  Distress  Com- 
mittee took  over  its  work  and  within  a  short 
time  numerous  municipal  and  private  bureaus 
were  taken  over  by  the  Distress  Committees 
under  the  local  governments.  In  1909  an  act 
became  law  making  the  establishment  of  em- 
ployment bureaus  or  labor  exchanges  compul- 
sory throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  and  there 
are  now  more  than  425  such  exchanges  with 
about  1,100  local  ageticies,  all  under  the  control 
of  a  central  office  at  London  and  eight  divisional 
offices  in  various  cities.  This  federated  system 
of  labor  exchan^s  is  chiefly  for  unskilled  labor 
but  it  woilcs  in  conjunction  with  the  trade 
onion  bureaus  for  skilled  tabor  and  has  been 
very  successful. 

Germany's  first  municipal  bureau  grew  out 
of  a  private  bureau  estabfished  at  Freiburg  in 
1892,  and  the  movement  has  been  taken  up 
enthusiastically  by  almost  evety  city  of  im- 
portance. Ordinary  commercial  bureaus  in 
Germany  concern  Aemselves  chiefly  with  se- 
curing positions  for  domestic  servants.  The 
trade  unions  have  their  own  bureaus.  The 
Berlin  public  employment  bureau  is  under  the 
charge  of  various  united  societies  but  it  Is 
granted  a  subsidy  by  the  city  government  and 
is  also  strictly  supervised.  A  nominal  fee  is 
chatted  to  workmen  who  register  btit  it  is  free 
to  afl  employees.  The  management  is  equally 
divided  between  employers  and  employees  and 
prominent  citicens  are  in  charge  of   the  im- 

Crtant  committees.  The  best  system  is  that  of 
tmich.  The  Bavarian  communes  are  held 
legally  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  em- 
I^oysient  Bureaus;  the  separate  municipal  bu- 
reaus are  federated  into  a  complete  system  with 
central  bureaus  in  the  lar^iest  Bavarian  cities. 
No  charge  is  made  for  services,  the  m^micipality 
defraying  the  entire  cost  with  the  aid  of  appro- 
priations by  U»«  Bavatian  government  In 
almost  every  German  city  of  50,000  or  more 
inhabitants  a  municipal  bureau  will  be  found, 
and  such  bureaus  are  particularly  successful  in 
southern  Gemany,  but  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  country  the  work  of  the  municipal  bureau 
is  performed,  to  a  great  extent,  by  voluntaty 
aasodaliona,  aided  ^  the  municipalities.  See 
LABoa  LECiSLA-noir  in  the  United  States. 


American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Sd- 
ence,>  Vol.  LIX,  pp.  185-193.  Philadelphia 
1915);  Beveridge,  W.  H.,  <  Unemployment' 
(London  1912)  ;  Devine.  E.  T.,  'Reports  on  die 
Desirability  of  an  Employment  Bureau  in  the 
City  of  New  York'  (New  York  1909) ;  Green- 
wood, Artfanr,  'Juvenile  Labour  Exchanges' 
(London  1911);  Hodps,  H.  G.,  'Statutory 
Provisions  for  the  Achievements  of  Public  Em- 
ployment Bnreaus'  (in  'Annals  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science  •  Vol. 


Labor  Exchanges'  (in  Journal  of  Potilieai 
Ecmcm\.  Vol,  XXIII.  pp.  707-716,  Chicago 
1915)  ;  Nash.  M.,  'Munkipal  Employment  Bo- 


Mitnitital  Revfrw,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  429-«6.  Con- 
cord, N.  H.,  1915) ;  Persons,  Parsons,  Moses,  et 
'Labor  Laws  and  Their  Enforcement'  (New 


,^le 


Xiiiations  bivc  since  been 
of  Ihe  industrial  cenlrcs 
of  the  country.  Three  conventions  have  been 
lield,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  1916;  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  in  1917,  and  Rochester.  N.  Y.,  in  1918. 
At  the  latter,  on  U  May  1918.  the  several 
organizations  formed  a  pernianent  association 
■     be  known  as  the  National  Association  of 


Employment  Uanut 
Ma 

.    leni  manager  in  pi 
id    stabilizing  industrial    employ- 


Bmployment  Manager'a  Coarse, — The  suc- 
iromoting 


.498      EHPLOYHENT,M<M(^^Krr:BMI^^PVM|ENT  HANAOBHBNT 

■  BHPIiXIYMENT  MANACJER.  The  nev 
jirofe&sioii  of  employment  manager  has  within 
the  past  few  years  coaie  to  be  recognized  a£ 
one  of  the  most  vital  factors  in  industiy.  Ten 
years  ago,  workmen  were  hired  by  foremen 
or  flerks  simply  because  they  happened  to  apply 
for  jobs  that  were  va^nt  but  without  regard 
for  :my  particular  fitness  for  the  work  to  be 
j»erformed.  Naturally,  there  was  general  dis- 
satisfaction,  both  on  the  part  of  employer  and 
employee,  and  as  this .  greatly  increased  the 
labor  cost  and  tended  to  reduce  production,  a 
closer  study  of  the  question  of  the  human  ele- 
ment in  tha  iRdustrial  organixatiop  wbs  made, 
witti  the  result  that  many  manufacturing  ooor 
cems  have  placed  their  employment  work  in  the 
^nds  of  a  trained  executive,  with  the  power 
.to  hire,  place  and  handle  the  working  force  with 
,a  view  to  more  efijcitnt  labor  mailageiaeiit. 

The  emptoyment  manager  occupies  the  poatr 
lion  of  the  representative  of  his  company-  in 
the  labor  market.  He  murt  be  familiar  with  all 
sources  of  labor  supply .  and  bcr  capable  of 
Mlectiag  the  men  and  women  needed  for  the 
different  positions  in  his  plant  in  aceoribno; 
witb  their  fitness  for  tbe  jobs,  for  the  duties  «f 
.the  employment  manager  are  -oat  only  to  keep 
the  machines  running  but  to  see.  that  they,  are 
operated  by  workers  wfao  are  able  to  mamtsjn 
a  high  standard  of  efRcieniy  in  the  quality  and 
quantity,  of  the  goods  producedi 

As  the  connecting  link  between  the  masager 
inent  and  the  workef,  the  employment  mansger 
it  entrusted  with  all  taalters  «f  persontjel  cad- 
necied  with  the  company.  The  hiring  of  the 
belp,.  their  a^sigDment  W  taski  that  they  are 
£tte<l  to  perfonn,  their  change  of  jobs  oc  trana- 
fer  from  one  department  to  anotherj  and,  when 
necessary,  their  didcbarec^  are  matters  thdt  real 
ID  his  hands.  He  is  the  "friend  at  cooTt'  to 
vrhom  all  requests  for  a&sisiancc  aft  made  and 
it  ui  he  who  must  sit  ss  a  jud^  upon  all 
grievances  that  are  brought  to  bis  aiteotion. 
Sfiparating  the  imaginary  from  the  real.  - 

The  empkiyment  mana^r  tnatt  not  only  an- 
..force.'tbe  policies  of  his  Company-  and  ace  thkt 
all  rules  fot  tEie  management  oi'the  help>are 
underitood  and  obeyed,  btit  he  must  also  see 
that  there  is  effective  conoperation  between  his 
office  and  the  heads  of  other  thvarUnetatSi'  for 
.his  duties  require,  that  he. keep  as  fully  in 
accord  with  the  various  foranen  as  with  the 
workers.  The  mccessfu!  maintenance  of  th«ee 
varied  relatiotB  requires  both  intellisence  and 
executive  ability,  of  a  high  ^e.  -  • 

This  plan  of  dd^tatin^  all  personnel  prob- 
l«ns    to    a    sldlled    employment   managn- .  has 

S roved  so  successful,  both  in  imptroVing  pn»- 
uction  and  in  promoting  an  eif^l  de.  corft, 
tha;  it  has,  been  adopted  in  nearly  all  importiTlt 
induEirial  concerns  and  in  many  financial  and 
mercantile  eatabiishments. 

Employment  Managers'  AMOcistioita.-^ 
The  development  of  the  profession,  of  employ- 
ment manager  has  resulted  iti  the  organizalk)!! 
of  associations,  or  clubs,  where  the  employ- 
ment imnagcrS  could  meet  to  discuss  the  proD- 
l«ns  arising  in  their  work;  exdtange  experiences 
and^  otherwise  fit  themselves  to  hanole  mpre 
efficaently  (he  iuman  element -so  vital  to  the 
success  of  an  industrial  enterprise.  The  first 
employment  management  society  w»s  organized 
in  Boston,  about  five  years  ago,  and  soon  provvd 
SO  halpfui  to  its  raeinbers  tita.%  similar  emploT- 


nplo.  

cess  of  the  employment  manager  ii 
production  and  stabilizing  industi  ..  ..  ,  ., 
ment  came  to  be  so  generally  recognized  that, 
in  1918,  as  one  of  its  war  measures,  the  United 
States  government  established  an  intensive 
course  in  employment  management,  under  the 
direction  of  the  employment  management  divi- 
sion of  the  War  Industries  Board.  The  first 
course  was  inaugurated  at  the  University  of 
Rochester,  where  the  first  class  graduated  on 
9  May  1918,  and  courses  have  since  been  estab- 
lished at  Harvard,  in  connection  with  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology;  Boston  Univer- 
sity, Boston;  Columbia  University.  New  York; 
Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pittsburgh.  Pittsburgh;  the  Case 
School.  Cleveland;  the  University  of  Washing- 
loit  Seattle,  and  the  University  of  California, 
at  Berkeley.  The  courses  of  instruction  occui^ 
from  six  weeks  to  two  months,  and  the  classes, 
which,  are  conducted  by  the  foremost  employ- 
ment executives  and  industrial  authorities  m 
the  country,  devote  themselves  to  such  subjects 
of  study  as  the  following: 

Functions  and  organization  of  an  employ- 
ment department ;  labor  turnover,  its  causes  wid 
how  to  reduce  it;  character  analysis;  science  of 
hiring;  transfer  and  promotion;  discharge;  isA- 
lowing  employees'  progress  in  the  plant;  educa- 
tional work  for  employees;  recreational  work 
ior  employees;  safety  and  sanitary  engineering; 
method  of  wage  payment ;  bonuses  and  profit 
sharing;  hours  of  labor  and  fatigue;  industrial 
organization ;.  sources  of  labor  supply;  public 
employment  offices  and  methods  of  co-operating 
with  them;  labor  statistics;  causes  of  labor  un- 
rest ;  employers'  liability  and  compensation ; 
history  of  the  labor  movement,  etc. 

In  outlining  this  course  of  study,  the  War 
Industries  Board  stated  that  the  introduction  of 
the  employment  manager  into  industry  and  the 
standardization  of  the  services  of  an  employ- 
ment department  is  one  of  the  greatest  move- 
ments taking  place  in  the  manufacturing  indus- 
try in  this  country,  and  employers  of  labor, 
particularly  those  having  war  contracts,  were 
urged  to  suggest  men  or  women  from  thdr 
organizations  as  candidates  for  the  government 


John  R.  Measer. 
.  EMPLOYMENT  HANAGEMEHT.  Em- 
ployment management  embraces  the  work  of  re- 
cruiting, jdacing,  retaining  and  discharging  the 
working  force.  This  modem  method  of 
handling  personnel  problems  was  inaugurated 
by  one  or  two  employers  of  labor  a  compara- 
tively few  years  ago,  but  the  plan  quickly  dem- 
onstrated its  value  so  dearly  that  it  has  now 
come  to  be  quite  generally  adopted,  not  only 
in  important  industrial  plants  but  by  many  Urge 
mercantile  establishments  and  financial  instita- 
Uons  as  we]]. 

The  devcloptneni  of  the  present  syatem  of 
^^mplQjvreat  management  began  when  kirge  em- 


EHPLOYHSaiT  HANAOBMBNT 


807 


ployers  commenced  to  realue  the  fact  that  the 
greatest  labor  problem  confronting  industry 
was  that  of  the  proper  handling  of  the  working 
organization.  The  studies  of  the  efficiency 
engineer  proved  condiuively  that  a  plant,  to 
operate  cileetively,  must  have  something  more 
than  the  number  of  bands  required  to  run  the 
machineiy.  If  the  highest  possibilities  of  pro- 
duction were  to  be  reached  it  was  necessary  to 
obtain  and  retain  the  goodwill  and  active  co- 
operation  of  the  operatives. 

This  was  a  proolem  that  had  steadily  been 
assuming  more  serious  proportions  for  many 
years.  In  the  old  days  of  industry,  when 
master  and  man  worked  side  by  side  at  the 
bench  the  spirit  of  co-ordination  m  the  average 
shop  was  similar  to  that  in  the  family,  but  with 
the  growth  of  industiy  came  the  development 
of  the  impersonal  corporation  and  the  loss  of 
the  biunan  touch  that  bad  been  so  largely  the 
source  of  the  loyalty  and  friendship  existing 
between  the  "boss*  and  Che  worker.  The  great 
industries,  therefore,  found  themselves  face 
to  face  with  the  necessity^  of  finding  a  substi- 
tute for  the  human  relations  which  they  had 
sacrificed  and  employment  management,  under 
a  trained  director  of  personnel,  is  their  solution 
of  this  problem. 

The  ijrimary  purpose  of  employment  man- 
agement is  to  stabilize  the  working  organization 
by  reducing  the  number  of  men  employed  to 
maintain  the  necessary  average  working  force, 
or,  in  other  words,  by  reducing  the  'labor  (um- 
over.*  To  accomplish  this  end,  employment 
management  includes  many  and  varied  func- 
tions, ranging  from  the  preliminary  work  of 
securing  the  help  to  the  larger  social  problems 
involved  in  Riding  and  protecting  them. 

The  functions  of  the  department  devoted  to 
employment  management  begin  with  the  selec- 
tion of  the  right  type  of  person  for  the  "jobs' 
lo  be  performed  and  this  naturally  includes  an 
analysis  and  dassificaiion  of  the  various  tasks, 
as  it  is  necessary  that  all  prospective  employees 
shall    conform    as    closely    as    |)ossible    to    the 

iecifications  of  the  'job-anal vsis.*  Once  em- 
oyed,  the  new  operative,  if  he  is  a  learner,* 
must  be  placed  under  competent  instniction, 
preferably;  in  a  segregated  school  under  a  spe- 
cially trained  teacher.  Gose  watch  must  be 
kept  upon  his  progress,  not  only  during  this 
period  of  instniction,  but  during  the  length  of 
nis  stay  with  the  concern,  in  order  that  he  may 
find  no  occasion  for  discontent  or  discourage- 
ment in  the  fact  that  he  does  not  profit  in  pro- 
portion to  the  degree  of  efficiency  which  he 
attains.  The  performance  of  these  functions, 
as  well  as  those  of  a  so-called  'welfare*  char- 
acter (which  are  almost  as  closely  allied  to  the 
work  of  employment  management),  require 
close  personal  contact  with  the  workers,  the 
ability  to  inspire  confidence  in  the  genuineness 
of  the  firm's  intentions  to  deal  justly  with  its 
individual  employees  and  the  careful  mainte- 
nance of  a  system  of  records  through  which 
thorough  supervision  may  be  kept  over  the 
development  of  the  plant  personnel. 

Broadly  staled,  these  are  the  functioiis  of 
an  employment  department.  Described  in  de- 
tail, the  scope  of  employment  management  em- 

1.  Hftintainlnc  t  Constant  Survey  of  the 
Labor  Market  and  a  Uat  of  Available  Ap- 
plicanta   for  Poaitiom,— Both   are  necessary 


so. 
pic 


if  the  organisation  is  to  be  maintained  at  its 
normal   standard.     It   is   assumed  that  an   em- 

?loyment  department  will  receive  advance  notice 
rom  foremen  of  nlaces  to  be  filled  and  the 
men  to  lake  these  "jobs"  must  come  from  one 
of  two  sources  of  supply:  the  out^de  labor- 
market  or  prospect  files  built  up  from  informa- 
tion obtained  from  voluntary  applicants  or 
from  inside  the  organiialion,  flirough  personal 
recommendations  by  operatives  already  em- 
ployed. To  accomplish  this  purpose,  however, 
the  data  must  be  easily  available,  which  means 
that  the  information  must  be  secured  and 
properly  filed  in  anticipation  of  every  passible 
demand. 

Z.  Hiring  the  Right  Type  of  Employees^ 
To  meet  this  demand,  the  employment  depart- 
ment must  not  only  be  familiar  with  the  char- 
acter of  every  operation  to  be  performed  but 
must  employ  new  operatives  in  conformi^  with 
technically  correct  'job  specifications'  for  all 
classes  of  help  required.  To  assure  the  best 
results  in  hiring,  all  applicants  should  be  care- 
fully interviewed  as  to  domestic  relations  and 
individual  responsibilities  as  well  as  to  records 
of  previous  employmenL  While  employment 
managers  differ  m  their  opinions  regarding  the 
value  of  references,  the  data  supplied  by  a 
statement  of  previous  employment  usually  af- 
fords an  illuminative  record  of  the  man's  ac- 
complishments and  most  authorities  are  agreed 
that  knowledge  regarding  an  applicant's  per- 
sonal responsibilities  is  important  in  preventing 
the  possible  hiring  of  men  for  'jobs*  paying 
a  smaller  wage  than  that  on  which  they  are 
accustomed  to  live,  as  men  employed  at  less 
than  thnr  have  previously  earned  are  likely  to 
regard  the  place  as  a  nuke-shift  rather  than  a 
permanent  position.  The  opinions  of  employ- 
ment men  also  differ  regarding  the  value  of 
character  analysis  based  upon  personal  appear- 
ance or  psychological  tests,  although  there  is  a 
general  agreement  that  tests  arc  advantageous 
m  the  case  of  operatives  who  are  to  perform 
tasks  requiring  certain  well-established  quali- 
fications. 

3.  Examination  of  ApplicantB.— ^  Many  iin- 
portant  concerns  now  require  a  physical  exami- 
nation of  applicants  before  actual  employment, 
not  only  as  a  safeguard  against  conditions  for 
which  the  firm  mi^t  be  held  responsible  under 
the  compensation  laws  (such  as  hernia,  etc.), 
but  also  as  a  protection  for  other  employees 
against  possible   infection. 

4.  Introduction  of  New  Employees.^  The 
introduction  of  the  newly  employed  worker  also 
devolves  upon  the  employment  department.  If 
the  employee  is  a  "tearner,"  he  is  introduced- 
bolh  to  the  instructor  and  to  other  members 
of  the  'school*;  if  a  skilled,  or  semi-sktlled, 
operative,  to  the  foreman  and  the  operatives 
working  near  htm.  An  "introduction*  must 
also  include  an  explanation  of  the  policies  and 
regulations  of  the  concern,  a  description  of  its 
welfare  activities  and  full  information  regard- 
ing the  location  of  such  important  points  as  the 
emergency  hospital,  lunchroom,  lockers,  wash- 
rooms and  foilet.s,  stockroom,  etc.  Lasting  im- 
pressions of  a  plant  are  frequently  gained  dur- 
ing the  first  days  of  employment  and  an  intro- 
duction which  shows  a  personal  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  a  new  employee  is  of  incalculable 
value. 


Google 


l£UI>LOYMl»ft  UAMAGSUSNt 


S.  PoUowhiz  ap  Employeea'  Perfonnuicei. 
-The  work  oT  following  wp  the  performances 
mployees  is   one  of  the  most  import- 


ant functions  of  employment  management.  In 
the  schools,  it  assumes  the  responsibility  of 
determining  when  the  'learner*  has  attained  a 
sufficient  degree  of  efficiency  to  graduate  as  a 
fidlled  operative ;  with  all  operatives,  the 
•follow-up*  covers  such  tangible  evidences  of 
efiiciency  as:  (a)  General  conduct;  (b)  Earn- 
ing capacity  from  week  to  week;  (c)  Absences 
and  tardiness;  (d)  General  health  and  acci- 
dents-  (e)   Regular  rating  as  to  efiiciency  in: 

(1)  Workmanship,  covering  both  quantity  and 
quality  of  pro'duct  as  well  as  record  of  waste; 

(2)  Reliability  and  industry;  <3)  Attitude  to- 
ward work. 

A  record  of  this  character  is  of  gitM  valne 
to  the  employment  director  in  many  ways.  It 
enables  him  to  see  that  'learners*  are  trans- 
ferred to  regular  *jobs*  as  soon  as  they  are 
capable  of  assuming  ^eater  responsibilities;  it 
suwlies  the  information  from  which  a  careful 
study  of  the  average  earnings  of  the  employees 
can  be  made,  bow  as  a  check  upon  possible 
decreases  in  productive  ability  of  the  individual 
worker  and  as  an  indication  of  rate-changes, 
transfers  or  promotions  that  may  have  become 
desirable.  From  this  record  may  be  secured  the 
facts  regarding  tendencies  toward  absences  and 
tardiness   that   reqnire    further   investigation. 

6.  InvestigatioiiB. —  Much  of  the  success 
in  employment  management  depends  ujmn  the 
thoroughness  of  the  department  s  investigations. 
All  instances  of  chronic  tardiness  should  be 
investigated  and,  if  possible,  a  means  should 
be  found  to  remedy  Ais  defect  Absences  must 
also  be  investigated  and  in  each  case  a  record 
should  be  made  of  the  causes.  In  cases  where 
the  absence  is  due  to  illness,  injury  or  personal 
troubles,  advice  can  often  be  given  and  material 
assistance  afforded,  and  where  the  failure  to 
report  is  the  effect  of  a  misunderstanding  that 
has  inspired  the  desire  to  *quit,*  a  personal  in- 
terview at  this  early  stage  in  the  withdrawal 
is  frequently  the  means  oT  adjusting  the  differ- 
ences and  saving  a  valuable  employee. 

7.  Arrangtment  of  Tr&nsfera. —  Transfers 
in  an  industrial  plant  usually  are  made  for  one 
of  two  reasons:  (1)  Because  an  operative  has 
been  found  capable  of  assuming  greater 


be  given  a  chance  to  perform  a  different  task 
for  which  he  seems  to  be  better  fitted.     The 

practice  of  filling  the  tiigher  positions  by  pro- 
motion has  proved  so  valuable  in  developing  an 
espirit  de  corps  that  this  rule  should  never  be 
violated  except  in  cases  where  there  is  no  mate- 
rial available  within  the  plant,  white  the  plan 
of  transferring  the  more  inefficient  operatives 
instead  of  discharging  them  has  been  proved 
(o  be  a  valuable  change  in  practice  by  many 
important  concem.-i.  Jt  is  one  of  the  vital  func- 
tions of  employment  management  to  see  that 
promotions  are  given  to  those  deserving  them 
and  that  the  "misfit,"  who  may  be  nothing 
worse  than  a  round  peg  in  a  square  hole,_  is 
put  where  he  may  perform  effective  service. 
8,  Power  of  Diacharge. —  In  plants  where 
the  hiring  and  placing  of  workers  is  delegated 
to  an  employment  department,  the  final  dis- 
charge of  an  operative  becomes  one  of  the  func- 
tions of  employment  manag;^::^.;.    In  concerns 


work  in  bis  department  but  the  authority  to 
decide  that  an  operative  shall  not  be  permitted 
to  work  in  any  other  part  of  the  plant  is  dele- 
gated to  the  employment  manager,  subject,  of 
course,  to  the  approval  of  the  plant  manager. 

To  perform  these  duties  successfully  and 
without  weaketting  departmental  discipline  re- 
quires that  all  cases  shall  be  handled  diplo- 
matically and  each  case  npon  its  own  merits. 
In  fact,  where  these  methods  are  pursued,  the 
employment  manager  becomes  a  man  who  sits 
in  judgment  upon  all  questions  of  differences 
between  the  employees  and  their  superiors,  who 


of  all  just  methods  of  directing  his  help  and 
that  every  employee  is  assured  a  square  deal. 
9.  Maintaining  the  Reputatioii  of  the  Firm. 
—  If  a  desirable  class  oi  employees  is  to  be 
obtained  and  retained  it  is  necessary  that  the 
concern  should  have  a  'good  name*  among  the 
workers.  While  the  wages  paid,  the  hours  of 
labor  and  other  conditions  that  depend  upon 
the  policy  of  the  management,  have  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  the  development  of  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  firm,  fully  as  much  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  employment  management,  as 
it  is  essential  that  both  applicants  for  'jobs' 
and  those  actually  working  In  the  plant  shall 
be  pleasantly  impressed  by  the  treatment  they 
receive  at  the  hands  of  the  employment  depart- 


This  means   (1)   All  applicants 

.    -     'nd  treated  courteously,  ap- 
plications being:  taken  and  filed  for  future  ref- 


handled  promptly  and  t 


erence  where  tSere  are  no  positions  to  be  filled; 
(2)  Employees  shall  invariably  be  treated  cour- 
teously  and    justly   and    shall   be   advised   and 


because  of  dissatisfaction,  shall  be 
treated  so  fairly  and  courteously  that  they  will 

fo  away  with  as  agreeable  an  impression  of  the 
rm  as  possible. 

10.  Manigement  of  Welfare  Actlvitief. — 
The  various  welfare  activities  of  the  firm,  in- 
cluding those  of  a  social  and  educational  char- 
acter, also  come  under  the  direction  of  the  em- 
ployment department.  See  Industrial  Weuare. 

U.  Keeping  Labor  Records. —  In  order 
that  these  various  functions  may  be  performed 
effectively,  it  is  necessary  that  a  system  of  de- 
partment records  shall  be  adopted  and  care- 
fully kept  These  include  records  of  (1)  Ap- 
plications for  employment  and  data  r^arding 
condition  of  labor-market.  (2^  Emptoyment 
cards,  containing  such  information  as :  Name 
and  address,  date  of  application,  place  and  dale 
of  birth,  date  of  arrival  of  foreign-bom  immi- 
grant, degree  of  education,  language  spoken, 
domestic  condition  and  record  of  previous  em- 
ployment (3)  Physical  examination.  (4) 
Daily  report  of  those  tardy  and  absent,  with 
causes.  (51  Industrial  prc^ess  of  the  indi- 
vidual worker,  with  special  attention  to  progress 
of  learners."  (6)  Labor  turnover  sheet,  de- 
failing  the  number  'quitting*  or  discharged  both 
by  departments  and  'jobs,*  with  such  facts  as 
(a)  reasons  for  withdrawal,  fb)  len^  of  serv- 
ice, etc.    See  Labor  Turnovbr. 

In  plants  where  these  metliods  have  been 


EHPORIA— EMS   DISPATCH 


adopted  there  has  been  a  max  Iced  improvement 
in  me  personnel,  a  reduction  of  the  labor  turn- 
over and  general  stabilizing  effects  that  have 
been  clearly  reflected  both  ijl  the  quality  and  the 
quantity  of  product. 

John  R.  Meaio. 
BHPORIA,  Kan.,  dty  and  county-seat  of 
LyoD  County;  on  the  Neosho  River  near  its 
jtinction  with  the  Cottonwood,  in  the  central 
part  of  the  State,  and  on  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
and  Texas,  and  a  division  point  of  the  Atclii- 
son,  Topel^  and  Santa  Fe  and  other  railroads; 
60  miles  southwest  of  Topeka.  It  is  the  com- 
mercial centre  for  a  large  section  of  country 
devoted  to  {arming  and  dairying  and  to  tbe  fat- 
tening of  western  range  cattle  for  the  eastern 
market  Emporia  has  a  thriving  jobbing  and 
export  trade  and  some  manufactures,  incltiding 
marble  and  iron  works,  carriage  and  canning 
factories,  woolen  mills,  corrugated  metal  works, 
and  flour  and  grist  mills.  It  has  three  banks,  ■ 
■with  a  combined  capital  of  over  $250,000  and 
doing  a  large  annual  business  and  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers.  Gas  is  served  by  a  private 
company,  and  the  waterworks  and  electric- 
lighting  plant  are  owned  and  operated  by  the 
ci^.  Emporia  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Noanal 
School  (ZOOO  students),  and  of  the  College  of 
Emporia  (Presbyterian),  and  the  Western  Con- 


largest  town  in  Kansas  that  never  has  permitted 
a  saloon  to  open  within  its  limits  since  the  pas- 
sage of  the  prohibitory  law  in  1880.  The  city 
adopted  the  commission  form  of  government  in 
1910.  Emporia  was  founded  in  1856  by  P.  B. 
Plumb,  afterward  United  States  Senator,  and  a 
BToup  of  pioneers  from  the  Middle  States;  it 
-was  incorporated  In  1870.    Fop.  9,328. 

BUPYEHA,  im-pl-e'ma,  a  collection  of  pus 
consequent  on  pleurisy.  True  empyema  is  pus 
secreted  from  the  pleura;  the  false,  when  an 
ahscess  of  the  iaag  bursts  into  the  cavity  of 
the  chest  When  the  quantity  of  fluid  is  so 
'large  as  to  cause  great  dyspntca  and  endanger 
life,  it  must  be  let  out  by  tapping  the  chest 

EMPYREAN,  a  word  used  by  the  ancient 
Greek  philosophers  to  designate  the  highest 
region  of  the  heavens,  where  the  purest  and 
most  rarefied  elements  of  fire  and  light  exist; 
and  by  mediaeval  poets  to  indicate  the  ninth 
heaven,  the  home  of  the  blessed.  In  modem 
poetry  the  emiyrean  is  merely  the  over-arching 
dome  of  the  heavens. 

EMPYRKUMA,  em-pl-roo'm^  (Gr.  "a  live 
coal  presetred  in  ashes'),  the  smel!  acquired 
by  organic  matter  when  subjected  to  the  action 
of  fire,  hut  not  enough  to  carbonize  it  entirely. 
The  products  of  imperfect  combustion,  as  from 
wood  heated  in  heaps  or  distilled  in  close  ves- 
sels^ are  frequent^  dlstii^uished  as  empyreu- 
mattc 

EMS,  Smz.  Germany,  a  celebrated  water- 
ing place  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Hesse- 
Nassau;  on  the  river  Lahn.  The  environs  are 
beautiful.  As  early  as  IS&3  it  was  a  town  of 
resort  as  a  watering-place.  The  mineral  waters 
at  Ems  are  warm  — from  70°  to  J33'  F.;  (he/ 
are  of  the  saline  class,  containing  large  quanti- 
ties of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  are  ntea  with 


much  effect  in  chronic  ottarrfas,  pulmonary 
complaints  and  some  other  diseases.  The  his- 
toiy  of  the  town  dates  back  to  the  9th  century, 
and  the  lead  and  silver  mines  have  been  worked 
a  number  of  years.  Since  1863  tbe  fame  of 
the  springs  has  overshadowed  its  industrial  and 
trade  advantages.  It  was  here  thai  the  memor- 
able interview  between  the  king  of  Prussia  and 
tile  French  ambassador,  Benedetti,  took  place 
which  formed  the  prologue  to  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian war  of  1870^71.    Pop.  6.519. 

SMS,  river  of  Germany,  which  rises  at  the 
southeast  extremity  of  the  Teutoburger-Wald, 
in  Lippe-Detmold,  flows  northwest  through 
Rhenish'Prussia  and  Hanover,  .and  into  we 
Dollart,  near  Emden;  length  about  210  miles. 
It  drains  an*  area  of  about  4,600  square  miles. 
Its  chief  alBuents  are  the  Aa,  the  Haase,  the 
Hessel,  and  the  Leda,  all  from  the  east  It 
is  navigable  as  far  as  Papenburg  for  light  ves- 
sels, 'but  it  supplies  water  to  numerous  canals, 
which  are  used  for  both  irrigation  and  naviga- 
tion. In  1S18  it  was  connected  by  a  canal  with 
the  Lippe  and  thus  with  the  Rhine^  and  its  im- 
portance has  been  greatly  increased  \iy  the  open- 
ing of  the  Dortmund-Ems  and  other  canals. 

EMS  DISPATCH.  The  historical  designa- 
tion of  the  communication  which  precipitated 
the  Franco-German  War  of  1870-71.  The  his- 
tory of  tbe  famous  Ems  telegram,  with  the 
texts  of  the  original  dispatch,  is  as  follows; 

Isabella^  Queen  of  Spain,  deposed  in  1868, 
formally  abdicated  25  June  1870,  and  the  Span- 
ish throne  was  thus  left  vacant  On  5  July  the 
foreign  govenmients  were  notified,  and  the  fact 
was  generally  made  known  that  Prince  Leopold 
□f  Hohenzoilern,  evidently  with  the  approval 
of  the  King  of  Pnissi^  had  consented  to  be- 
come a  candidate  for  the  vacant  throne.  The 
announcement  created  intense  excitement  in 
France.  Seven  days  later  the  withdrawal  of 
Prince  Leopold's  caqdidacy  was  made  public. 

The  next  day,  13  July,  the  French  ambassa- 
dor. Count  Benedetti,  forced  himself  upon  the 
presence  of  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Ems  and 
insisted  that  tbe  king  make  a  formal  and  spe- 
cific declaration  that  no  Hohenzollern  Prince 
would  be  permitted  to  accept  tbe  throne  of 
Spain.  The  king  declined  to  listen  to  such  de- 
mands and  broke  off  the  interview.  When  the 
account  of  wbat  happened  was  sent  to  Bis- 
marck, it  was  with  ^rmission  to  *use*  it  Bis- 
marck used  it  by  giving  to  the  press  abridged 
features  of  the  French  demand,  with  the  result 
that  the  Germans  were  inflamed  against  France^ 
France  declared  the  nation  insulted,  and  war 
was  declared.  The  details  are  shown  in  tbe 
texts,  which  follow: 

lliis  is  Abeken's  telegram  of  13  July  1870 
to  Bismarck: 

•His  Majesty  the  King  writes  to  me: 
'Count  Benedetti  caught  me  on  the  Promenade 
and  importunately  requested  me  to  authorize 
him  to  send  a  telegram  at  once  s^ng  I  bound 
myself  not  to  consent  to  the  Hohenzollern  can- 
didature should  they  recur  to  it  at  any  future 
time;  this  I  declined,  and  rather  sternly  at  last 
One  cannot  enter  d  lout  jamais  into  such  an  en- 
gagement. I,  of  course,  told  him  that  I  had 
no  news,  but  as  he  got  his  from  Paris  and 
Madrid  sooner  than  I  did,  he  must  understand 
that  ray  government  was  taldng  no  part  in  the 


.Google 


810 


EHSBR  —  BHUL8IN 


'Since  then  his  Majesty  has  received  a  letter 
{it>m  Prince  Karl  Anton,  His  Majesty  had  in- 
formed Count  Benedetti  that  he  was  expecting 
news  from  the  Prince,  but,  having  regard  to  the 
above  reasonable  demand,  his  Majesty  resolved, 
on  the  advice  of  Count  Eulenburg  and  myself, 
not  to  receive  Count  Benedetti  agam.  bnt  merely 
Xp  send  him  a  message  by  an  adjutant  to  the 
effect  that  his  Majesty  had  now  received  from 
the  Prince  the  confirmation  of  the  news  which 
Benedetti  had  already  received  from  Paris,  and 
that  his  Majesty  had  nothing  further  to  say 
to  the  ambassador.  His  Majesty  leaves  it  to 
the  decision  of  your  eitcellency  whether  this 
new  demand  of  Benedetti  and  our  refusal  to 
comply  therewith  should  not  be  forthwith  com- 
municated to  our  ambassadors  and  to  the  press.* 

As  issued  try  Bismarck,  the  telegram  read 
at  follows : 

'After  the  news  of  the  renundation  of  the 
Prince  of  Hohenzoilern  had  been  ofiicially  com- 
municated by  the  Spanish  government  to  the 
French  government,  the  French  ambassador  in 
Ems  nevertheless  demanded  that  his  Majesty 
should  authoriie  him  to  telegraph  to  Paris  that 
his  Majesty  pledged  himself  for  all  future  time 
never  again  to  give  his  consent  to  the  Hohen- 
zollems  resuming  their  candidature.  His 
Majesty  has  thereupon  declined  to  receive  the 
ambassador  ^ain  and  has  informed  him 
through  the  adjutant  that  he  has  nothing  further 
to  communicate  to  the  ambassador.' 

Consult  Barrett-Lennard  (Mrs.)  and  Hoper 
(M.  M,).  Bismarck's  Pen:  'The  Life  of  Hein- 
rich  Abeken'    {London   1911). 

EMSER,  Sm'iiT,  Hieronymus,  German 
Roman  Catholic  theologian :  b.  Ulm,  26  March 
1472;  d-  Dresden,  8  Nov.  1527.  In  1S02  he  be- 
came professor  at  the  University  of  Erfurt, 
where  Luther  is  said  by  him  to  have  been 
among  his  pupils.  In  1504  he  established  him- 
self at  Leipzig,  where  be  also  lectured  at  the 
university.  He  served  as  secretary  to  puke 
George  of  Saxony,  who  sent  him  on  a  mission 
to  Rome,  in  order  to  obtain  the  canonization  of 
Bishop  Benno  of  Meissen.  With  Luther  and 
the  theologians  of  Wittenberg  generallv  he  was 
on  good  terms  until  the  disputation  ot  Leipzig 
m  1519,  from  which  time  he  made,  in  union 
with  Dr.  Eck,  incessant  endeavors  to  oppose  the 
increasing  influetice  of  Luther  and  the  progress 
of  Protestantism.  The  German  translation  of  the 
Bible  tnr  Luther  was  attacked  by  him  as  errone- 
ous, whereupon  it  was  forbidden  in  Saxony  by 
Duke  George.  Emser  then  himself  published  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  German, 
made  from  the  Vulgate  (1527).  He  also  wrote 
*Vita  S.  Bennonis,'  as  he  ascribed  to  Saint 
Benno  his  recovery  from  a  severe  sickness. 

EMU,  the  only  representative  of  the  fam- 
ily Vromaiidx,  and  with  the  cassowaries  the 
Australian  representatives  of  the  order  Strutk- 
iones.  In  size  the  emu  ranks  between  the 
African  ostrich  and  the  rhea  of  South  America, 
the  African  bird  being  seven  feet  in  height  and 
the  emu  five.  In  general  appearance  and  form 
it  is  more  bird-like  than  either  of  the  others. 
Like  the  cassowary  of  northern  Australia,  its 
head  and  neck  are  feathered,  and  the  back  is 
gracefully  arched.  Its  body  is  covered  with  a 
rich  brownish  plumage.  With  the  rhea  and  cas- 
sowary,  it  has  three  toes  on  the  foot,  while  the 
African  ostrich  has  but  two.    The  emu  is  a  bird 


of  the  plains,  where  it  feeds  upon  fruits,  herbs, 
and  roots.  The  nest  is  scooped  in  the  sand, 
and  Gie  number  of  eggs  is  six  or  seven,  of  an 
attractive  green,  eacn  measuring  five  inches  in 
length.  The  feathers  have  no  ornamental  value, 
and  the  flesh  is  eaten  only  b^  the  natives. 
Coursing  the  emu  has  been  earned  to  such  an 
extent  Uiat  the  birds  of  New  Holland,  once 
spread  throughout  the  whole  continent,  arc  now 
in  many  parts  exterminated.  It  is  valued  bv 
the  natives  chiefly  for  the  fat  beneath  the  skin 
which  contains  great  quantities  of  oil.  The  emu 
utters  a  faint  booming  noise  and  sometimes  a 
shrill  piping  note.  Jit  confinement  it  is  found 
to  be  tractable,  and  is  readily  tamed. 

BHUCKPAW  AND  ENOTACHOPCO, 
BatUes  of,  in  the  War  of  1812.  After  the 
battle  of  Talladega  (q.v),  the  volunteers 
mutinied  and  on  ID  Dec.  1813  demanded  their 
discharge,  but  on  14  Jan.  1814  /ackson  was  re- 
inforced by  WO  sixty-day  militia  and  therefore 
decided  to  co-operate  with  Gen.  John  Floyd 
(who  had  recently  won  the  battle  of  Autessee; 
aiming  at  Emuckfaw,  a  town  40  miles  north 
of  Tuckanbat chee  ( q.r. ) .  On  20  January 
with  930  militia  and  about  200  Creeks  and 
Che4»kees,  he  camped  on  Enotadiopco  Creek, 
12  miles  from  Emuckfaw,  where  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  22d  he  was  attacked  by  the  Indians 
but  repulsed  them  with  great  slaughter  and 
drove  them  nearly  two  miks  from  the  field. 
On  the  23d  Jackson  began  the  retunj  journey  to 
Fort  Strother  but  the  next  day,  while  crossing 
Enotachopco  Creek,  the  Indians  attacked  and 
threw  his  force  into  disorder,  many  of.  the 
tnoops  fleeing.  But  Colonel  Carroll  with  25 
men  maintained  their  ground  and,  rallying  the 
fugitives,  Jackson  soon  turned  defeat  into  vic- 
toiy.  His  loss  in  the  two  fights  was  24  killed 
ana  71  wounded,  and  that  of  the  Indians  200 
dead  and  many  wounded.  On  27  January  he 
returned  to  Fort  Strother  where  he  remained 
until  the  battle  of  Horseshoe  Bend  (q.v.), 
Floyd  in  the  meanwhile  having  fought  the  bat- 
tle of  Tuckaubatchee  (q.v.).  Consult  Adams, 
Henry,    'United  States'    <Vol.   VII,   pp.  247- 


Wiley  and  Rines,  'The  United  States'  (Vol.  V, 
pp.  ^-^3)  ;  biographies  of  Jackson  by  Parton 
(Vol.  1,  pp.  487-494).  Budl  (Vol  I,  pp.  318- 
321).  Frost  (pp.  205-223). 

EMULSIN  (^— glucase).  a  mixture  of 
closely  related  ensymes  which  hydrolyie  the  fl- 
glucosides.  It  contains  a  j9-glucase  proper,  a 
cyanase,  an  amygdalase  and  a  lactam.  It  is 
found  in  many  seeds  and  especially  in  the  bitter 
almond,  but  also  in  the  sweet  almond  and  the 
kernel  of  die  cherry  pit  The  addition  of  a 
small  amount  of  water  to  this  seed  develops  the 
characteristic  reaction  and  the  formation  of  the 


poison  prussic  acid  in  solution, 
ceptionally  wide  in  its  action,  owing  probably 
to  its  compound  nature.  But  it  is  commonly  con- 
sidered as  a  unit,  and  a  specific  enzyme  for  g- 
allo-l  glucosides ;  and  all  glucosides  which  are 
hydrolyzed  by  it  are  regarded  as  derivatives  of 
j3-glucose.  Some  of  its  properties  are  erratic: 
It  hydrolyzes  isomaltose,  but  synthesizes  glucose 
to  maltose.  Emulsin  hydroly^es  the  natural 
glucosides:  aesculin  am^gdalin.  androsin.  arbu- 
tin,  auctitnn,   bankankosin.  cahnatambin,   coni- 


.yGooi^le 


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,)gle 


EMU  {Hippahctryo  Uniappcndiculatus) 


lyGoot^Ie 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


EHULSiOH -'tttfAMsijjr  ^lini^MMMELING 


ilr 


ferin,  daphnin,  dhunin,  goitioplcrin,  helidn,  in- 
camatrin,  indican.  tnandelonitrik  slucoside, 
meliatin,  olewropein,  piccin,  prulaurasln,  salicin, 
sainbunigrin,  syringin,  taxicatin  and  verbenalin, 
and  the  s^thelic  g-glucosides. 

Emulsin  is  prepared  by  dieestmg  the  oil-free 
pnlp  of  ground  sweet  aImon<fi  with  a  little  tolu- 
ene or  cnloroform  for  several  hours,  generallv 
overnight.  The  whole  is  then  put  into  a  dotn 
bag  and  the  lii^uid  pressed  out.  This  is  treated 
with  acetic  acid,  drop  by  dro^  URtil  the  protein 
has  been  all  precipitated.  The  clear  liquid  is 
treated  with  alcohol  in  repeated  small  quanti- 
ties until  no  mare  precipitate  falls.  Pouring 
oS  the  liquid  the  preciintate  is  hurriedly  washed: 
with  absolute  alcohol  and  ether  to  remove  atl 
moisture.  It  is  then  thoroaglily  dried  in  a 
vacuum  to  a  soft  white  powder.  Consult  Arm- 
strong, E.  P.,  'Lactase,  Maltue  aud  Emulsin* 
(London  1912). 

BHULSION,  the  term  ;4>plied  to  those 
preparations  in  pharmacy  in  which  oily  sub- 
stances are  suspended  in  water  by  means  of  gum, 
sugar,  carra^en,  etc,  called  emulsiliers.  In 
general  it  will  be  found  that  the  bulk  of  the 
emulsifier  must  first  be  taken,  while  the  oil' 
should  only  be  added  litde  by  little,  rubbing 
together  in  a  mortar,  and  taking  care  that  it  is 
comjiletely  absorbed  or  emulsified  before  further 
additions.  Should  too  much  be  added,  the  effect 
is  to  throw  out  most  of  what  has  already  been 
incorporated;  it  is  then  practically  impossible  to. 
remedy  the  error.  The  emulsion  of  cod-liver 
oil  is  familiarly  known.  Mitk  and  the  yolk  of 
e^gs  are  natural  emulsions.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  suspensions  in  water  of  certain  in- 
soluble substances,  such  as  resins.  These  be- 
ing reduced  to  impalpable  form  are  mixed  with 
a  syrup  of  gum  or  sugar,  or  other  viscid  fluid 
thick  enou^  to  prevent  their  settlin){.  A 
familiar  instance  of  this  form  of  emulsion  is 
common  coal  lar,  which  appears  black  because 
of  the  particles  of  free  carbon  suspended  in 
the  colorless  pitch. 

BNAMBUC,  a-n5A-t>uk,  of  ESKAMBUC, 
Pierre,  French  navigator :  b.  Dieppe  about  1570 ; 
d.  Saint  Christopher,  W.  I..  December  1636. 
Being  of  an  adventurous  spirit,  he  sailed  from 
Dieppe  in  1625  m  a  brigantine  of  eiolit  guns, 
for  the  Antilles.  He  landed  in  the  isUnd  of 
Saint  Christopher  on  the  same  day  with  a  party 
of  Elfish  cokmisti,  with  whom  he  divided  the 
island,  and,  until  his  death,  held  the  French 
half  of  the  colony  -with  extraordinary  tenacity. 
In  1635  he  took  possession  of  Martinique  in  the 
name  of  the  king;  of  France,  and  founded  tha 
town  of  Saint  Pierre  (q.v.). 

BNAHELS  AND  BNAMSLINO.  The 
term  enamel  is  used  for  certain  siHeeous  com- 
pounds employed  for  coating  metals.  "Hiey  arc, 
m  every  tetiM  of  the  word,  glass,  either  tna»- 
parent,  opaque,  white  or  colored.  The  art  Is  a 
venr  ancient  one,  some  claiming  it  origioated 
with  the  Sc^thiatis,  who  are  said  to  have  i»- 
tttiduced  it  into  China  during  the  re^  of  a 
certain  Emperor  Thaiwonti,  but  India  WM  ac- 
quainted with  the  art  before  China.  Extant 
evidence  exists  that  the  andent  Egyptians, 
Phcenidans  and  Aswtans  used  enamel  coating 
in  the  decoration  of  jewelry,  and  of  the  clay 
beads  and  scarabs  of  the  Nile-dwellers  in  our 
museums  many  are  covered  with  colored  glass. 
The  fliibject  of  finunet  wofk  OA  the  pndou» 


metals  ij  discussed  in  aOottier  article  (see  Aaf 
Enamels),  so  we  will  donfine  diis  article  to  the 
technical  side  of  enamel  production  and  At 
in  dug  trial  utilization  of  enamel. 

Saw  Materials.— The  ingredients  uBed  in 
the  production  of  the  different  kinds  of  enamels' 
are  felspar,  qgarti,  flnorspar,  borax,  boric  add, 
soda,  potash,  saltpetre,  cr^dlite,  clays,  ammo-'' 
niam  carbonatCj  stannic  oxide  and  water.  The 
coloring  agents  used  are  cobalt  oxide,  Ihnonlte, 
iron  oxides;  ehrMjiic  Wtide,  irupric  oxide,  etc 
The  felspar  composition  most  desirable  con-' 
sisls  of  siliceous  earth  65  per  cent,  ahimina  18' 
per  cent,  alkalis  16  per  cent.  For  the  creation 
of  white  enamels  It  is  essential  'hat  the  felspar 
^&ll  be  as  free  from  Iron  oxide  espec^ially,  as' 
possible.  .Quartz  piust  be  pure  but  it  is  fre- 
quently replaced  beneficially  with  a  'fine  whit* 


be  used,  for  white  enamels  especially.  The 
bora^  needed  for  enamels  ig  of  the  monoclinic 
system  of  crystallization  (containing  10  mole- 
cules Water  of  crystal liration)  not  the  octahe- 
dral crystals  regular  system,  which  contain' 
only  five  molecules  water.  It  is  used  as  a  flux 
or  accelerator  of  fnsion.  Boric  acid  functions 
the  same  as  borax  but  the  formfcr  is  more  fre- 
quently used  than  the  latter.  Soda  and  potash 
harve  identical  action  in  enamels  and  their  ptes- 
ence  heightens  the  lustre  if  it  is  not  used  too 
fheely-  The  s6da  of  commerce,  being  cheaper, 
is  mostly  ertiployed;  it  is  fir^t  calcined  to  obtain 
its  anhydrous  conaitiotl,  Aen  finely  powdered. 
Saltpetre  (nitre)  iised  is  the  sodium  variety,  bc-i 


the  e..___,  _.._._  ..._,   _ _ 

or  the  artindal.  Tl^iS  spainnl-aluminnm-ffuoride 
is  utilized  for 'its  double  reaction  of  acting  as 
fiux  and  creating  opaWscenee.  Atmnontum  car- 
bonate is  supposed  by  some  to  te  a  valuable  ii»- 
gredient  to  inhibit  cradling  or  crazing  of  the 
enamel  in  firing  on  account  of  its  making  the' 
substance  more  utjiform.  Some  authorities, 
however,  declare  its  nse  a  waste  of  money  and' 
useless.  Stannic  oxide'  is  expensive  with  the 
present  prices  of  tin  btit  its  use  continues  as  a' 
necessity  after  many  attempts  with  substitutes. 
Care  must  be  taken  in  maintaining  the  purity  of 
me  metal  while  in  the  oxidizirtg  process  or 
small  black  spots  will  appear  i»  the  baked' 
enamel  from  impurities  or  may  occur  front 
particles  of  metal  not  having  become  oxidized. 
This  chemical  produces  perfect  opacity,  which' 
antimony  substitutes  do  not,  unless  sufficient  be 
used  to  eause*other  defects.  The  poisonotn! 
character  of  antimony  has  also  caused  its  use  to 
be  forbidtien  in  many  countries.  Lead  mide; 
lends  a  wonderfnl  brifliance  to  enamels'lt  acts 
also  as  a  Sua;  uf  great  power.  The  lead  oxides 
were  formerly  used  considerably  on  earthen- 
ware.litensils  to  assist  the  glaae,  but  long  since 
they  have  been  elirninated  by  law  on  account  of 
their  wAsoBoas  nature,  their  solubility  render-' 
ihg  Iftem  extremely  irijuriout  when  used  on 
vessels  for  cooking,  or  even  containing,  food-' 
stuffs.  The  use  ot  the  lead  imddes  is,  there-: 
fore,  restricted  to  the  gtazes  of  ornaments  and 
art  worit. 

Coloring  Mattera;—  Cobalt  oxide  afTorils  atr, 
intense  blue  color  when  used  in  strength  and 
can'be  redticed  In  tohe'in  lesser  i '  -' 


.lOOgle 


»U>: 


raUHBt'S^.ANP  KNAMBLIHQ 


Aside  {rom  its  use  ia  pigment  cobalt  oxide  has 
tbe  physical  value  of  adfiesiveness  to  sheet  iron 
through  its  coefficient  of  expansion  being  the 
same  as  sheet  iron.  It,  therefore,  forms  an 
ideal  ingredient  for  the  enameb  used  in  cooIdnK 
utensils.  Perhaps  it  is  bere  necessary  to  the 
uninitiated  to  state  that  one  of  the  first  retiairc' 
tnents  in  an  efficient  enamel  body  is  that  it  shall 
adhere  to  the  aietal  under  the  stress  of  chalices 
of  temperature.  _0n  account  of  the  high  cost  of 
cobalt  tuckel  oxide  is  much  used,  throui^  its 
considerably  lower  price.  Ltmomte  is  a  per- 
ondc  of  manganese  (called  also  pyrolasite)  and 
is  used  in  enwneb  to  bleach  out  an^  impunty  of 
twie  in  tbe  white  enamels.  Additional  propor- 
tions will  produce  dark  violet  (the  noted 
tnangmeft  violtt  of  the  ceramist)  and  mix-. 
ing  a  proportion  of  iron  oxide  with  the  limonite 
^vei  oeautiful  brown  to  black  effects.  Limo- 
nJte  in  small  proportions  is  sometimes  blended 
with  the  more  costly  cobalt,  producing  a  red- 
dish blue  of  much  brilliannr.  Ferric  oxide  may 
be  prepared  to  firoduce  eitner  a  bright  red  or  a 
reddish  violet  pigment  according  to  the  amount 
offbeat  applied  in  its  manufacture.  Cliromic 
oxide  procuices  a  green  enamel  and  cupric  oxide 
aiveB  a  dailc-green  and  a  bluish-green ;  agiun  a 
bluish-green  can  be  obtained  l^  a  combination 
of  copper  and  cobalt  salts  or  chromium  and 
copper  salts,    varying    from    bluish-green    to 

Seenish'blue  according  to  their  equivalents  in 
B  mixture.  The  salts  of  chromium,  cadmium, 
uranium  and  titanium  can  each  be  used  in  ob-. 
taiuing  yellow  enamels.  Ferrous  chromate 
produces  a  lovely  brown ;  it  is  called  Brongniart's- 
brown,  after  the  srsat  French  ceramic  cnemist 
Nickel  is  used  in  obtaining  a  gray  enaiQel.  The 
salts  of  gold  produce  a  beautiful  rose  enamel 
as  well  as  tbe  loveliest  pink.  But  a  far  less 
expensive  pink  is  produced  by  chaSc,  quartz, 
stannic  oxide,  borax  and  bichromate  of  potash 
mixed  and  heated  to  »  frit,  the  pigment  being 
dissolved  in  water  to  separate  it  from  the. 
solids.  Antimony  produces  several  yellows  in- 
cluding the  npted  Naples  yellow  (lead  anti- 
monate)  of  the  art  poix:elains;  they  aie,  how- 
«ver,  poisonous  and  forbidden  in  food  utensils.. 
^nunel  Mminfactitre.—  In  the  mixing  oper- 
ations only  absolutely  trustworthy  operators 
are  employed,  Tbe  wotlans  fonnuhe  a>'e  k^t 
strictly  secret  from  all  but  tue  highest  olScials.. 
From  this  point  our  description  will,  be  devoted 
to  practices  applied  in  the  sheet  iron  and  steel 
enamel  industry.  Every  ingredient  has  to  be 
dry  and  tbe  de^ee  of  pulverization  cannot  be 
too  fine  to  obtain  a  homogeneous  enamel  The 
same  care  and  time  has   to  be  given   to  the 

¥'oceas  of  mixing  the  different  ingredients, 
he  French  machine  irnithnaeur)  does  very 
effective  work.  The  various  chemicals  arc  kept 
in  separate  bins,  and,  in  order  to  maintam 
aecrecjr,  eadi  ingredient  is  known  onlir  under  a 
letter  or  number.  Taking  the  raw  material 
from  the  bins  it  is  loaded  into  sinaS  cars 
termed  *dollies,*  which  are  loaded  to  a  hei^t 
W^vximatinK  the  quantity,  then  ran  on  to  a 
Kale  and  weii^ed  and  the  excess  shoveled  back 
or  fresh  addedT  The  precaution  is  taken  to  have 
the  scale  beam  and  its  gradnation  marics  InvisUjle 
to  all  but  the  person  presiding  over  the  work. 
With  the  completion  of  loatfing  all  tfae  dif- 
ferent materials  in  correct  proponiQ^  in  tbeir 
individual  "doUies*  the  material  is  ni^Kd  on  a 
hard  maple  floor  of  the  machine.    First  conMs 


the  coarser  material  at  bo^om,  the  finest  on  t(^ 
The  mixture  made,  it  is  hoisted  by  an  electric. 
elevator  and  run  to  its  bin  and  the  process  is 
renewed  in  preparing  tbe  next  kind  of  enamel, 
again  to  be  stowed  in  its  special  bin.  By 
means  of  a  traveling  bucket,  holding  the  cor- 
rect amount  for  a  melt  the  mixed  raw  material - 
(about  lj200  pounds)  is  carried  to  the  blast 
furnace  (rarely  a  crucible  furnace).  The  kind 
of  furnace  common  in  American  use  Is  the 
same  that  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass 
and  is  heated  widi  natural  gas  or  crude  oil  as 
the  most  economical  fuel,  £ou{^  coal  is  used 
in  tfae  older  factories.  The  furnace  tempeiature 
has  to  be  very  carefully  regulated  as  insufficient 
heat  produces  a  slow  melt  liable  to  create  a  de- 
composition, whereas,  too  high  a  degree  may 
create  combustion  or  some  chemical  reaction 
injurious  to  the  outcome.  Some  authorities 
place  1,000'  C.  for  a  glaze  heat  and  about 
1,300°  C.  for  a  Kround  coat  Control  over  the 
heat  is  permitted  by  the  installation  of  pyrome- 
ters. A  furnace  can  afford  from  seven  to  ei^t 
melts  in  24  hours.  As  the  ingredients  fuse 
separately  according  to  their  different  melting 
points  great  care  has  to  be  taken  diat  the  mixed 
mass  be  kept  stirred  lest  they  separate.  The 
length  of  time  needed  for  the  smelt  differs  ac- 
cording to  the  enamels,  a  white  fusing  well  at 
two  hours  while  ground  enamels  and  Uues  take 
from  two-and-a-nalf  to  three  hours,  and  so 
forth.  The  enamel  is  now  a  liquid  glass,  in 
which  state  it  is  drawn  off  by  releasing  a  fire- 
clay plug  located  in  the  front  of  the  furnace.' 
The  molten  body  flows  into  a  tank  of  cold 
water  and,  witii  noisy  reaction,  the  vitreous 
liquid  is  torn  into  shreds  and  small  pieces  with 
explosive  violence,  leaving  minute  fissures 
throughout  the  substance.  Besides  toughening 
the  enamel  body  this  so-called  "quenching"  as- 
sists in  easing  the  next  process,  which  is  grind- 
ing. This  gnnding  cannot  be  too  fine,  in  fact 
the  finer  the  resulting  impalpable  powder  the 
briehter  the  resulting  lustre  of  the  enamel.  The 
suddenly  quenched  glassy  mass  is  known  as  a 
•frit.»  During  the  grintfing  other  materials  arc 
added,  such  as  stannic  ecid  for  creating  an 
opaque  white,  or  pigments  for  the  different 
colors.  About  30  hours  is  required  for  grind- 
ing in  the  large  ball  mills.  The  latter  are 
cyTindrieal,  about  five  feet  in  length  and  have 
a  diameter  of  about  six  feet,  and  are  lined  with 
porcelain  bricks.  To  the  frit,  which  should  re- 
tain about  50  per  cent  of  water,  is  added  a 
stuall  percentage  of  white  ball-clay.  About  2 
per  cent  zinc  oxide  improves  a  white.  The  clay 
addition  is  made  to  help  hold  the  other  ingredi- 
ents in  suspension,  hindering  them  from  sub- 
siding according  to  their  specific  gravittes!  it 
also  creates  opacity,  increasing  at  tfae  same  lime^ 
tbe  needed  qnaltc  of  elasticity  of  the  enamel. 
Odicr  adthtjons  are  added  in  proportions  in  ac- 
cord with  the  secret  formula;  sash  as  sal-ani' 
ffloniac  ammonium-carbonate,  magnestum- 
diloride,  burnt  magnesia,  chloride  of  sodium 
(taUesut>,bDtax,  soda,  ate  The  ground  mess 
should  reach  the  consistcncr  of  a  rich  cream, 
yAea  k  is  poured  into  tanks  and  left  to  mature 
for  a  week  or  more. 

Fonimlar-iA  German  formula  for  a  white 
enamel  is  (in  kiloKram  equivalents)  borax, 
132;  quaru,  152i  felmar,  130;  soda,  26;  salt- 
petre, 6:  cr^olil»,  78;  iuorspar,  3|  magnesia,  6. 
An  .awd-resbtiog.«namel  white  is  borax,  74; 


ENASA  — SNAULT 


313 


;,  40;  fluorspar,  6;  soda.  20;  saltpetre,  10; 
magnesium  carbonate,  1 ;  pure  powdered  glass- 
meal,  53;  clay,  12;  calcspar,  6.  A  blue  "^t""' 
formula  is  borax,  60.0;  alumina,  3,6;  felspar, 
101.0;  soda,  62;  natural  cryolite,  24.0;  salt- 
petre, 3.0;  fused  enamel  fraKmeotaiy,  40.0; 
cobalt  oxide,  3.0;  limonile,  OS;  ferric  oxide, 
0,1.  A  black  fused  enamel  formula  is  borax, 
62;  felspar,  120;  soda,  14;  ferric  oxide,  8;  cobalt 
oxide,  2;  smalt,  16;  limonite,  16. 

The  Hetal  and  Treatnwntf— In  the  pro- 
duction of  steel  enameled  kitchen  utensils  the 
metal  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from  sul- 
phtir,  carbon,  silicon  or  phosphorus  and  with  a 
general  manganese  content  of  about  0.2  per 
cent.  The  sheets  (oblong  or  sijuare)  run  from 
27  to  20  gauge.  Applying  as  little  heat  aa  pos- 
sible, they  are  circled,  stamped  and  spun,  using 
a  lubricant  that  is  easily  eliminated.  A  pick- 
ling process  must  of  course,  cleanse  the  metal 
from  im^rities  before  the  shaping  is  done. 
The  additional  trimmings  (ears,  handles,  etc.) 
should  be  welded  on  because  the  enamelmg  of 
riveted   parts    is  a   diflicult   process. 

The  Rtiameling  Process. —  The  operation 
as  carried  on  in  American  factories  is  clearly- 
described  by  R.  D.  Landrum,  an  expert.  This 
work  starts  in  the  ^dipping  room,"  where  Ae 
liquid  enamel  is  placed  in  tanks  of  dish-pan 
form  simk  into  tahles.  The  operator,  called-  a 
■sli»sher,»  dips  the  stamped  steel  vessel  (vrhioh 
has  been  previously  cleansed  of  all  grease  and 
impurities)  into  the  enameL  Coming  out  of! 
the  immersion  the  vessd  is  covered  with  a  film 
of  the  wet  enamel,  any  drip  or  excess  is  elimi'- 
natcd  by  the  slusher  geatly  swinging  the  object, 
when  it  is  placed,  bottom  down,  on  three  metal 
points  that  project  from  a  board.  After  several 
vessels  are  placed  on  the  board  it  is  set  in  a 
rack,  and,  when  dry  and  the  rack  full,  they  are 
conveyed  to  the  inmace  room,  wherq  a  bank  of 
inufBe  ovens  receives  them.  Tiie  temperature 
(about  1,000°  C)  here  fuses  the  minute 
powdered  particles  of  enamel  together  into  a 
glass  coating  covering  the  entire  vessel,  a  proc- 
ess requiripg  but  three  to  five  minutes.  Other 
coats,  are  aad«d,  as  needed,  over  this  ground 
coat  In  a  three-coat  piece  we  wish,  perhaps, 
three  coats  of  white  on  the  inside  and  turquoise- 
blue  outside.  The  ground  coat  enamel  having 
dried  aad  been  passed  through  the  oven  comes 
out  almost  blacK,  from  the  cobalt  and  nickel 
oxides,  and  the  piece  is  left  to  cool.  The  slush- 
ing room  operator  now  gives  the  vessel  an  im- 
mersion in  white  enamel  and  adds  a  black  "bead* 
or  edge  on  the  rim.  This  second  coat  still  shows 
up  grayish  as  the  first  coat  penetrates  throueh 
after  firing,  so  it  is  subjected  to  another  dip 
at  the  hands  of  the  slusher  in  the  white  enamel. 
A  spray  of  bl vie- green  enamel  is  applied  to  the 
ontside,  before  drying,  with  the  aid  of  a  wire 
brush,  or  the  more  np-fo-date  machine  which 
acts  as  an  atomirer.  The  vessel  is  next  dried 
and  fired  again  in  the  oven,  leaving  turquois« 
blue  spots  outside  on  the  white  backxroun(L 
The  nnct  process  is  the  assortit^  of  the  finished 
wares  into  'firsts,*  •seconds*  and  "thirds*  or 
job  lots,  accor£ng  to  ^ir  perfection  or  de- 
fects. Imperfection  in  the  cleaning  of  the 
original  vessel  mav  have  caused  minute  spots  to 
»>pear  on  the  surface,  due  to  rust  or  dirt  This 
defect  can  scmetimes  be  remedied  by  filing  the 
■petS'  oS,  or  subjecting  them  to  a  aand-blast. 


and  giving  the  vessel  another  coat  of  cnameL 
The  discovery,  or  invention,  of  applying  enamel 
coatinxs  to  metal  ware  such  as  kitcaen  utensils, 
bathtubs,  etc,  in  ike  same  manner  as  the  bath 
tiles  and  earthen  utensils  which  had  been  used 
hy  our  fathers  was  indeed  opportune,  for  the 
rising  price  of  the  metal  had  made  the  process 
of  tmnmg  so  exorbitant  that  the  industry  was 
in  real  distress,  with  the  certain  prospect  of 
the  price  of  tin  advancing  to  much  higher  pro- 
portions. The  iron-enamel  industry  has  ex- 
tended its  lines  into  sanitary  ware,  hygienic  im- 
I^ements,  chemical  apparatus  and  numerous 
other  branches.  The  growth  of  the  industry, 
starting  principally  in  France  and  Germany  on 
a  large  scale',  has  extended  to  the  United  States, 
all  in  the  course  of  about  25  years.    The  Ger- 


Ltput    by    1909   already,    was   90,000,000 

.     nploying  a  capital  of  near  $15,000,000. 

In,  1914  the  industry  m  Germany  and  Austria- 


kilos,   ( 


■Hungary  employed  in  the  neighborhood  of  60^' 
000  wage  earners.  In  the  United  States  the 
'Census  of  Manufactures'  (1914),  gives  us  the 
following  interesting  statistics  of  the  sheet  iron 
and  steel  enamel  industry.  There  were  270 
factories,  employing  28,731  operators.  They 
produced  goods  valued  at  $66,979,005,  and  had  a 
payrol!  of  $15,242,586.  Consult  Gruenwald,  J„ 
'"nie  Theory  and  Practice  of  Enameling  on" 
Iron  ahd  SteeP  (translation  by  H  H,  Hodgson, 
London  1909) ;  id.,  <The  Raw  Materials  for  the 
Enamel  Indudty  and  their  C^Kntical  Techaol- 
(m-'  (London  1914);  Landrnm,  R.  D.,- 
<Enamels>  (Clevdand  1918);  Millenel,  L.  E., 
'Manuel  pratiqne  de  Timaillerie  sur  mitaux' 
{Paris  1917). 

Cleuent  W.  Coi5if  bb. 
ENARA,  a-na'ra.   or   ENAKB,   iL-nii'rJl,   a 

'lake  in  Finland;  area,  about  145  square  miles. 
The  outlet  is  Patsjoki  River,  which  flows  into 
the  Arctic  Ocean,    A  town  of  the  same  name,  at 


KNAREA,  e-na're-i,  a  countfy  of  the  Gallafc 
sonth  from  Abyssinia,  between  lat.  7°  and  8 
N.,  and  long.  35°  and  37°  E.  In  the  valley  of 
the  GibW,  immediately  beyond  Sakha,  the  chief 
of  the  country,  are  extensive  plantations 


ized  of  the  Gallas,  and  show  moch  ridU  i 
mannfactures.    Pop,  about  40,000. 

BNARGITE,  en-ar'jTt,  a  native  stilpliar»- 
enate  of  copper,  of  which  it  contains  48.3  per 
cent_  It  constitutes  an  important  'ore  of  copper 
and  ts  found  in  cleavable-grannlar  masses,  also 
:._ .kL t..^»L:..  ■   ■         I.  1 1 .. :^ 


Utah,  Califorriia  and  Montana. 

ENAULT,  a'no,  l^uia,  French  novelist: 
b.  Isigny,  Calvados,  1824;  d.  Paris  1900.  H« 
used  4he  pen-name  "Louis  Vermond,'  He 
wrote  many  novels  and  books  of  travel,  includ- 
ing among  them,  'Promenade  en  Belgique  et 
sur  les  bords  du  Rhin.>  {1852) ;  <La  terre 
sainte>  (1854);  <Constantinc^le  et  la  Turquie' 
(1855)  ;  'Voyage  en  Paponie  et  en  Nonr^ge> 
(1857) ;  <La  M^diterran^e,  ses  eles  et  ses  bords> 
(1862) ;  'L'Amerique  centrale  et  meridionale* 
(1866)  ;  'Paris  bru16  par  la  Commune'  (1871)  ; 


1,70.  h,  Google 


ii4 


ENCJENIA— BNCrtAMTfldtV  MmHTSHADS 


•Valneige'  (1887)  ;  <Le  Chateau  Jes  angcs* 
(1891);  'Tragiques  amours'  (1891);  'Jours 
d'rareuve*  (1894);  'La  trcsse  bleue'  (1896); 
'Myrto'  (1898);  and  a  French  translation  of 
<UncIe  Tom's  Cabin'  (1853). 

ENCSNIA,  €n-se'nl-a,  or  ENCENIA,  a 
name  given  to  the  feast  in  commemoration  of 
the  dedication  or  consecration  of  Christian 
churches.  In  early  times  it  was  applied  to  the 
feast  in  honor  of  tbe  founding  of  a  city  as  well 
as  in  honor  of  the  founding,  or  taking  pos- 
session by  dedication  or  consecration,  of 
churches.  The  custom  of  observing  the  anni- 
versary of  the  consecration  of  a  church  or 
cathedral  dates  from  the  time  of  Constantitie, 
when  Christians  were  permitted  more  freedom 
of  worship  in  the  Roman  territoiy ;  but  the 
jews  before  the  coming  of  Christ  sofemnly  ded- 
icated their  tabernacles;  and  in  a  certain  sense, 
consecrated  their  houses  of  worship.  The . 
Christian  ceremonies  became  very  elaborate  on 
Aese  occasions  and  were  disapproved  and 
finally  modified.  The  name  is  applied  also 
to  commemorating  festivals  in  honor  of  the 
founders  and  benefactors  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  universities.  At  Oxford  University 
'Commemoration,'  or  "EncKhia,"  usually  takes 
place  the  third  Wednesday  after  Trinity  Sun- 
day. The  oradon  in  honor  of  the  founders  and 
benefactors  is  ^ven  in  Latin. 

ENCALADA,  an-si-la'da,  Haunel  BUaco, 
Chilean  soldier  and  statesman :  b.  Buenos 
Aires,  Argentina,  1790;  d.  Santiago,  Chile,  5 
SepL  1876.  He  studied  at  Madrid,  and  in  the 
Naval  Academy  at  Leon,  and  after  deserting 
from  the  Spanish  ranks  joined  the  Chilean  rev- 
olutionary party,  and  served  with  distinction 
both  in  Uie  artillery  and  in  the  navy.  He  be-  , 
came  rear-admiral  in  1819,  and  ma;or-gcneral 
of  infantry  in  1820;  and  in  1825  was  appointed 
head  of  the  army  of  Clhile.  He  was  for  two 
months  President  of  the  republic  in  1836,  gov- 
ernor of  Valparabo  1847-S^  and  Minister  to 
France  18S3-S8. 

ENCAUPMENT,  the  military  camp  in  its 
more  comprehensive  sense,  including  the  occu- 
pants of  the  camp  proper,  as  well  as  the  i^ys- 
ical  equipment  collected  and  arranged  to  shel- 
ter and  provide  for  them.  In  military  parlance 
the  shorter  term  *camp*  is  used  to  embrace  the 
whole  significance  of  the  term  encampment  — 
which  therefore  has  lapsed  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  into  tlisuse,  except  among  the  romantic 
wnters.    See  Camp. 

ENCAUSTIC.    Se«  Mukal  Paiktino. 

ENCAUSTIC  PAINTINO.  Sec  Paint- 
rHG,  Technique  of. 

ENCAUSTIC  TILES,  a  species  of  orna- 
mental tiles  made  of  a  finer  kind  of  clay  than 
the  ordinary  tiles,  but  not  so  fin^  as  porcelain. 
These  are  of  two  sorts ;  plain  and  figured.  The 
plain  tiles  are  sometimes  square,  but  more  fre- 
quently triangular  and  of  different  colors;  the 
latter  shape  renders  possible  a  greater  number 
of  designs  when  the  tiles  are  employed  in  a  sort 
of  mosaic  work  for  the  paving  of  churches, 
halls,  etc.  They  are  made  by  putting  the  col- 
ored clay  into  strong  steel  molds  and  subjecting 
it  to  a  pressure  of  several  hundred  tons,  1^ 
means  of  a  plunger  fitting  accurately  into  the 
mold.  The  under  surface  of  the  tile  is  usually 
ribbed  in  order  to  afford  a  better  hold  for 


mortar.  The  day  for  figured  tiles  is  pressed 
into  an  iron  mold,  the  bottom  of  which  is 
formed  of   a  piaster  of  Paris  pattern,  bearing 


filled  with  colored  clays,  and  the  surface  is  then 
shaved  to  remove  all  superfluities  and  ruf^ed- 
ness,  leaving  the  pattern  intact.  The  tile  is 
then  dried  tor  two  or  three  weeks  and  finally 
fired  by  being  exposed  to  an  intense  heal  for  60 


mg  3 


e  of 


works  which  forms  the  main  enclosure  of  a 
town  or  fortress.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  area  within  this  line. 

ENCELADUS,  son  of  Tartarus  and  Gxa 
in  Greek  mythology ;  one  of  the  hundred- 
handed  Titans  who  made  war  against  the 
gods.  Jupiter  slew  him  with  a  thimderbolt  and 
burned  him  under  Mount  .^tna.  Tbe  name 
Enceladus  was  given  to  the  second  satellite  of 
Saturn,  discovered  by  Herschel  28  Aug.  1789. 

ENCEPHALITIS,  an  inflammation  of  the 
brain  proper  which  may  be  locaUzed  or  dif- 
fused, and  results  from  coexistent  intoxications, 
or  following  any  acute  affection  sudi  as  ulcer- 
ative endocarditis,  rheumatism,  mumps,  etc  It 
is  quite  probable  that  many  cases  of  acute 
encephalitis  occur  in  children,  resulting  in  the 
well-known  picture  of  infantile  hemiplegia. 
The  symptoms  are  very  indefinite.  There  is 
headache,  vomiting,  somnolence.  There  maybe 
coma  or  delirium,  the  symptcsns  all  pointiiig  to 
acute  inflammation  of  die  brain.  Acute  enceph- 
alitis is  usually  fatal.  In  many  of  the  inswu- 
ties,  as  acute  mania,  delirium,  dementia  para- 
lytica, there  is  a  fcHtn  of  encephalitis  usually 
present.  Localized  encephaliiiB  usually  results 
in  abscess.    See  Bbaim,  Diseases  or  the. 

SNCSPHALOCELB,  in-s«f'a-1&-sSI,  a 
hernia  or  a  protrusion  of  a  portion  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  cavity  of  the  brain  through  an 
opening  in  the  skutf  beneath  the  skin.  At  least 
three  different  forms  are  described:  Menin- 
gocele, when  the  dura  mater  alone  protrudes 
from  the  cavity,  forced  out  by  the  pressure  of 
the  cerebrospinal  fluid;  hydrocephaloccle.  in 
which  the  tumor  consists  of  an  internal  hydro- 
cephalus; and  encephalocele,  which  is  made  up 
of  true  brain-tissue  with  more  or  less  fluid  sur- 
rounding it.  Most  of  these  tumors  are  of  con- 
genital origin,  due  to  insufficient  union  of  the 
bones  of  the  skull ;  a  few  are  acquired  later  in 
life.  Surgical  procedure  Is  the  only  dficient 
mode  of  treatment. 

ENCEPHALON,  the  contents  of  tbe  skull. 
See  Brain. 

ENCHANTER'S  NIGHTSHADE,  a 
name  common  to  plants  of  the  genus  Circaa, 
beion^ng  to  the  family  Oitagrace^  of  which 
tliere  are  three  American  species,  C.  bttelioMO, 
C.  pacifiea  and  C.  olpina.  The  first  is  about 
a  foot  and  a  half  birii,  and  has  delicate  ovate 
leaves,  small  white  fknvets  tinged  with  pi^ 
and  small  roundish  seed-vessels  covered  widi 
hooked  bristles.  It  abounds  in  woods  frcun 
Nova  Scotia  to  western  Ontario,  south  to  Geor- 

S'a  and  west  to  Nebraska.  It  is  also  called  the 
ndweed  nightshade.  C.  alftna,  wMch  is  simi- 
tar but  smaller  and  more  iieticate,  is  found  in 
cold,  moist  shady  woods  tfanughout  tbe  nordi- 


ENCH  ABINO — BNCLOStTRK' ' 


era  bmiisph«re.    Both  plants  . 

Europe    and    Asia.     Neither    has    any    affinity 

with  the  true  nightshades. 

ENCHASING,  or  CHASING,  tfac~art~of 
ennchinsj,  beautifying  and  finishing  omamenUl 
designs  ui  raised  work  upon  metal  surfaces, 
especially  gold  and  silver.  When  these  designs 
have  received  their  general  foim  by  casting  or 
haDunerin^  they  are  ready  for  the  skilled  hand 
of  the  artisan  and  his  chasing  tools.  These  are 
of  a  great  variety  of  shapes  and  sizes,  fitted  to 
correspond  with  the  minute  details  of  the  most 
complex  work.  Some  arc  grooved  or  checkered 
at  the  ends,  and  some  of  the  gravers  and  burins 
are  curved  and  blunt,  while  others  taper  to  a 
needlepoint.  The  worker  possesses  a  set  of 
hammers,  big  and  little,  graded  in  size  to  suit 
any  kind  of  tool.  To  offset  his  alternating  task 
of  punching  and  carviiig  he  employs  sana  bags 

rn  which  to  rest  his  work.  In  order  that 
form  of  hollow  articles  may  not  sufler  in- 
jury during  the  operations  they  are  tilled  with 
a  composition  of  melted  pitch  and  brick  dust 
or  rosin.  Articles  in  copper  and  brass  are 
sometimes  filled  with  lead  to  give  them  firm 
support  within.  Fine  steel  blocks  are  often  used 
to  the  same  end.  Excellent  spedmens  of  chased 
work  are  seen  in  pieces  of  ancient  armor,  and 
in  vases  and  other  ornaments  in  gold  and  silver- 
plate.  Among  the  most  beautifik  are  those  exe- 
cuted by  Benvenuto  Cellini  (q.v.)  in  the  16th 
centuiy.  Bronze,  richly  wrou^I,  has  taken  its 
place  beside  gold  and  silver  work. 

BNCINA,  en-thCna,  Jnan  del,  Spanish 
dramatist:  b.  La  Encina,  Spain  1469;  d.  there 
1S34.  Little  is  known  of  his  Ufe;  the  probable 
facts  are  that  he  was  educated  at  Salamanca, 
and  in  1492  became  a  member  of  die  household 
of  (he  Duke  of  Alba,  under  whose  patmna^  he 
began  to  write  his  plays.  He  was  appwnted 
nuestro  di  cappella  to  Leo  X  at  Rome,  took  or- 
ders and  was  ordained  prior  at  Le6n.  His  first 
volume  of  poems,  'The  Song-Book,'  contained 
also  a  dissertation  on  'The  Art  of  Castillian 
Poesy.'  His  lyrics  are  full  of  charm  and  lively 
wit  He  wrote  14  dramas,  eight  of  whldi  are 
shepherd-plays  or  eclognes;  the  rest  are  pieces 
for  church  holy  seasons.  It  is  to  the  fanner  that 
he  owes  his  position  in  Spanish  literature,  for 
these  homely  scenes  were  the  first  secular  i^ya 
in  Spain.  He  made  the  Jerusalem  pilgrimage, 
and  described  it  in  the  poon  (Tnbl^ia;  or, 
the  Sacred  Way  of  Jerusalem'  (1521).  He 
has  been  styled  "The  father  of  die  Spaiush 
drama.*  His  dramatic  works  were  edited  by 
Aienjo  Barbieri,  in  'Teatro  Completo'  (Ma- 
drid 18931 ;  his  lyrics  by  Frandsco  Asenio  Bar- 
bieri in  'Candonero  musical  de  los  stglos  XV 
y  XVI'  (Madrid  1894).  Consult  DIai  Jimine* 
y  Mdleda  'Juan  del  Endna  en  Ledn>  (Madrid 
1909). 

BHCISO,  in-ttie'so,  Martin  Fenundcx 
de,  Spanish  geographer:  b.  Seville,  about  1470; 
d.  after  1528.  He  came  to  America  in  ISOO; 
practised  law  in  Santo  Domingo  and  supplied 
funds  to  Alonso  de  Ojeda  for  the  colonization 
of  Tierra  Ftnne,  the  region  about  the  Isthmus 
1S09.  Endsco  tollowef  in  ISIO  and  founded 
the  dty  Santa  Maria  la  Antiqua  del  Darien. 
His  soldiers  revolting,  he  was  arrested  by  Vasco 
Nufiei  de  Balboa,  and  went  to  Spain,  returning 
to  Darien  1514  as  alcalde^  and  opposing  Balboa 


Suma  de  Geographia,  que  (rata  de  todas  las 
I»rtidas  del  mundo,*  the  first  Spanish  descrip- 
tion of  America  which  touched  upon  the  dif- 
ference in  level  of  the  two  oceans. 


pupii  of  the  Berlin  Academy  and  of.  Albeit. 
Wots,  his  tirst  piece  being  a  group  entitled  'A 
German    StruggUI^{    With    Two    Gauls.' 


took  a  prize  for  the  statue  of  Jahn  in  1872,  and 
was  made  professor  at  the  Berlin  Academy  in 
1883.  His  art  was  related  to  the  school  of 
Ranch,  his  temperament  being  at  the  same  time 
realistic  and  poetical.  Among  his  prominent 
works  are  a  statue  of  the  Great  Elector,  Fted- 
erick  r  of  Brandenburg  (Town  Hall.  Beriin)  ; 
a  colossal  statue  of  Queen  Louise  of  Prussia 
(Thiergartcn,  Berlin);  and  the  sarcophagi  of 
Emperor  William  I  and  Empress  Augusta  in 
the  mausoleum  at  Charlottcnbnrg. 

ENCKE,  Johann  Frana,  German  astroao< 
mcr :  b.  Hamburs  23  Sept.  l79t ;  d-  Spandau, 
26  Aug.  186S.  He  studied  under'  the  astrono-. 
mer  C^uss,  at  GSttingen ;  during  the  war  of 
liberation  (1813-15)  served  as  artillerist  in  the- 
German  army.  axiA  on  the  conclusion  of  peace 
was  amKiintea  assistant  in  the  observatoi?  of, 
Seeberg.  near  Gotha.  Here  he  calciilated  the 
orbit  Of  the  comet  observed  by  Mechain,  in 
1786,  by  Miss  Herschel  in  1795,  and  by  Pons 
in  1805-18.  He  predicted  its  return  in  1822- 
25-28,  and  with  each  reappeacanc«  more  data 
were  afforded  for  computing  it)  exact  orbit, 
which,  it  was  calculated,  required  three  and  a 

auarter  years  to  complete.  By  comparison  of. 
le  times  of  its  earlier  and  later  appearances, 
Encke  was  subae^ently  led  to  detect  a  ((radual 
acceleration  of  its  movement,  amounting  to 
about  two  and  a  half  hours  on  each  revolution. 
This  acceleration  he  ascribed  to  a  resisting  me- 
dium, which  sensiblv  aflects  the  body  of  the 
extreme  rarity  of  this  come^  which  ia  trans- 

fiarent  to  its  centre.  The  fame  of  his  two  pub- 
ications  'Die  Entfemung  der  Sonne'  (1822) 
and  <Der  Vennsdtirchgangvon  1769'  (1824>,led 
to  his  appointment  as  director  of  the  observa- 
tory of  Berlin  (1825),  a  position  which  b«held. 
till  his  deathr  Many  of  his  woilcs  are  contained' 
in  the  'Astronomiscbe  JahrWcher'  (1830-66), 
a  publication  during  these  years  issued  under 
his  direction.  His  various  sdentific  puUica- 
tions  were  collected  and  published  as  'G«Mm- 
melte  mathematische  und  aatronomiscfae  Ab- 
baniflungen'  (3  vols.,  Berlin  1889);  and  'As- 
tronomische  Abhandlnngen^  (3  vols.,  Berlin 
1868). 

ENCLOSURE,  or  t^nventn^l  seclusion  of 
nuns  who  have  taken  solemn  lifetime  vows,  is' 

Sarded  very  stricllyby  the  laws  o(  the  Roman 
diolic  Church.  The  conventional  seclusion 
of  moidts  is  less  strict,  the  prohitntion  of  con-- 
verse  with  the  outer  world  being  in  their  case 
limited  to  the  exclusion  of  womet}  from  the 
interior  of  the  monasteries  and  rigid  rules  on 
the  observance  of  silence.  The  Coundl  of 
Trent  forbids  nuns  to  leave  their  convents,  even 
for  a  short  time,  on  any  account  whatever  save 
for  a  ie^timate  cause  —  a  cause  specified  in  the 
law  —  with  the  approval  of  the  local  bishop. 
And  no  person  from  outside,  male  or  femm, 


jOOgIc 


SNQRATSTRS— BMCYCI^OPaSIA 


Kuna  or  old,  iuah  or  low,  la^  or  deriaJ,  ii  to 
a^itted  fritnin  the  clauswo  of  a  nunnery 
unless  with  leave  io  writinK  from  the  bishop  or 
superior,  By  violation  of  this  rule  excommuni- 
cation is  incurred  ipso-faclo.  These  rules, 
however,  apply  to  regularly  cloistered  nuns,  who 
take  solemn  life- vows  of  detachment  from  the 
world:  they  do  not  apply  to  the  houses  or  con- 
vents of  religious  wo^ien  whose  work  brings 
them  in  contact  with  the  outside  world,  such  as 
Sisters  of  Oiarity,  of  Mercy,  Little  Sisters  of 
the  Poor  and  the  like.  In  such  reli^ous  insti- 
tutes the  spirit  of  the  Tridentine  law  governs, 
not  the  letter. 

BNCRATITES,  £n-kra'ti-tes  (conlinenles, 
abstainers),  a  Gnostic  sect  of  the  2d  century, 
disciples  of  Tatianus,  who  was  himself  a  dis- 
ciple of  Justin  Mar^r,  and,  like  him,  author  of 
an  Apologia  on  behalf  of  Christian  believers. 
Taiianui  held  that  the  material  world  is  essen- 
tially evil,  proceeding  from  the  evil  principle. 
For  him  marriage  was  sinful  and  animal  food 
an  abomination ;  he  employed  water  instead  of 
wine  in  the  eucharistic  rhc. 

ENCRINITES,  (n-kri-nrtez,  a  division  of 
fossil  crinoids  or  so-called  •stone-lilies*  distin- 
guished   from    the   more   common    forms   with 


Derbyshire  •birdseye*  marble  is  noted  for  the 
vast  numbers  of  encrinital  remains  it  contains, 
the  silicon  skeletons  appearing  in  the  polishea 
stone  as  if  in  relief.    See  CbjkoUI. 

ENCYCLICAL  (litem  tncyctica),  a  cir- 
cular letter.  The  word  used  is  an  ecclesiastical 
sense  means  a  letter  addressed  by  the  Pope  to 
sill  the  bishops  in  the  world  who  are  in  com- 
munion with  trim,  in  which  he  condemns  errors 
prevalent  in  the  world,  or  endains  the  line  of 
conduit  which  Christians  ought  to  take  '        ' 


nowned  encyclical  which  noted  fiO  prime  errors 
in  current  thonght.  Leo  XIII  issued  a  large 
number  of  encyclicals  on  sudi  questions  as, 
rights  of  labor,  education,  marriage,  Bible 
study,  etc.,  and  Pius  X  in  1907  condemned 
certain  trends  of  modem  thought  and  aciioni. 
An  encyclical  differs  from  a  bull  or  brief,  in 
that  the  cn<^ica]  is  to  the  bishops  of  the  whole 
world,  treats  of  matter  of  umversal  interest 
and  is  of  concern  to  the  entire  GiuTch.  A  bull 
or  brief  is  determined  by  circumstances,  is  of 
a  special  nature  and  may  be  of  particular  value 
only  to  some  locality.  There  is  a  difference  in 
the  form  of  an  encyclical  from  that  of  a  bull  or 
brief.— that  is,  in  the  seals  used,  the  signatures 
and  the  introductory  words. 

ENCYCLOPJEOIA,  CYCLOP.SJ>IA.  or 
CYCLOPEDIA.  This  word,  formed  from 
the  Greek  en,  in,  kuklos,  a  circle,  and  paideia, 
instruction,  but  not  a  native  Greek  compound, 
originally  denoted  the  whole  circle  of  the  vari- 
ous branches  of  knowledEje  which  were  compre- 
hended t^  the  ancients  m  a  liberal  education 
(the  artes  liberates  of  the  Romans).  The  dis- 
tinction between  the  words  encyclopxdia  and 
cyclopxdia  is  almost  too  trifling  to  be  compre^ 
bended.  At  a  later  period  the  word  was  ap^ 
plied  to  every  systematic  view,  either  of  the 
whole  extent  of  human,  knowledge  or  of  par- 
ticular' depaitments  of  it-     The  want  of  such 


general  surveys  was  early  felt;  and  as  knowl- 
edge increased  they  became  still  more  desirable, 
partly  for  the  purpose  of  having  a  systematic 
arrangement  oi  the  sciences  in  their  mutual  re- 
lations, partly  for  the  readier  findii^  of  particu- 
lar subjects ;  and,  for  these  two  reasons,  such 
works  were  sometimes  philosophically,  some- 
times alphabetically,  arranged.  The  spirit  of 
compiling,  which  prevailed  in  the  Alexandrian 
School,  soon  led  to  attempts  remotely  allied  to 
this,  and  Varro  and  Pliny  the  Elder,  among 
the  Romans,  composed  works  of  a  similar  kind. 

The  honor  of  undertaking  encyclopaMlias  on 
a  regular  plan  belongs  to  the  Middle  Ages, 
which  produced  not  only  a  large  number  of 
cyclopaedias  of  particular  sciences,  called  5'Mn>- 
m<F  or  Specula  (tor  example,  the  *StHnma  The- 
ologix*  of  Thomas  Aquinas),  but  also  a  Uni- 
versal Encyclopfedia,  such  as  had  never  been 
seen  before.  The  indefatigable  Dominican, 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  about  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century,  exhibited  the  whole  sum  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  a  work — or 
rather  three  works-— of  considerable  siie  —  a  ■ 
real  treasure  to  the  inquirer  into  the  literary 
history  of  the  Middle  Ages.  An  exceedingly 
popular  work  was  the  'De  Proprietatibus 
Kerum'  of  Bartholoroeus  de  Glanvilla,  an  Eng- 
lish Franciscan  friar,  which  maintained  its  repu- 
tation from  the  year  1360  to  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century.  In  the  17th  century  various  en- 
cyclopedic works  were  compile<L  such  as  the 
Latin  one  of  John  Henry  Alstcd,  'Encyclopsedia 
vii  Tomis  distincta'  (Herbom  1620),  a  work 
in  whidi  the  subjects  are  divided  into  7  classes, 
and  treated  in  35  books.  In  1674  appeared  the 
first  edition  of  Mor6ri's  'Le  Grand  Dictiannaire 
Historique.'  In  1677  John  Jacob  Hoffman  pub- 
lished at  Batel  his  'Lexicon  Universale,'  the 
first  woric  of  the  kind  in  which  a  summary  of 
art  and  science  was  presented  in  dictionary 
form.  In  1697  appeared  Bayie's  famous  'Dic- 
tioimaire  Historiqueet  Critique^  (Rotterdam,  4 
vols.),  a  work  which  is  still  of  great  value. 
Among  the  greatest  works  of  earlier  date  would 
have  been  redcoati  the  'Bihlioteca  Universale* 
of  CoroiMtli,  had  it  been  completed  according 
to  the  original  i^an.  It  was  to  have  appeared 
in  45  folio  volumes,  of  which  only  seven  were 
published  (Venice  1701-06).  More  successful, 
especially  in  being  brought  to  a  completion,  was 
the  'Grosses  voUstandiges  Universallexicon  aller 
Wissenschaften  und  Kunste'  (Grand  Universal 
Lexicon  of  all  the  Arts  and  Sdences),  com- 
monly called  Zedler's,  from  the  person,  a  book- 
seller, who  conducted  it  (Halle  and  Leipzig 
1732-50,  64  vols.;  Supplement  1751-54,  4  vols. 
folio).  It  has,  on  the  whole,  much  meriL  Lives 
of  living  men  were  included  after  volume 
XVIII. 

The  transition  from  the  ancient  type  to  the 
modern  occurred  about  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  and  ori^ated  in  the  desire  to  make 
books  of  this  kind  more  easy  of  consultation. 
This  changed  the  arrangement  of  the  material 
by  classified  subjects  to  its  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment by  key  words,  names  or  special  topics. 
The  encyclopedia  thus  approached  and  was  as- 
fflmilalcd  to  the  dictionary.  The  change  was  not 
confined  to  the  form,  for  the  alphabetical  ar> 
rangement  inevitably  led  to  a  change  in  the 
purpose  and  character  of  encyclopcedtc  cominla- 
tion,  viz.,  that  from  the  exposition  of  the  sgrstem 


.lOOglc 


nacteUi'pMhiA. 


of  human  Icnowledge  to  the  oiechanical  arran^ 
raent  of  its  contents.  lo  this  line  of  its  develop- 
tnent  the  encyclopanlia  became  a  work  of 
reference  in  the  strict  sense  of  that  word  —  a 
work  for  occasional  use,  in  which  anj  peitkular 
topic  or  item  of  information  desired  can  be 
found  under  the  proper  word  in  an  alphabetical 
vocabulary.  This  practical  aim  and  this  method 
have,  however,  been  adopted  by  modem  encyclo- 
pedists in  varying  degrees.  On  the  one  hand, 
there  has  been  a  tendency  to  approach  more 
and  more  closely  to  the  dictionary  type  by  in- 
creasing the  number  and  variety  of  the  vocabu- 
lary words,  and  correspondingly  subdividing  the 
material  contained  in  the  book;  and,  on  the 
other,  a  tendency  (traceable  (o  the  ancient  sys- 
tematic type)  to  restrict  the  vocabulary  and 
combine  the  material  as  much  as  possible  under 
comprdiensive  titles.  In  its  extreme  form  the 
former  tendenw  has  given  rise  to  the  modem 
■encyclopaedic  dictionary,*  and  flie  latter  to  en- 
cycloparaias  which  are  little  or  nothing  but 
aggregations  of  monographs. 

In  practice,  however,  encyctopwiia  makers 
incline  more  and  more  toward  the  adoption  of 
the  dictionary  type,  as  better  suited  lo  the  prac- 
tical needs  of  scientific  and  literary  workers 
and  as,  in  fact,  essential  to  the  adequate  presen- 
tation of  the  vast  accumulations  of  mo<ten) 
science,  history  and  biography.  An  important 
characteristic  of  modem  methods  is  the  em- 
ployment of  a  large  corps  of  specialists,  both  as 
compilers  and  as  editors.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  no  good  general  encyclopaidia  is  now 
possible  which  does  not  include  in  its  editorial 
staff  a  small  army  of  men  of  science,  historians, 
theologians,  lawyers,  and  so  on.  The  aim  is  to 
collect  ftt  first  hand  the  special  knowlet^e  of 
the  time  and  to  present  it  in  a  manner  that  is 
acceptable  to  specialists.  Lastly,  the  use  of  pic- 
torial illustrations  — platea  and  diagrams  and 
pictures  in  the  text,  which  found  a  place  in 
eni^clopKdias  at  an  earl^  date — has  been  ex- 
teoded  and  ibar  quality  unproved. 

llie  first  encyclopaedia  written  in  Englidi 
and  with  the  articles  ali^abetically  arranged 
was  (he  'Lexicon  Technicum,'  or  a  'Universal 
English  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences'  (Lon- 
don 17CM,  1  voL  folio),  by  John  Harris,  a  Lon- 
don clergyman.  This  was  a  useful  and  popular 
work,  though  it  omitted  from  its  scope  theology, 
biography,  antiquity  and  poetiy.  It  was  re- 
printed in  1708  and  a  second  volume  was  added 
m  171(X  Among  other  important  encyclopedic 
works  in  English  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned :  Ephraim  Chamber's  'Cyclopaedia' ;  or 
a  'Universal  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences' 
—  a  woii  published  in  1728,  in  two  volumes 
folio.  A  second  and  improved  edition  came 
out  in  1738.  Latterlv  it  was  revised  and  en- 
larged b-yr  Abraham  Rees,  in  which  form  it  was 
seveisl  times  reprinted,  being  finally  known  as 
'Rees'  Cyciofx^a,'  and  pubHshed  ui  a  number 
of  volumes.  Then  was  published  the  'Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica.'  Of  this  there  have  been 
11  editions.  The  first  edition  was  completed  in 
1771,  in  three  volumes  and  the  11th  edition  was 
completed  in  1910-11  in  29  volumes  and  an  index 
volume.  The  'Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia'  (1810- 
30i  18  vols.)  was  devoted  particularly  to  the 
Kjencesand  technology' and  was  conducted  by 
Sir  David  Brewster.  The  'Encyclopedia  Mel- 
lopolitana*  (London,  begun  1815,  completed 
184S,  in  25  vols.,  was  puhlished  in  four  divi- 


Cnrtts  (22  vols.)  and  the  (Penny  Cy- 
clopedia* (29  vols.),  appeared  in  1839-46. 
Chambers'  'Encyclopedia'  (in  10  vols.)  was 
published  in  I860  and  a  new  edition  appeared 
(n  1902. 

During  the  19th  century,  the  various  branches 


...  .  .  all  admirably  represented  in  special 
works;  the  growth  of  the  special  encyclopaid^ 
having  kept  pace  with  the  advance  of  knowl- 
edge and  of  industry.  Among  the  most  import- 
ant are  the  encyclopaedias  of  biograi^y.  Some 
excellent  examples  of  the  special  encyclopaedia 
date  from  the  17th  and  18th  centuries;  but  those 
produced  in  the  19th  century  are  much  more 
numerous  and,  in  several  cases,  far  more  com- 

fi^ehe^sive.  'The  most  notable  of  these  later 
^graphical  works  are  the  'Biographic  uni- 
verselfe  ancienne  et  modeme>  (85  vols.,  1811-ffi, 
including  supplement;  2d  ed.,  45  vols.,  1842^5) 
of  Joseph  and  Louis  Gabriel  Michaud;  and  the 
'Dictionary  of  National  Biography'  (66  vols., 
1st  supplement,  3  vols.,  1885-1901;  2d  supple- 
ment, 3  vols.,  1901-11;  republished  in  22  vols., 
1913). 

In  the  United  States  an  early  woik  in  the 
general  field  was  the  'Encvclopsedia  Ameri- 
cana,' edited  by  Francis  Lieber  and  puMished 
1st  ed.,  13  vols.,  1829.     'The  American  Cydo- 

Kdia,'  edited  by  George  Ripley  and  Qiarles  A. 
na,  appeared  in  1858-76  in  16  volumes.  The 
publi^ers  of  this  work  have  since  1861  pub- 
Ushed  the  'American  Annual  Cyclopedia,'  de- 
signed to  record  the  progress  of  science  and  the 
arts,  and  the  worid's  history  from  year  to  year, 
and  to  serve  as  supijlementj  to  the  'American 
Cyclopaedia.'  It  is  in  the  same  form  as  that 
work,  octavo,  and  comprises  about  800  pages 
per  volume.  'Johnson's  New  Universal  Cyclo- 
paedia* first  appeared  in  1874-77,  m  four  im- 
perial octavo  volumea.  It  was  especially  strong 
m  the  departments  of  natural  science  —  phys- 
ics, chemistry,  mechanics,  etc, —  and  American 
gaietteer  matter.  In  its  later  form,  'John- 
son's Universal  Cyclopedia'  (1893-95,  8  vols.), 
wiA  3  change  of  publishers,  the  work  was  thor- 
oughljr  revised,  by  a  corps  of  36  editors,  under 
the  direction  of  Charles  Kendall  Adams.    Then 


International    Encyclopaedia'     in    20    volui 

(1902;  2d  ed.,  24  vols.,  1914),  and  later  by  the 
'Encyclopedia  Americana*  (1st  ed.,  16  vols., 
1903;  2d  ed.,  20  vols^  1906;  3d  ed..  22  vols 
1910;  new  and  enlarged  edition,  revised 
throu^out,  30  vols.,  1918). 


sonat  des  Sciences,  des  Arts,  et  des  Mitiers.' 
by  Diderot  and  D'Alembert.  This  was  pub- 
lished in  35  volumes  1751-80.  Not  only  infor- 
mation was  given  in  these  volimies,  but  opin- 
ions of  the  most  radical  character,  hostile  to 
the  Church,  subversive  of  religion,  intensely 
antagonistic  toward  everything  in  the  old  order 
of  things.  The  clergy  and  the  court  had  fought 
the  work,  had  even  broken  into  It  with  altera- 
tions secretly  made  at  the  printers',  and  left  no 
stone  untumed  to  prevent  its  circulation.  Yet 
Europe  was  filled  with  it  and  shaken  with  the 
effects  of  it    It  was  an  immense  burst  of  every- 


END-BRA2H  ~  BHDBHIC 


wfla  proclamatioa  of  the  oroblems  of  humaii 
mspt ration  and  desire.  Not  only  were  the 
suences  pushed  to  the  utmost  by  Diderot,  but 
he  made  mdustiy,  labor,  humin  toil  in  the  shop, 
an  interest  unceasingly  cherished.  It .  was  an 
explosion  heralding  the  Revolution  a  quarter 
of  a  century  later.  Still  more  comprehensive 
is  the  *Eiu;yelop61ie  Methodiqu^  ou  par  Ordre 
dcs  Matieres'  (Paris  1781-1832,  in  166i4  vols.), 
an  aggregate  of  dictiotiaries  rather  than  a  sin- 
gle work.  The  French  have  also  the  'Encyclo- 
pedic Modeme,'  begun  in  1824,  finished  in  1832, 
26  volumes,  and  subsequently  republished;  the 
'Eitcyclopidie  des  Gens  du  Monde'  (1835-44), 
22  volumes;  Larousse's  more  recent  and  valu- 
able 'Grand  Dictionnaire  Universel  du  XIX 
Siecle,'  16  volumes  folio  (with  two  supple- 
meolary  volumes)  j  <La  Grande  Encyclop&fie,' 
an  extensive  and  excellent  work  which  was 
completed  in  1903,  and  'Dictionnaire  encyclo- 
p£dique  universel,  illustri  de  20,000  figures,' 
edited  by  E.  Flammarion  and  beeun  in  1895. 
Of  worlcs  published  in  C^rmany  the  most  fa- 
mous is  'Brockhaus'  Conversations-Lexikon,' 
now  in  iis  14th  edition.  It  is  equaled,  if  not 
surpassed,  by  the  similar  work  of  Meyer,  The 
huge  'AllgenKine  EJicyklopadie  der  Wissen- 
schaften  und  Kiinste,'  oriKinally  edited  by 
Profs.  J.  S.  Erseh  and  J.  G,  Gruber,  begun 
1818,  is  not  yet  completed.  To  1916  166  volumes 
have  been  issued.  Three  sections  of  the  alpha- 
bet are  carried  on  simultaneously.  Other  Ger- 
man encyclopaedias  deserving  mention  are 
those  of  Pierer  and  Spamer. 

In  Italian,  the  'Nuova  Enciclopedia  popo- 
lare>  (14  vols.,  Turin,  1841-51);  the  'Diriona- 
rio  universale  di  sdenze,  lettere  ed  arti' 
(Milan  1874),  by  Lessona  and  Valle:  the  'En- 
ciclopedia popolare  italiana'  (lb.  1872).  ed~ 
ited  by  Giovanni  Bern,  and  'Nuova  eiKiclope- 
dia  itahana'  (25  vols.,  Turin  1875-88),  are  the 
principal  In  Spanish  Mellando  published  the 
'Enciclopedia  modcrna'  (34  vols.,  with  an 
atlas)  at  Madrid  in  1848-51.  Another  Spanish 
work  of  note  is  Montaner  y  Simon,  'Diccion- 
ario  encidopidico  Hispano-Americano  de  lit- 
eratfira,  ciencias,  y  artes*  (25  vols.,  Barcelona 
1887-99)  ;  the  greatest  of  all  such  works  in 
Spanish  is  the  new  'EncicIopMia  Segut,'  begun 
at  Barcelona  in  1907  and  of  which  nine  vol- 
umes had  appeared  up  to  1916.  The  'Diccion- 
ario  popular  bistorico,  geographico,  mytholog- 
ico,  ete.>  (16  vols.,  Lisbon  1876-90).  by  Chaga; 
'Diccionario  universal  portuguez  illustrado,'  by 
Zeforina,  are  the  standard  works  in  Portu- 
guese. Odier  works  deserving  of  notice  are 
Salmonsen's  'Store  illuslrerede  Konversations- 
leksikon'  (19  vols.,  Copenhagen  1S9I-19I1)  in 
Danish;  the  'Gelllustreerde  encydopedie : 
woordenboek  for  wetenschap  en  kunst'  (2d  ed., 
16  vols.,  Rotterdam  1884^);  'Nordisk  Para- 
ilyebok'  (Stockholm  1904-,  15  vols,  to  1911); 
'  Entisiklopeditchesky  Slovar'  (41  vols.,  Petro- 
grad  189()-1904)  and  'Encyclopedya  Pows- 
lechna.  etc'  (16  vols.,  Warsaw  189&-1904). 

The  rapid  advancement  of  the  sciences  and 
arts  and  the  proportionately  rapid  communica- 
tion between  all  civilixed  nations,  have  made  a 
general  acquaintance  with  many  different 
branches  of  knowledge  more  necessary  than 
ever  before.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  causes 
which  have  produced  in  our  time  so  many  en- 


cydoptEdias  of  various  kinds,  some  very 
learned  and  others  more  adapted  for  the  gen- 
eral reader;  some  embracing  all  the  sciences 
and  arts,  others  only  single  branches. 

END-BRAIN,  a  name  given  to  the  front 
part  of  the  brain,  whidt  corresponds  to  the 
fore-bnin  or  telencephalon.    See  Brain. 

END-ORGANS,  important  nerve-struc- 
tures specially  designed  tor  particular  purposes. 
Thus  the  taste-buds  in  the  mouth  and  tongue, 
the  touch-bulbs  in  the  fingers  and  the  musde- 
plates  in  the  musdes  are  special  forms  of  nerv- 
ous end-organs.  There  is  a  vast  variety  of 
nervous  end-organs  found  in  the  spedal  glands, 
such  as  the  secretory  glands  of  the  skin,  of  the 
mucous  membranes,  in  the  liver,  the  spleen,  the 
kidneys,  etc. 

BNDE,  in'dt,  Hennum,  German  architect: 

'  "  ;  1830;  d.  1907.  He  studied  at  the 
Architecture  at  Berlin:   made  e 


b  Landsberg  1830;  d.  1907.  He  studied  at  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  at  Berlin:  made  a 
tour  of  Europe,  during  which  he  studied  all  the 
great  models.  At  Berlin,  with  Bockmann,  he 
erected  the  Red  Palace,  Royal  York  Lodge,  the 
Bank  of  Commerce,  the  Ethnological  Museum 
and  the  buildings  of  the  Zoologjc^  (hardens.  In 
1866  he  designed  several  putuic  buildings  for 
the  dty  of  Tokio,  fapan,  at  the  behest  of  the 
Japanese  government.  From  1885  to  1901  he 
was  chief  professor  in  the  High  School  for 
Technical  Arts  at  Berlin.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Arts  and  honorary 
member  of  those  of  Vieiuia  and  Saint  Peters- 
burg. 

BNDBHAN,  «n'de  man,  Wilhdm,  German 
jurist :  b.  Marburg,  Hesse,  24  April  1825.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg  and  was  professor  of 
law  at  Jena  1362-«6  and  at  Bonn  Tn  1867.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Reichstag  1871-73.  His 
writings  on  German  commerdaflaw  are  high^ 
esteemed.  Among  his  works  are  'Die  Bewds- 
lehre  des  Civilprozesses'  (1860);  'Der  deutsche 
Civilproress'  (1878-79)  ;  'Die  Entwicldung  des 
Bewdsverfahrens  im  deutsdien  Civilprozcss* 
(189S). 

ENDEMIC  (Gr-  *prevail{ng  among  the 
people*),  a  name  often  applied  to  diseases  which 
attack  the  inhabitants  of  a  particular  district  or 
country,  and  have  their  origin  in  some  local 
cause,  as  the  physical  character  of  the  place 
where  they  prevail,  or  in  the  employments,  hab- 
its and  mode  of  living  of  the  people.  Everypart 
of  the  world,  every  climate  and  every  country 
has  its  peculiar  endemics.  Thus  (he  tropical  and 
warm  climates  are  subject  to  peculiar  cutaneous 
disorders,  eruptions  of  various  kinds,  because 
the  constant  heat  keeps  up  a  strong  action  of  the 
skin.  In  northern  climates  eruptions  of  the  skin 
.  but  they  are  of  a  different  kind.  Thus  h 
c  north  polar  countries, 
way,  a  Idnd  of  leprosy,  the  f  ,        ,    -   - 

lent,  arising  from  the  coldness  and  humitlity  of 
the  climate,  which  dispose  the  skin  to  such  *s- 
orders.  Hoi  and  moist  countries  generate  the 
most -violent  typhoid  and  putrid  fevers;  the 
West  Indies  and  some  of  the  South  American 
coasts,  for  instance,  produce  the  yellow  fever. 
In  dilTerent  parts  of  the  United  States  inter- 
mittent fevers,  arising  from  local  malarial  con- 
ditions, are  common,  as  they  are  in  countries 
generally  in  places  that  are  damp  and  not  warm, 
on  marshes  and  large  rivers,  etc.  Places  in  a 
more  dry  and  elevated  situation,  northern  coun- 


KNPBR  ^  BNDICOTT 


819 


tries  particularly,  arc  peculiarly  subject  to  in- 
flammatory disorders.  In  countries  and  districts 
very  much  exi>oaed  to  currents  of  wind,  espe- 
cially in  mountainous  places,  we  find  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  rheumatism,  catarrhs  and 
the  whole  train  of  complaints  which  have  their 
orifi^n  in  a  sudden  stoppage  of  the  functions  of 
the  skin.  In  large  and  populous  towns  we  meet 
with  the  most  numerous  instances  of  pulmonary 
consumption.  In  cold  and  damp  countries  like 
Englana  Sweden  and  Holland  the  most  frequent 
cases  of  croup  occur. 

Diseases  which  are  endemic  in  one  country 
may  also  appear  tn  others  and  become  epidemic 
if  the  weather  and  other  physical  influences  re- 
semble those  which  are  the  causes  of  the  en- 
demic in  the  former  place ;  the  climate  being  for 
a  time  transferred,  as  it  were,  from  one  to  the 
other.  Endemic  disorders  in  some  drcum stances 
become  contagious,  and  thereby  spread  to  other 
persoie,  and  may  be  transplanted  to  other 
pbces,  the  situation  and  drcumstaaces  of  which 
predispose  them  to  receive  these  disorders.  This 
IS  known  by  the  mierations  of  disease^  the 
spreading  of  leprosy  from  Oriental  countries  to 
Europe,  and  the  like. 

It  is  favorable  to  the  cure  of  obstinate  dis- 
orders for  the  invalid  to  remove  to  a  climate 
where  his  particular  complaint  is  rare.  Thus  it 
is  customaiy  for  people  attacked  with  putmotiary 
complaints  to  remove  to  localities  where  the 
air  IS  pure  and  dry  and  sunshine  abundant.  So 
it  is  of  advantage  to  the  consumptive  lo  ex- 
change unwholesome  city  air  for  pure  air  in  the 
country.  Modem  sanitation  is  learning  to  deal 
with  conditions  which,  alike  in  populous  and 
sparsely  peopled  places,  have  hitherto  bred  dis- 
eases; so  that  immunily  from  fataT  disorders 
may  be  said  to  show  the  good  results  of  sanitary 
science,  as  do  also  the  improved  statistics  of 
longevity. 

EHDER,  Eduard,  Austrian  painter:  b. 
Vienna  1824.  He  is  the  son  of  Johann  Ender 
(q.v.)  and  is  noted  alike  for  his  historical  and 
genre  works,  among  which  are  'Francis  T  in  the 
Studio  of  CcHini'  ;  'Shakespeare  Reading  ■Mac- 
beth" before  the  Court  of  EHiabeth' •  'La  Cor- 
beille  de  Mariage' ;  and  'A  Game  of  Gies3.' 

ENDER,  Johami,  Austrian  artist:  b.  Vi- 
enna, 4  Nov.  1793;  d.  16  March  1854.  As  a 
portrait  painter  he  was  successful  at  an  early 
age.  In  1818-19  he  made  a  tour  of  Italy,  Turkty 
and  Greece,  remaining  in  Rome  1S20-26.  Upon 
his  return  to  Venice  he  devoted  his  attention  to 
miniature  and  historical  paintings,  being  pro- 
fessor at  the  Academv  from  1829  to  1850. 
Among  his  works  are  'Madonna  with  Slumber- 
ing Christ-Child*  (Vienna  Museum)  ;  'Marcus 
Aurelius  on  His  Death  Bed'  (1814,  Esterhazy 
Gallery)  ;  his  masterpiece,  'The  Crucifixion'  (a 
fresco  in  the  Vienna  Cathedral) ;  'Orestes  Pur- 
sued by  the  Furies'  (1815)  ;  'Mmerva  Showing 
Ithaca  to  Ulysses'  (1816);  'Assumption'; 
'Sleeping  at  Christ's  Sepulchre'  (1817) ;  'Ju- 
dith'; 'Bacchus  Finding  Ariadne';  and  many 
portraits. 

ENDER,  Thomaa,  Austrian  artist:  b.  Vi- 
enna, 4  Nov.  1793;  d.  there,  28  Sept.  187S.  He 
was  twin  brother  of  Jobann  Ender  (q.v.).  He 
also  studied  at  the  Vienna  Academy,  becoming  a 
noted  landscape  painter.  He  won  the  grand 
prize  at  the  Vienna  Academy  1816.  Coii^  to 
Brasil  in  1817,  he  broi^t  back  neariy  a  thou- 


sand drawings  and  water  colors.  He  visited 
Italy,  Palestine,  Greece  and  Paris.  In  1836  be 
became  corrector  and  later  professor  at  the 
Vienna  Academy,  filling  that  chair  until  1849. 
Among  his  works  are  'View  of  Grossglockner' ; 
'Castle  Tyrol' ;  'Coast  of  Sorento'  ;  'View  of 
Rio  dc  Janeiro'  (Vienna  Academy)  ;  Qiapel  in 
the  Woods'   (National  Gallery,  Beriin). 

BNDERBY  LAND,  a  region  in  lat.  65*  57' 
S.,  long.  47"  2ff  E.,  named  by  John  Briscoe  in 
1831,  ^en  on  a  whaling  voyage,  in  honor  of  his 
emi^oyer,  Samuel  Enderby.  Briscoe  could  not 
approach  within  20  or  30  miles,  and  was  unable 
to  say  whether  it  was  an  island  or  a  strip  of 
continental  coast.  It  was  first  discovered  )^ 
Dirk   Gherritoz,  in    1599,   and  named   for  hita 

ENDERHIC,  a  term  designating  a  form 
of  medication  once  much  in  vogue,  but  now  al- 
most abandcned,  consisting  in  raising  a  blister 
upon  the  aSected  part  and  applying  to  the  raw 
surface  the  remedy  to  be  absorbed.  It  has  been 
superseded  by  the  bypodertnic  method.  See 
Hytodebuic  Injbchon. 

ENDICOTT,  Charles  Hoses  ('Junius 
Americanus"),  American  historical  writer:  t. 
Danvers,  Mass.,  1793;  d.  NorthamptotL  Mass., 
1863.  He  contributed  to  the  'New  England 
Historical  and  Genealogical  Register'  and  to 
the  Boston  Gatette.  He  wrote  a  'Life  of  John 
Endicott";    'The   Persian    Poet,    a   Trag[cdy> ; 


ENDICOTT,  John,  American  colonial  gov- 
ernor: b,  Dorchester,  England,  1589;  d.  Boston, 
Mass.,  15  March  I66S.  He  was  sent  out  to  this 
counlty  by  the  *  Massachusetts  Compaw*  to 
carry  on  tne  plantation  at  Nanmkeag,  or  Salem, 
where  he  arrived  6  Sept.  1628.  In  April  1629  he 
was  chosen  governor  of  'London's  plantation* ; 
but  in  August  il  was  determined  to  transfer  the 
charter  of  the  colony  to  New  England,  and 
Winthrop  was  appointed  governor.  Endicott 
was  deputy-governor  of  the  Massachusetts 
colony  1641-44,  in  1650  and  1654;  and  was  gov- 
ernor in  1644  and  1649,  1651-54  and  165^. 
He  was  bold  and  'energetic,  a  sincere  and  zeal- 
ous Puritan,  rigid  in  his  principles  and  severe 
in  the  execution  of  the  laws  against  those  who 
differed  from  the  religion  of  the  cdony.  So 
averse  was  he  to  everything  like  popery  that  he 
cut  out  the  cross  from  the  military  standard. 
He  was  opposed  to  long  hair,  insisted  that  the 
women  should  wear  veils  in  public  assemblies 
and  did  all  in  his  power  to  establish  wha|  he 
deemed  a  pure  Churdi.  In  1659,  during  his  ad- 
ministration, four  Quakers  were  put  to  death  in  . 
Boston.  Consult  Endicott,  C  M.,  'Memoir  of 
John  Endicott'   (Salem  1847). 

ENDICOTT,  Mordecai  Thomas,  Ameri- 
can naval  officer:  b.  May's  Landing,  K.  J.,  22 
Nov.  1844.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute  in  1668;  practised  as  civil 
engineer  from  1868  until  appointed  civi)  engineer 
in  the  United  States  navy  in  1874.  He  served 
as  consultiBg  ennnecr  at  various  navy  yards 
and  in  the  Navy  Department  at  Washington.  In 
1895  he  was  appMnted  member  of  the  Nicaragua 
Canal  Commission,  of  the  United  States  naval 
armor  factory  board  in  1897  and  in  1898  became 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks  with 
rank  of  commodore.  Later  he  was  advanced 
to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  and  rea|>poinlcd  in 


.Google 


ano 


ENDicOTT — ran>e<»aiioPATHiBs 


1902  and  1906.  In  1905  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  retired  in  1906, 
but  continued  upon  active  duties  until  90  June 
1909.  He  is  a  member  of  the  American  Society 
of  Civil  Eng:ineers  and  was  its  president  in 
1911. 

ENDICOTT,  William  Crowiutubield, 
American  lawyer:  b.  Salem,  Mass.,  19  Nov. 
1826;  d.  Boston,  6  May  1900;  wai  a  descendant 
of  John  Endicott  (g.v.),  the  Puritan  goverrior 
of  Massachusetts.  He  was  Kraduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1847;  served  as  justice  of  the 
State  Supreme  Court  (1873-^);  was  an  va- 
successftil  candidate  for  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  Democratic  ticket,  in  1^;  and 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  War  to  President 
Oeveland's  Cabinet  in  188S. 

ENDIVE,  en'(£v  (Cickorium  tndivia).  an 
annual  or  biennial  herb  of  the  natural  order 
Composite.  It  is  an  East-Indian  annual  or  bi- 
enoiaL,  with  a  rosette  of  smooth  radical  leaves, 
more  or  less  lobed  or  cut,  blue  axillary  sessile 
flowers  and  grayish  angular  seeds. '  It  has  long 
been  cultivated  as  a  saladi,  for  which  use.  it 
probably  ranks  in  Europe  next  to  lettuce,  bat 
not  quite  so  high  in  America.  It  is  as  easily 
cultivated  as  lettuce,  but  must  be  blanched, 
either  by  loosely  lying  the  outer  leaves  up  over 
the  inner  ones  or  by  covering  the  plants  with 
large  drain-tiles  or  similar  tubes.  Of  the  nu- 
merous varieties,  those  that  naturally  are  most 
curly-leaved,  and  (hat  ordinarily  develop  a  white 
centre  without  blanching,  are  the  most  esteemed. 
The  leaves  are  also  used  as  a  pot-herb  and  as 
an  ingredient  in  soups,  stews,  etc. 

ENDLESS  or  PERPETUAL  SCREW,  a 
mechanical  contrivance  consisting  of  a  screw 
the  thread  of  which  gears  into  a  toothed  wheel 
at  an  oblique  angle  corresponding  to  the  pitch 
of  the  screw.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
endless  recurrii:^  effect  its  thread  produces  when 
in  motion.  It  is  in  ^neral  use  as  a  means  of 
producing  slow  motion  in  the  adjustment  of 
machines  rather  than  as  a  transmitter  of  great 

ENDLICH,  CtuUv  Adolf,  American  ju- 
rist :  b.  Alsace  Township.  Berks  County,  Fa.,  29 
Tan.  1856.  He  was  educated  in  Germany^  and  at 
Princeton;  studying  law  and  being  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1877.  He  was  elected  judge  of  the 
23d  judicial  district,  Pennsylvania,  1879,  and  re- 
elected 1899.  He  was  member  of  the  United 
States  Assay  Commission  in  1897,  and  from 
1906  to  1910  was  president  of  the  board  of  tnis- 
lees    of    Muhlenberg   GJlege.      He   edited   the 

.  Criminal  Law  Magasine  and  Reporter  1890-94. 
He  bat  published  'The  Law  of  Building  Asso- 
ciations' (1882) ;  'The  Law  of  Affidavits  of 
Defense  in  Pennsylvania'  (1884)  ;  Woodward's 
Decisions*  (1885) ;  'Commentaries  on  the  In- 
terpretation of  Statutes'  (1888);  'Rights  and 
Liabilities  of  Married  Women  in  Pennsylvaoia' 
(1889);  and  numerous  articles  on  legal  sub- 
jects for  periodicals. 

SNDLICHBR,  <<nd'lhi-«r.  Stephen  Ladit- 
tas,  Hungarian  botanist:   b.   Hungary,  24  June 

,  1804;  d.  Vienna,  28  March  1849.  He  was  des- 
tined for  the  priesthood,  but  in  1827  began 
botanical  and  linguistic  studies.  He  became 
curator  of  the  manuscript  department  of  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Vienna  in  1828;  and  in 
1836  of  the  botanical  d^artinmit  of  the  Royal 


Natural  History  Museum  there,  and  in  lft40  be- 
came professor  of  botany  in  Vienna  and  di- 
rector of  the  Botanical  Garden.  Much  dis- 
turbed by  the  events  of  1848,  he  fell  into  melan- 
choly, atid  in  1849  put  an  end  to  his  own  life. 
His  'Genera  Plantarum'  (1836^0)  has  had 
great  influence  on  succeeding  botanists.  His 
studies  in  Oriental  ^lolo^  are  also  important. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  '  Anfangsgrnnde 
der  chinesischen  Grammatik'  (1845)  ;  and  widi 
Eichenfeld,  'Analecta  Grammatica*  (1837). 

ENDOCARDITIS,  inflammation  of  the 
endocardium  or  serous  membrane  lining  the 
valves  and  internal  surface  of  the  heart. 

ENDOCERA8,  tn-d&s'e  r^s.  genus  of  fos- 
sil cephalopoda,  found  in  the  Oroovician  rodcs 
of  the  United  States,  Russia  and  Scandinavia. 
Many  spcdei  have  been  imcovered ;  the  conch  u 
long,  sfender  and  either  aimulated  or  smooth. 
Specimens  have  been  found  in  the  Trenton 
locia  of  New  Yoric,  having  a  length  of  over  10 
feet.    See  Cephalofoda. 

ENDOCHROHE,  the  characteristic  pig> 
ment  mixture  of  diatoms.  It  is  apperentfy  a 
mixture  of  a  green  constituent  and  a  golaen- 
brown  constituent  (dtatomin).  See  Diatoma- 
CEOus  Earth. 

ENDOCRINOPATHIBS.  Diseases  or 
disorders  of  growth  or  adjustment  due  to  dis- 
turbances of  the  endocrinotis  glands,  or  glands 
of  internal  secretion.  The  early  mechanistic 
conceptions  concerning  the  push  that  lies  be- 
hind the  metabolism  of  the  buman  body  have 
slowly  and  gradually  undergone  modincalion 
until  the  importance  of  a  number  of  overlooked 
structures  has  forced  itself,  almost  with 
a  whirl,  upon  the  medical  horizon.  These 
structures  are  the  endocrinous  glands.  The 
study  of  their  anatomy  and  functional  import- 
ance now  constitutes  an  enormous  special^. 

As  early  as  1828  Parry  called  attention  to 
the  relaltionship  between  enlarged  thyroid  and 
increased  frequency  of  the  heart  beat  (tachy- 
cardia), since  which  time  the  works  of  Jo- 
hannes MuUer,  Addison,  GuU,  Brown- Sfejuard, 
Marie  and  many  others  have  served  as  start- 
ing points  for  the  building  up  of  a  rich  struc- 
ture which  is  amply  recorded  in  a  score  of 
monographs.  The  chief  of  these  are  Bie^, 
^Internal  Secretions'  (bibliography  of  4,000 
titles,  1913);  Falta,  'Ductless  Glands'  (1915); 
Parhon  et  Golsteii^  'Les  Sicritions  Internes' 
(1909)  ;  Levy  and  Rothschild,  '  Endocrinologie' 
(1913) ;  Gley,  'Les  Sicrftions  Internes'  (1914)  ; 
Sajoua,  'Internal  Secretions';  special  articlesin 
LewandowsW's  'Handbuih  der  Neurologic' 
(1913),  and  Jelliffe  and  White,  «DiseaBeB  of  the 
Nervous  System*  (2d  ed.,  1917). 

Out  of  this  prodipous  development  to  be 
found  in  the  works  just  cited  and  in  current 
medical  literature,  much  of  which  is  evanescent 
and  hastily  constructed,  a  large  amount  of  solid 
substance  remains  ^nd  a  number  of  permanent 
acquisitions  have  been  made.  The  net  result 
has  been  to  show  much  more  essentially  than 
ever  before  the  fundamental  physicochemical 
foundations  erf  biological  metabolic  processes  as 
they  are  utiUeed  in  the  upkeep  of  the  animal 
machine.  The  vievrpoint  has  been  attained  that 
a  marked  degree  of  diemical  interrelatiotiship 
takes  place  between  the  different  organs  of  the 
body.    That    this    is    autoniatically    r^ulated 


aNDOCKlMQPAtHlSfl 


throng  the  vasttatrve  nervoas  sjntem  (the  old 
sympathetic)  (£iefly,  apparently  in  some  cases, 
though  this  is  by  no  meaos  clear,  solely  through 
chemical  regulation.  The  disorders  oi  this  ad- 
justment DOW  constitute  a  special  department  of 
vegetative  neurology,  and  arc  most  conveniently 
grouped  under  the  terms  endocnnologj,  or  the 
en  docrintqiathies. 

In  the  earlier  period  of  the  study  of  thue 
endocrinopathiei  individual  diseaae  groups,  uni- 
glaudular  syndromes,  were  isolated.  Amot^die 
most  accentuated  of  these  were  Addison's  diir 
case,  diabetes  meUitus,  myxedema,  cretinism 
and  acromegaly;  but  of  recent  years  it  has  been 
increasingly  emphasized  that  whereas  a  certain 
group  ol  s^ploms,  which  may  be  linked  to 
plus  or  minus  activities  of  one  or  another 
gland  may  be  most  prominent,  nevertheless 
other  glandular  modiiications  are  bound  up  in 
them  and  are  not  to  be  neglected.  Hence  has 
arben  the  viewpoint  tbat'most  of  the  endocrin- 
opathies  are,  strictly  speaking,  poly-  of  pluri- 
glandular syndromes,  that  is,  tnat  disease  or 
maladjustment  in  one  gland  usually  induces 
compensatoiy  changes  i^  other  giaads. 

For  many  years,  even  back  to  the  earlic3,t 
days  of  primitive  animistic  magii^  it  has  been 
held  that  every  living  tissue  yields  a  chemical 
product  which  will  act  upon  other  tissues.  The 
early  alchemistic  studies,  those  of  Paracelsus, 
to  the  later  work  of  Hahnemann,  and  the  iso- 
therapists,  are  all  attempts  to  co-ordinate  a  host 
of  empirically  observed  facts.  They  are  all 
worth  rereadm^  if  the  reader  will  put  himself 
in  sympathy  with  them  through  a  comprehen- 
sion of  the  DOW  strange  sytnbols  then  used. 

Endocrinous  glands  for  the  present  puriK>ses 
are  those  structures  which  yield  products 
lermed  hormones  and  chalones  having  some 
definite  or  specific  action  related  to,  yet  different 
from,  enzyme  activities.  These  structures  are 
developed  from  different  embryological  forma- 
tions. The  hypophysis  {posterior  lobe)  and 
chromafGn  tissues  (suprarenal  chiefly)  are 
nervous ;  the  thyroid  and  mtuitary  (anterior 
lobe)  come  from  the  buccal  cavity;  the  pan- 
creas and  mucosa  of  the  small  intestine  from 
the  intestine,  the  parathyroids  and  thymus  from 
the  branchial  arches  (old  gill  slits  of  fishes), 
the  gonads  (testes  and  ovary)  and  (he  inter- 
renal  bodies  from  the  genital  ridges.  Some  of 
these,  in  humans,  mer^e  into  one  structure,  as 
thyroid  and  parathyroid,  as  chromafltn  and  in- 
terrenal  cells  in  the  suprarenals,  as  hypophysis 
(posterior  lobe)   and  pituitary   (anterior  lobe). 

The  present  rfsumi,  largely  following  the 
author's  summary  in  Stedman's  'Reference 
Handbook  of  the  Medical  Sciences,'  will  attempt 
to  sketch  only  the  general  outlines  of  the 
various  uniglandular  and  pluriglandular  diseaie 

?ictures.  'Hie  more  radical  French  school  is 
ollowed,  but  at  the  same  time  attention  should 
be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  French  school 

Kesentations  contain  gross  fallacies,  and  should 
read  mm  grano  folis.  Still  the  clinical  sug- 
gestions of  these  writers  are  so  rich  it  is  felt 
to  be  a  better  course  to  call  the  attention  of 
the  intelligent  layman  to  possible  relalionshiiM 
rather  than  to  take  the  more  conservative  atti- 
tude of  directing  attentimi  only  to  that  which 
can  indubitably  l>e  proved.  This  whole  sub- 
ject is  still  so  largely  empirical  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  putting  the  hypotheses  to  a  te^  will  be 
found  to  be  more  advantageous  than  that  of 


reCerdiag  only  tite  obvinus.  The  former  atti- 
tude may  result  in  gaining  useful  therapeutic 
truths,  the  latter  becomes  monotonous  and  fre- 
quently encourages  stupidity. 

The  more  recent  suggestive  and  extreme 
sununaries  of  BiedL  Falta.  Laignet-Lavastine, 
Levi  and  Rothschild  are  tkerefore  here  sum- 
mariEed. 

UfiiclanthilT  Sradronm.  Tkyroid.~  Myx- 
edema.—The  cteei  sytnptoms  are  arrest  of 
develotKnent,  dwarfism,  infantilism,  infiltradon 
of  oldn  and  mucous  membranes,  mental  torpor, 
slow  ideation,  defective  memory,  apathy,  lazt- 
neis,  slowtiesi,  sleepiness,  tadtnm,  awkward- 
ness. The  pulse  Is  usually  small,  ra^d  and 
irregular,  at  tknes  increased  tension.  There 
are  constipation,  diminished  urination,  hypo- 
thermia and  chilliness  of  the  skin.  Reflexes 
diminished.  The  voice  is  frequently  nasal, 
slow,  monotonous  and  raucous.  Headache  is 
frequent  and  at  times  epileptic  attacks  occur. 
These  are  all  Bymptons  of  diminished  secre- 

Exophthalmic  (joiter.  — A  more  or  less  com- 
plete catalogue  of  findings  for  a  lot  of  cases 
will  include  tachycardia,  arrhythmia,  anxiety, 
pulsations  in  the  neck,  exopfattistlmos,  epii^ra, 
V.  Grief's,  Stellwag't,  Mdbius'  symptoms,  facial 
paresis,  crampi,  tremors,  neumldask  diiefly 
,  frontal  and  ocular,  colic,  hot  flasncs,  profuse 
sweats,  thermophobia,  engorgement  of  the  skin, 
derm^faphiam,  transitory  edemas,  pigmenta- 
tion, urticaria,  alopeda,  diminution  of  electrical 
resistance,  albuminuria,  polyuria  or  glycosuria, 
anorexia,  bulimia,  vomiting,  ptyalism,  hyper- 
chhtfhydria,  diarrhtza.  dyspnoea,  amenorrhcea, 
atrophy  of  mamroa^  loss  of  fle^  agitatiog, 
emotional  instabtlity,  volubility,  insomnia, 
asxiety,  excessive  anger  or  reverse,  maniacal 
excitement,  marked  depression,  i^othymic 
variations,  confusion,  epileptic  attacks.  Ep- 
pingcr  and  Hess  have  endeavored  to  separate 
a  vagotonic  and  sympathicotonic  type. 
_  In  the  vagotomc  type  the  more  prominent 
signs  are  decreased  lacrymation,  less  exophthal- 
mos, with  enlargement  of  the  palpebral  fissures, 
V,  Graef's  sign,  abundant  sweating,  diarrhoa, 
mild  tachycardia,  no  alimentary  glycosuria, 
nlocarpine  and  oculocardiac  reflexes  positive. 
In  the  sympathicotonic  types  there  are  exo^- 
thalmos,  dryness  of  eyes,  violent  tachycar^ 
glycosuria,  oculocardiac  reflex  reversed  or  ab- 
sent, increased  reaction  to  adrenalin.  Most 
cases  are  mixed  in  type.  In  all  save  infectious 
forms  psychical  influences  are  striltiiw  and 
psychotherapy  is  extremely  valuable  in  the 
early  stages,  less  so  in  chronic  cases.  Money 
worries  are  of  great  importance  in  the  caus- 
ation of  the  psychogenic  cases. 


lyndromes,  ^seudolipomata,  alt^iecia,  precocious 
loss  of  hair,  scleroderma,  urticaria,  pruritus, 
recurring  herpes,  transitory  edemas,  migraine, 
asthma,  constipation,  mucous  enterocolitis, 
acrocyanosis,  Itajmaud's  syndrome,  localized 
eivthemas,  liiinorrhoea,  ^ucose  tolerance,  geni- 
tal instability,  chilliness,  mammary  hypertrophy. 
Thyroid  Instability  (Levi  and  Rothschild). 
—  From  dy*hypothyroi<£sm ;  chilliness,  bald* 
ness,  headaches,  depression,  crying,  giddiness, 
passing  edemas,  neurahpc  painiL  suffocati<»>. 
shivering  hot  flushes,  at  menstrual  period  With 
predominant  dy>hypcrthyroidism :  ihinnesa,  in* 


.lOOg  Ic 


mimocnKivATiHas 


crease  bf  eyebrow  development,  hot  flisltet, 
palpitation,  intestinal  spasms,  irritability. 
eftiotionalism,  phobias,  inquietudes,  mifrraine, 
asthma,  hype  rid  rosis,  dvsidrosis,  tremors. 
Mixed  cases:  chilliness,  shiveringr.  migraine, 
frequent  urination,  neuralgic  pains,  distractable 
reddening  of  ^ebrows,  catammia;  nearalgias, 
anxiety,  dilatation  of  palpebral  fissures,  swell- 
ing: of  feet,  variations  io.  volume  of '  the  feet, 
tremors,   nervous  crises,  hysterical   attacks; 

Parathyroid!. —  Tetany. —  This  syndrome  is 
unguestionabty  related  Io  parathyroid  loss  or 
deficient  Parkinson's  svndrome(?).  The  view- 
point of  LundborEC  and  of  Gauthier  is  that  this 
Stidrotne  belongs  here,  and  is  a  hyperfunction 
Border  but  it  rests  on  veiy  unstable  fatmda- 

Tkymiit.-^  Vagotonic  Symptoms  of  Base- 
dow Syndrome  (?):  Profuse  sweating,  palpita- 
tion, lymphocytosis,  eorinophilia,  sensation  of 
W«akness. 

Myasthenia  of  £rb-<K>ldflam(?) :  Head- 
ache, ptosis,  external  ophihalmoplegia,  fixed  or 
transitory  palsies  principally  of  the  face,  the 
neck,   myasthenic   electrical   reaction. 

'  Th3>mus  Loss :  Idiocy  of  Klose  and  Vogt 

Tetany(?) :   Basch. 

.^u^forMiifj.— Addison's  Syndrome  and 
Suprarenal  Insufficiency :  Asthenia,  arterial 
hypotension,  morning  nausea  and  vomiting, 
lumbar  pains;  melanoderma,  white  lines  on  the 
shin,  amyotrophy,  aboolia,  depression.  At 
times  myoclonus,  epileptic  attacks^  tetany, 
periodic  palsies,  ddirium;  mental  confusion, 
sudden  death. 

Suprarenal-genital  Syndrome:  External 
'femimne  pseu do-he rmai^rodititm  with  virile 
secondary  sexual  characters;  supiartMal  virij- 
ism ;  amenorrhea,  gynecomasty,  adiposis  with 
easy  bruising,  all  signs  of  fetinnine  maturity: 
hypertrophy  of  the  clitoris,  hypertridiosis  o{ 
masculine  type,  masculine  voice,  muscular  and 
nervous  hj^erasthenia,  active  and  violent  sex- 
Ual  inversion ;  artertij  hypertension,  arterio- 
sclerosis ;  glycosuria, 

Sympalnetic  PwaganaHa. — Chromaffine  ceHs 
of  the  solar  plexus,  aortic  paragan^ion  of 
Zuckerkandl,  cardiac  paraganKlion  of  Wiesel 
and  Weisner,  Luschkas  carotid  and  coccygeal 
glands,  hrnioanic  paraganglia.  The  syndromy 
of  the  affections  of  these  glands  is  entirely  ob- 
scure. 

Pancreas. —  Diabetes  Mellitus:  Glycosuria, 
jmlyuria,  polyphagia,  polydipsia;  neuralgias, 
pruritus,  impotency,  constipation,  dry  mouth, 
dry  skin,  diminished  perspiration,  atrophy  of 
the  testicles,  abolition  of  the  tendon  reflexes, 
arterial  hyperteiision,  asthenia,  headache,  sus- 
ceptibility to  cold,  perforating  ulcer  of  the 
toot,  syncopies,  comatose  or  apoplectiform  at- 
tacks, paralyses,  vertigos,  asthmatic  dyspnoeas, 
pseudoangina,  narcolepsy,  depression,  apathy, 
hypochondria  and  cOma. 

Hypophysis.—  Froehlich's  Genital  Adiposity 
Syndrome ;  Adiposity,  arrest  of  development  or 
regression  of  the  genital  glands  of  the  genital 
organs  and  the  corresponding  secondary  sexual 
characters;  somnolence. 

Syndrome  of  Hypophyseal  Insufficiency  of 
'Rfaon  and  Delille;  Tachycardia,  instability  of 
the  pulse,  arterial  hypotension,  insomnia, 
anorexia,  distressing  sensation  of  heat,  exag- 
geration of  sweat  secretion.  , 

Acromegaly!    "A    simple  hypertroirfiy,   not 


congvnital,  of  the  upper  and  lower  extremities 
and  also  cephalic,*  headache,  amenorrhcea,  ten- 
don reflexes  increased,  arttiythymia,  syncope, 
perspiration,  polyuria,  glycosuria,  scnsittve- 
ness  to  oold,  neuralgias,  acroparesthesia, 
cramps,  landnating  pains,  lassitnde,  irritability, 
depressiim. 

Gigantism:  'Acromegaly  of  the  subjects  in 
the  epiphyseal  cartilages  which  have  not  yet 
os^ifiM,'  impotency,  amenorrhcea,  indolence, 
infantilism,  aboulia,  asthenia,  glycosniia, 
polyuria. 

Pineal. —  Genital  Macrosomia :  Abnormal 
increase  in  hei^t,  premature  getiital  and  sexual 
development  with  secondary  sexual  characters, 
hypertrichosis,    exaggerated    mental    precocity. 

Pineal  Adiposity:   Diffuse  obesity. 

Choroid  Plexus.—  Hydrocephalus :  Hvper- 
teosion  of  the  cerebrospinal  fluid,  rapia  de- 
velopment, nervous  and  mental  sj^drome  of 
ventricular   hypertension,    obnubilation,    idiocy. 

Ovaries. —  Infantilism :  Amenorrhcea,  ab- 
sence of  secondary  feminine  characters,  obesity, 
deficiency  of  hair,  childishness. 

Acquired  ovarian  insufficiency,  (a)  Periph- 
eral vasodilatation,  subjective  crises  of  heat, 
sweating,  continuous  or  paroxysnul  tachy- 
cardia, palpitations,  arterial  hypertension,  in- 
somnia, severe  headacht  facial  neuralgia,  lum- 
bago, neuromuscular  asthenia,  memory  instatnl- 
'  ibility,    enervation,    hysterical    crises; 


anxiety,  phobias,  impulsions,  gastrospasm,  con- 
stipation,  vomiting,   vertigo,   syncope. 

(6)  "Vagotonic  crises*  before  the  menses 
and  at  the  beginning  of  pregnancy,  pallor, 
tendency  to  syncope,  nausea,  vomiting,  consti- 
pation, diminished  arterial  tension,  pulse  rather 
slow,  oculocardiac  reflex  positive,  Samogyus's 
sign,  psychic  depression  particularly  connected 
with  the  development  of  the  corpus  lutetmi. 
These  crises  occurring  before  menstruation  or 
at   die   beginning  of   pregnant^   must   i 


tachycardia,  palpitations,   anxiety. 

"Hyperovaria*  (Dalchfe) :  Precocious 
puberty,  copious  menstruation,  pain  before  and 
during  the  first  days  of  the  period,  inter- 
menstrual leucorrhcea.  developed  sexual  in- 
stinct, well-marked  eyebrows,  thinness,  pallor, 
small  breasts,  large  pelvis,  rounded  lower  limbs 
contrasted  in  size  with  the  upper  ones,  arterial 
hypotension,  craving  for  movement  and  action, 
enervation,  tendency  to  loquacity,  erotic  crises. 

Testicles. —  Infantilism:  Defective  develop- 
ment of  the  male  genital  organs,  absence  of 
secondary  sexual  characters,  obesity,  deficiency 
of  hair  length  of  the  lower  limbs,  small  cra- 
nium, childishness. 

Acquired  Testicular  Insufficiency:  Increase 
in  heif^t,  diminution  of  the  pilous  system, 
glabrous  state  of  the  body,  tendency  to 
obesity,  gynecomasty,  frigiiUty,  impotency, 
senility,  arterial  hyperteasion(?),  asth^ia. 
^  The  types  of  testicular  insufficiency  accord- 
ing to  Rebattus  and  Gravier  are:  (a)  The 
sterile,  (b)  Eunuchoid  gigantismj  because  the 
interna!  secretion  of  the  testicle  is  established 
late.  In  this  case  there  is  a  prolonged  infantil- 
ism:   <i:)  Eunuchism  by  castration  diaracter- 


EHDODBRM— ENDOWED  SCHOOL  ACTS 


ized  by  gigantism  and  infantile  appeantnce. 
The  secondary  sexual  characters  do  not  appear, 
(rf)  The  reversive  infantilism  of  Gandy, 
where  simpty  a  sort  of  a  sexual  condition  is 
noticed,  with  attenuation  of  secondary  sexoal 
characters  and  a  certain  de^ee  of  obesity, 
with  late  testicular  diflicultv  in  the  adnlt. 

Dyshyperdiasteniatia :  Lower  limba  short 
and  cranium  very  large,  [hIous  system  wdl  de- 
veloped, especial^'  the  mustache,  thinness,  per- 
sistence of  youth,  B  degree  of  arterial  Iqrperteii- 
sion,  virile  character,  activity,  moral  and  idqrsi- 
cal  energy. 

i'rojiafr.^^ Prostatic  Insufficiency:  Asthenia, 
diminution  of  potency,  neurasthenia,  at  times 

Hypertrophy  of  Prostate;  Arterial  hyper- 
tension, retardation  of  the  heart,  cenbrat 
bemorrhascs,  genital  excitation. 

PluriKUndalar  SyndromcB. — Basedow's  dis- 
ease with  thymic  hypertrc^y  and  vagotonic 
symptoms ;  scleroderma,  and  tetany,  amen- 
orrhea, Addison's  syndrome;  acroraej^y,  etc. 

Uyxedematous  with  Thymic  Hypertrophy : 
Tetany,  acromegaly,  Addison's  synd.-ome, 
amenorrhoa,  infantilism,  mammary  hyper- 
trophy, etc. 

Acromegalic  or  ovarian  insufficiencies  with 
various  disturbances,  psychic,  nervous,  vaso- 
motor, trophic,  etc.,  connected  at  one  time 
with  the  myxedematous,  at  another  with  the 
basedowian  series. 

Ovarian  Predominattce. —  Thyroid  Reaction 
to  Ovarian  Insufficiency:  Tachycardia,  palpita- 
tions, perspiration,  nervous  irritability,  vertigo, 
scanty  urination,  trembling,  anxiety,  etc 

The  diSerences  between  these  nervous 
manifestations  and  the  picture  of  the  attenuated 
forms  of  exophthalmic  goitre  are  very  slight 
says  Laignel-Lavastine.  This  pathogenic  con- 
ception permits  of  important  therapeutic  re- 
sults: one  may  ask,  for  example,  whether  the 
anti-based owian  therapy  with  hematothyroidin 
would  not  be  of  advantage  in  the  nervous  and 
psychic  disturbances  of  the  normal  menopause 
which  repeat  one  feature  after  another  of  the 
basedowian  series. 

Dyshyperovaria  of  the  Hypothyroid:  Antid- 
pation,  prolongation  and  copiousness  of  the 
menses,  menorrhagia^  metrorrhagia. 

TlWro-ovarian  r>isturbances  of  the  Same 
Significance. —  Either  ovarian  Insufficiency  in 
the  mjniedemalous  series,  or  the  dyshypero- 
varian  in  the  basedowian  series;  in  either  case 
the  nervous  disturbances  of  the  dystfayroid  are 
modified  by  all  factors  of  the  ovarian  rhythm, 
whatever  tney  may  be. 

Hypophyseal  Predominance. —    Infantile 

giants,  with  their  clinical  varieties :  feminism, 
eunuchism  cryptorchidism,  feminine  pseudo- 
hermaphroditism, mental  infantilism. 

Acromegalics  with  deficiency  syndromes, 
myxedema,  infantilism,  amenorriios),  obesity, 
asthenia. 

Acromegalics  with  syndromes  of  hyperacriv- 
i^,  more  or  less  vicious,  synergetic  or  substitu- 
tive: simple  or  exophthalmic  goitre,  arterial 
hypertension  and  atheroma,  lacteal  secretion. 

SMprarenal  Predominance. — Addisonian  with 
amenorrhcea,  impotence,  chilliness,  tetany  or,  on 
ihe  other  hand,  exophthalmic  goitre. 

_  Very  often  basedowians,  acromeitalics,  giants, 
with  spontaneous  glycosuria,  alimentaiy  or 
merely  adrenal,  the  latter  meking  it  possiUe  in 


certain  cases  to  snp^se  a  certain  degree  of 
suprarenal  hyperactivity. 

Without  Marked  Predominance. —  The  case 
of  Caude  and  Gougerot  is  an  example :  Loss  of 
sexual  characters,  countenance  old-looking,  stdn 
thickened,  wrinkled,  pigmented ;  chilliness,  ab- 
sence of  perspiration,  asthenia,  arterial  hypo- 
tension, tetany;  testicular,  prostatic,  suprarenal, 
thyroidal  and  perhaps  paratnvroidal  atrophy. 
Consult  Jelliffe  and  White,  'Diseases  of  the 
Nervous  System'  (Chap.  HI,  "The  Endocrino- 
pathies*) ;  Eppinger  and  Hess,  'Vagotonia. 
Nervous  and  Mental  Disease'  (Monograph 
Series,  No.  20,  New  York). 

Smith  Ely  Jelupfe. 

BNDODERM,  or  EHODBRH  (also 
called  entoblast  or  hypoblast),  the  innermost 
layer  of  cells  in  the  develoj)ing  embryo.  In 
man  it  subsequently  develops  into  the  epithelium 
that  lines  the  digestive  canal  and  its  appendages, 
the  pancreas,   liver,    lungs,    etc     See  Eubbt- 

ENDODBKMIS.  in  plants,  the  layer  of 
cortical  cells  which  surrounds  the  vascular 
region  and  generally  called  the  bundle  sheath. 
In  many  cases  there  is  but  a  single  sheath  sur- 
rounding a  single  vascular  region;  in  others 
there  are  several  vascular  regions  each  pro- 
tected by  its  own  sheath  or  endodermis.  See 
MckphoUkv. 

ENDOGAMY,  a  custom  amoiig  some  sav- 
age peoples  of  marrying  only  within  their  own 
tribe.     Opposed  to  exogamy. 

BNDOGENS,  tki'dA-jinz,  a  name  tor  mon- 
ocotyledonous  plants,  referring  to  the  mode 
of  growth  of  the  stem.     See  Botany;  Moho- 


ENDOS,  en'der,  a  village  of  Palestine,  four 
miles  south  of  Tabor^  now  a  poor  mud  hamlet 
It  was  the  place  which  Saul  visited  (1  Sam. 
xxviii,  7)  to  consult  the  'woman  with  a  familiar 
spirit.'  The  word  is  in  common  use  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Philistines. 

EHDORSE.  in  heraldry,  a  subordinary 
equivalent  to  one-eighth  or  one-fourth  of  a 
pale. 

ENDOSCOPE,  in  surgery,  a  general  term 
for  an  instrument  for  the  < 


.  for  lighting.  The  most  serviceable 
devised  by  Nitie  and  Leiler. 

ENDOSHOSIS.     See  Osuosis. 
ENDOTHELIOMA,         in-dd-thS-H-6'ma. 

See  Tumor. 

ENDOTHELIUM,  a  modified  form  of  the 
cells  lining  certain  internal  organs.  Such  are 
the  internal  lining  membranes  of  the  heart  and 
blood  vessels,  the  joints  and  other  closed  cavi- 
ties. Endothelium  is  a  modification  of  epithe- 
lium (q.v.). 

BNDOTHYRA,  geons  of  fossil.  Forami- 
nifera,  the  shells  of  one  species  of  which  (£. 
baileyi)  form  a  large  part  of  the  oolitic  lime- 
stone of  the  Lower  Carboniferous  and  known 
as  Bedford  limestone.    See  Foraminifera. 

ENDOWED  SCHOOL  ACTS.  Acts  of 
the  British  Parliament  made  to  prevent  misap- 
plication of  the  foundations  for  the  snpport  of 
secondary  education  in  England.  See  Great 
BxriAiK  —  EdueaiioK,  and  consult  Balfour,  A. 


■8l^ 


BNDR0HI8 — ENEMY 


BNDROMIS  (1)  a  kind  of  boot  which  was 
first  generally  worn  by  Cretan  huntsmen  and 
then  by  athletes  in  general.  It  was  close-fitting. 
reached  above  the  ankle,  with  the  top  turnec 
down.  C2J  a  woolen  rug  or  covering  worn  by 
Roman  atnletes,'  gladiators,  etc.,  after  violent 
exercise.    They  were  made  in  Spain  or  in  Tyre. 

BNDYMION,  in  classical  mythology,  ac- 
cording to  some  a  huntsman;  according  to 
others  a  shepherd;  and  according  to  a  third 
account  a  king  of  Elis.  One  tradition  is  that  he 
asked  of  Zeus  eternal  youth  and  eternal  sleep, 
and  that  Selene  (the  moon)  saw  him  sleeping 
and  became  enamored  of  him.  Others  relate 
that  Selene  herself,  charmed  by  his  beauty,  con- 
veyed him  to  Mount  Letmus  in  Caria  and  threw 
him  into  a  perpetual  sleep  in  order  that  she 
might  kiss  him  whenever  she  pleased.  The 
legend  is  the  subject  of  Keats'  '£ndymion.' 

ENDYHION.  Keats  was  23  when,  in 
April  1818,  he  published  his  first  long  poem, 
'Endymion.'  The  young  poet,  in  love  no  less 
with  the  beauty  of  bis  native  Ejigtand  than  with 
■the  beautiful  mythology  of  Greece,"  incarnated 


this  theme  through  the  "uncertain  path*  of  a 
GtDiy  which  is  almost  lost  in  the  luxuriant  tan- 

ties  and  by-patbi  of  incident  and  description. 
Indymion,  smitten  with  strange  trance  at  the 
feast  of  Pan,  confesses  to  his  sister  the  vision 
of  an  immortal  loved  one  that  has  turned 
waking  life  to  despair.  Led  on  to  "woe-worn 
wanderings'  by  a  mysterious  command,  he 
descends  "into  the  silent  mysteries  of  earth.* 
He  is  succored  by  Diana,  urged  on  by  Venus, 
who  foretells  hi^  happiness,,  and  is  moved  to 
pity  by  the  vain  loves  of  Alpheus  and  Arethasa, 
And  when  at  length  his  "fated  way"  leads  him 
through  the  sea-depths  to  the  rescue  of  spell- 
bound Glaucus,  i^dymion's  awakened  sym- 
pathy with  suffering  gives  him  power  not  only 
to  restore  "all  lovers  tempest-lost*  to  eternal 
love  and  youth,  but  to  win  Cynthia  and  im- 
mortal bliss.  So  at  last  his  mortal  love,  the 
Indian  damsel,  reveals  herself  as  the  goddess ; 
and  through  earthly  loveliness  he  attains  im- 
mortal  beauty.  And  so  this  story  of  Endymion's 
love  for  the  moon-goddess  is  the  symbol  not 
only  of  Keats'  intense  susceptibility  to  the 
loveliness  of  moonlight  but  of  his  Ufe-Iong 
passion  for  "the  pnnciple  of  beauty  in  all 
things.' 

The  form  of  the  poem  is,  like  its  spirit, 
wavering,  but  shot  through  with'  imaginative 
gloiy.  Structure  is  lacking  —  the  poet  does 
not  master  his  story,  but  is  swept  on  by  it,  like 
Endymion  on  his  celestial  steed.  Metre  and 
diction  are  treated  with  a.  freedom  not  onlv 
Elicabethan  but  revolutionary.  And  in  sucn 
lyric  ecstasies  as  the  "Hymn  to  Pan'  and  "O 
Sorrow,*  in  such  perfect  images  as  "the  danc- 
ing poppies,'  ■tip-toe  Night,*  "panting  light.* 
■rain-scented  eglantine,'  there  speaks  Keats,  the 
magician  of  English  poetry.  Consult  article 
•Keats,'  'Cambridge  History  of  English 
Literature*  (Vol.  XII):  and  Colvin,  Sidney, 
<Jobn  Keats'  (New  York  1917). 

Frances  W.  Cutlei. 


BHEHATA,  fluid  substances  passeo  into 


the  treatment  of  chronic  constipatiott,  enemata 
of  cold  or  hot  water,  water  and  soapsuds,  water 
and  ^ycerine,  are  found  to  be  of  great  service. 
Almost  any  remedial  substance  cabbie  of  solu- 
tion and  absorption  may  be  placed  in  the  rectum 
or  large  intestine  to  aHect  the  parts  locally  or 
to  exert  a  general  action  on  the  body.  Altnost 
all  remedies  that  are  taken  into  the  xtomadi 
may  be  taken  by  means  of  enemata.  The  dose 
has  to  be  somewhat  larger  in  most  instances. 
For  the  treatment  of  pinworms,  diarrhcea  and 
dysentery  enemata  are  invaluable.  In  medicine 
the  lower  bowel  may  be  used  much  oftener 
than  it  is.  In  acute  colicky  pains  from  *wind* 
in  the  bowels  there  is  nothing  better,  as  a  rul^ 
than  a  hot  enema  of  at  least  two  Quarts,  at  a 
temperature  of  from  116°  to  118'  F.  As  the 
lower  bowel  is  not  prxrvided  with  digestive 
juices,  when  nutrient  enemata  are  to  be  given 
the  insoluble  food-substances  should  be  so  con- 
verted as  to  render  them  capable  of  absorption 
—  hence  all  gruels,  eggs,  milk,  etc..  to  be  used 
should  first  be  predigested  by  peptic  or  pan- 
creatic ferments.  A  special  form  of  enema, 
consisting  of  hot  (116*  to  118'  F.)  salt  solu- 
tion (1  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  1  pint  of  water), 
allowed  to  pass  in  and  out  of  the  bowel  slowly 
and  made  to  ascend  some  distance,  is  of  im- 
mense service  in  cases  of  surgical  shock,  in 
e-ofuse  bleeding,  and  in  cases  in  which  the 
dneys  refuse  to  secrete  urine.  This  is  termed 
enteroclysis  (q.v.).  Enemas  for  cleansing  the 
bowel  should  be  copious;  those  for  nutrient 
purposes  should  be  small  —  not  over  half  an 

ENEMY,  in  international  law,  a  nation  at 
war  with  another.  The  term  includes  the 
nation  as  a  whole,  and  also  individuals  belong- 
ing to  the  latter.  A  state  of  war  must  exist 
before  States  assume  toward  each  other  the 
position  of  enemies.  By  international  law  the 
status  of  an  enemy  u  regulated  according  as 
it  is  a  combatant  or  non-combatant.  If  a  com- 
batant the  opposing  nation  may  employ  its 
whole  force  toward  its  destruction.  Noo- 
combatants,  however,  in  as  much  as  they  have 
tto  connection  with  the  war  but  continue  their 
ordinary  avocation,  are  exempt  from  attack 
according  to  the  us^e  of  modem  dviliied 
peoples.  A  state  of  war  precludes  commercial 
relations  between  the  non-combatants  of  states 
at  war,  contracts  are  not  upheld,  and  the  courts  . 

are   closed   to   enemy   aliens.     Ordinarily   non-  | 

combatants  are_  not  liable  to  injury  in  person 


property  arising  from  miUtary  operations, 
._t  it  frequently  happens  that  they  suffer  prop- 
erty losses  through  bombardments,  etc.    If  at> 


tacked  or  robbed  by  troops  of  the  enemy  with- 
out authorisation  and  contrary  to  international 
law  those  troops  are  liable  to  punishment  by 
their  own  military  s^)eriors  for  violation  of 
the  rules  of  war.  The  modem  tendency  of 
civilized  peoples  is  to  limit  all  acts  of  hostili^ 
to  the  actual  combatants  in  the  theatre  of  war. 
It  has  frequently  happened,  however,  that 
modem  nations  while  eng^;ed  in  hostilities  with 
savage  peoples  have  been  unable  to  observe  all 
the  rules  of  international  law,  and  especially  the 
distinction  between  combatants  and  non-com- 
batants.    See  AuEif;   Beluceumt;    Iktxbma- 


raiXHY  ALIEN   PROBLBU8 


TRmju.  Law;  Wai,  Roira  of,  and  consolt  the 
aathorities  referred  tc  under  these  articles. 

ENEMY  ALIEN  PROBLEMS.  In  early 
times  it  was  the  practice  of  belligerent  govern- 
menis  upon  the  outbreak  of  war  to  arrest  the 
dtiiens  or  subjects  of  the  enemy  power  resid- 
ing within  their  jurisdiction,  to  confiscate  their 
property  and  sometimes  to  expel  them  sum- 
marily from  the  country.  In  the  course  of 
time,  however,  relaxations  from  this  harsh 
practice  began  to  be  made  and  many  treaties 
were  concluded  providing  that  such  persons 
should  cither  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  coun- 
try, or  in  case  they  were  required  to  leave, 
ifae^  should  be  allowed  a  specified  period  within 
which  to  dispose  of  their  property  and  wind  np 
their  business  affairs.  The  policy  of  confiscat- 
ing their  property  also  ceased  and  wholesale 
expulsions  became  rare.  During  most  of  the 
wars  of  the  19th  century  the  treannetit  accorded 
to  enemy  aliens  was  uniformly  liberal  and 
humane.  During  the  Spanish- American  War 
of  1898,  for  example,  neither  belligerent  mo- 
lested the  citizens  or  subjects  of  the  other,  so 


the  slightest  degree.  When  the  present  Euro- 
pean war  broke  out  the  rights  of  enemy  aliens 
had  not  been  regulated  by  any  of  the  great 
international  conventions;  the  treatment  to 
which  they  were  entitled,  therefore,  depended 
upon  the  customary  law  of  nations  and  upon 
particular  treaty  stipulations  between  the  op- 
posing belligerents. 

The  enemy  alien  problem  of  the  present  war 
has  been  somewhat  different  from  that  of  any 
preceding  war,  partly  because  of  the  unprece- 
dented number  of  enemy  aliens  which  were 
found  in  most  of  the  belligerent  states  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  conflict,  and  partly  because  of 
the  enormous  amount  of  property  held  by  such 

Krsons  in  the  countries  where  they  resided. 
England,  for  example,  there  were  more  than 
50,000  German  subjects;  in  France  the  num- 
ber was  still  larger;  and  in  the  United  State* 
(he  number  of  such  persons  probably  exceeded 
a  million.  In  consequence  of  the  German  policy 
of  universal  compulsory  military  service  large 
numbers  of  them  were  reservists  who  if  they 
had  been  allowed  to  depart  would  have  returned 
to  Germany  and  joined  the  army.  Many  of 
ihem  were  of  course  spies,  for  the  German  his- 
torian Trdtschke  Cells  us  that  'in  the  national 
wars  of  the  present  day  every  honest  subject  is 
a  spy."  The  presence  of  such  persons  in  so  large 
a  number  in  England  and  France,  because  of  the 
close  geographical  proximity  of  those  countries 
to  Germany  naturally  constituted  a  grave  danger 
to  both  countries.  It  was  impossible  in  view 
of  these  circumstances  to  allow  males  of  mili- 
tary a^  to  leave  the  country  and  it  was  equally 
impossible  to  leave  them  to  remain  in  complete 
freedom. 

The  treatment  which  was  accorded  to  every 
alien  by  the  various  belligerent  governments 
may  be  discussed  under  three  heads:  (1)  policy 
it|  respect  to  their  personal  freedom ;  (2) 
measures  in  respect  to  their  property  and  busi- 
ness undertakings ;  and  (3)  their  right  of  ac- 
cess to  the  conrts.  At  the  outset  Great  Britain 
accorded  to  German  subjects  a  period  of  seven 
days  during  which  they  might  leave,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  any  considerable  number  suc- 


ceeded in  getting  away.  France  allowed  them 
to  leave  before  the  end  of  the  first  day  of 
mobilization,  but  few  were  able  to  return  to 
their  home  countries.  Germany  and  the  United 
States  did  not  allow  any  days  of  grace  for  this 
purpose  and  Germany  even  went  to  the  length 
of  arresting  all  Japanese  subjects  found  in  the 
country  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  that 
country  and  Japan.  British  and  Frendi  nation- 
als were  summarily  expelled  from  any  German 
towns  and  cities  and  without  being  allowed  to 
take  their  effects  with  them.  On  the  day  of 
the  outbreak  of  war  between  France  and  Ger- 
man)' the  French  government  as  a  military  pre- 
caution required  all  enemy  subjects  to  evacuate 
the  region  of  the  northwest,  and  also  the  cities 
of  Paris  and  Lyons  and  to  retire  to  other 
regions  in  the  west.  They  were  not,  however, 
expelled.  Portugal  appears  to  have  been  the 
only  belligerent  country  which  went  to  the 
length  of  expelling  all  enemy  persons  between 
certain  ages.  In  every  belligerent  country 
measures  were  early  taken  to  restrict  the 
liberty  of  movement  of  enemy  aliens.  In  Eng- 
land they  were  required  to  reside  in  certain 
"approved*  places ;  they  were  forbidden  to  re- 
side in  certain  desi^ated  regions  or  to  change 
their  places  of  rendence  or  travel  more  than 
five   miles   without   a   permit;    they   were    for- 


9  sig- 


bidden    to    have   within    their 


naling  appatatus,  military  maps,  motor  cars, 
etc;  they  were  forbidden  to  frequent  chibs;  to 
see  any  but  English  newspapers,  etc.  In  every 
belligerent  country  they  were  required  to  regis- 
ter and  were  placed  under  strict  surveillance  by 
the  authorities.  In  the  United  States  they  were 
forbidden  to  reside  within  a  certain  distance  of 
any  fort,  arsenal,  armory  or  similar  place;  they 
were  excluded  from  residing  near  to  or  from 
adiinp  water  fronts  or  wharves,  and  they 
prohibited  from  remaining  or  residing 
within  the  District  of  Columbia.  All  enemy 
aliens  including  women  were  required  to 
register,  and  in  general  they  were  subjected 
to  other  restrictions  similar  to  those  adopted 
by  the  British  government.  On  account  of  the 
close  geographical  proximity  of  France  to  Ger- 
many, the  French  government  at  the  outset 
ordered  a  general  internment  of  the  enemy 
population.  They  were  therefore  removed  to 
concentration  camps  located  in  various  parts  of 
France,  mainly  in  the  west,  behind  a  line  ex- 
tending roughly  from  Dunldrk  to  Nice.  For 
some  dght  months  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  the  British  government  did  not  go  to  such 
lengths,  although  considerable  numbers  of  sus- 
picious and  dangerous  characters  were  interned 
as  a  precautionary  measure.  In  consequence, 
however,  of  various  acts  of  the  Germans,  such 
as  the  bombardment  of  undefended  coast  towns, 
ZeA>etin  raids  upon  England,  the  use  of  as- 
phyxiating gases  as  a  means  of  combat,  the  ill- 
treatment  of  En^ish  prisoners,  and  the  like, 
public  opinion  in  England  came  to  demand  that 
the  whole  enemy  population  of  Ensiand  should 
be  interned,  and  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania 
in  May  1915  greatly  intensified  the  popular  de- 
mand. This  last  act  led  (o  serious  mob  out' 
breaks  against  the  Germans  in  England  and  the 
dominions,  during  the  course  of  which  many 
German  houses  and  shops  were  wrecked  and  a 
considerable  number  of  lives  were  tost  Partlr, 


sw- 


ENXHY   ALIEN   PROBLEMS 


thereforeL  in  the  interest  of  the  natioD&l  de- 
fease 2nd  partly  in  the  interest  of  the  Germans 
themselves,  whom  it  was  difficult  for  the  pub- 
lic authorities  to  protect  so  long  as  they  were 

scattered  throu^out  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
British  government  in  May  1915  ordered  the 
internment  in  concentration  camps  of  practi- 
cally all  enemy  persons  then  left  in  En^and, 
although  exemptions  were  granted  in  particular 
cases  where  internment  would  have  worked  a 
serious  hardship  without  subserving  any  pur- 
pose of  national  defense.  The  order  for  in- 
ternment, it  may  be  added,  applied  not  only  to 
enemy  subjects  but  also  to  Bntish  subjects  (of 
which  there  were  some  8,000),  of  enemy  origin. 
So  far  as  possible  work  was  provided  in  the 
camps  for  such  persons ;  classes  for  instruction 
were  organized,  libraries  were  established,  and 
instructors   in   the  handicrafts  were   furnished. 


I,  in  consequence  of  reports  that  large  ; 
bers  of  Germans  were  being  arbitrarily  ar- 
rested and  imprisoned  in  England,  had  issued 
an  order  (t  Nov.  1914)  for  the  general  intern- 
ment of  all  British  males  between  the  ages  of 
17  and  55.  &&>st  of  them  were  interned  m  the 
buildings  of  a  race  course  at  Ruheleben  near 
Berlin.  The  United  States  was  almost  the  only 
great  power  which  did  not  resort  to  the  policy 
of  general  internment,  for  there  the  presence 
of  enemy  aliens  at  large  did  not,  by  reason  of 
the  remoteness  of  the  coimtrjr  from  Germany, 
constitute  the  same  danger  as  it  did  in  En^nd 
and  France.  Large  numbers  of  individual  Ger- 
mans whose  disloyalty  was  clearly  established, 
others  who  were  regarded  as  suspects  or  dai^er- 
ons  persons,  and  still  others  charged  with  espion- 
age and  other  crimes  were,  however,  arrested 
and  confined  in  internment  camps  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  The  members  of  the  crews 
of  German  merchant  vessels  in  American  ports 
as  well  as  the  crews  of  German  warships  which 
took  refuge  in  American  ports  were  likewise 
interned.  Other  enemy  persons  who  conformed 
to  the  regulations  in  regard  to  residence,  move- 
ment and  registration  and  who  demeaned  them- 
selves peaceably  were  left  at  large,  althou^ 
tbey  were  subjected  to  close  surveillance  and 
were  frequently  warned  against  the  conse- 
quences ot  misbehavior  and  disloyalty. 

Subsequent  to  the  inauguration  of  the  policy 
of  wholesale  internment,  special  conventions 
were  concluded  between  a  number  of  the 
belligerent  guvemments  providing  for  the  re- 
ciprocal exchange  and  release  ot  women  and 
males  except  those  of  military  age.  Thus  in 
January  1917  an  arrangement  was  concluded 
between  the  British  and  German  governments 
under  which  all  males  over  45  years  of  age  and 
under  17  held  in  either  country  as  interned 
prisoners  were  released  and  allowed  to  return 
to  their  own  countries.  In  pursuance  of  this 
arrangement  some  7,000  Germans  in  England 
and  some  600  or  700  British  subjects  in  Ger- 
many were  repairiated.  Somewhat  similar  ar- 
rangements were  concluded  between  the  German 
and  French  governments  and  between  the  Ger- 
man and  A ustro- Hungarian  governments. 

The  presence  in  many  of  the  belligerent 
countries  of  enormous  property  holdings  and 
business  houses  owned  wholly  or  in  part  by,  or 
imder  the   oonird    of,    enemy  persons    raised 


a  difficult  problem  for  belligerent  ^vem- 
ments.  Obviously  considerations  aflecUng  the 
national  defense  made  it  necessary  to  de- 
prive the  enemy  of  the  use  and  control  of  such 
property  or  business ;  otherwise  his  power 
would  have  been  employed  to  increase  its  own 
strength  and  resources.  Steps  were  therefore 
taken  in  every  belligerent  country  for  placing 
enemy-owned  property  and  enemy  business  im- 
dertaidngs  under  the  control  or  supervision  of 
the  public  authorities.  In  England  and  the 
United  States  all  such  property  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  a  public  custodian  who  was  em- 
powered to  hold  and  administer  it  and  in  gen- 
eral to  exercise  over  it  all  the  powers  of  a 
common-law  trustee  throughout  the  period  of 
the  war.  At  first  the  American  custodian  was 
(pven  only  a  limited  right  to  dispose  of  such 
properly  by  sale,  as  for  example,  when  it  was 
necessary  to  prevent  waste  or  protect  the  rights 
of  the  United  States  therein,  but  later  he  was 
given  a  general  power  of  sale  and  enormous 
German  holdings  aggregatii^  matw  millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  property  were  sold.  The  pro- 
ceeds were  turned  into  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States  and  it  is  understood  that  the 
eventual  disposition  of  it  will  be  determined  by 
the  treaty  of  peace  at  the  dose  of  the  war. 
The  proceeds  in  some  cases  were  used  to  pur- 
chase war  bonds.  It  should  be  remarked,  how- 
ever, that  this  somewhat  rigorous  policy  was 
not  enforced  against  the  property  owned  by 
enemy  persons  residing  or  domiciled  in  the 
United  States,  but  only  against  property  of 
those  living  in  the  enemy  country  and  who  were 
presiunably  engaged  in  making  war  upon  the 
United  States,     The  property  noldings  of   the 


-^jiding  in  Germany,  however,  was  treated  as 
enemy  property  on  the  theory  that  the  test  of 
enemy  character  is  domicile  rather  than  nation- 
ality. 

In  France  enemy  property  was  put  imder 
the  control  of  sequestrators  appointed  by  the 
courts  and  their  power  over  such  property  was 
substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the  English 
and  American  custodians,  except  that  they  were 
never  given  a  general  power  of  sale.  Again 
and  again  it  was  empt^ized  in  France  that 
sequestrators  were  mainly  conservators  with  no 
general  power  to  dispose  of  the  property  placed 
in  their  custody.  They  were  authorized  to  sell 
enemy  property  only  when  it  was  perishable  or 
when  it  was  necessary  to  protect  it  from  waste 
or  loss.  Germany  began  by  placii^  enemy 
property  under  supervision,  but  later  on  adopted 
the  policy  of  other  countries  and  put  it  in  the 
hands  of  administrators  who  had  the  power  to 
manage  it  and  in  some  cases  to  dispose  of  it 
by  sale.  There  was  widespread  complaint  in 
France  of  the  conduct  of  the  German  govern- 
ment in  respect  to  its  treatment  of  French 
property,  especially  in  Alsace-Lorraine  where 
large  quantities  were  held  and  the  proceeds 
of  which  in  some  cases  were  employed  for 
the  purchase  of  war  bonds.  As  re^rds 
enemy  business  enterprises  and  undertakings, 
all  belligerents  adapted  a  somewhat  ^milar 
policy.  In  England  an  offidal  known  as 
the  controller  was  appointed  to  man^e  and 
carry  on  any  enemy  business  undertakings 
the  continuance  of  which  was  demanded  by 


the   1  

prohituted  or  nound  up  and  Uquidatcd  t^ 
the  Board  of  Trade. .  In  the  United  State*  this 
power  wu  exerciacd  by  the  alien  enemy  cus- 
tO(tiafl,  Certain  enemy  buiinesiea  luch  as  tn- 
sttnuee  were  nrohibiled;  in  the  caie  of  other 
businesses  under  the  ownership  or  control  of 
enemy  persons  residing  in  Germany  the  boards 
of  directors  were  reorganiied  by  the  appoint* 
raent  of  new  directors  by  the  custodian,  and  the 
business  was  continued  by  the  reorganized  di- 
rectorate. In  Germany  au  enemy  business  en- 
terprises were  put  under  a  ri^me  of  com- 
pulsory administration  and  management  through 
government  appointed  agents.  Some  of  them. 
iny   were   wound   up 


hich  was  required  by  the  pnbli , 

others  were  wound  up  by  a  liquidator,  likewise 
appointed  by  the  courts.  In  the  case  of  that 
particular  species  of  property  in  the  form  of 
patents,  trademarks,  w^yrights,  etc.,  the  policy 
of  a)1  belligerent  governments  was  more  liberal 
than   it   was  in   respect  to  other  property.     In 


Citixens  who  held  patents  in  enemy  countries 
were  allowed  to  transmit  money  thereto  in  or- 
der to  pay  the  necessary  fees  for  ibh  renewal 
of  their  patents  or  copyrights.  In  most  of  the 
belligerent  countries  enemy  patents  for  the 
manufacture  and  sale  of  articles  which  the  pub- 
lic interest  required  to  be  manufactured  were 
assigned  to  local  firms  or  persons,  the  licensees 
in  such  cases  being  required  to  pay  the  fees  and 
royalties  due  the  enemy  patentee  into  the  pub- 
lic treasury  the  same  to  be  held  for  the  benefit 
of  the  enemy  patentee  until  the  end  of  the 
war  or  to  be  otherwise  disposed  of  as  might 
then  be  determined,  presumably  by  the  treaty 

As  to  the  right  of  enemy  subjects  to  enforce 
their  rights  by  suits  in  the  courts  or  to  appear 
in  court  and  defend  actions  brought  against 
them  the  policy  of  most  of  the  belligerent  gov- 
ernments has  been  fairly  liberal.  Under  the 
English  common  law  no  enemy  alien  was  al- 
lowed such  a  ri^ht  unless  he  remained  in  Eng- 
land by  permission  of  the  Crown  and  was  under 
ihe  speaat  protection  of  the  king.  During  the 
present  war,  however,  the  English  courts  have 
not  only  held  that  an  enemy  alien  residing  iti. 
England  may  defend  an  action  brought  against 
him  in  the  courts  but  that  an  enemy  subject 
who  is  interned  may  bring  an  action  as  a  plain-. 
tiff.  Since  practically  the  entire  enemy  popula- 
tion has  been  interned  the  effect  of  the  decision 
is  to  open  the  courts  generally  to  all  enemy 
aliens  in  the  cotmtry.  lliis  privilege,  however, 
does  not  extend  to  persons  residing  or  domiciled 
in  enemy  territory.  Germany  allowed  enemy 
aliens  domiciled  in  the  empire  the  ri^t  of 
access  to  German  courts  but  denied  it  to  those 
residing  or  domiciled  outside  the  empire.  In 
France  some  of  the  lower  courts  admitted 
enemy  aliens  to  bring  actions  but  other;  less 
liberal  refused  it.  Ttu:  Court  of  Appeals  of 
Paris  in  April  1916.  however,  rendered  a  notable 
decision  upholding  this  right.  In  the  United 
States  the  policy  oi  the  courts  has  been  «anie' 
what  divided  but  in  general  eueihy  ja^e.QS  -re- 


siding hbre  have  been  allowed:  access  to  the 
courts  on  a  fooiting  of  equality  with  citizens. 
Those  rediding  >n  enemy  country,  however,  are 
not  allowed  the  privilege. 

Biblioftftphy,— Hall,  'International  Law' 
(Ft.  Ill,  ch.  1);  Lawrence,  'Principles  of  In- 
tematiotial  Lbw,>  .(Pt.  HI,  ch.  3) ;  Oppenheim, 
'International  Uw>  (Vol.  11,  Ft.  II.  ch.  2) ; 
Phillipson,  'Inttmational  I^w  and  the  Great 
War*  (Ch.  5);  Baty  and  Morgan,  'War,  Its 
Conduct  and  Leg^l  Results''  (Pt.  1.  chs.  1-3) : 
(jamer  (in  American  Joumei  of  Intemaiiond 
Law.  Jan.  and  July  1918). 

Jaubs  W.  Garmeh, 
ProiestoT  of  Political  Sdencf,  Univertily  of 
Illinois. 

lENERGETICS.  In  physics,  mechanics  and' 
chemistry,  Energetics  is  the  science  that  treats' 
of  energy  and  its  transformations  —  'ene;^'. 
being  denned  as  that  attribute  of  a  body,  or 
of  a  material  system,  by  virtue  of  which  the 
body  or  system  can  cto  tnedianical  work;  and' 
•vyork*  being  simultaneously  defined  as  the 
ovcrcomiiie  of  resistance  throii^h  dist^ce. 
Any  such  Dody  or  system,  that  can. do  mechan- 
ical work  by  changing!  its  sjiape. '  position  or 
confij^ration,  or  its  physical  or  chtmical  state, 
is  said  (o  possess  "energy'  — that  is,  power  to 

The  mechanical  work  is,  often  perfaftned" 
directly  and  immediately  by  the  bo^  possess- 


however,  because  the  conception  of  energy  has^ 
beef]  extended  so  as  to  include  all  systems  anif 
processes,  however  complicated  or  indirect  thj 
development  of  the  work  may  be.  Thus  '?  hbV 
body  is  said  to  possess  energy,  because  its  heat^ 
can  be  used  to  actuate  a  beat  engine;  and  a 
galvanic  battery  is  similarly  said  to  possess  en- 
ergy, because  it  can  generate  electricity  an'ij 
thereby  operate  an  electric  motor.  We  even, 
speak  of  fpod  as  possessing  enetsfy,  because. 
when  eaten,  digested,  assimilated  and  qxifii^eft 
i9  .the  muscles  it  enables  Ijuman  beings  or  anii 
mals  to  perform  mechanical  work,  ,  .,  ,  .  . 
In  view  of  >the  varied  tdnds  of  bodies  and, 
svstepis  ibat  exist,  aifd  the  varied  wws  iii  wbii^'. 
Ihey  may  perform  \f°T^  we  speak  of  *heaf. 
energy,'  "clectriwl  .  energy,*  "cl)emic3l  .ei(- 
ere-'and  energy  of  other  types:  biit  In  us.ing 
such  expressions,  wa  ,pie.relx  indi^fs, ,  in  ,  a' 
rough  way,  fhe  kUid  of  .stource  ifeat  we-are  d^li 
ing  witH  anjj  the  gpneiiql  nutiire  of  the  prpc-, 
esses  to  whiqh  y/e  may  nave  to  resort,  if  ,w.^ 
attempt  to  utilize  the  energy.  The  energy  is. 
the  sanje  tbjpg  in  eywy,  case-:;-na,mehf,  it  is 
the  capacity  (jf  the  body  or  system  uncfer  con- 
sideration to  doi  mecha^^cal  work.  .  .In  in'an^ 
cases,  in  fact,  it  is  hard  to  sny  in  what  condir 
B'on  the  enfrgy  exists  in  a  body,  Fflr  exampl^^ 
a  mass  of  hot.  co^pres^ed  gas  certainly  pQ^ 
sesses  energy,  hfil  in  view  of  th^  fact  that  w^ 
(;an  obtain  work  frofn  it  either  by  direct  odia- 


t  and  using  i 


t(for  example}   tq  o^ 


originaj  ma^s  e^xisted  either  in  thje  fom}  oi 
heat  or  in  the  foRn  of  mechanical  .eofiiprea-. 
won.  If  we  try  to,  solve  ^is-  difficplty  bfp  re- 
plying that  it  existed  in  $otk.  l^riss;  ^.^» 
quiddfep.  ina*l«,*w»:rOt  Ifes  sWWfic^oHftffllft 


8l^ 


BHBKOBTICS 


of  the  answer,  if  we  attempt  to  deteimtne  kovt 
m»ch  is  present  as  heat,  and  how  mudi  is  prei- 
ent  as  mechanical  compression.  When  we  in- 
trease  the  energy  of  a  body  or  system,  we  say 
that  we  "add  energy*  to  it;  and  when  we  de- 
crease its  ener|^,  we  say  that  we  'subtract 
energy*  from  it.  We  can  always  tell  what 
fonn  the  energy  has  that  we  add  or  subtract, 
but  it  is  often  impossible  to  tell  what  fonn  it 
has,  while  it  actually  resides  within  the  body 
or  system  with  which  it  is  associated. 

Porpnritoses  of  measurement  and  compu- 
tation it  is  necessary  to  have  a  satisfactory 
unit,  in  terms  of  which  we  can  make  definite 
quantitative  statements  with  regard  to  energy; 
and  in  view  of  the  definition  of  energy,  it  is 
evident  that  this  unit  must  necessarily  be  either 
the  same  as  the  one  that  is  used  for  measiirinK 
work  or  else  a  mere  multiple  or  submultiple  o£ 
it  The  unit  that  is  adopted  in  the  measure- 
ment of  work  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
problem  thai  is  under  consideration.  In  mod- 
em scientific  investigations  the  unit  of  work  is 
commonly  the  erg,  which  is  defined  as  the 
work  done  in  overcoming  a  resistance  of  one 
dyne,  through  a  distance  of  one  centimeter.  In 
engineering  operations,  the  unit  of  work  com- 
monly employed  (at  least  in  the  United  States 
and  in  England)  is  the  foot-pound,  which  is  de- 
fined as  the  amount  of  work  done  in  overcom- 
ing, throu^  a  distance  of  one  foot,  a  resist- 
ance equal  to  the  weight  of  one  pound  of  mat- 
ter. (In  countries  using  the  metric  system,  the 
unit  of  work  in  engineering  operations  is  the 
kilo^am-meter).  The  foot-pound  is  not  as 
precise  and  definite  a  unit  as  the  erg,  because 
the  attraction  that  the  earth  exerts  upon  a 
pound  of  matter  varies  with  the  latitude  and 
with  the  elevation  above  the  sea  and  hence  the 
foot-[»ound  varies  in  the  same  manner.  The 
variation  is  not  great  enough,  however,  to  de- 
stroy the  usefulness  of  the  foot-pound  as  a 
unit  of  work  or  energy  for  engineering  pur- 
poses, and  hence  this  familiar  unit  is  not  liltely 
to  be  superseded,  for  ordinary,  rough  purposes. 
To  avoid  the  indefiniteness  of  the  foot-pound, 
we  might  adopt  the  far  more  scientific  (but 
exceedingly  unconinion_)  unit  known  as  the 
•foot-poundal,'  which  is  defined  as  the  quan- 
tity of  work  that  must  be  done  in  order  to 
overcome  a  resistance  of  one  "poundal*  dirouKh 
a  distance  of  one  foot  —  a  ■poundal*  being  the 
force  which,  when  applied  for  one  second  to  a 
body  having  a  mass  of  one  pound,  subject  to  no 
other  forces  and  initially  stationary,  will  pro- 
duce in  that  body  a  velocity  of  one  foot  per 

A  moving  body  possesses  energy  in  virtue 
of  its  motion  and  work  must  be  done  by  it 
before  it  will  stop.  Thus  a  railroad  train,  mov- 
ing at  high  speeo,  cannot  be  brought  to  rest  at 
once,  because  the  energy  of  motion  that  it  pos- 
sesses must  first  be  expended  in  overcoming 
rtie  resistance  of  the  brakes,  or  the  natural  fric- 
tional  resistance  of  its  axles  in  their  journals 
and  its  wheels  upon  the  tracks.  The  mechan- 
ical energy  that  a  body  possesses  in  virtue  of 
its  motion  of  translation  or  rotation  is  called 
■kinetic  energy* ;  and  that  which  it  possesses  in 
virtue  of  its  position  or  its  state  of -elastic 
strain  is  called  'potential  energy,* 

The  kinetic  energy  of  a  boay  having  a  given 
mass  and  a  given  speed  of  translation,  is  (t^ 
deSoition)  tbe  amount  of  mechanical  work  that 


V,  it  can  easily  be  shown, -from  the  principles 
of  theoretical  mechanics,  diat  the  work  thus 
performed  is  H  MV.  This  is  therefore  the 
numerical  expression  for  the  kinetic  energy 
of  the  body.  If  V  is  given  in  feet  per  sectmd 
and  M  is  given  in  pounds,  this  formula  gives 
the  kinetic  energy  in  foot-poundals ;  and  hence 
if  it  is  desirea  to  state  the  result  in  foot- 
pounds, it  is  necessary  to  divide  by  the  accelera- 
tion of  gravity,  as  expressed  in  the  same  fun- 
damental units  —  namely,  fay  322,  in  a  locality 
in  which  the  speed  of  a  body  falling  freely  in 
a  vacuum  increases,  each  second,  l^  32,2  feet 
per  second. 

It  is  not  only  impossible,  in  many  case*,  to 
state  what  form  the  energy  has,  within  a  given 
body  or  system,  but  it  is  also  usually  (and  per- 
haps universally)  impossible  to  say  hotu  muck 
energy  the  body  or  system  contains  in  the  ag- 
gregate. In  outer  words,  there  is  usually  no 
absolute  and  natural  zero  from  which  the  en- 
ergy can  be  reckoned ;  and  hence  we  have  to 
assume  an  arbitrary  zero  point,  or  else  confine 


to  the  bo<^  or  system  (or  subtracted  f--„  

without  making  any  attempt  to  estimate  the 
total  amouiit  present.  In  the  case  of  ordinary 
kinetic  energy,  there  is  apparently  a  natural 
zero,  correspondinfj;  to  absolute  rest;  but  it  will 
be  evident  that  this  zero  is  only  conventional, 
inasmuch  as  'rest*  it  a  relative  term  and  a 
body  that  is  acemingly  quite  devoid  of  motion 
is  nevertheless  rushing  through  space,  with  the 
earth,  at  a  considerable  speed.  The  case  is  even 
plainer  in  connection  with  the  potential  energy 
of  a  raised  body.  The  body  can  do  work  i^ 
falling,  but  it  evidently  can  do  an  indefinite 
amount  of  work  by  falling  through  an  indefi- 
nite distance.  In  applying  the  principles  of  en- 
ergetics to  falling  weights  it  Is  therefore  con- 
ventional to  assume  some  arbitrary  level  (at 
least  as  low  as  the  lowest  point  -to  which  the 
weight  can  go)  as  the  level  of  zero  potential 
energy.  In  die  case  of  a  pendulum,  for  exam- 
ple, we  say  that  the  bob  has  no  potential  en- 
ergy when  it  is  at  the  lowest  point  of  its  swing, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  it  cannot  do  more 
work  by  descending  further,  because  it  is  al- 
ready at  the  lowest  point  to  which  the  con- 
struction and  mounting  of  the  pendulum  will  j 
allow  it  to  go;  yet  we  know  very  well  that  it 
could  do  more  work  it  the  supports  were  re-  ' 
moved  and  the  pendulum  as  a  whole  were  al- 
lowed to  fall  still  further. 

Transformation  of  Energjr. —  It  often  hap- 
pens that  energy  of  some  one  given  and  distinct- 
ly recognizable  type  ma^be  transformed  into  en- 
ergy of  some  other  easily  recognizable  and  def- 
inite type.  The  simplest  example  of  a  trans- 
formation of  this  kind  is  afforded  by  the  case 
of  a  freely- falling  body.  The  potential  energy 
that  the  body  possesses  in  virtue  of  its  elevated 
position  grows  less  as  the  body  descends,  and  the 
kinetic  energy  that  it  possesses  increases  at  the 
same  -time;  and  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  show, 
by  the  aid  of  elementary  mechanical  principles, 
that  the  gain  in  kinetic  energy  is  precisely  equal 
to   the   loss   in   potential   energy.      In   the   same  , 

way,  an  electric  current  flowing  through  a  wire  I 

causes  the  wire  to  become  heated  and  it  has  | 

been  pro-zed  that  the  heat-energy  thus  produced 
is  precisely  equivalent  to  the  electrical  energy 


BNBRGBTICS 


that  diaappcara  and  which  U  not  odisrwiM  ac- 
counted for. 

When  eneTgy  b  thus  converted,  it  is  found 
that  there  is  always  an  exact  relation  between 
the  qtuuititT  of  enerKy  of  one  type  that  dis- 
appears and  the  quantity  of  energy  of  tite 
other  type  that  appears.  In  fact,  these  two 
quantities  are  precueljr  equal,  if  they  are  both 
expressed  in  worlc-units  —  that  is,  in  ergs  or 
foot'poundals.  As  a  matter  of  practical  con- 
venience, however,  ener^  of  a  given  special 
npe  is  often  measured  in  some  special  unit 
mat  lends  itself,  more  readily  than  the  erg  or 
foot-poundal,  to  the  particular  measurements 
and  approximate  calculations  that  are  associ- 
ated with  this  species  of  energy.  Heat  is  a  fa- 
miliar case  in  point,  as  it  is  commonly  meas- 
ured in  terms  of  either  the  ''British  thermal 
unit,"  or  the  "calorie'  — the  British  thermal 
unit  being  defined  as  the  quantity  of  heat  re- 
quired to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound 
of  water  by  one  Fahrenheit  d^ree,  at  a  cer- 
lab  specified  point  on  the  thennometric  scale, 
and  the  calorie  being  defined  as  the  quantity 
of  heat  requirtd  to  raise  the  temperature  of 
one  laloKraai  of  water  by  one  Centigrade  de- 
gree, at  some  specified  temperature.  These 
units  and  others  analogous  to  thent,  which  are 
based  upon  obvious,  £rectly-observable  prop- 
erties of  substances  and  which  do  not  involve 
an^  physical  theories  whatever  might  with  pro- 
prie^  be  called  'natural  units.* 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  energy  of  one  type 
may  be  transformed  into  energy  of  anouicr 
type,  it  becomes  exceedingly  important  to 
Imow  the  numerical  relation  between  the  "nat- 
ural' units  in  which  different  forms  of  energy 
are  measured;  for  until  we  possess  this  knowl- 
edge we  cannot  compare  quantities  of  energy 
of  different  ^pes  —  because  we  cannot  express 
these  quantities  in  terms  of  the  erg,  or  foot- 
poundiu,  or  any  other  common  or  fundamental 
imit.  We  shouid,  in  fact,  be  in  the  same  positicKi 
as  a  man  who  had  measured  one  liquia  with  a 
gallon  measure  and  another  one  with  a  pint 
mug,  but  who  had  no  idea  of  the  relation  of  the 
pint  to  the  gallon. 

it  is  especially  important  to  be  able  to  com- 
pare the  'natuTal'  unit  of  heat  accurately  with 
the  erg  or  the  foot-poundal,  and  many  elabo> 
rate  experimental   researches  have   been 


regard  to  this  topic  the  reader  should  refer  .. 
Hbat  and  Theiikvynaiiics  ;  but  it  may  be 
said,  in  this  place,  that  Rowland  found  that  one 
British  thermal  unit  of  heat  is  the  equivalent 
of  about  778  foot-pounds  of  mechanical  work 
~  the  'pound*  here  being  understood  to  signify 
the  attraction  of  the  earth  for  one  pound  of 
matter,  at  sea-level  in  the  latitude  of  Baltimore. 
Effidency  of  Converalon, —  It  is  not  always 
possible  to  convert  a  given  quantity  of  energy  of 
one  type  wholly  into  energy  of  some  other  given 
^Tie,  or  wholly  into  mechanical  work.  Heat,  for 
example,  cannot  be  wholly  converted  into  me- 
chanical energy  —  though  the  reverse  process,  of 
converting  mechanical  energy  wholly  into  heat, 
is  easily  performed.  This  fact  has  led  to  the  use 
of  the  expression  'available  energy."  to  signify 
that  part  of  the  total  energy  of  a  boay  or  system, 
which  can  be  converted  into  mechanical  energy. 
The  distinction  between  available  and  unavail- 
able energy  is  arbitrary,  however,  because  the 


fraction  of  the  total  energy  that  b  available  de> 
poids  upon  the  completeness  of  our  control  over 
the  conditions  under  which  the  transformation  is 
attempted.  Heat  energy,  for  example,  could  be 
wholly  converted  into  mechanical  energy  (so  far 
as  any  theoretical  limitation  is  concerned),  if  we 
could  effect  the  transformation  by  means  of  a 
heat-engine  having  a  condenser  at  the  absolute 
aero  of  temperature,  and  in  that  case  all  the 
heat-energy  wou!d  be  •available."  Similar  limi- 
tations and  conditions  apply  to  energy  of  other 
types.  The  fact  that  heat-energy  is  not  fully 
convertible  into  mechanical  energy  under  con- 
ditions that  wc  can  realize,  or  which  exist  in 
nature,  while  the  reverse  transformation  takes 
place  i^uite  readily  and  completely,  leads  to  the 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  in  the  processes  of 
nature  there  must  be,  on  the  whole,  a  tendency 
toward  the  'degradation  of  energy,*  in  the  sense 
that  there  is  a  continuous  diminution,  in  the  uni- 
verse, of  the  store  of  available  energy.  The 
supply  of  available  energy,  in  other  words,  is 
tending  continually  to  become  dissipated,  in  the 
form  of  diffused,  low- temperature  heat. 

For  purposes  of  mathematical  analysis,  it  is 
convenient  to  designate  the  condition  of  a  body 
or  system  by  representing,  by  means  of  algebraic 
symbols,  its  configuration,  siie,  temperature, 
electric  potential,  and  any  other  measurable  at- 
tributes that  it  may  have  —  the  particular  at- 
tributes or  features  that  are  selected  being  to  a 
considerable  extent  arbitrary,  though  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  defining  the  condition  of  the  body 
or  system  at  every  moment,  they  must  be  numer- 
ous enough,  and  must  bt  selected  in  such  a  way, 
so  that  no  change,  essential  to  the  problem  under 
consideration,  can  take  place  in  the  body  without 
at  least  one  of  these  symbols  (or  defining  vari- 
ables) changing  its  value.  It  may  be  that  some 
of  the  selected  variables  will  be  functionally  de- 
pendent upon  the  others;  but  there  will  always 
be  a  certain  number  (small  in  the  cases  usually 
considered)  that  will  be  independent,  so  that  any 
one  of  them  can  vary  without  any  of  the  others 
necessarily  undergoing  a  simultaneous  variation. 
Then  if  E  represents  the  aggregate  energy  (in- 
cluding all  types)  possessed  by  the  body  at  a 
given  moment,  and  if  the  body  then  undergoes 
an  infinitesimal  change  of  condition  so  that  E 
increased  by  the  theory  of  energetics  leaches 
that  a  relation  of  the  following  form  exists : 

&B^X&x+  Y-iy+Z-iif+  ... 
where  X,  ¥,  Z,  x,  v,  i,  .  .  .  are  functions  of 
the  independent  defining  variables  —  some  of 
them  being  perhaps  identical  with  certain  of 
those  variables.  The  svmbols  on  the  right-hand 
side  may  be  so  selectea  that  each  of  the  several 
expressions  that  are  added  together  will  repre- 
sent the  total  quantity  of  energy  of  some  one 
type  that  the  body  must  take  in,  in  order  to  un- 
dergo the  physical  change  corresponding  to  an 
increase  of  x,  y,  i,  .  .  .  by  the  respective 
amounts  ^  Ay,  dt,  .  .  .  The  variables,  more- 
over, may  be  so  chosen  that  X,  Y,  Z,  will  be 
analogous  to  intentitits,  in  the  sense  that  th<^ 
do  not  depend  in  anv  way  upon  the  mass  or 
volume  of  the  body,  out  only  upon  its  physical 
state;  and  for  this  reason  they  are  called  the 
■intensity- factors.*  At  the  same  time  the  in- 
finitesimals Ax,  A;y,Ai,  .  .  .  (since  the  dimen- 
sions of  every  one  of  the  added  terms  must  be 
the  same  as  the  dimensions  of  energy)  will  be 
proportional  to  the  volume  of  the  body,  or  ti 


8l^ 


BNXROKTICS 


its  mass,  or  to  some  other  qualit}r  or  attribute 
that  would  necessarily  vary  if  the  size  of  the 
body  should  vary,  without  any  change  in  X,  Y, 
Z,  .  .  "Hie  terms  Ax,  &y,  &i,  are  there- 
fore called  the  'capacity  factors*  of  the  terms 
on  the  ri^t  of  Che  equation.  Furthermore,  the 
intensity- factor  X  will  be  of  such  a  nature  that 
its  value  within  the  body,  as  compared  with  its 
value  in  the  environment  immediately  external 
to  the  body,  determines  whether  the  energy  rep- 
resented by  X-4*  wia  enter  the  body  or  feive  it. 
By  way  of  elucidation,  let  us  consider  the 
case  of  a  'perfect  gas*  subject  to  variations 
such  that  any  two  of  the  three  variables  pres- 
sure, temperature  and  volume,  will  suffice  to 
define  its  condition  at  any  given  moment;  and 
let  us  assume  that  the  only  forms  of  energy 
to  be  consideFcd  are  heat-energy  and  the 
energy  of  elastic  compression.  Then  the  fore- 
going equation  takes  the  form 

•  ia 

entropy,  .   _, __   ._..   „__. 

the  pressure  to  which  it  is  subject,  per 
of  its  bounding  surface.  (See  THERiiony- 
NAMics).  The  first  term  on  the  right  is  then 
the  quantity  of  heat-energy  absorbed,  and  the 
second  is  the  quantit;/  of  compression-energy 
absorbed  (The  negative  sign  is  affixed  to  me 
last  term  because  we  are  considering  the 
energy  added  to  the  system,  and  the  internal 
energy  due  to  compression  increases  when  v 
decreases). 

If  the  body  or  system  undergoes  any  Idnd 
of  a  cyclic  change,  such  that  its  final  state  is  in 
all  respects  identical  with  its  initial  state,  then 
the  algebraic  sum  of  all  the  changes  of  £  (the 
internal  or  intrinsic  energy),  summed  up  for 
the  entire  cycle,  will  be  lero;  for  if  this  were 
not  the  case,  then  by  causing  the  body  to  pass 
around  the  cycle  repeatedly,  in  one  certain  di- 
rection, we  could  obtain  an  indefinite  supply 
of  energy  from  it;  and  this  would  violate  the 

K indole  of  the  conservation  of  energy.  (See 
low).  Suppose,  now,  that  in  the  special 
case  we  are  considering,  the  body  undergoes 
the  following  cycle:  (1)  With  its  temperature 
constantly  equal  to  Ti  it  passes  from  the  state 
ia  which  t^^  K>  the  state  in  which  #>=•#•; 
(2)  with  f  constantly  equal  to  fi  it  passes 
from  the  State  in  whidi  T  =  Tx  lo  the  state  in 
which  r  — r,;  (3)  with  T  constantly  equal  to 
Tt  it  passes  from  the  state  in  which  ^e=>di 
to  the  state  in  which  f=^i;  and  (4)  with 
f  constantly  equal  to  ^  iit  fetums  to  its 
initial  state,  so  that  T  ctunges  from  Ti  to  TV 
In  each  stage  the  heat  absorbed  will  be  ob- 
tained by  integrating  along  the  path  that  is 
followed-  Thus  in  the  first  stage  T.  {^— ^.) 
units  of  heat  will  be  absorbed,  in  the  second 
stage  there  will  be  no  heat  absorbed,  because 
f  doea  not  '  chanra.  In  the  third  stage 
7',  (^ — ^i)  units  ot  heat  will  be  absorbed; 
and  in  the  final  stage  no  heat  will  be  absorbed. 
But  as  T.  the  absolute  temperature,  is  essen- 
tially positive,  it  follows  that  T,i<h  —  *i)  = 
—  r.(#r  —  *■)  is  negative,  if  Ti{^  —  *i)  is  posi- 
tive. Hence  if  heat  enters  the  body  during 
the  first  stage  of  the  c]/cle,  heat  is  rejected  by 
the  body  during  the  third  stage.  The  amount 
of  heat  that  is  absorbed  in  the  course  of  the 
whole  cycle  is  r,(*,  —  ♦.)  —  T,(i,  —<f,)  =  ( T.  — 
Ti)  (vi— fi),  and  in  view  of  the  priodple  of 


.  _..  of  energy,  this  must  have 
been  converted  into  some  other  form  of  energy. 
But  it  is  not  represented  by  any  increase  in  the 
internal  energy  of  the  body,  because  a  com- 

Slete  cycle  has  been  described,  and  the  bo<fy 
as  returned  to  its  original  state.  Hence  it 
has  been  transformed  into  mechanical  energy. 
The  onl^  heat  that  has  entered  the  body  (in 
the  positive  direction)  is  thequantity  talren  in 
during  the  first  stage  ot  the  cycle.  Hence  the 
efficiency  of  the  conversion  of  heat-energy 
into  mechanical-energy  is 

(r,-r.)  (»r-»i)     r,-r. 
r.(^-^)      -    r, 

The  cycle  we  have  here  considered  is  known 
as  the  Camot  cycle,  being  named  for  the  dis- 
tinguished French  founder  of  the  mechanical 
theory  of  heat,  who  first  employed  it.  An 
analogous  cycle  can  easily  be  applied  to  ai^ 
other  type  of  energy. 

In  the  foregoing  discus»on  we  have  as- 
sumed that  the  processes  considered  are  rever- 
tible,  and  that  any  change  can  take  place  in 
either  the  positive  or  negative  direction.  The 
theory  of  irreversible  changes  is  too  involved 
to  be  considered  in  the  present  article  ~-' and 
in  tact  it  has  not  yet  been  completely  worked 
out 

ConsMvatloii  of  Bnergy, —  The  physical 
law  that  is  known  by  this  name  asserts  that 
the  total  amount  of  enermr  in  any  isolated 
system  is  absolutelr  invariaUe  in  amount.  En- 
ergy may  be  added  from  without,  or  abstracted 
in  a  similar  manner;  but  so  long  as  no  external 
influences  are  permitted  to  interfere,  the  total 
quantity  of  energy;  within  the  system  is  in- 
capable of  either  increase  or  diminution.  In 
a  simple  case  like  that  ot  the  pendulum  this  is 
easil]^  admitted;  but  other  systems  are  easily 
imagined,  in  which  the  truth  of  the  law  is  by 
no  means  obvious.  For  example,  a  tightly- 
wound  watch-siirii^  possesses  potential  energy, 
in  virtue  of  which  it  mav  be  caused  to  drive  a 
train  of  wheels  and  to  do  work.  But  suppose 
the  coiled  watch-spring  is  dissolved  in  an  add 
and  meanwhile  secured  in  some  manner  so  that 
it  cannot  unwind  What  becomes  of  the  energy 
in  the  ^ring?  This  question  would  be  best 
answered  by  experiment;  but  in  the  absence  of 
experimental  data  the  conjecture  may  be  reason- 
ably made  that  the  two  sides  of  the  spring, 
being  in  different  states  of  strain,  act  like  plates 
of  mflerent  metals  when  immersed  in  the  add 
and  give  rise  to  electric  currents  throuRh  the 
liquid,  whose  combined  chemical  and  thermal 
respond    predsely  to    the    potential 


___  _    ._  somewhat  confusing  at 

first  thought,  because  although  il  may  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  potential  energy  is  used  up  by 
accelerating  the  body  while  it  is  falling,  it  is 
by  no  means  evident  that  the  accumulated  ki- 
netic energy  is  not  annihilated  as  soon  as  the 
body  strikes  the  ground.  But  the  energy  of 
the  falling  body  is  converted  into  heat  when 
the  visible  motion  ts  suddenly  arrested,  and  the 
body  ancl  the  ground  immediately  around  it  are 
warmed  tw  an  amonnt  that  corresponds  pre- 
cisely to  the  Idnetic  energy  that  the  body  had 
immediately  before  the  arrest.  This  explana- 
tion is  not  merely  speculative,  for  it  rests  upon 
soimd  expcrinientsl  evidence.    The  arrest  of  n 


EKBK0BTIC8 


881 


work  on  balttcships  is  often 
sequence  of  the  mere  impact  of  projectiles.  The 
water  at  the  bottom  of  a  waterfall  is  measur- 
ably warmer  than  that  at  the  top;  and  the  rise 
in  temperature  that  is  observed  when  a  falling 
mass  of  lead  is  suddenly  arrested  was  used  by 
Him  with  remarkable  success  for  the  deter- 
mioatton  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat. 
The  idea  that  energy  cannot  be  created  ap- 
pears to  have  been  familiar  to  Galileo,  who 
inferred  the  fact  from  a  careful  study  of  the 
simple  machines  that  were  in  use  in  his  day. 
There  appeared  to  be  many  cases  in  whidi 
euersy  is  d^troycd,  however,  and  the  indica- 
tions wer^  in  fact,  that  all  mechanica]  energy 
is  Kraduallv  wasted  away  by  frictional  losses 
and  by  otners  of  like  nature.  In  cases  in 
which  these  losses  do  not  exist,  or  are  neg- 
ligible, the  idea  of  the  conservation  of  the 
energies  of  a  system,  and  of  the  perpetual  trans- 
formations of  kinetic  energy  into  potential 
energy  and  the  reverse,  proved  to  be  of  the 
greatest  service  in  simplifying  the  theoretical 
discussion  of  many  problems  in  mechanics, 
even  before  the  modem  theory  of  heat  was 
formulatt^d.  The  motions  of  the  celestial  bodies 
for  example,  are  much  more  easily  discussed 
by  the  aid  of  the  principle  of  conservation  of 
energy  than  they  could  be  without  it  The 
extension  of  that  principle  so  as  to  cover  all 
the  cases  in  which  it  had  previously  appeared 
to  be  violated  could  not  be  made  until  the  fact 
was  recosniied  that  heat  is  n^t  a  substance; 
for,  obviously,  it  was  impossible  that  a  substance 
could  be  converted  into  mechanical  energy.  In 
the  first  years  of  the  19tfa  century  Rumford 
made  experiments  tending  to  prove  that  heat  is 
not  a  substance,  and  he  appears  to  have  been 
convinced,  in  his  own  mind,  of  the  correctness 
of  his  novel  views.  A  quarter  of  a  century 
later  Camot  probably  reached  the  same  con- 
dnsion,  if  we  may  }u6gt  from  the  note-book 
that  he  left  among  his  papers.  It  was  not  imtil 
about  1840,  however,  that  the  great  steps  were 
taken  that  led  to  the  establishment  of  our  pres- 
ent views-  Several  eminent  names  arc  con- 
nected with  these  beginning  of  the  modem 
theory  of  heat  and  it  is  ditncult  to  apportion 
the  credit  among  them  justly.  Protninent 
among  these  names  are  those  of  S^Kuin,  Mayer, 
Colding  and  Joule-  but  it  is  undoubtedly  to 
Mayer  and  Joule  that  we  are  chieRy  indebted 
for  the  new  ideas,  and  the  controversies  tl»t 
were  rife  at  one  time  concerning  the  credit  that 
shoiild  be  given  to  different  invest^tors  for 
their  work  along  this  line  were  mainly  confined 
to  a  discussion  of  the  priority  and  the  relative 
importance  of   the   contributions   of  these  two 


Javanese  often  exhibits  the  brilliant  red  color 
that  is  commonly  observed  only  in  the  hi^y 
oxygenated  blood  of  the  arterial  circulation; 
and  after  much  re  Section  he  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  this  is  because  a  lesser  amount  of 
oxidation  suffices  to  maintain  the  temperature 
of  the  body  in  a  hot  climate  than  would  be 
required  in  a  cooler  one.  These  observations 
were  made  in  the  summer  of  184a     In  May 


1842  he  puUisbed,  in  Liebig's  Ammlen,  a 
paper  entitled  'Remarks  oo  the  Forces  of  In- 
or^nic  Nature,'  in  which  he  gave  a  preliminary 
account  of  his  discovery.  Here  he  presents  the 
general  ontKne  of  the  new  theory  very  clearly, 
and  the  grasp  of  the  subject  that  he  displays  at 
this  early  date  is  truly  wonderful.  The  locomo- 
tive itself  was  then  a  great  novelty,  but  he  uses 
it  to  illustrate  the  transformation  of  heat  into 
mechanical  energy  and  back  again  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentence,  which  would  be  a  credit  to  . 
the  most  advanced  physicist  of  to-da^:  "Our 
locomotives  may  be  compared  to  distilling  ap- 
paratus; the  heat  beneath  the  boiler  passes  into 
the  motion  of  the  train,  and  is  again  deposited 
as  heat  in  the  axles  and  wheels.*  In  1845  he 
published  a  second  and  much  more  remarkable 
paper  entitled  'Oi^nic  Motion  in  its  Cotmec- 
tion  with  Nutrition,'  in  which  he  gives  a  de- 
tailed calculation  of  the  mechanical  equivalent 
of  heat,  from  the  known  specific  heats  of  air. 
The  contributions  of  James  Prescolt  Joule, 
of  Manchester,  England,  to  the  mechanical 
theory  of  beat  and  the  conservation  of  energy 
the  tiatural  outcome  of  investigations  that 


enunciated  the  new  concnition  of  heat  i 
form  of  ener^  was  read  at  Cork,  in  1843, 
before  the  British  Association,  and  was  entitled 
<0n  the  Calorific  Effects  of  Magneto-Electricity, 
and  on  the  Mechanical  Value  of  Heat.'  As 
first  written  it  was  verj^  involved,  and  Faraday, 
who  appears  to  have  failed  to  grasp  its  exceed- 
ing importance,  advised  Joule  not  to  submit  iL 
He  did  submit  it.  however,  and  in  it  he  gave  a 
number  of  estimates  of  the  mechanical  equiva- 
lent of  heat.  The  paper  apparently  did  not 
greatly  impress  either  the  British  Assodation 
or  the  outside  world;  for  when  Joule  brouc^t 
die  subject  up  again  before  the  same  association 
in  1847  he  had  an  experience  that  is  test  de- 
scribed in  his  own  words :  "The  chairman 
suggested  that,  as  the  business  of  the  section 
pressed,  I  ^ould  not  read  my  paper,  but  con- 
fine myself  to  a  short  verbal  description  of  my 
experiments.  This  1  endeavored  to  do,  and 
discussion  not  being  invited,  the  communication 
would  have  passed  without  comment  if  a  youiig 
man  had  not  risen  in  the  section^  and  by  his 
intelligent  observations  created  a  lively  interest 
in  the  new  theory.*  The  young  man  was  Lord 
Kelvin,  then  simply  William  Thomson,  two 
years  out  of  college.  In  later  years  Joule  ob- 
tained far  better  values  for  the  mechanical 
equivalent  of  heat,  and  spent  much  of  his  lime 
devising  and  executing  new  methods  for  its 
determination. 

In  England  and  the  United  States  Joule  is 
commonly  credited  with  the  discovery  of  the 
true  nature  of  heat;  but  in  Europe  the  honor 
is  frequently  given  to  Mayer.  Tyndall  compares 
the  two  very  fairly.  •Withdrawn  from  mechan- 
ical appliances,*  he  says,  'Mayer  fell  back  u^n 
reflection,  selecting  with  marvelous  sagaaty, 
from  existing  physical  data,  the  single  result  on 
which  could  be  founded  a  calculation  of  the 
mechanical  equivalent  of  heaL  In  the  midst  of 
mechanical  appliances.  Joule  resorted  to  experi- 
ment, and  laid  the  broad  and  firm  foundation 
which  has  secured  for  the  mechanical  theory 
the  acceptance  it  now  enjoys.  A  great  portion 
of  Joule  s  time  was  occupied  in  actual  manipu- 
lation; freed  from  this,  Mayer  bad  time  to 


,^le 


3S8 


ENBKOBTICS 


follow  the  theory  into  its  most  abstruse  and 
impressive  applications.  With  their  places  re- 
versed, however,  Joule  mi^  have  become 
Mayer,  and  Mayer  mi^t  have  become  Joule.' 
In  1847  Helmholtz  pubHshed  his  remarkable 
paper  entitled  'On  the  Conservation  of  Energy,' 
in  which  the  subject  was  presented  with  great 
generality  and  clearness,  and  which  had  a  pro- 
found influence  in  spreading  the  new  doctrine 
which  taught  that  no  energy  is  ever  created  or 
-annihiUteo,  but  that  we  nave  to  do  merely 
with  endless  transformations  of  tt  from  one 
form  into  another.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  deduce  the  principle  of  the  ccMiscrvjtion  of 
energy  from  the  general  laws  of  mechanics,  and 
in  many  special  cases  these  attempts  have  been 
successful,  though  they  cannot  be  in  al!  cases, 
because  sjrstems  are  easily  ima^ned  in  which 
the  law  is  not  fulfilled.  The  pomt  is,  however, 
that  these  imaginary,  non-conservative  systems 
apparently  do  not  exist  in  nature.  In  allusion 
to  the  twofold  nature  of  the  subject  (that  is, 
the  mathematical  and  physical  aspects),  it  has 
been  humorously  said  that  everybody  believes 
firmly  in  the  conservation  of  energy,  because 
the  mathematicians  believe  it  to  be  a  fact  of 
observation,  while  the  physicists  believe  it  to 
be  a  theorem  in  mathematics.  It  is  now  gen- 
erally admitted,  however,  to  be  a  fact  of  ob- 
servation, the  truth  or  falsity  of  which  is  to 
be  established  by  experiment.  Helmholtz  proved 
that  in  any  system  composed  of  particles  moving 
about  in  paths  or  orbits,  and  subject  only  to 
'central  forces*  (that  is,  to  forces  that  act 
always  toward  fixed  centres  or  foci,  or  which 
act,  between  every  pair  of  particles,  along  the 
line  adjoining  their  centres),  the  energy  must 
be  conserved,  if  the  ordinary  laws  of  theoretical 
mechanics   hold   true    for   the   motions   of   the 


atoms  that  act  upon  one  another  only  by  forces 
that  are  central,  a  long  step  has  been  taken 
toward  proving  the  law  for  all  material  systems. 
Unfortunately,  however,  we  are  not  sure  that 
central  forces  are  the  only  <mes  that  act  upon 
the  atom.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  it  was 
the  study  of  the  processes  of  organic  nature 
that  gave  Mayer  his  first  inspiration  concerning 
the  true  nature  of  heat,  and  yet  it  is  precisely 
here  that  the  only  doubt  as  to  the  entire  gener- 
ality of  the  law  of  conservation  now  exists. 
The  most  general  test  that  can  be  applied  to  a 
system  to  enable  us  to  judge  from  theoretical 
considerations  whether  it  is  conservative  or  not 
is  this :  Let  the  system  be  protected  from  ex- 
ternal influences,  and  then,  at  a  given  instant, 
conceive  the  motion  of  every  one  of  its  particle* 
to  be  precisely  reversed  in  direction,  without 
being  modified  in  any  odier  way.  If,  when  left 
to  itself,  the  system  would  then  retrace  its  pre- 
vious history  so  that  the  events  of  that  history 
would  recur  in  reverse  order,  the  consei 
of  energy  is  rigorously  fulfilled  in  it  If, 
other  hand,  the  system  would  not  so  retrace  its 
history,  we  cannot  affirm  that  it  is  conservative, 
but  must  test  the  point  by  a  direct  appeal  to 
experiment.  Now,  althoueifa  this  crucial  con- 
dition is  frequently  fulfilled  in  inorganic  nature, 
we  certainly  cannot  assert  it  to  be  true  in  con- 
nection with  living  matter,  even  with  respect 
to  the  meanest  fungus.  Hence  we  cannot,  from 
reasoning  based  on  the  inorganic  world  alone, 
draw  any  soimd  conclusion  whatever  aboQt  the 


conservation  of  energy  in  the  organic  changes 
that  occur  in  living  tissues.  To  reach  such  ciai- 
cluaions  for  the  living  animal,  we  must  weirii 
and  analyze  the  food  administered  and  the 
excreta  given  off;  we  must  determine  the 
oxygen  absorbed  and  the  carbon  dioxide  and 
other  products  exhaled;  and  we  must  measure 
the  heat  given  out  and  the  external  work  per- 
formed. When  these  things  have  been  weighed, 
measured  and  analyzed  for  a  suflScient  period 
and  with  the  necessary  precision,  then,  and 
then  only,  shall  we  be  competent  to  affirm  or 
deny  the  trudi  of  the  conwrvation  of  energy 
in  the  animal  machine.  Such  data  are  dif&ctdt 
to  obtain,  but  much  has  been  done  ia  this  direc- 
tion, and  while  we  are  not  yet  prepared  to 
establish  it  as  a  fact,  beyond  controversy,  thai 
energy  is  conserved  in  the  animal  body,  all  the 
data  that  we  have  point  to  this  conclusion  and 
it  is  now  commonly  admitted  to  be  true. 

The  fact  that  energy  (like  matter)  cannot 
be  either  created  or  destroyed  has  led  physicists 
to  speak  of  it  as  though  it  were  a  real  thing, 
having  an  objective  existence.  It  is  useful  to 
think  of  it  in  this  way.  and  convenient  to  speak 
of  "converting"  energy  from  one  form  into 
another.  In  reality,  however,  it  is  no  more  a 
real  thing  than  is  momentum,  or  ■action*  (which 
figures  prominently  in  modem  theoretical  me- 
chanics). In  pure  mathematics  the  theory  of 
transformations  makes  us  familiar  with  the  idea 
of  'invariant"  functions  and  configurations, 
which  retain  their  forms  or  values  when  sub- 
iected  to  the  given  transformations.  It  is  more 
logical  to  thuik'  of  energ>[  as  being  a  similar 
invariant  under  the  physical  transformatiotu 
that  the  existing  universe  and  its  contents  can 
undergo.  If  this  be  admitted,  then  the  discus- 
sions that  are  now  often  encountered,  in  which 
the  possibility  of  energy  having  a  molecular 
structure  is  considered,  must  be  taken  in  a 
figurative  sense  only.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
it  is  given  out  discontinuous ly  in  connection 
with  radiation  phenomena,  just  as  the  water 
bandied  by  a  "bucket  brigade,"  at  a  fire,  is  de- 
livered discontinuousty ;  but  the  question  as  to 
whether  or  not  energy  has  a  molecular  struc- 
ture, or  a  structure  of  any  other  kind,  appears 
to  have  no  physical  meamng,  when  interpreted 
in  any  strict  sense.  (For  the  "quantum  hypothe- 
sis" of  Planck,  see  Radiation).  For  an  interest- 
ing expression  of  Planck's  own  view  on  the 
molecular- structure  conception,  after  he  had 
given  it  mature  thought,  consult  his  'Lemons  de 
thermodynamique,'  Qievasstis'  translation,  1913, 
page  307. 

The  first  systematic  paper  on  the  general 
theory  of  energetics  (as  distinguisbetl  from 
writings  on  the  conservaticm  of  energy  and  on 
the  mechanical  theory  of  heat}  was  Rankine's 
'Outlines  of  the  Science  of  Energetics,'  read 
before  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Gla^ow  on 
2  May  1S55,  although  Rankine,  two  years  before 
that  time,  had  read,  before  the  same  society,  a 
somewhat  analogous  paper  containing  the  germs 
of  the  later  one,  ana  entitled  'On  the  General 
Law  of  the  Transformation  of  Energy.'  The 
phrase  "potential  energy*  occurs  in  t£c  earlier 
of  these  papers,  for  the  first  lime. 

Bibliography.— Camot,  'Reflections  on  the 
Motive  Power  of  Heat'  (Thurston's  transla- 
tion) ;  Clausius,  'Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat' 
(Browne's  translation)  ;  Duhem,  <Trait£  ele- 
mentairc    de    m^cattique    diiniiqiie,'    and    'Lc 


jOOgIc 


ENBSCISM — BNiHBLD 


Sxntid  tbeitnodynainiqiK' ;  Gibbs,  'On  Ae 
uilibrium  of  Heterogeneous  Sabstances' ; 
Helm.  'Die  Energetik' ;  Heliuholti,  *Ucber 
die  Erhaltung  der  Kraft';   Joule,    'Scientific 


'The  Conservation  of  Energy' :  van't  Ho9, 
'Lois  de  I'equilibre  chimique.i  See  alio 
Ubchanics  ;  Pekfetual  Motion  ;  Radiation  ; 
Radioactivitv  ;  Thexmodynauics. 

Allah  D.  Ristbih, 
Director    Technical   Research,    The    Travelers 
Insurance  Company. 

SNBRGISM,  the  name  given  by  many  phil- 
osophical  writers  to  the  neo-Aristotelian  view 
concerning  the  cbief  ultimate  goal  of  human 
hfe.  It  is  summed  up  in  the  dictum,  "the  ^yaX 
at  which  the  will  o£  every  living  creature  aima 
is  the  normal  exercise  of  the  vital  functions 
which  constitute  its  nature.'  Energism  is  op' 
posed  to  Endxmonism,  which  ^uts  pleasure 
as  the  chief  goal  of  human  hfe.  Consult 
Paulsen.  'System  der  Ethik'  (Berlin  1894; 
English   trans.,   1899). 

BNBRGUMBN,  in-dr-gn'min,  a  person 
controlled  or  "worked  up'  (6ep7c*/«i«c)  by  evil 
spirits.  The  word  is  m  common  use  in  the 
writings  of  the  Gre^  and  Latin  fathers;  it  is 
equivalent  to  the  (Saiiiovt!l6itcvoi)  (oossessed  by  a 
devil)  of  the  New  Testament,  in  the  3d  cen- 
tury the  churches  kept  registers  of  their  «ner- 
gumens  and  dealt  with  them  much  as  though 
they  were  lepers;  they  were  supported  tw  the 
alms  of  the  faithful  and  lotted  in  dwellings 
near  the  churches.  The  treatment  of  ener- 
gumens  and  their  relationship  to  the  Church 
was  discussed  at  and  r^ulated  by  a  number  of 
synods,  especially  by  that  held  at  Orange  in 
441  and  usttallj'  known  as  Concilium  Arausi' 
cana.  See  Exokcism.  Consult  Hetele.  K-  T., 
'A  History  of  the  Councils  of  the  Oiurcn' 
(translated  by  W.  R.  Oarfc  and  others.  Vol.  HI, 
Edinburgh  1BB3). 

BNBRGY,  Consarvation  of.  See  Enes- 
oencs. 

BHBURBSIS,  a  symptom  of  many  diseases 
of  the  bladder  resulting  in  incontinence  or  in- 
voluntary passing  of  urine.  It  is  a  prevalent 
malady  of  childhood  and  only  becomes  of  im- 
portance  after  the  period  of  infancy,  when  the 
child  should  have  learned  to  control  the  bladder. 
The  control  of  the  bladder  is  in  part  a  matter 
of  conscious  effort,  and  has  its  representation  in 
the  higher  brain- cent  res.  Bladder-control  is 
also  exercised  by  that  portion  of  the  sympa- 
thetic nervous  system  found  in  the  solar  and 
sacral  plexuses,  and  likewise  in  a  nimiber  of 
cells  in  the  spinal  cord_  situated  in  the  lumbar 
region.  Interterence  with  the  action  of  any  or 
all  of  these  centres  may  result  in  eneuresis. 
Disease  of  the  spinal  cord  may  cause  excessive 
irritation  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system 
and  may  result  in  nocturnal  eneuresis,  and  the 
cutting  off  of  the  cerebral  control  may  also 
bring  about  this  condition.  During  deep  sleep 
the  cerebral  control  is  usually  cut  ofl,  account- 
ing Aus  for  the  prevalence  of  eneuresis  in  deep 
sleep  in  children.  Very  frequently  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  eneuresis  is  some  form  of  local 
irritation.  This  is  particularly  prevalent  in 
yoimg  girls,  and  should  always  be  removed,  if 
potsible,  in  the  treatment    Ehvg  medication  is 


extrcuKly  ussatisfactoiy  for  dus  condition. 
The  most  efficient  measures  consist  in  building 
up  the  general  nervous  aystem  of  the  patient 
b^  tonics,  cold  baths  and  exercise  in  the  open 


ENFANTIN,      Sft-fSn-tSn.      , 

Prosper,  French  socialist  of  the  Saint-Simon 
school:  b.  Paris.  6  Feb.  1796;  d.  there.  31  May 
1664.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Paris  banker,  and 
after  studying  for  some  years  at  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique  went  into  tmsiness.  After  trav- 
eling extensively  for  a  number  of  years  he  set- 
tled in  Paris  in  1823.  In  1825  he  first  met 
Saii^t-Siroon  (q.v.)  and  became  stronglv  inter- 
ested in  his  political  and  economic  tneories. 
After  the  \\iy  revolution  of  1830  Enfantin 
associated  nimself  with  Baiard  for  the  active 
propagation  of  Saint -Simonism.  They  became 
the  supreme  heads  of  the  secL  Bazard  ex- 
pounded it  in  its  relations  to  philosophy  and 
politics;  Enfantin  mainly  in  its  relations  to 
the  social  state.  They  estabhshed  a  paper, 
called  Globe,  in  which  they  propagated  their 
views.  Soon,  however,  a  scuism  broke  out 
between  the  two  on  the  question  of  marriage 
and  the  relation  of  the  sexes,  for  his  views  on 
which  Enfantin  was,  in  1832,  sentenced  to  one 
year's  imprisonment  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  100 
francs.  This  broke  up  a  model  community, 
which,  tc^ether  with  40  of  his  disciples,  he  had 
founded  at  Mfnilmontflnt  after  the  break  with 
Bazard  and  where  he  was  known  as  *Le  ^re.* 
Being  released  from  prison  at  the  expiration  of 
a  few  months  he  went  to  Egypt.  He  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  a  member  of  the  scientific 
commission  for  Algiers,  and  on  his  return  from 
Africa  published  'Colonization  of  Algeria* 
(Paris  1843).  At  riiis  time  he  became  again 
actively  interested  in  business  and  in  1845  was 
made  director  of  the  Paris-Lyon  Railway. 
After  the  revolution  of  1846  he  founded  and 
edited  the  journal  Le  Crtdit,  which  stopped 
publication  in  18S0.  He  was  then  made  admin- 
istrator of  the  Lyon  Railway,  in  which  position 
he  was  quite  successful  and  which  he  occupied 
until  his  death.  His  library  of  1,018  volumes 
and  63  manuscripts  he  left  to  the  Library  of 
the  Arsenal  at  Paris.  _  His  various  writings,  all 
on  economic  and  political  subjects,  have  been 
pubLshed  logetfier  with  those  of  Saint-Simon 
as  'Oeuvres  de  Saint-Simon  et  d'Enfantin*  (47 
vols.,  Paris  1865-78).  Clonsult  Howse,  E.  S., 
'Enfantin  and  Saint-Simon'  (in  Theological 
Review,  Vol.  IX,  p.  50,  London  1872). 

BNFANTS  DE  DIBU,  5A-fIfi-df-dy£,  a 
name  of  the  French  (Zamisards  (q.v.). 

ENPANTS  PERDUS,  per-du  («Iost  chil- 
dren*), in  military  parlance  the  men  appointed 
to  perform  some  exceedingly  hazardous  duty 
from  which  their  chances  of  returning  safely 
are  practically  nil.  Our  English  equivalent 
phrase  is  'a  forlorn  hope.* 

ENFEOFFMENT,  Sn-fefment,  (1)  the 
act  of  bestowing  or  investing  with  a  freehold 
estate ;  (2)  the  instrument  or  deed  by  which  such 
estate  is  conveyed;  (3)  the  estate  so  conveyed. 
See  Fee-simple. 

ENFIELD,  Conn.,  town  in  Hartford 
County,  on  the  Connecticut  River  and  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad,  IS 
miles  north  of  Hartford  Its  cWef  manu- 
factures   are    camM*     shoddy,    powder,    filter 


,5le 


ENFISLD — BMOBL 


presses,  supplies  for  undertalcers  and  biiTclM, 
and  it  has  large  brick  works.  A  large  amount 
o*  lie  now  celebrated  Connecticut  tobacco  is 


of  the  town    (see    Shakebs).     It  contains 
Carnegie  library.    The  government  is  adminis' 
tered  by  town  meetings.     Pop,  11,006. 

ENFIELD,  England,  a  market  town  in  the 
county  of  Middlesex  on  New  River,  nine  miles 
northeast  of  tendon.  Enfield  is  tbe  seat  of  the 
well-known  government  manufactory  of  rifles 
and  small-arms,  and  the  standard  rifle  used  in 
the  British  army  is  made  here.  At  Cuffley, 
three  miles  north  of  Enfield,  the  first  Zeppelm 
to  be  brought  down  on  English  soil  was  shot 
down  on  3  Sept  1916  by  Flight- Lieutenant 
Robinson,  who  was  awarded  the  Victoria  Cross 
for  the  daring  deed.  The  airship  fell  headlong, 
sinking  to  the  ground  in  flames,  and  the  mem- 
bers of  die  crew  burned  to  deani.  Some  noted 
people  have  lived  in  Enfield.  SeeBEACONSFiEm; 
Lamb;  Keats.    Pop,  56,388. 

ENFIELD  RIFLE,  a  muzzle -loading  rifle 
used  in  the  British  army  prior  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  breech-loading  system,  ll  was  also 
used  in  the  United  Stales  during  the  Civil  War 
by  the  Northern  army,  when  Sprinefields  could 
not  be  obtained,  and  bv  the  Confederate  army. 
In  England  large  numoers  of  these  rifles  were 
converted  into  breech-loaders  on  the  Snider 
principle  and  were  known  as  the  Snider- En  field 
or  simply  Snider.  The  Enfield  rifle  must  not 
.  be  confused  with  the  recent  British  Lee-Enfield, 
which  is  a  modified  Mauser, 

ENFILADE,  <En-fl'Iad'  (fmm  the  Fr.  ttt- 
filer),  in  tbe  military  art,  is  to  rake  by  fire  the 
enemy's  trenches  or  positions  along  the  whole 
length.  In  conducting  the  approaches  at  a  siege 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  trenches  be  not  eU' 
filaded  feoro  any  part  of  the  place  besieged.  To 
avoid  this  they  are  eenerally  cut  in  a  tigaag. 
The  same  principle  holds  true  of  trench  war- 
fare, where  the  boyaux  or  communicating 
trenches  are  zigzagged  and  the  firing  trenc^s 
are  interrupted  by  traverses. 

ENFLEURAGE,  oA-fli-razh,  in  perfume- 
making,  the  method  of  extracting  by  contact 
and  absorption  the  scents  of  flowers  used  for 
perfumery.  For  this  purpose  wooden  frames 
containing  glass  smeared  with  pure  grease  are 
filled  with  flowers,  which  are  allowed  to  remain 


from  time  to  time.  The  scent  is  afterward 
separated  from -the  grease  by  soaking  the  latter 
in  strong  spirits  of  wine.  Sometimes  wire 
frames  covered  with  cotton  cloths,  saturated 
with  fine  olive-oil,  are  used  instead  of  glass. 
In  this  manner  the  most  delicate  odors  are 
extracted  from  flowers  which  would  be  lost  in 
the  process  of  distillation.  This  process  is  em- 
ployed especially  in  the  south  of  Prance,  It 
IS  rather  complicated,  and  has  the  disadvantage 
of  permitting  the  flowers  to  come  into  direct 
touch  with  the  grease  and  imparting  to  it  possi- 
bly some  impurities.  In  modern  perfume  fac- 
tories the  process  of  enfleurage,  therefore,  is 
frequently  accomplished  by  placing  flowers  and 
grease  in  separate  containers.  A  current  of  air 
IS  created  by  mean*  of  an  exhaust  fan  in  such 
a  manner  tfiat  it  passes  first  over  the  flowers 


and  later  over  the  grease,  which  latter  nfidfy 
absorbs  the  odors  originated  by  the  flowers. 
Another  method  consists  of  passing  a  current 
of  carbonic  add  gas  through  a  tin  box  con- 
taining fresh  flowers  and  then  into  a  glass  jar 
of  strong  alcohol  cooled  by  water.  The  car- 
bonic acid  absorbs  the  odors  of  the  flowers, 
which,  in  turn,  is  absorbed  by  the  alcohol.  Con- 
sult Asldnson,  G.  W.,  "Perfumes  and  Cos- 
metics, their  Preparation  and  Manufacture* 
(translated  from  the  German  by  W,  L.  Dudley 
and  others.  New  York  1915);  Rolet,  A.  V., 
'Les  Essences  et  les  Parfums'  (Paris  1907); 
Piesse,  G.  W.  S.,  <Chimie  des  Parfums  et 
Fabrication  des  Essences*  (Paris  1917). 

BNG  AND  CHANG.    See  Siascese  Twiks. 

BNGADINS,  fn-ga-den',  a  beautiful  ^-alley 
in  Switzerland,  in  the  Orisons,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Inn.  bordering  on  the  Tyrol.  The  extent  of 
the  valley  is  60  miles  and  it  has  an  area  of  653 
square  miles.  The  language  generally  spoken 
is  the  Ladin,  a  branch  of  uie  Romanic  tongue. 
Several  towns  and  villages  are  situated  in  the 
valley,  which  is  visited  by  numbers  of  strangers 
on  account  of  its  picturesque  beauty  and  its 
mineral  springs  as  well  aa  its  invigorating 
climate.    Pop.  12,193. 

ENGAGEMENT.    See  Bethothueht. 

ENGAGEMENT,  MUitary,  a  minor  battle 
or  encounter  in  which  all  the  parts  or  divisions 
of  the  contending  armies  do  not  have  a  part 
Engagements  or  skirmishes  usually  occur  when 
major  forces  are  being  manceuvred  for  position 
to  secure  the  advantage  in  a  pitched  battle.  See 
Military  Science;  Tactics,  MiLrrABY. 

ENGANO,  (n-ga'ilD,  an  island  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  60  miles  south  of  Sumatra.  It  is 
covered  with  forests  and  surrounded  by  coral 
reefs-  area,  including  several  small  adjacent 
islands,  300  square  miles.  The  natives  are 
Malays. 

ENGEDI.  en-ge'di  or  «n'ge-dl  (Heb. 
'Fountain  of  the  Goat*),  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  about  30  miles  southeast  of 

Jerusalem.  The  modem  Arabic  name  is  Ain- 
idy.  The  ancient  name  was  applied  also  to  the 
eastern  part  of  the  wilderness  of  Judah.  The 
city  in  the  time  of  Abraham  was  called 
Hazazon-tamar  (Gen.  xiv,  7),  the  tamar  mean- 
ing palm  tree.  In  1  Samuel  xxiv  mention  is 
made  of  David  fleeing  into  the  wilderness  of 
Engedi  to  escape  from  Saul.  There  are  nu- 
merous other  references  to  the  place  in  the  Old 
Testament  In  modem  times  nothing  retnains 
except  the  never-changing  effectiveness  of  the 
scenery  arising  from  the  combination  of  steep 
cKfFs,  tbe  Dead  Sea,  strange  vegetables,  balmv 
air  and  almost  excessive  quietness.  Consult 
Robinson,  E.,  'Biblical  .Researches  in  Palestine, 
etc.*  (Vol.  II.  Boston  1841);  Wilson,  Sir  C 
W.,  'Picturesque  Palestine'  (Vol.  I,  London 
1884). 

EHGEL,  Ernst,  German  statistician:  b. 
Dresden,  1821;  d.  Berlin,  1896.  After  a  pre- 
liminary education  he  took  up  the  study  of 
trining  engineering  at  Freiberg  and  Paris.  For 
a  time  he  was  a  member  of  the  coinmission 
investigatino'  industrial  and  labor  conditions  in 
Saxony,  ana  in  1850  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
Royal  Bureau  of  Statistics  at  Dresden.  He  re- 
signed in  1858  and  was  made  chief  of  the  Saxon 


BNOBt. — JtHOELBRBCMT 


Mortgage  Insurance  Company,  but  two  years 
later  became  director  of  the  Prussian  Bureau 
of  Statistics,  from  which  he  retired  in  \SS2.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  modern  statis- 
ticians and  his  investigations  into  the  social 
condition  of  the  working  classes  have  proved 
invaluable.  He  wrote  'Die  Mcthodcn  der 
Volksiahlung'  (1861)  ;  'Land  und  Leute  des 
Preussischen  Staates'  (1863);  'Das  Zeitalter 
des  Dampfes'   (1881). 

BNGSL,  Franz,  (^rman  explorer :  b. 
Robe!,  Mecklenburg  Schwerin,  1834.  He  trav- 
eled extensively  in  South  America  in  the  years 
1857-63  and  published  the  results  of  his  ex- 
plorations in  several  valuable  voltmies,  including 
'Studien  unter  den  Tropen  Amerikas'  (Zd  ed,, 
1879) ;  'Aus  dcm  Pflanzerstaate  Zulia'  (1881). 
From  1872  to  1896  he  published  the  Landwirtk- 
achaflliche  JahrbUcher. 

ENGEL,  Jobann  Chriitian  von,  Hun- 
garian histonan:  b.  Teutschau,  Hungary, 
1770;  d.  1814.  He  received  his  education  at 
the  University  of  Gottingen,  where  Heyne  and 
Schlozer  were  among  his  teachers.  He  wrote 
several  historical  works  which  in  their  day 
were  treasure-houses  of  knowledge  and  scholar- 
ship. He  was  the  first  to  put  the  history  of 
Hungary  on  a  sound  scholarly  basis.  In  1812 
he  was  ennobled.  His  greatest  works  are 
'Geschichte  des  ungarischeo  Reiches  und  seine 
Nebenlander>  (5  vols.,  1797-1804) ;  and 
'Geschichte  des  Konigreicbs  Ungam'  (S  vols, 
1814). 

ENGEL,  Jotuum  Jakob,  German  prose 
writer:  b.  Parchim,  11  Sept.  1741;  d.  fliere,  28 
June  1802.  On  the  accession  of  King  Fred- 
erick William  III  of  Prussia,  whose  tutor  he 
had  been,  he  was  invited  b>[  his  former  pupil 
to  Berlin,  where  he  made  himself  exceedingly 
useful  in  the  Academy  qI  Sciences  by  his  writ- 
ings. Among  his  philosophical  works  may  be 
mentioned  his  'Der  Philosoph  fiir  die  Welt,' 
distinguished  for  acute  observations  on  men  and 
manners,  enlivened  by  elegant  illustrations.  Of 
a  similar  character  is  his  'Mirror  for  Princes' 
(FiiTstenspiegel).  His  'Ideen  lu  einer  Mimik,' 
full  of  taste,  acuteness  and  knowledge  of 
buman  nature,  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
manual  for  actors.  Anxious  to  make  the 
German    theatre   the    mirror   of    the    national 


knaben,'  «tc.     His   'Lorenz  Stark,'   a  ; 
a  masterly  picture  of   life  and  mann 
conmlete   edition    of   bb   works    appeared   at 
fiet^  (1601-^). 

BNGEL,  Joseph,  Austrian  anatomist:  b. 
Vienna,  1816;  d.  1899.  He  wae  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Ziiricb  in  1844  and  later 
the  chair  of  physiology  fell  to  him  also.  Five 
years  afterward  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  pathological  anatomy  at  the  University  of 
Prague.  In  16S4  he  became  professor  of  an- 
aXotay  at  the  Jose^akademie,  Vienna,  in  which 
position  he  remained  until  1874.  He  made 
many  important  contributions  to  the  system- 
atization  of  anatomical  science  and  its  study. 
His  principal  works  are  'Lehrbuch  der  pathol- 
ogisdien  AnaComie, '  and  '  Kompendium  der 
topographischen  Anatomic'  (1859). 

ENOBL,  Karl  Dietrich  L«onhard,  German 
musician    and    writer:     b.    grand    duchy    of 


Oldenburg,  21  Feb.  1S24.  He  went  to  Russia 
as  a  violin  virtuoso  at  the  age  of  18,  becoming 
a  member  of  the  Imperial  Orchestra  at  Saint 
Petersburg  at  22,  and  later  its  concert- master. 
He  went  to  Dresden  in  1869  and  took  up  his 
residence  there.  Among  hb  works  are 
'Deutsche  Puppen  Kom&dien'  (1874-93) ; 
'Das  Volksschauspiel  Doktor  Johann  Faust' 
(2d  ed,  188Z) ;  'Zusanunenstellung  der  Faust- 
achriften  vom  16  Jahrhundert  bis  Mitte  1884' 
(2d  ed,  1884);  'Die  Don  Juan  Sage  aut  der 
Biibne'  (1887).  His  musical  compositions  in- 
clnde  a  concerto  in  B  minor  and  the  humorous 
fantasy  entitled  'Jiidischer  Cameval.' 


Benedictine  monastery,  dating  from 
the  12th  century,  with  a  library  of  20,000 
volmnes,  inctnding  incunabula  and  manuscripts 
of  great  value.  Connected  with  the  monastery 
is  a  gymnasium  which  was  founded  in  the  11th 
century.  Cheese-making  is  the  main  industry. 
Pop.  ^500.  ' 

ENGBLBERT,  Bohemian  monastic  author: 
b.  Volkersdorf,  Styria.  about  12S0;  d.  1331. 
He  received  his  education  at  Prague  and  Pad- 
ua, entered  the  order  of  the  Benedictines  and 
in  1297-1327  was  abbot  of  Admont,  Styria. 
He  is  best  known  to  scholars  through  bis 
Roman  history;  entitled  'De  Ortu,  Progressu 
et  Fine  Imperii  Romani,'  which  has  gone 
through  numerous  editions.  For  other  works 
of  this  author  consult  'Thesaurus  Anecdoto- 
rum  ^Novissimus'  (172  " 
Ascetica  Antiquo-nova' 

ENGBLBERT,  Saint,  archbishop  of  Co- 
kigne:  b.  Berg.  1185;  A.  \^5.  In  1206  he  was 
excommunicated  but  was  restored  to  friendly 
relations  with  the  Church  and  reinstated  two 
years  later.  In  1216  he  was  appointed  arch- 
bishop of  Cologne.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
progressive  men  of  his  age;  he  greatly  im- 
proved tiie  administration  and  governmental 
methods  of  his  see;  patronized  agriculture,  the 
industries  and  art,  and  opposed  the  repressive 
and  cruel  methods  of  the  feudal  barons.  He 
reformed  the  electorate  and  after  1220  was  ad- 
ministrator of  the  empire.  In  1222  he  crowned 
Henr^  VII.  He  was  assassinated  by  hirelings 
of  his  nephew  whom  he  had  accused  of  mal- 
administration. He  is  commemorated  as  a 
martyr  on  7  November,  althoudi  he  has  never 
been  formally  canonized  Consult  SloffeL 
'Engelbert    der    Reich  sverweser'     ( Elbe  rf  eld 

BNGELBRECHT,  Theodor  Heinrich, 
German  geographer:  b.  Obendeich,  Schleswig- 
Holslein,  1853.  He  acquired  his  education  at 
the  tmiver^ities  of  Leipzig  and  Strassburg,  and 
in  1911  received  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor 
from  the  University  of  Breslau.  In  1895  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Free  Conservative 
party  in  die  House  of  Deputies.  His  worics  in- 
clude 'Die  Landbauzonen  der  aussertropischen 
Lander'  (3  vols.,  I89Q),  a  valuable  work  on 
the  studv  of  agriculture  in  Europe;  'Die  geo- 
graphische  Verteilimg  der  Getreidepreise'  (2 
vols.,  1908),  the  first  volume  dealing  with  the 
United  States,  the  second  wilfa  India;  'Boden- 


8l^ 


BNGXLBRXCHTZSH — BNOELHANH 


Schleswig-  HolBtein  > 


ban    und    Viehsiand 
(1905). 

BNGBLBRECHTZBN,  inR'el-breRt-ahi, 
Cornelia,  Dutch  painter:  b.  Leyden,  1468;  d. 
there,  1533.  He  was  the  son  of  the  wood- 
engiraver  Enfelbert,  and  the  teacher  o^  Lucas, 
beiHR  the  earliest  hiiown  painter  in  Leiden  and 
the  first  of  his  nation  to  use  oil  colors.  Many 
of  his  works  were  destroyed  during  the  Refor- 
mation, and  the  only  two  properly  authenti- 
cated j)ictures  of  large  size  are  altarpiece  with 
'Crucifixion'  and  altarpiece  with  'Pi  eta,* 
Town  Hall,  Leyden.  Doubtfully  attributed  to 
him  are  'St.  Leonard,*  Antwerp  Museum; 
'Crucifixion,'  old  Pinakothek,  Munich;  'Depo- 
sition,* Moritz  Chapel,  Nuremberg;  'Ma- 
donna and  Child,'  National  Gallery,  London; 
'Crucifixion,'  Venice  Academy.  The  Van  Ley- 
dens  were  his  pupils. 

ENGELHARD,  Friedrich  Wilhelm.  fred'- 
fIh  villiSIm  Sng'el-hiirt,  German  sculptor  and 
painter:  b.  Griinhagen,  Prussia,  19  Sept.  J813; 
d.  22  Jan.  1902.  He  studied  at  Hanover,  at  Co- 
penhagen with  Thorwaldsen  and  at  Munich 
with  Schwanthaler.  He  executed  many  groups, 
single  figures  and  genre  pieces.  Among  his 
creations  are  'Love  on  a  Swan' ;  'Dancing 
Springtime' ;  'Slinger  with  Dog' ;  'Bacchus 
Conquering  a  Panther';  'Cupid  and  Psyche*; 
the  frieze  of  the  'Edda,'  his  chief  work;  'A 
Child  FishinjE' ;  'A  Child  Threading  a  Needle' ; 
statue  of  'St.  Michael';  portrait  medallion  oi 
Bismarck  for  the  monument  of  Canossa,  near 
Harzberg;  'Christ  Blessing  Little  Children'; 
and  the  legendary  characters  of  Germany, 
'Odin,'   'Thor'  and  the  Valkyries. 

BNGELHARDT,  Georf  von,  Russian 
statesman :  b,  Riga,  1775 ;  d.  1862.  He  went  to 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1790  and  six  years  later 
secured  a  post  in  the  Department  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  He  became  Undersecretary  of  State 
in  1801  under  Alexander  I.  He  w^  made  di- 
rector of  the  Pedagogical  Institute  hi  1811  and 
of  the  Lyceum  at  Tsarkoe-Selo  in  1816.  His 
liberalism,  however,  led  to  his  removal  in  1823. 
From  1838  to  1852  he  edited  the  Rtuiiiche 
Landwirtschaftlicke  Zeittatg.  He  published 
'Russische  Miscellan  lur  Kenntnis  Russlands 
und  seiner  Bewohner'  (4  vols.,  1828-J2)  and 
edited  the  manuscript  journals  of  the  explorer, 
Wrangel,  which  he  issued  in  'Reise  langs  der 
Nordlcuste  von  Sibirien  und  auf  dem  Eismeer* 
(1839). 

BNGELHARDT,  Johana  GeorR  Vdt, 
German  theologian:  b.  Neustadt-an-der-Aisch, 
Bavaria,  1791;  d.  Erlangen,  13  Sept.  1855.  In 
1822  he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Erlan- 


through  Finland  He  tau^t  minerakwy  at 
Doipat  in  1820-30,  and  thereafter  traveled  and 
expfored  Russia,  discovering  vast  deposits  of 
gold,  platinum,  etc,  detailed  in  his  reports, 
which  were  issued  at  Ri^  in  1830,  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  'Geognosticher  Umriss  von  Fin- 
land' (1821);  and,  with  von  Raumer,  'Geog- 
nostiscbe  Versucbe'  (1816)  and  'Geognostische 
Umrisse'    (1817). 

BNGELHARDT,  Vaanli  Pavlovich. 
Babon,  Russian  astronomer :  b.  Kustovitchj, 
Grodn^   1828.     He  recdved  his  education   in 


ploy  in  1847  a  .  ... 
^ears.  He  built  an  astronomical  observatory 
in  Dresden  in  1S72.  He  also  gave  valuable  as- 
tronomical instruments  to  the  University  of 
Kazan  and  erected  buildings  there  to  house 
them.  His  published  works  include  'Observa- 
tions astronomiques  faites  &  Dresde'  (3  vols., 
1886,  1890.  1895). 

BNGELHARDT,     Zepfayria      (Charles 


b.  Bilsbausen,  Hanover,  Germany,  13  Nov.  ISf 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852,  was  edu- 
cated in  the  parish  schools  and  Saint  Francis 
Seraph  College,  Cincinnati.  Ohio.  In  1872  he 
entered  the  Franciscan  order,  was  ordained  to 
the  priesthood  in  1878  and  in  18^-80  vi-as 
teacher  at  Saint  Joseph's  College,  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  From  1880  to  1885  he  was  missionary 
to  the  Menominee  Indians  in  Wisconsin  and 
from  1885  to  1887  was  stationed  at  Superior 
City,  Wis.  He  was  vice-commissaty  for  the 
Holy  Land  and  editor  of  the  Weekly  Pilgrim 
of  Palestine  at  New  York  in  1887-88  and  for 
the  ensuing  two  years  was  missionary  in  Men- 
docino County,  Cal.  From  1890  to  1894 
he  was  stationed  at  Saint  Joseph's  Monaste_ry, 
Oeveland,  and  from  1894  to  1900  was  superior 
of  the  missions  of  hiS'  order  in  northern  Michi- 
gan and  of  the  Indian  Boarding  School,  Har- 
bor Springs,  Mich.  In  1901  he  was  stationed  in 
California.  In  1895  he  founded  and  for  five 
years  edited  tfie  Anishinabe  Enamiad,  a  period- 
ical in  the  Ottawa-Chippewa  language.  He  is 
a  member  of  the  Texas  Historical  Association 
and  of  the  National  Geocraphical  Society  and 
has  published  'Kachkenohamatwon  Kesekoch* 
(1882);  'Kateshim'  (1883);  'The  Frandscans 
in  California'  (1897)  ;  'Missions  and  Mission- 
aries of  CaHfomia*  (5  vols.,  1908-16)  ;  'The 
Holy  Man  of  Santa  Clara,  or  Life  of  Father 
Magin  Catala'  (1909),  He  is  a  contributor  to 
Kathotische  Miitionen,  California  Volkifrmnd. 
Sankt  Josephsblatt.  He  writes  in  German  un- 
der the  nom-dt-tUimt  of  'Der  Bergmann*  and 
in  English  of  '^peranza.* 


at  Munich.    His  most  celebrated  ^  .... 

translation  of  the  writings  ascribed  to  Diony- 
sius  the  Areopagite;  'Handbuch  der  Kirchen- 
geschichte'  (1834);  'Richard  von  St.  Victor 
nnd  Johannes  Ruysbroek'  (183S);  'Dogmen- 
geschichte'  (J839). 

ENGBLHARDT,  Horits  von,  Russian 
naturalist:  b.  Esthonia,  1779;  d.  1842.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Leipzig  and  Gottingen 
and  the  Freiberg  mining  school.  He  made  a 
tour  of  Europe  with  Kar!  von  Raumer  and  in 
1811  visited  the  Crimea  and  Caucasus  with  von 
Parrot,    and    seven    years    later    be    traveled 


d.  Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  4  Feb.  1884.  He  studied 
medicine  at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg,  Ber- 
lin and  Wiirrturg,  receiving  the  degree  of 
M.D.  from  the  last-named  institution  in  1831. 
The  first  half  of  1832  he  spent  in  study  at  Paris 
where  he  met  Braun  and  Agassiz.  In  Septem- 
ber 1832  he  sailed  for  the  United  States  where 
relatives  of  his  bad  bought  some  land  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  In  1835  he  began  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  at  Saint  Louis,  Mo.  Althonf^ 
he  was  highly  successful  in  the  practice  of  his 
profession,  he  had,  even  during  his  student  da^ 
become  deeply  interested  in  botany.     This  in- 


BHOSLMAKN  ~  BNGHIBN 


terest  grew  gradually  until  ahnoat  all  hU  leisure 
hours  were  occuptetJ  with  scientific  investiga- 
tions, chiefly  in  relation  to  botany,  although  some 
of  them  were  devoted  to  meteorology.  As  his 
success  in  his  profession  increased  he  found  it 
possible  at  times  to  take  protracted  vacations, 
some  of  which  he  spent  abroad  and  all  of  which 
he  devoted  to  botanical  investigations.  The  re- 
sults of  these  were  some  tOO  papers  published 
at  various  times  in  different  scientific  journals, 
especially  in  the  transactions  of  the  Saint  Louis 
Academy  of  Science  which  were  examples  ot  the 


on  the  botanv  of  (he  ^fOFHl  American  continent. 
The  most  important  of  his  papers  were  on  Cus- 
cutinse,  CactesF,  Cotufene,  American  o^s  and 
grape  vinea.    They  together  with  all  his  other 


<The  Botanical  Works  of  the  I^te  George 
Engelmann'  (ed.  by  W.  Treleas«  and  Ah  Gray, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  1887).  This  publication  also 
contains  an  exhaustive  biographical  sketch.  He 
was  the  first  president  of  the  Saint  Louis 
Academy  of  Science  and  an  active  or  corre- 
sponding member  of  many  learned  societies. 
His  extensive  botanical  collection  is  in  the  Shaw 
Botan'cat  Garden,  Saint  Louis,  Mo. 

ENGELHANN,  Tohaimei,  Russian  jurist: 
b.  Mitau,  CourlanA  '  July  1832.  Educated  at 
the  University  of  Saint  Petersburg  he  became 
professor  of  Russian  taw  at  Dorpat  1660,  re- 
taining the  chair  for  39  years,  and  delivering  his 
lectures  in  Russian  Instead  of  German  after 
1887.  These  lectures  covered  a  wide  field  and 
contributed  greatly  to  the  advancement  of  the 
science  of  jurisprudence  in  Russia.  Among  his 
works  are  'Die  Veriahrung  nach  nissischem 
Privalrechl*  (1867;  in  Russian,  1868);  'TUt 
Zwangsvollstreckung  auswartiger  richterticher 
Urteile  in  RusslaniP  (1884)  ;  and  <Das  Staats- 
recht  Russlands'  {1888). 

B^fGELS,  Friedrich,  German  Socialist:  b. 
Barmen,  Prussia,  28  Hov.  1S20;  d.  London,  5 
Aug-  1895.  The  son  of  a  German  manufac- 
turer he  spent  two  years  in  Manchester,  Eng- 
land, 1842-^14,  and  took  part  in  the  revolution- 
ary movement  in  Baden  in  1848.  He  returned 
to  Manchester  in  ■  1850,  and  was  partner  in  a 
manufacturing  business  from  1860-69,  after 
which  he  lived  mainly  in  London.  He  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  K^rl  Marx  (q.v.),  and  his 
most  efficient  helper  in  the  work  of  organizir^ 
the  International  Socialist  movement.  In  1870 
Engels  was  corresponding  secretaiy  of  the  In- 
ternational Workiogmen's  Society  for  Belgium, 
Italy  and  Spain.  With  Marx  he  wrote  the 
'Communist  Manifesto'  {1847);  he  also  wrote 
'The  Workine  Class  in  England  in  1844>  (new 
edy  1892):  "The  Origin  of  the  Family*; 
'Tne  Development  of  Socialism  from  Utopia 
to  Science'  (1894,  a  part  of  a  large  work  left 
unfinished)  ;  and  edited  Marx's  'Capital.*  Con- 
sult Simons.  'Friedrich  Engel:  his  Life,  his 
Wort  his  Writings'  (1885),  a  translation  from 
Tautsky's  German  text;  Sombart's  bic^raphy 
(I89S);  and  Dawson,  'German  Sociafism* 
(1899). 

BNGBSTH,  ing'^rt,  Edtiard  von,  Aus- 
trian painter:  b.  Pless,  Silesia,  13  May  1818;  d 
1897.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Vienna  Academy^ 
taring  the  gold  medal  there  hi  184S.     He  be- 


came director  of  the  Prague  Academy  1854  and 
in  I8S5  professor  at  the  Vienna  Academy.  He 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Belvedere  Gallery 
1871  and  director  of  the  Academy  1874.  He 
was  made  commander  of  the  order  of  Francis 
Joseph  1867.  Amone  his  works  are  'Haman 
and  Esther';  'Ladislaus  and  Akus>  (1844); 
'Coronation  of  Rudolph  1' ;  'Josutb  Explaining 
the  Dream'  (1845)  ■  'Seiture  of  King  Man- 
fred's Family'  (1853),  a  masterpiece  in  the 
Vienna  Museum:  'Victory  of  prince  Eugene 
at  Zenta'  (1865);  'Marriage  of  Figaro': 
'Fable  of  Orpheus'  (1868);  'Coronatwn  of 
Francis  Joseph  as  King  ot  Hungary'  (1870) : 
'Death  of  Eurydicc'  (1877).  Engerth  frescoed 
the  church  at  Alt  Lerchenfeld  after  the  car- 
toons of  Fiihrich,  painted  numerous  portraits 
and  decorated  the  new  Vienna  Opera  House. 

ENOBRTH,  WUholm,  Babon,  Anstriui  en- 
gmeer:  b.  Pless,  Pmssian  Silesia,  1814;  d.  1684 
He  received  his  education  in  architecture  at  die 
Polytechnic  Institute  and  the  Academy  of  Art^ 
Vienna.  He  became  professer  of  mechanic^ 
engineering  at  Gralt  in  1844.  He  is  known  ia>- 
temationafly  as  the  inventor  of  the  "Engerth 
STStem*  for  freigkt  locomotives,  whidi  was  gen- 
erally adopted  throughout  Europe.  He  alto 
designed  and  constructed  a  river  gate  near 
Mvssdorf  to  prevent  ice  fixnn  entering  the 
Danube  Canal,  which  previouiily  was  the  cause 
of  annual  inundations.  In  1873  he  was  super- 
vising arehilcct  of  the  Vienna  Expositioo  build- 
ings and  had  cotni^ete  diarge  of  the  engineering 
department  at  the  exposition. 

ENGHIEN,  an-g5n  Louis  Antolne  Henri 
de  Bourbon,  Duke  of  French  prince:  b.  Chan- 
tilly,  2  Aug,  1772;  d.  Vincennes,  France,  21 
March  1804.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Louis 
Henri  Joseph  Condi,  Duke  ot  Bourbon.  From 
1796  to  179?  he  commanded  with  distinguished 
merit  the  vanguard  of  Condi's  army,  which  was 
disbanded  at  the  Peace  of  Luniville  (1801).  He 
then  married  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Etten- 
heim,  in  Baden.  He  was  generaly  looked  Upon 
as  the  leader  of  the  /migris.  and  was  suspected 
by  the  Bonapartists  of  being  privyto  the  attempt 
of  Cadoudal  to  assassinate  the  Kirsi  Consul  in 
1804.  The  spies  of  Napoleon  reported  *at 
Enghien  waS  often  absent  for  10  or  12  days 
together  from  Ettenheim,  and  it  was  believed 
that  on  some  of  these  occasions  he  had  secretly 
visited  Paris,  Napoleon  therefore  invaded  the 
neutral  duchy  of  Baden  and  the  Duke  of 
Enghien  was  seized  15  March  1804,  conducted 
to  Strassburg,  and  thence  to  the  fortress  of 
Vincennes,  where  he  arrived  on  the  evening  of 
the  20ih.  That  same  night  a  court-martial  was 
assembled;  his  innocence  being  established,  the 
ground  of  accusation  was  changed  into  that  of 
compassing  a  new  coalition  against  France,  of 
whi«i  he  was  adjudged  guilty.  He  requested 
an  interview  with  Bonaparte,  which  was  refused, 
and  he  was  immediately  led  out  to  execution. 
He  was  shot  between  tour  and  five  o'clock  in 
the  morning  in  the  ditch  outside  the  walls,  and 
his  body  was  thrown,  dressed  as  It  was,  into  a 
grave  dug,  it  is  said,  the  dayhefore.  His  execu- 
tion was  followed  by  an  indipiant  protest  Snd 
the  rupture  of  diplomatic  relations  with  Russia; 
but  of  the  deed  Napoleon  never  repented.  "He 
was  the  last  representative  of  the  house  of 
Condi.  Consult  Dupin,  'Pieces  jndiciaires' 
(Paris  1823),  and  'Memcnres  Ustoriques  sur  la 


■8l^ 


catastrophe  du  Due  d'Erghien'  (Paris  1834); 
Fay,  'The  Execution  of  the  Due  D'Enghien* 
(in  the  American  Historical  Review,  New 
York  1899):  Welschinger,  <U  Due  d-Enghien> 
(Paris  18885. 

ENGINE.  A  motor  or  prime  mover  which 
is  capable  of  utilizing  natural  forces,  such 
as  the  pressure  of  steam  or  the  expansion  of  a 
^s,  and  converting  those  forces  into  mechan- 
ical energy  in  the  form  of  motion,  which  may 
be  employed  for  doing  mechanical  work,  thus 
distinguishing  it  from  a  "machine,"  which  can 
receive  motion  only  from  a  motor  or  engine 
external  to  itself. 


The 


[1  the 


.  1  usage  which  survives 
rose-engine  and  cotton-gin  (gin  being  simply  a 
short  Form  for  engine).  The  first  textile  ma- 
chines were  called  engines,  and  we  still  speak 
of  engines  of' war.  But  when  steam  engine  be- 
came familiarly  shortened  to  ei^ne,  the  term 
was  confusing,  and  gradually  madiine  was  sub- 
stituted for  ue  word  engine  in  nearly  all  uses 
except   for  generation   of  power. 

All  heat  eninnes  act  through  the  medium  of 
a  working  substance  which  absorbs  heat,  con- 
verts a  portion  of  that  heat  into  mechanical 
energy,  which  is  represented  by  the  work  per- 
formed by  the  engine,  and  rejects  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  heat,  still  in  the  form  of  heat 
The  working  substance  may  be  a  gas,  a 
liquid  or  a  solid.  The  various  successfi^ 
forms  of  heat  engines  may  be  conveniently 
grouped  into  three  general  classes  — steam  en- 
gines, gas  and  oil  engines,  turbines  and  rotary 
engines. 

Steam  Eogines,— In  ordinary  forms  of 
steam  engines  the  working  substance  is  sat- 
urated steam,  a  fluid  consistmg  of  a  mixture  of 
water  and  steam  in  varying  proportions,  the 
expansive  enerirv  of  whidi  is  utihzed  to  drive 
or  impart  motion  to  a  piston  working  within  a 
cylinder. 

Hiscellaneona  Engines.—  Many  engines  are 
named  from  some  distinctive  feature  of  their 
mechanism  or  a  peculiarity  of  construction. 
Hence  there  is  the  automatic  engine,  one  that  is 
self- regulating,  requiring  little  attention.  In  a 
stationarv  engine  this  would  mean  one  that 
regulated  its  own  speed  or  point  of  cut-of{;  in 
an  automobile^  engine  it  would  mean  one  that 
would  run  without  attention,  as  long  as  the 
gasoline  feed,  carburetor,  spark-plug,  etc., 
were  in  order.  A  cut-off  engine  is  one  in  which 
the  steam  or  motive  fluid  is  cut  off  before  the 
end  of  the  stroke.  A  quadrant  engine  is  one 
having  a  piston  that  moves  in  a  quadrangular 
chamber.  A  reciprocating  engine  is  the  most 
ordinary  type,  in  which  the  piston  moves  back 
and  forth.  A  direct-cotmected  engine  is  one 
that  has  the  crank-shaft  extended  lo  form  the 
main  shaft  of  a  dynamo.  A  multi- cylinder  en- 
gine is  one  having  several  cylinders  operating 
on  the  same  shaft,  as  a  6-  or  8-cylinder  auto- 
mobile engine.  A  self-contained  engine  is  one 
in  which  the  engine  and  boiler  are  both  housed 
in  one  framework.  A  screw  or  propeller  en- 
gine is  a  marine  engine  for  driving  a  screw- 
propeller.  A  series-expansion  engine  is  one 
having  several  cylinders  in  which  the  steam  or 
motive  fluid  is  successively  expanded.  A  twin 
cylinder  engine  is  one  having  two  cylinders 
formed  in  one  casting  or  'en  hloc? 


IHSton  speed  is  rapid,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties exceeding  ^  feet  per  minute.  It  pos- 
sesses the  advantages  of  small  dimensions  and 
small  weight  for  a  given  power,  and  on  account 
of  the  frequency  of  its  strokes  is  capable  of 
meeting  variations  in  load  more  quickly  than 
a  low-speed  engine.  Its  disadvantages  consist  in 
the  greater  waste  of  steam,  the  greater  wear, 
increased  danger  of  heating  and  bgber  cost  of 
construction  and  operation. 

Low-Speed  Engine. —  One  in  which  the 
lustoD  speed  is  slow,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties, less  than  600  feet  per  minute. 

Single-Acting  Engine.- One  in  which  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  is  exerted  only  on  one 
side  of  the  piston,  which  is  forced  back  again 
b^  the  pressure  of  the  atmo^ere  on  the  other 
Bide  against  the  vacuum  produced  by  the  con- 
densation of  the  spent  steam.  They  were  for- 
merly used  chiefly  for  pumping  purposes,  and 
in  connection  with  steam  haimneri,  but  are  oow 
practically  out  of  date. 

Donble-ActinK  Engine. —  One  in  which  the 
steam  in  the  cylinder  is  exhausted  into  the 
piston,  either  against  the  pressure  of  the  air, 
or  against  the  vacuum  of  the  Condenser.  Origi- 
nally, all  engines  were  made  single-acting,  but 
nearly  all   modem  steam  engines  are  double- 

Dlrect-Actitig  Engine.— One  in  which  the 
action  of  the  piston  is  transmitted  directly  to 
the  crank-shafL  Nearly  all  engines  are  of  tbis 
type. 

Indirect- Acting  En^e.—  One  in  which  the 
motion  of  the  piston  is  communicated  to  the 
crank- shaft  by  means  of  intermediate  levers. 
In  the  beam-engine,  the  cotmection  between  the 
piston  and  the  connecting  rods  consists  of  a 
beam,  the  oscillating  point  of  which  is  placed 
midway  between  the  two  rods,  Th^  are  chiefly 
employed  for  pumping  purposes  and  for  drivitig 
paadle-wheel  steamers.  Other  than  in  this  lim- 
ited field,  they  are  becoming  obsolete. 

Expansive  Working  Engine.—  An  engine  is 
worked  expansively  when  the  steam,  instead  of 
being  admitted  at  full  pressure  into  the  cylinder 
untilthe  termination  of  the  stroke,  is  cut  off  at 
some  fractional  part  of  the  stroke  and  thos 
caused  to  do  work  simply  bv  its  own  expansion. 
The  steam  may  be  expanasd  in  one  or  tnore 
cylinders.  The  amount  of  steam  consumed  is 
low  as  compared  to  the  amount  of  woilc  done. 
It  is  universally  used  where  circumstances  will 
permit,  on  account  of  its  greater  economy  as 
compared  with  the  engines  of  the  non-expansive 
worrang  type. 

Non-expansive  Working  Engine^^  An  en- 
gine in  which  the  steam  is  allowed  to  enter  the 
cylinder  at  boiler  pressure  and  is  muntained 
at  that  pressure  behind  the  piston  during  the 
whole  of  the  stroke.  The  amount  of  steam 
consumed  is  disproportionately  lugh  as  com- 
pared to  the  work  done. 

Condensing  Engine  (called  also  low-pres- 
sure or  vacuum  engine).~~One  in  wbidi  the 
spent  steam  in  the  cylinder  is  exhausted  into  a 
vacuum  and  condensed  into  water,  thus  oblit- 
erating the  back  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
and  consequently  effecting  a  gain  of  pressure 

Sjivalent  to  14./  pounds  per  square  inch  in  the 
ective  working  pressure  of  the  steam. 
Non-condensing  Engine  (called  ^so  bigji- 


preunrc  engine).— One  in  which  the  spent 
steam  in  the  cylinder  is  exhausted  into  the 
air  at  atroospheric  pressure,  thus  entailing  the 
work  of  forcing  tne  piston  against  a  bade 
pressure  of  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch,  at  the 
expense  of  the  enective  working  pressure  of  the 
steam.  This  disadvantage  is  offset  by  using 
steam  at  tiigher  pressures. 

Simple  Engine.— One  in  which  the  steam 
after  having  forced  the  piston  throu^  its 
stroke  is  exhausted  into  the  air  or  into  a 
vacuum  or  condenser. 

Compound  Engine.—  An  engine  with  two  or 
more  cylinders  in  which  the  steam  after  having 
expanded  and  performed  its  work  in  one  cylin- 
der passes  into  the  next  cylinder,  of  larger  si»e, 
and  continues  to  expand  and  perform  work. 
The  different  types  of  compound  engines  are 
distinguished  as  *5eries-expansion»  engines  or 
by  the  number  of  cylinders  employed  for  the 
expansive  working  of  the  steam,  and  are  desig- 
nated as  the  two-cylinder  compound  en^ne,  the 
three-CT Under  or  triple-expansion  engine  and 
the  tour-cylinder  or  qujidruple-expansion 
engine.  The  cylinders  are  usualh-  arranged 
si<fe  by  side  or  parallel  with  each  otner.  Some- 
times, as  in  the  case  of  the  "tandem-compound,* 
they  are  placed  in  line  one  behind  the  other,  and 
also  verocaLly  one  above  the  other  as  in  the 
case  of  the  'steeple-compound*  In  a  "cros*- 
compound*  the  cylinders  are  placed  side  by  side 
and  parallel  to  each  other,  but  sufficiently  far 
apart  to  allow  space  for  a  fly-v^eel  between 
them.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  quadruple- 
expansion  en^ne  appears  to  be  the  limit  beyond 
wUch  the  numbers  of  expansions  have  not  been 
carried  with  success.  Tne  great  practical  ad- 
vantage of  the  multiple-expansion  engines  lies 
in  thdr  high  steam  economy. 

Air  (or  Hot  Air]!  Engine.— An  engine  in 
which  the  working  fluid  is  air  expanded  ^  heat. 
It  is  only  of  experimental  interest. 

Horizontal  Engine. —  One  in  which  the  axis 
of  the  cylinder  and  piston  rod  is  horiiontal. 

Vertical  Enfpne.—  One  in  which  the  aws  of 
the  cylinder  ano  piston  rod  la  vertical.  Vertical 
engines  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms 
and  are  usually  arranged  with  the  cylinders 
uppermost.  Very  few  of  them  are  constructed 
with  the  cylinders  lowermost  and  those  are 
only  of  the  smallest  sizes.  The  principal  ad- 
vantages of  the  vertical  en^ne  consist  in  the 
small  space  required  for  their  foundations  and 
the  uniformiur  of  wear  on  the  cylinders,  pistons 
and  rods.  The  type  includes  nuuiy  forms  of 
steam  hammers,  launch  enginea,  screw  engines 
and  inverted  cylinder  engines. 

Inverted  Cylinder  Engine.— A  vertical  en- 
gine, in  which  the  cylinder  is  inverted  or  placed 
above  the  piston  rod,  connecting  rod  and  crank- 
shaft. It  IS  typical  of  the  rrurine  engines  em- 
ployed to  drive  screw  propellers. 

Inclined  Engine  or  Inclined  Cylinder  En- 
gine.—  A  form  of  marine  engine  in  whidi  the 
cylinders  are  incjined  toward  each  other 


3  a  common  crank- shaft. 


ntcting  rods  by  means  of  a  lever  in  the  form  of 
a  beam.  It  is  more  fully  described  under  the 
term  Indirect-Acting  Engine. 


Otcillatiiif  ]_   „_ 

the  direct-acting  type,  in  which  the  cylinders 
are, suspended  upon  noUow  trunnions  and  oscil- 
late thereon,  thus  allowing  the  motion  of  the 
IHSton  rods  to  accommodate  itself  to  that  of  the 
crank  at  all  parts  of  the  revolution.    It  occu- 


in  toy  engines  because  of  its  simple  con- 
stniction. 

Trunk  Engine. —  An  engine  having  a  large 
hollow  piston  open  at  one  end  and  called  a 
trunk.  The  coimecting  rod  goes  right  into  the 
open  end  of  this  trunk-piston  and  is  attached 
directly  to  the  piston-head,  so  that  there  is  no 
piston  rod.  It  is  used  in  some  forms  of  gas 
Clones  and  toy  engines. 

CoflisB  Bnrine.^ —  A  very  economical  type  of 
engine,  in  whiSi  the  valves  are  controlled  auto- 
matically from  the  governor  and  the  steam  sup- 
ply proportioned  to  the  requirements  of  the 
engine  at  each  moment  during  its  working 
stroke.  The  valve  forms  a  segment  of  a  circle 
and  turns  through  an  arc  of  a  circle  and  alter- 
nately covers  and  nncovers  the  steam  port.  It 
is  operated  by  a  rod  from  a  wrist  plate,  but  is 
disconnected  at  every  Stroke  of  the  engine  and 
the  supply  valve  closed  instantaneously  by 
means  of  a  dash-pot. 

Comiah  Engine.— A  standard  type  of  pump- 
ing engine,  originally  of  the  single-acting  type. 
At  the  present  time  it  appears  in  two  forms  — 
the  beam  engine  and  the  direct-acting  engine. 
The  valves  of  a  Cornish  engine  are  operated  by 
a  special  device  called  a  cataract,  consisting  of 
a  weighted  piston  which  works  in  a  cylinder 
provided  with  a  large  inlet  valve  and  a  small 
discharge  valve.  The  working  stroke  of  the 
pump  lifts  the  weighted  piston  and  draws  the 
water  into  the  cylinder  through  the  former, 
and  the  return  stroke  discharges  it  through  the 
latter  and  at  the  same  time  actuates  the  valves 
of  the  steam  cylinder  of  the  pump  so  as  to 
cause  another  working  stroke. 

Marine  Engine.—  Any  form  of  eninne  used 
for  propelling  a  vessel.  They  are  usually  of  the 
compound  or  multiple-expansion  type. 

Stationary  En^e.—  An  engine  on  fixed 
foundations,  as  distinguished  from  the  locomo- 
tive, portable  and  marine  engines. 

LocomotiTe  Engine. —  A  high  pressure 
steam  engine  and  multitubular  boiler  complete, 
mounted  on  a  carriage  and  provided  with 
suitable  wheels  to  enable  it  to  draw  loaded 
cars  upon  a  permanent  way  or  railway  track. 
See  Locouonvs. 

Portable  Engine — A  small  engine  of  the 
locomotive  type,  mounted  on  a  carriage  which 
permits  of  its  being  moved  from  place  to  place 
for  use  in  connection  with  work  of  a  temporary 
character.  Portable  engines  are  extensively 
used  for  agricultural  purposes  and  for  generu 
traction  purposes  on  ordinary  highways. 

Gas  and  Oil  BnKiiies,>- These  classes  of 
heat  en^nes  are  commonly  designated  as  in- 
ternal-combustion envnes.  See  Imterkai.  Con- 
BusTioN  Engine  and  Diesel  Ekgine. 

_  The  Slide-Valve.^- The  introduction  of  the 
slide-valve  for  operating  die  ports  of  a  steam 
engine  marked  a  distinct  advance  in  economy, 
because  it  can  be  made  at  exactly  die  right  time 
and  also  because  it  admits  the  hot  steam  to  the 
cylinder  through  a  port  which  has  jmt  been 


cooled  by  the  exhanst  As  ordinarily  con- 
structed the  slide-valve  is  a  sliding  D-shaped 
piece  in  the  steam-chest,  moving  bade  and  forth 
over  the  three  ports  —  the  two  end-ports  of  the 
cylinder  and  the  exhaust  port  in  the  centre  — 
and  pennitting  the  steam  to  pass  alternately 
to  either  end  of  the  cylinder  to  push  the  piston 
and  opening  the  exhaust  for  the  release  of  the 
used  steam.  There  are  'laps^  at  the  end  of  the 
D  whose  length  determines  the  instant  at  which 
the  ports  shall  begin  to  open.  These  laps  arc 
known  as  outside  or  steam-lap,  and  inside  or 
exhaust-lap  The  slide-valve  lus  also  been  de- 
vdaped  for  autotnobile  use  in  the  Knight  type 
of  engine. 

Sapcrheatinc.— Originally,  saturated  steam 
was  the  only  sort  employed  in  steam  en^es, 
but  as  multiple-expansion  developed  and  higher 
pressures  were  carried  in  boilers  the  use  of 
superheated  or  dry  steam  at  as  high  as  500"  C. 
was  tried,  and  it  was  demonstrated  that  the 
hotter  the  steam  was  the  more  it  expanded  and 
the  greater  the  power  to  be  got  out  of  it 
.  Superheating  began  experimentally  about  1895 
and  was  operated  in  connection  with  an  econo- 
mizer. This  is  a  mechanism  for  utilizing  the 
waste  heat  and  turning  it  into  the  feed-water, 
so  that  hot  water,  close  to  the  boiling  _point,  can 
be  supplied  to  the  boiler.  Engines  using  super- 
heated steam  have  been  operated  with  as  liitle 
as  1.3  pounds  of  coal  per  indicated  horse 
power.    See  Locouotive. 

Steam  Turbines  comprise  a  class  of  beat 
engines  in  which  the  kinetic  energy  of  expand- 
ing steam  is  utilized  to  drive  a  wlieel  and  thus 
convert  the  natural  heat  energy  of  sleam  di- 
rectly into  mechanical  energy  in  the  form  of 
rotary  motion.  The  principal  forms  are  the 
Parsons^  De  Laval  Seger  and  Curtis  turbines, 
and  their  first  field  of  application  and  develop- 
ment was  in  the  marine  service.  Noteworthy 
examples  of  their  application  are  the  Lusilanta 
and  Mauretania  ocean  steamships  and  many 
o(  the  modem  'dreadnaupht"  type  of  battle- 
ships. They  are  now  coming  into  use  in  large 
lighting  stations  and  mammoth  manufacturing 
plants.    See  Turbine. 

Hydraulic  Engines.! — Mechanical  power  is 
obtained  from  flowing  water  by  its  weight, 
pressure  or  impact,  utiuied  in  vanous  forms  Ot 
water  wheels,  turbines,  hydraulic  rams  and 
water-pressure  en(^nes.  In  the  water- pressure 
engine  the  pressure  of  the  water  only  is  util- 
ized to  drive  a  piston  in  a  cylinder.  In  some 
forms  the  action  of  the  piston  is  reciprocating 
and  in  others  rotary.  In  all  of  them  the  actual 
amount  of  pressure  expended  ia  only  that  which 
is  needed  to  impart  motion  to  the  fluid  to  fol- 
low the  piston  and  escape  from  the  cylinder 
and,  therefore,  the  greatest  efficieticy  is  obtained 
1^  making  the  piston  as  small  as  practicable 
and  using  a  large  pressure.  The  majority  of 
them  arc  of  the  reciprocating,  low-speed  type, 
and  are  particulariy  useful  as  secondary  motors 
for  operating  the  opening  machinery  of  various 
forms  of  swing,  draw  and  lifting  or  rolling 
brieves,  and  in  connection  with  cranes  and  va- 
rious  fonns  of  hydraulic  lifts. 

For  futher  detailed  information  relative  to 
the  construction,  operation  and  applicatiMi  of 
Ac  various  forms  of  engines,  consult  the  arti- 
cles under  the  titles  AnTOMOBiLs;  Aerdplane; 
Internai.  Combustion  Encine:  Locomotivrs; 
Uotob;  Pumps  aMii  Puuping  Macsikery;  Ro- 


tary Steam  Engikb;  Tkaction  Engikes;  Tur- 
bine; Wa'Kr  Motor;  Water  Wheel. 

Charles  H.  Cochrane, 
Author  of  'Modem  Indtttlrial  Progrets.' 

BNGINE,  Testing  of.  Engines  are  tested 
in  order  to  determine  the  economy  with  which 
they  produce  a  given  amount  of  power.  The 
economy  of  steam  engines,  as  usually  deter- 
mined relates  to  the  weight  of  steam  con- 
sumed, or  to  the  quantity  of  coal  used  in  mak- 
ing the  steam,  or  to  the  number  of  heat  units 
supplied;  while  in  the  case  of  an  internal  com- 
bustion engine,  it  relates  to  the  amount  of  gas, 
gasoline,  oil,  alcohol  or  other  fuel  burned. 
Also,  if  the  latter  operate  on  producer  gas,  the 
determination  of  economy  involves  the  amount 
of   coal   burned   in   the  gas   producer. 

Factory  tests  are  generally  limited  to  the 
performance  of  individual  engines,  to  determine 
the  set  of  the  governor  relative  to  the  proper 
speed  and  to  ascertain  if  the  valves  are  set  and 
operate  properly.  In  the  case  of  gas  engines, 
the  factory  test  is  extended  to  cover  the  cor- 
rect timing  of  the  igniter  and  to  determine  the 
correct  compressioiL 

In  its  broadest  sense,  however,  testing  is  a 
form  of  scientific  investigation  conducted  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  practical  results  which 
are  very  important  not  only  to  the  manufacturer, 
but  also  to  the  owner  of  the  engine  who  has  to 
pay  the  expense  of  its  operation  and  to  those 
who  require  information  showing  the  capabili- 
ties of  the  machines  for  the  purpose  of  advertis- 
ing and  trade. 

As  an  engine  test  involves  the  determination 
of  tvfo  elementary  quantities — (I)  the  amount 
of  fuel  consumed,  and  (2)  the  amount  of  power 
developed  —  it  is  necessary  that  these  two  factors 
should  be  represented  by  units  of  measurement 
which  are  susceptible  of  universal  application. 

Statidard  Uatt  of  Fuel.— The  most  satisfac- 
tory unit  for  expressions  of  economy  based  on 
the  amount  of  fuel  consumed  is  the  British 
Thermal  Unit  (B.T.U.J,  which  is  the  quantity 
of  heat  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water 
1*  F.  at  or  about  39  1°  F.  According  to  Joule, 
it  is  equivalent  to  778  foot-pounds  of  meclmiicai 
energy. 

A  convenient  and  useful  subsidiary  standard 
is  that  based  on  a  "standard  coal*  unit,  the 
term  'standard  coaP  defining  a  coal  which  im- 
parts to  steam  10,000  B.T.UT's  for  each  pound 
of  dry  coal  consumed.  It  is  a  coal  which  has  a 
calorific  value  of  12,500  B.T.U.'s,  equivalent  to 
an  efficiency  of  80  per  cent  when  used  in  a 
■standard  boiler." 

Standard  Vtut  of  Power.— The  unit  of 
mechanical  power  which  most  satisfactorily  ex- 
presses the  power  developed  by  an  engine  is 
the  •horse  power,*  which  represents  an  energy 
of  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute,  equivalent  to 
2,545  B.T.U.'s  per  hour. 

Standard  of  Bngbie  Bconomy. —  Employ- 
ing the  given  standard  units  of  fuel  and  power, 
the  expressions  of  er^ne  economy  which  are 
best  aaapted  to  meet  all  conditions  of  service 
and  for  alt  classes  of  heat  engine  are  those  rep- 
resented by  the  "indicated*  horse  power  based 
on  Ae  number  of  B.T.U.'s  consumed  per  hour. 

Such  an  expression  is  commonly  cafled  a 
horse  r-ow^r  hour  and  rppresents  a  heat  energy 
of  1,%0,000  foot-pounds  converted  into  me- 
chanical power  or  work  by  the  consumption  of 
2,545  B.T.U.'s  per  hour. 


ENGINE  TSSTINO  OF 


Mr 


Ral«a  for  Cendiictiiic  ■  Teat — All  test*. 
should  be  conducted  syitematicaliy  under  a  set 
of  standard  rules,  dearly  defining  the  character 
of  the  data  to  be  obtained  ana  the  methodi 
which  should  be  employed  for  their  determma- 
tiML  A.  set  of  such  rules  may  be  briefly  defined  < 
as  foUoira; 

1.  Object  of  tke  ttst. — At  the  beginning, 
die  specific  object  of  the  test  dtould  be  ascBr- 
taiued.  It  may  relate  to  the  determination'  of 
hi^st  economy  obtainable;  the  economy  under 
ordinary  worlanK  condition!  and  the  exittiiyt 
defects;  the  perfonnance  under  special  condt- 
tions;  the  effect  of  changes  in  existing  con- 
dittoos;  or  the  fulfilment  of  a  contract  guar- 
antee; and  the  preparations  for  the  test  should 
be  made  accordingly.  These  prepsracjons  will 
necessarily  depena  largely  upon  the  good  sense, 
judgment  and  ingenuity  of  the  engineer  making 
the  test. 

2.  Condition  of  Iht  Enginr.—  THe  engine 
should  be  carefully  examined  and  its  general 
condition  noted,  especially  anjr  points  of  design, 
construction  or  operation  wbich  bear  upon  uie 
object  of  the  test.  Special  examination  should 
be  made  of  all  valves,  by  inspecting  their  seats 
and  bearing  surfaces  and  great  care  taken  to 
ascertain,  in  the  case  of  a  gas  engine  that  the 
piston  rings  work  freely  in  their  grooves  and 
are  perfectly  gas-tight. 

3.  Dimensions. —  The  cylinder  dimensions 
should  be  laken  whether  the^  are  alreadv  known 
or  not,  the  measurements  bemg  made  when  they 


correction  being  made  for  temperature. 

4.  Fttel.-^  When  (he  test  involves  the  com- 
plete plant  — in  the  case  of  a  steam  engine  in- 
cluding the  boilers,  and  in  the  case  of  a  gas  en- 
gine including  the  gas  producer  plant  —  the  class, 
name  of  coal  mine,  size,  moisture,  should  be 
stated  in  the  report^  and  the  quality  of  the  coal 
used  should  be  of  some  recognized  standard. 
This  is  desirable  for  purposes  of  comparison. 
In  the  case  of  an  intern^  combustion  engine, 
if  the  test  is  made  to  determine  the  maximum 
efficiency,  the  gas.  oil,  or  other  fuel  used,  should 
be  the  best  obtainable,  or  one  that  possesses  the 
highest  calorific  value. 

5.  MeasuremenI  of  Fuel — The  methods  a! 
determining  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed  de- 
pend upon  the  character  of  the  fuel  used.  If  It 
be  coaf  furnished  to  the  furnace  of  a  boiler,  or 
to  a  ^s  producer,  the  amount  consumed  during 
a  period  not  less  than  24  hours  should  be  care- 
fully measured  by  weight  If  it  be  oil,  gasoline, 
distillate,  alcohol,  etc.,  it  can  be  drawn  from  a 
tank,  which  can  be  refilled  to  the  original  level 
at  the  end  of  the  test,  and  the  amount  required 
for  this  ^rpose  weighed;  or  in  the  case  of  a 
small  engine,  it  can  be  drawn  from  a  properly 
calibrated  vertical  pipe.  When  gas  is  used,  it 
should  be  measured  by  a  suitable  gas  metre  and 

as  bags  should  be  placed  between  the  metre  and 
;  engine  to  keep  the  pressure  as  constant  as 
possible.  The  pressure  and  temperature  of  the 
gas  and  the  baromelric  pressure  and  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  should  be  measured  and  in 
determining  the  quantity  of  the  gas  supplied,  as 
given  by  the  reading  of  the  metre,  the  tempen- 
ttire  and  pressure  of  the  gas  should  be  taken 
into 


6.  MeiuvrtmtiH  of  Heal  Units  C^nmmed. 
—  The  number  of  heat  units  consumed  by  the 
engine  can  be  found  by  multiplying  the  number 
of  pounds  of  coal  or  oil,  or  the  cubic  feet  of  gas 
sumilied,  by  the  total  heat  of  combustion  of  the 
fuel  as  determined  by  a  calorimeter,  or  from 
the  results  of  a  chemical.Btialysis.  In  determin- 
ing the  total  heat  of  combustion,  usually  no 
deduction  is  made  for  the  latent  heat  of  the 
vapor  of  water  in  the  pro.ducis  of  combustion, 
therefore,  for  purposes  of  comparison,  care 
should  be  taken  to  state  whether  the  higher  of. 
the  lower  value  has  been  used  in  the  deter- 
mination. 

The  Mahler  calorimeter  is  a  type  much  used 
for  determining  the  heat  of  combustion  of  solid 
fuels  and  oils  and  the  Jimkcr  calorimeter  for 
gases. 

7.  Inslrumtnts  and  Their  Catibration. — 
All  instrummts  and  apparatus  used  in  the  tests 
should  be  calibrated  and  their  accuracy  veri- 
fied by  comparison  with  recognized  standards. 
All  such  as  are  liable  to  undergo  changes,  c 


,  should  be  calibrated  boUi  before  and. 

after  the  test 

Gauges. —  For  measuring  pressures  above 
that  of  the  atmosijhere,  the  most  convenient  and 
reliable  standard  is  the  dead-weight  testii^  ap- 
paratus, consisting  of  a  cylinder  having  a  close- 
fitting  vertical  piston  working  in  oil  or  glycer- 
ine, by  the  medium  of  which  the  pressure  is 
transmitted  to  the  gauge.  The  piston  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  circular  stand  on  which  weights 
may  be  placed  so  as  to  secure  any  desired  pres- 
sure. The  total  weight,  in  pounds,  on  the  pistCMi, 
divided  by  the  area  of  tne  piston,  in  square 
inches,  gives  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square 

The  mercury  column  is  another  reliable 
standard  of  comparison  for  pressures,  but  when 
it  is  used  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  is 
properly  graduated  with  reference  to  the  ever 
varying  zero  point;  that  the  mercury  is  pure 
and  that  the  proper  correction  is  made  for  any 
difference  of  temperature  that  may  exist  at  the 
time  of  using  ana  the  temperature  at  which  the 
instrument  was  graduated. 

For  pressures  below  that  of  the  atmosphere 
the  use  of  an  air  pump  or  some  other  means  oi 
producing  a  vacuum  is  required.  The  apparatus 
must  be  referred  to  a  mercury  gauge,  which 
may  consist  of  a  U-shaped  tube  about  30 
inches  in  length,  with  both  arms  properly  filled 
with  mercuiy. 

Thermometers. —  Standard  thermometers 
are  those  which  read  212°  P.  in  steam  esca^ 
ing  from  boiling  water  at  the  normal  barometric 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  (29.92  inches}  when 
the  whole  stem  up  to  the  212"  point  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  steam;  and  which  read  32" 
F.  in  melting  ice,  when  the  stem  js  com- 
pletely immersed  to  the  32°  point;  and  whidi 
are  calibrated  for  points  between  and  beyond 
these  two  points  of  reference. 

For  temperatures  between  212'  and  400* 
F^  the  thermometers  should  be  compared 
with  the  temperatures  given  in  Regnault's  Steam 
Tables,  by  placing  it  in  a  mercury  well  sur- 
rounded by    saturated    steam    under   sufficient 


oirring   in    ga»*etiginp    practice,    which    ofles 


8l^ 


SNQINE,  TESTING  OP 


exceed  2fXXf  P.,  soine  fonn  of  pyrometer 
or  calorimeter  should  be  used.  That  o£  Le 
Chatelier,'  which  makes  use  of  the  thermo- 
coupIe,.h&s  been  successfully  used  for  accurately 
measuring  temperatures  over  2,500*  F. 

Indicator  Springs, —  For  gas-engine  indicat- 
ing the  indicator  springs  used  should  be  much 
stiffer  and  stronger  than  those  used  for  steam- 
engine  work,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  withstand 
the  higher  and  more, suddenly  developed  pres- 
sure. When  indicator  springs  are  calibrated, 
the  temperature  of  the  indicator  should  be  as 
nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  that  which  exists 
during  the  test.  An  indicator  may  he  conven- 
iently heated  by  subjecting  it  to  steam  pressure 
immediately  before  calibration  and  the  actual 
work  of  calibration  then  performed  by  the  use 
of  compressed  air  or  compressed  carbonic  acid 
gas.  The  calibration  may  be  made  under  a  con- 
stant pressure,  or  more  satisfactorily  by  cover- 
ing the  whole  range  of  pressures  through  which 
the  indicator  acts,  by  gradually  increasing  the 
pressure  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  point, 
and  then  by  graduaHy  reducing  it  from  the 
lughest  to  the  lowest  point,  and  a  mean  of  the 
results  taken  for  at  least  five  points  —  two  for 
the  pressures  corresponding  to  the  maximum 
and  minimum  pressures  and  three  for  equally 
distant  intermediate  points.  These  values 
^ould  be  compared  witn  a  dead-weight  testing 
apparatus,  a  mercury  column,  or  a  steam  gauge, 
compared  with  either  of  the  two  first-named 
standards,  and  the  correct  scale  of  the  spring 
used  for  calculating  the  mean  effective  pressure 
from  the  indicator  diagrams  taken  during  the 
test,  should  be  the  average  based  on  this 
calibration. 

Gat  Meters.—  A  meter  used  for  measuring 
the  gas  supplied  to  a  ^s  engine  should  be 
calibrated  t^  comparing  its  readings  with  the 
displacement  of  a  gasometer  of  known  volume; 
with  a  standard  gas  meter  of  known  error; 
or  1^  passing  air  through  the  meter  from  a  tank 
containing  air  under  pressure.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  pressure  and  temperature  of  the  air  in 
the  tank,  loth  at  the  tank  and  the  meter,  should 
be  observed  at  uniform  Intervals  of  time  dur- 
ing the  work  of  calibration ;  and  the  amount  of 
air  passing  through  the  meter  calculated  from 
the  volume  of  the  tank  and  the  observed  tem- 
peratures and  pressures. 

The  volume  of  the  gas  thus  ascertained 
dtould  be  reduced  to  the  equivalent  volume  at  a 
given  temperature  and  atmospheric  pressure, 
corrected  for  the  effect  of  moisture  in  the  gas, 
which  a  usually  at  or  near  the  point  of  satura- 
tion. For  gas-engine  work,  a  convenient  stand- 
ard is  the  equivalent  volume  of  the  gas  when 
saturated  with  moisture  at  normal  atmospheric 
pressure  at  a  temperxture  of  60*  F.  A  vol- 
ume of  moist  gas  at  any  other  temperature 
may  be  reduced  to  this  standard  by  being  multi- 
plied by  the  factor 

«ifl4-H0        b— (3B.B2— «) 

in  whidi  b  represents  the  reading  of  the  barcune- 
ter  in  inches  at  32°  F. ;  t.  the  temperature  of 
the  gas  at  the  meter  in  degrees  F. ;  and  s, 
the  vacuum  in  inches  of  mercury  corresponding 
to  the  temperature  of  t  given  in  the  sftam 
tables. 

8.  Deration  of  a  Teri.— The  length  of  time 
devoted  to  a  test  will  depend  larscly  upon  its 


allowed  should  be  equal  to  the  number  of  hours 
per  day  during  whidi  the  engine  is  really  oper- 
ated. In  the  case  of  a  gas  engine  using  pro- 
ducer gas,  the  time  should  be  suSicient  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  coal  used  in  the  gas  pro- 
ducer. It  should  never  be  less  than  2A  hours, 
and  usually  it  should  extend  over  several  days. 

9.  CoiMnencemetit  of  a  Test. —  If  the  test 
is  to  determine  the  ^rformance  of  an  engine 
imder  working  conditions,  it  should  begin  at  the 
time  the  engine  is  started,  and  the  observations 
continued  until  it  shuts  down  for  the  day.  If 
the  test  is  for  determining  the  maximuM 
economy  of  the  engine,  at  first  it  should  be 
run  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  make  all  condl- 
tjons  normal  and  constant,  then  the  observa- 
tions maj^  be  commenced  and  continued  for  the 
allotted  time. 

10.  MeofHremenl  of  Waler.—  In  the  case  of 
a  steam  engine  this  relates  to  the  feed  water  or 
steam  consumption.  The  usual  method  is  to 
measure  all  the  feed  water  supplied  to  the  boil- 
ers, and  deduct  therefrom  all  the  water  dis- 
charged by  separators  and  drips,  and  the  water 
and  steam  lost  by  lealrage  from  the  boiler  and 
its  main  and  branch  pi^e  connections  with  the 
engine.  Where  the  engine  exhausts  into  a  sur- 
face condenser,  the  steam  consumption  can  be 
measured  by  measuring  the  quantity  of  water 
discharged  by  the  air  pump  and  ad(ung  thereto 
the  steam  used  by  jackets,  reheaters  and  auxil- 
iaries as  determined  independently.  In  measur- 
ing the  water,  it  should  be  carried  through  a 
tank  resting  on  the  platform  of  a  suitably 
arranged  weiring  scales,  and  the  water  subse- 
quenuy  emptied  into  a  reservoir  beneath,  from 
which  the  pump  is  supplied. 

For  measuring  small  quantities  of  water, 
about  (1^000  pounds  ^r  hour,  the  most  conven- 
ient apparatus  consists  of  a  small  hogshead 
connected  to  the  suction  pipe  of  the  pump  or 
injector  and  an  ordinary  oil  barrel  placea  on 
a  platform  scale.  The  barrel  is  filled  by  means 
ofa  cold-water  pipe  leading  from  the  source  of 
supply.  For  pressure  not  less  than  25  pounds 
per  square  inch,  this  pipe  should  have  an  inter- 
nal diameter  of  one  and  one>half  inches.  The 
outlet  valve  of  the  barrel  is  attached  to  the  side 
near  the  bottom  and  should  be  at  least  two  and 
one-half  inches  in  diameter,  so  as  to  permit 
of  quick  emptying. 

Where  larger  quantities  of  water  have  to  be 
measured,  the  barrel  can  be  replaced  by  a  hogs- 
head and  two  hogsheads  can  be  joined  together 
for  the  lower  reservoir.  With  this  arrangement, 
when  the  weighing  hogshead  is  supplied  through 
a  two  and  one-half  inch  valve  under  25  pounds 
of  pressure  and  emptied  through  a  five-inch 
valve,  the  capacity  attained  is  15,000  pounds  of 
water  per  hour. 

For  the  measurement  of  very  large  <iuanti- 
tie%  or  in  some  cases,  very  small  quantides,  the 
orifice  method  gives  the  most  satisfactory  re- 
sults, and  when  applied,  the  average  head  of 
water  on  the  orifice  must  be  ascertained  and 
the  discharge  of  the  orifice  should  be  calibrated 
imder  the  conditions  of  use. 

In  the  case  of  an  internal  combustion  engine^ 
the  measurements  of  water  relate  to  that  sup- 
plied to  the  water-jacket  provided  for  cooUng 
the  temperature  of  the  cyhnder.    The  s 


BHGIHB,  TB6T1NO  OP 


merits  may  be  made  by  Ac  metliods  already 
described,  but  care  should  be  talcen,  in  cases 
where  the  temperature  exceeds  212*  F.,  first 
to  cool  the  water  by  iKschargin^  it  inl9  a 
tank  of  cold  water  previously  weighed,  or  by 
passing  it  through  a  coil  of  pipe  immei^ed  in 
mnning  cold  water,  so  as  to  prevent  the  loss  of 
evaporation  which  takes  place  when  hbt  water 
■*  aisdnrged  into  the  open  air. 

11.  Detrrmination  of  Speed.— The  speed  of 
the  engine,  or  the  niunber  of  revolutions  of  the 
cranlr  shaft  per  mimite,  can  be  determined  by 
counting  the  ntnnber  of  revolutions  in  one 
minute  with  the  eye  fixed  on  the  second  hand 
of  a  timepiece,  or  by  the  use  of  some  form  of 
mechanical  counter  such  as  a  tachometer,  or 
continuous  recording  engine  register.  The  use 
of  such  instruments  is  imperative  when  the 
speed  exceeds  250  revolutions  per  minute. 

In  the  case  of  internal  combustion  engines 
governed  by  the  hit-or-miss  method,  the  number 
of  explosions  per  minute  should  be  ascertained, 
when  the  engine  is  running  under  nearly  maxi- 
mum load,  by  counting  the  number  of  tjmes  the 
action  of  the  governor  causes  a  miss  in  the 
explosions. 

The  determination  of  variation  of  speed  dur- 
ing a  single  revolution  on  the  effect  of  fluctua- 
tions due  to  sudden  changes  of  load  should  be 
made  especially  in  the  case  of  engines  employed 
to  drive  electric  generators  used  for  lighting 
purposes. 

12.  Indicator  Diagram^,—  From  the  indi- 
cator diagrams  taken  during  the  lest  for  the 
computation  of  the  mean  effective  pressure,  etc., 
sample  diagrams  nearest  to  the  mean  should  be 
appended  to  the  report. 

The  mean  effective  pressure  (M.E.P.)  is 
obtained  as  follows :  Measure  the  dla^m  with 
a  planimeter  and  divide  the  area,  in  square 
inches,  thus  obtained  by  the  length  of  the  dia- 
gram in  inches  to  obtain  the  mean  height  or 
mean  ordinate  of  the  diagram.  Multiply  the 
mean  ordinate  by  the  scale  of  the  indicator 
spring  and  the  product  will  be  the  mean  effective 
pressure  desired.  In  the  absence  of  a  planime- 
ter,  the  diagram  can  be  divided  by  10  ordinates 
and  their  mean  length  taken  for  that  of  the 
mean  ordinate.  If  the  indicator  is  si>ecial1y 
designed  for  indicating  internal  combustion 
engines,  the  mean  ordinate  should  be  multiplied 
by  twice  the  scale  of  the  spring,  unless  the  scale 
has   been   expressly   marked    tor   the   reduced 

In  the  case  of  internal  combustion  engines. 
when  indicator  diagrams  are  not  obt^nable  and 
the  compression  pressure  ts  known,  the  meap 
effective  pressure  may  be  determined  approxi- 
mately as  follows :  For  example,  in  gas  engines 
the  compression  pressure  ranges  from  70  to 
90  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  the  maximum 
pressure  developed  by  the  explosions  is  about 
3.S  times  the  compression  pressure.  Therefore, 
if  p  represents  the  compression  pressure,  then 
for  compressions  of  100  pounds  per  square  inch 
or  less,  M.E.P.-"2p  — O-OV:  thus,  if  p  — 
70  pounds  per  square  inch,  M.E.P.=  140~49 
■^1  potmds  per  square  inch. 

In  the  case  of  a  steam  engine,  the  steam 
accounted  for  by  the  indicator  diagram  may  be 
calculated  by  means  of  the  formula 

1S7S0 
M=t<.B.t>.  (  (C+E)  y  We-(H+B)  X  Wh>, 

which  will  give  the  weight  in  potmds  per  indi- 


cated horse  power  per  faour.  M.RP.  represents 
the  mean  effective  pressure,  which  in  the  case 
of  a  multiplC'expansion  engine  is  the  combined 
mean  effective  pressure  referred  to  the  cylinder 
in  question.  For  example ;  In  the  case  of  a  com- 
pound engine,  the  combined  mean  effective 
pressure  for  the  high  pressure  nlinder  consists 
of  two  items:  (1)  the  mean  effective  pressure 
of  the  high  pressure  cylinder,  and  (2)  the  mean 
effective  pressure  of  the  low  pressure  cylinder 
multiplied  by  the  ratio  of  the  piston  displace- 
ment of  the  low  pressure  cylinder  to  that  of  the 
high  pressure  cylinder.  The  sum  of  these  two 
items  is  the  combined  mean  effective  pressure 
for  the  high  pressure  cylinder. 

Similarly  the  combined  mean  effective  pres- 
sure for  the  low  pressure  cylinder  consists  of 
(1)  the  mean  effective  pressure  of  the  low 
pressure  cylinder,  and   (2)   the  mean  effective 

fressure  of  the  high  pressure  cylinder  divided 
y  the  ratio  already  sUted.  The  sum  of  the 
two  items  is  the  combined  mean  effective  pres- 
sure of  the  low  pressure  cylinder. 

In  the  given  formula,  C  represents  the  pro- 
portion of  the  piston  stroke  completed  at  points 
on  the  expansion  line  of  the  diagram  near  the 
actual  cut-off  or  release;  H  the  proportion  of 
compression;  and  E  the  proportion  of  clearance; 
all  of  which  are  determinable  from  the  indicator 
diagram.  Wc  represents  the  weight  of  one 
cubic  foot  of  steam  at  the  cut-off  or  release 
pressure;  and  Wh  the  weight  of  one  cubic  foot 
of  steam  at  the  compression  pressure. 

13.  Standards  of  Economy  and  Efficiency. 
—The  standard  expression  for  engine  economy, 
as  already  stated,  is  the  hourly  consumption  of 
beat  units  divided  by  the  indicated  horse  power 
or  the  brake  horse  power.  The  standard  ex- 
pression for  efficiency  is  the  thermal  efficiency 
ratio,  or  the  proportion  which  the  heat  equiva- 
lent of  the  power  developed  bears  to  the  total 
ainount  of  neat  actually  consumed,  as  deter- 
mined by  test.  One  horse-power-hour  represents 
the  consumption  of  2,545  B.T.U.'s  per  hour, 
therefore. 


B.T.U.'apcr  hawpoira  tmfaoat 

expresses  the  thermal  efficiency  ratio. 

In  comparing  the  standard  for  internal  com- 
bustion engines  with  that  for  steam  engines,  it 
must  be  noted  that  the  former  usually  covers 
the  losses  due  to  combustion,  but  the  latter  does 
not,  and  therefore,  in  order  to  make  a  direct 
comparison  between  the  two  classes  of  engines 
as  complete  horse-power  plants,  the  losses  in 
generating  the  working  agent  must  be  consid- 
ered in  both  cases  not  only  on  the  basis  of  the 
fuel  used,  but  on  the  basis  of  equivalent  fuel 
used  in  each  case.  In  comparing  a  gas  engine 
plant  using  producer  gas,  with  a  steam  plant, 
the  producer  should  be  included  in  the  former, 
and  then  the  fuel  consumption,  represented  by 
the  weight  of  coal  in  both  cases,  may  be  directly 
compared. 

14.  Heat  Analysis. —  For  scientific  purposes, 
a  heat  analysis  of  the  indicator  diagram,  in  the 
case  of  a  steam  engine,  and  a  heat  balance  in 
the  case  of  an  internal  combustion  engine,  should 
be  made,  showinf;  the  manner  in  which  the  total 
heat  of  combustion  is  expended  in  working  the 

In  the  case  of  a 


■8l^ 


3M: 

cylinder  walls,  etc.  For  example:  the  amount 
of  heat  supplied  to  the  engicK  in  a  (pven  time  is 
repreaented  by  the  number  of  pounds  of  steam 
supplied  multiplied  by  the  total  heat  of  one 
pound  of  steam.  A  portion  of  this  heat  is  used 
in  the  jacket,  if  ore  be  employed,  and  the 
remainder  passes  through  tbc  cylinder.  The 
heal  entering  the  jacket  is  lost  partly  by  radia- 
tion from  the  outside  surface,  and  the  remainder 
enters  the  walls  of  the  cylinder  and  is  absorbed 


BNGIIW,  TBSTIIfO  OF 


leases:  (1)  A  portion  of  the  entering  be: 
transferred  into  a  small  portion  of  the  thick- 
ness  of  the  cylinder  walls,  and  heats  tiiem  to  the 
temperature  of  the  entering  steam.  This  trans- 
ference of  heat  is  more  active  during  the  period 
of  admission  and  up  to  the  point  of  cut-off  than 
during  any  other  part  of  the  cycle.  (2)  Beyond 
the  point  o£  cut-off.  the  transference  of  heat 
continues  until  the  lower  pressure  due  to  ex- 
pansion causes  the  temperature  of  the  steam 
to  fall  below  ihat  of  (he  mterior  surfaces  of  the 
cylinder  last  uncovered.  At  this  point  the  inter- 
change of  heat  is  reversed,  the  metal  giving  up 
heat  to  the  steam,  and  causing  the  re-evapora- 
tion of  the  pArtides  of  water  condensed  on  the 
surface  of  the  cylinder  walls  and  piston.  The 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  small  thidotesses  of 
the  interior  walls,  which  were  heated  during 
admission  to  the  temperature  of  the  entering 
steam,  commencee  after  cut-oS  or  after  the 
pressure  begins  to  lower  hy  expattsion,  and  con- 
tinues to  the  end  of  the  stroke. 

A  portion  of  the  heat  is  fttso  expended  in  the 
performance  of  work,  and  a  loss  of  heat  ia 
sustained  by  radiation  from  tliose  portions  of 
the  cylinder  not  protected  by  the  jacket.  The 
amount  of  heat  remaining  after  the  steam  has 
pasMd  through  these  bperations  is  that  which  is 
rtjected  by  it  through  the  exhaust  valve  to  the 
atmosphere  or  to  the  condenser. 

In  the  rase  of  an  internal  combustion  engine, 
the  total  beat  of  combustion  expended  in  the 
working  of  the  engine  may  be  divided  into 
three  parts:  (I)  Heat  converted  into  work  and 
represented  by  indicated  or  brake  horse  power. 
(2)  Heat  carried  away  by  the  cooling  water 
circulated  through  the  water  jacket.  (3)  The 
heat  lost  in  the  exhaust  gases,  and  through 
incomplete  combustion  and  radiation. 

15..  Heat  Converted  into  Indicated  or 
Brake  Horse  Po-weT.—  The  number  of  foot- 
pounds of  work  done  by  one  pound  or  one  cubic 
foot  of  fuel  divided  by  7/8,  tlie  mechanical 
equivalent  of  one  British  Thermal  Unit,  will 
give  the  number  of  heat  units  desired. 

16.  Heat  Carried  Away  by  the  Jacket 
frafer.— This  is  determine  J  by  measuring  the 
quantity  of  cooling  water  passed  through  the 
waler  jacket  equivalent  to  one  pound  or  one 
cubic  foot  of  fuel  consumed,  and  calculating 
the  amount  of  heat  rejected  by  multiplying 
that  quantity  by  the  difference  of  the  tempera- 
ture  of    the   water   entering  and  leaving   the 

17,  Heat  Rejected  in  the  Exhaust  Cases, 
or  Totai  Heat  Unused.— I'he  sum  of  the  heat 
converted  into  brake  horse  power  and  the  heat 
carried  away  by  the  jacket  watcrj  subtracted 
from  the  total  heat  supplied,  will  give  the  total 
heat  rejected  or  unused. 

In  order  to  determine  the  cost  of  each  horse- 


power hour  ifl  thermal  units,  the  ns  consumed 
and  the  air  snppliec  should  be' reduced  to  the 
conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure  c 


or  more  conveniently  by  the  formula 

in  which  v=* volume  of  gas  redoced  to 
standard;  t-=*Sr+60°— 521*^  F.,  absolute 
standard  temperature;  p"- 29.92  mches  of  mer- 
cury; v'^volume  of  ga^  registered  by  meter; 
p'=°pressure  of  gas  at  meter  measured  by 
manometer  in  inches  of  water;  t* ■*- absolute 
temperature  of  gas. 

Since  t  and  p  are  constants 


and  p'— height  of  barometer -l- (0.073  X  read- 
ing of  manometer);  and  t* ■■  temperature  of 
gas  at  meter-i-461. 

For  example :  Assume  the  hoghts  of  the 
barometer  as  29.40  inches;  the  reading  of  the 
manometer  as  6  inches;  the  temperature  of  the 
gas  80°  F. ;  and  the  volume  of  the  gas  regis- 
tered by  the  meter  350  cubic  feet;  then  lor 
determining  (v)  the  equivalent  volume  of  gas 
for  standard  conditions: 

pi=2g.4(H-(O.07JX  «  ™m.m 

then  V— 0.976  X  350=341.6  cuMc  feet. 


If  the  rate  method  is  employed  to  ascertain 
the  amount  of  gas  consumed,  the  amnber  of 
cubic  feet  for  a  ten-minute  interval  may  be 
found  by  dividing  the  nnmber  of  cubic  feet 
registered  by  one  revolution  of  the  small  dial  by 
the  time  in  seccmds  elapsed  at  the  completion  of 
that  revolution  and  multijilying  the  result  by 
6,000. 

18.  Indicated  Horse  Povner  (I.H.P.) .— This    , 
factor  is  expressed  by  the  formula-^ 

,„„       PxLxAxN 

'■"■P- to.o6o     ■ 

in  which  P  is  the  mean  effective  pressure  in 
pounds  per  square  inch ;  L  the  length  of  the 
piston  stroke  in  feet:  A  the  area  of  the  piston 
in  square  inches ;  ana  N  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions of  the  engine  crank  shaft  per  minute. 

AXL 


—  tor  a  given  engine,  and  in  the  case  of 

internal  combustion  engine,  N  is  the  number 

19.  Broke_  Horse  Power  (B.H.P.).— When 
this  factor  is  determined  by  the  use  of  some 
form  of  dynamometer,  such  as  the  Prony  brake, 
it  may  be  readily  computed  from  the  formula  — 

in  which  W  is  the  net  weight  in  poimds  on  the 
scales;  N  the  numbor  of  revolutions  per  m'niite; 
L  the  lenRth  of  the  lever  arm  from  the  centre 
of  the  braked  wheel  to  tiu  knife-edge  of  the 


,  Google 


.  BMGINK  INDUSTRY— BHQXNSBR  COKPS 


brake,  or  the  radiiu  «f  the  braked  wheel  if 
a  TOpe  brake  is  used;  and  C  the  drcumfercnce 
of  die  braked  wheel. 

CKL. 
33,000 

is  constant  for  a  given  Prwiy  br^e,  therefore, 
if  L  be  made  five  and  one-quarier  feet,  ibis 
constant  becomes  0,001,  and  gives  the  simple 
and  very  convenient  expression  — 


BMF- 


NXW. 

i.ooo 


20.  Total  B.T.V.'s  Per  /four— The    total 

amount  of  gas  consumed,  in  cubic  feet,  multi- 
plied by  its  calorific  value. 

B.T.U.'s  Per  Brake  Horse   Power  Hour.— 
The    total    B.T.U.'s   per   hour   dvided   by   the 


—  The  total  B.T.U.'s  per  hour  divided  by  the 
indicated  horse  power. 

Friction  Horse  Power. —  The  difference  be- 
tween the  indicated  horse  power  and  the  brake 
horse  power. 

Thermal  ESiciency.— The  ratio  of  2,545 
B.T.U.'s  to  the  B.T.U.'s  per  horse-power  hour. 

Mechanical  Efficiency.— Thu  ratio  of  the 
brake  horse  power  to  the  indicated  horse  power. 

WnjJAM  MoREY,  Jr.,  C.E., 
ConsuUing  Civil  and  Meckanicai  Engvtter,  New 
York. 

ENGINE  INDUSTRY.  Not  withstanding 
the  wonderfully  rapid  development  of  water 
power  and  of  the  internal  combustion  engine, 
the  steam  enein'e  holds  its  own  in  the  industries 
of  the  world.  The  total  steam  engine  horse 
power  used  in  marnfacturing  in  the  United 
States,  which  was  .^139,574  in  1900,  rose  to 
14,199,339  in  the  1910  census.  Seven  great 
industries  utilize  56  per  cent  of  the  horse 
power  employed  in  manufacturing  in  this  coun- 
try, and  76  per  cent  of  the  power  tbey  use  is 
based  on  the  steam  engine.  The  industries 
meant  are  lumber,  steel  works  and  rolling  mills, 

Sper  and  pulp  mills,  cotton  factories,,  blast 
maces,  foundries  aiid  machine  shops  and  ^rist 
milts.  In  only  one  of  the  seven  —  the  paper  and 
pulp  industry,  which  requires  large  quantities 
of  waterfor  dissolving  pulp  —  is  steam  power 
less  used  than  water  power.  The  fourteen 
minion  horse  power  quoted  does  not  by  any 
means  represent  the  total  employment  of  steam 
engine  power  in  the  country,  but  only  such  as 
the  census  eathcrs  as  reported  l^"  manu- 
facturers. It  docs  not  cover  steam  engine  power 
used  on  vessels,  nor  used  in  mines  and  quarries, 
nor  its  vast  employment  in  the  locomotives  that 
do  most  of  the  haul^e  on  the  railways,  nor  a 
number  of  minor  uses.  These  are  reported  in 
other  ways,  or  escape  enumeration.  The  best 
way  of  measuring  the  steam  engine  industry  is 
to  note  that  430,000.000  long  tons  of  coal  are 
used  in  the  United  States  every  year,  and  it  is 
estimatsd  that  at  least  3:1(^000,000  tims  of  this 
is  consumed  under  boilers  to  make  steam.  Evi- 
dently while  the  coal  holds  out  the  steam  engine 
is  going  to  continue  the  favorite  power-producer. 
because  it  can  be  located  anywhere  and  its  cost 
is  moderate.  Even  the  electric  railway  lines 
around  New  York  city  and  the  electric  li«!ht  and 
jwwer  cpvpanies  there,  base  their  pcnrer  en- 
tirelv  on  the  steam  encrinr. 

There  are  no  complete  figures  of  the  engine 
industij  fKcause  it  b  *o  coo^Ietely  interwoven. 


with  other  activities  diat  it  cannot  be  s^a»ted. 
Thousands  of  machinery  manufacturers  build 
steam  engines,  which  are  part  of  this  or  that 
ntecial  iridustry,  often  being  for  their  own  use. 
The  internal  combustion  engines  alone  are 
mixed  up  with  20  different  industries  from 
automobiles  to  blast  furnaces  and  a  vast  num^ 
bei  of  engines  are  built  direct-connected  t9 
dynamos  and  credited  to  the  electrical  indufr* 
tries.  See  Internal  Combustion  Engine; 
Gas  Engine;  Steaja  aiid  Steam  Engines; 
Locomotive;  Locomotive  Industky;  Automo- 
bile ENGiNSi  Aeroplane. 

ENGIKE  STARTERS,  or  «3elf- starters," 
anxiliary  devices  for  the  purpose  of  Starting' 
gasoline  automobiles  <or  other)  engines  with- 
out laborious  method  of  turning  the  hand  crank 
commonly  provided.  Self-starters  operate  upon 
either  of  two  principles:  the  cratik  shaft  is 
rotated  by  external  mechanism,  causing  the 
pistons  to  charge  the  cylinders  with  gas  to  be 
exploded  when  the  spark  is  turned  on ;  or  the 
injection  of  gas  into  one  or  more  cylinders  with- 
out rotation  of  the  crank  and  the  production 
of  a  spark  in  all  the  cylinders  simultaneously 
so  that  the  charged  cylinder  will  come  into 
action.  Mechanical  starters  are  operated  by  a 
heavy  spring,  by  compressed  air.  or  by  electric- 
ity. They  require  a  considerable  addition  to 
the  machinery  of  the  car  as  well  as  to  its 
weifdit,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  electric 
starter  ana  add  many  sources  of  possible  trouble 
in  an  already  complicated  machine, 

The  gas  injector  system  adds  simply  a  small 
band  pump  at  the  driver's  seat  or  on  the  dash- 
board, two  strokes  of  which  effects  the  charg- 
ing of  the  cylinders;  and  the  throwing  of  a 
switch  tires  tne  charge.  In  automobiles  which 
employ  acetylene  gas  for  lighting,  an  attach- 
ment is  furnished  by  which  this  gas  may  be 
used  in  priming  the  cylinders  for  starting.  The 
acetylene  mixture  is  claimed  to  be  more  certain 
of  explosion  than  an  uncompressed  charge  of 
gasoline  vapor  and  air.  Consult  Cross,  H.  H.  U., 
'Electric  Lifting  and  Starting'  (London 
191S) ;  Duryea,  C,  E,  and  Homans,  J.  E.,  'The 
Automobile  Book'  (New  York  1916);  P^*, 
V.  W.,  'The  Modern  Gasoline  Automobile* 
(New  York  1912). 

ENGINEER  CORPS,  a  branch  of  the 
service  of  the  United  States  Navy;  and  of 
those  of  other  countries.  The  first  step  toward 
the  organization  of  an  engineer  corps  in  the 
United  States  Navy  was  taken  on  2  July  1836^ 
when  C.  H.  Haswelt  (q.v.J  was  appointed  chief 
engineer  of  the  Fulton;  it  was  not,  however, 
until  31  Aug.  1842  that  Congress  passed  an  act 
providing  for  a  regular  corps,  nnder  which  act 
chief  engineers  were  'commissioned*  and  assist- 
ants •warranted."  On  3  March  1845  Congress 
passed  an  act  whereby  tue  power  of  appointing 
engineer  oHicers  was  transferred  from  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Navy  to  the  President  *by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Sotate." 
With  the  growth  of  the  Navy  the  conu  gradu- 
aUy  increased  till  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War 
there  were  474  regulars  jmd  l.ftJ3  volunteers.     ■ 

A  course  of  instruction  for  cadet  enifineers 
was  established  at  the  Naval  Academy  bv  act  of 
Congress  4  July  1864.  The  original  two-year 
course  was  changed  to  four  years  in  1874  and 
continued  in  vogue  till  1882,  when  on  5  August 
Congress  amalgamated  the  cadet  engineers  and 


■8l^ 


3« 


BNGINSBRINO— EHGIHEEKIHG  IMSTRUM^HTS 


'Sia 


midshipmen  and  they  are  now  known  as  naval 
cadets.  The  cadets  then  took  the  usual  six 
years'  course  at  the  Academy  and  upon  com- 
pletion of  the  third  year  of  the  course  were 
divided  into  an  Engineer  Division  and  a  Line 
Division  in  proportion  to  the  vacancies  that 
have  occurred  in  the  several  corps  during  the 
preceding  year.  At  the  end  of  the  six  years' 
course  appointments  to  fill  vacancies  in  the 
line  and  in  the  Marine  Corps  were  made  from 
the  Line  Division,  and  to  fill  vacancies  in  the 
Engineer  Corps  from  the  Engineer  Division. 
If,  after  making  assignments  as  above,  there 
should  still  be  vacancies  in  one  branch  and  sur- 
plus graduates  in  the  other,  the  vacancies  in  the 
former  were  filled  by  assignment  to  it  of  sur- 
plus graduates  from  the  latter.  This  arrange- 
ment was  in  vogue  until  the  Line  and  Engineer 
Corps  were  amalgamated  under  the  act  of  3 
March  1899,  at  which  time  the  Engineer  Corps 
ceased  to  be  a  separate  organization,  the  older 
officers  now  being  required  to  perform  engineer- 
ing duties  only,  whereas  the  younger  officers 
must  pass  examinations  in  navigationi  gunnery, 
seamanship,  etc.  A  grade  of  warrant  machinists 
to  perform  watch  duties  was  also  estaUished  be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  commissioned  officers  for 
this  work.  See  Naval  Acadeuy,  United 
States;  United  States  Navy, 

ENGINEERING  is,  in  its  strict  sense,  the 
art  of  designing,  constructing,  or  using  engines, 
but  the  word  is  now  applied  in  a  more  extended 
sense,  not  only  to  that  art,  but  to  that  of  eJtccut- 
I  such  works  as  are  the  objects  of  civil  and 
ilitary  architecture,  in  which  engines  or  other 
mechanical  appliances  are  extensively  employed. 
Engineerinft  is  divided  into  manv  branches,  the 
more  important  being  civil,  mechanical,  electri- 
cal, mining,  military,  marine  and  sanitary  engi- 


.._.       _..„„..,  ..._,.   elhe 

pyramids  of  Egypt.  The  rude  stone  monuments 
of  the  north,  as  at  Storehenge  and  Camac,  also 
testify  to  some  engineering  skill.  The  harbors 
and  temples  of  ancient  Greece  are  very  memo- 
rable. The  buildings  of  ancient  Rome  —  its 
theatres,  temples,  baths  and  '  aqueducts,  its 
roads,  bridges  and  drainage- works  —  vie  in  e:s- 
tent  and  magnificence  with  the  most  celebrated 
works  of  modem  times.  From  that  period 
down  to  the  commencement  of  the  18th  century 
the  most  extensive  works  executed  were  the 
canals,  embankments  and  other  hydraulic  con- 
struction used  by  the  Dutch  (or  the  purposes 
of  inland  navigation  and  to  protect  tneir  low 
lands  from  the  sea;  the  canals  of  North  Italy; 
and  ^e  cathedrals  and  fortifications  of  mediseval 
Europe. 

If  the  question  were  asked  as  to  the  char- 
acteristic feature  of  the  modem  applied  science 
of  engineering,  the  reply  would  undoubtedly  be : 
The  wholesale  manner  in  which  work  is  carried 
on."  It  is  not  so  very  long  aito  that  everything 
except  the  smallest  articles  and  those  required  in 
great  quantity  were  made  singly,  or  at  least  in 
small  lots ;  and  even  when  standardiring  and  in- 
terchanecability  were  introduced  these  methods 
were  hy  no  means  used  in  a  wav  which  showed  a 
realisation  of  their  possibilities.  The  nresent 
tendency,  on  the  contrary,  is  toward  the  elimina- 
tion altogether  of  things  which  cannot  he  made 
wholesale ;  and  methods  which  f  ormeriy  applied 


to  firearms,  sewing-madiines,  typewriters  and 
the  like  are  now  in  general  use  in  the  manu- 
faclure  of  steam  engines,  machine  tools,  elec- 
trical machinery  and  nearly  all  mechanical 
products. 

This  has  been  brou^t  about  by  a  com^biiia- 
tion  of  two  proceases:  (1)  the  standardiiatioQ 
of  methods  of  manufacture;  and  (2)  the  dis- 
couragement of  the  demand  for  special  articles. 
Formerly  the  customer  told  the  manufacturer 
what  was  wanted  and  the  latter  hastened  to  pro- 
duce it.  Or  the  plans  and  specifications  for  a 
certain  structure  were  prepared  by  a  consulting 
engineer  and  all  bidders  were  required  to  con- 
form to  these  documents  in  the  minutest  details; 
no  two  such  specifications  being  alike.  At  the 
present  time  the  customer,  knowing  what  he 
wishes  to  accomplish,  seeks  to  do  so  as  best 
he  may  by  means  of  the  standard  articles  in  the 
market;  or  if  it  be  a  great  engineering . struc- 
ture, the  engineer  specifies  only  the  general  re- 
quirements to  be  met,  leaving  each  manufac- 
turer to  meet  these  with  his  own  standardized 
product.  The  influence  of  these  modifications 
'"  engineering  practice  extends  to  the  mann- 


ardization  has  been  to  reduce  costs  very  mate- 
rially and  render  possible  undertakings  which 
would  otherwise  be  prohibitory  in  price.  WhUe 
to  a  certain  extent  it  has  oblitera tea  individuality 
in  design,  it  has  also  removed  much  useless 
repetition  and  has  prevented  needless  expense 
in  the  production  of  rival  machines,  differing 
hut  slightly  in  design,  yet  requiring  duplications 
of  drawing,  patterns  and  tools.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  it  is  to  this  wholesale  development  of 
various  departments  of  engineerinj;  work  that 
the  rapid  extension  of  the  share  of  the  United 
States  in  the  work  of  the  world  is  largely  due. 
See  OvTL  ENtJiNEERiNc;  Electrical  Emgimeer- 
iNC ;  JIvDRAUuc  Engineering  ;  Meckantcal 
EiTcmraiiiNG ;  Engineering,  Marine;  Foftiti- 
cATiONs;  Mining  Engineeeinc;  Naval  Con- 
struction; Sanitary  Engineering.  Also  En- 
gineering Terms;  Engineering  Instruments; 
Education,  Encinrebing;  Mechanics. 


ENGINEERING,  Marine,  is  partly  mili- 
tary and  partly  civil,  embracing  naval  architec- 
ture, builaing  and  operating  ofships  and  naval 
accessories.  In  the  military  sense,  it  comprises 
the  construction  of  war  vessels  and  the  con- 
struction and  placing  of  torpedoes,  submarine 
mines,  etc.  See  Navy;  Naval  Construction: 
Submarine  Mines,  etc. 

ENGINEERING.  H«cb«nic«l.  See  Me- 
chanical Engineering. 

ENGINEERING,  Hininc.  See  HimNC 
Engini 


ENGINEERING     EDUCATION.       See 
Education,  Enginkhiing. 

ENGINEERING  INBTRUMffllTS.    To 

attempt  a  definition  of  an  enifincering  instrti- 
ment  is  hardly  practicable,  as  the  wide  range  of 
departments  into  which  liie  profession  is  now 


ENGIHEBKIHa  XNSTRUKBMTS 


divided  demands  so  msny  special  appliances  for 
their  requirements  th&t  no  one  ascription  is 
possible  and  an  extended  catalogue  is  inad- 
missible witliin  the  limits  of  this  article.  The 
earliest  known  engineering  instrument  was  the 
Diopter  of  Hero  of  Alexandria,  130  Blc,  al- 
though rude  appliances  must  have  been  used 
long  before  that  time  by  the  ancient  en^neers 
in  the  construction  of-  the  miblic  works  of 
Chaldsea  and  ^ypt,  the  ruins  of  which  even 
now  awaken  our  admiration  and  wonder.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  (hat  the  great  impulse  to  the  con- 
'   n  and  use  of  engineers'  instruments  was 


and  l^tness  of  construction  oombiiied 
with  great  strength  and  an  adaptability  of 
parts  for  the  special  service  required.  It 
is  not  the  pur(>ose  of  this  article  to 
attempt  a  description  of  the  various  instru- 
ments used  by  engineers  -^  this  may  be  found  in 
the  article  Surveying  —  but  to  give  the  reader 
a  general   idea   of   their   construction. 

The  metals  used  in  the  construction  of  engi- 
neers' instruments  are  principally^  the  allocs  of 
copper  and  tin  with  small  quantities  of  sliver, 
aluminum  and  German  silver.  Great  care  mnst 
be  constantly  exercised  that  these  substances  be 
free  from  iron  or  other  materials  which  would 


given  by  the  advance  of  civilization  and  com- 
merce incident  to  the  application  of  steam 
as  3.  motive  power  on  sea  and  land.  Since  that 
time  great  advances  have  been  made  not  only 
in  the  design  and  accuracy  of  engineering  in- 
struments but  also  in  the  invention  of  new  in- 
struments for  the  many  purjioses  required  by 
engineers  in  the  construction  of  railroads, 
canals,  bridges,  harbors,  etc 

The  characteristics  of  engineers'  instruments 
differ  in  the  various  nations  as  the  requirements 
of  engineering  practice  and  thus  American  en- 
gineers' instruments  possess  a  distinct  char- 
acter of  their  own  as  compared  with 
other    nations,    having  as   a    rule    few    p»ts 


affect  the  magnetic  needle.  In  the  constmction 
of  an  instrument  such  a  distribution  of  the 
metals  is  aimed  at  that  the  greatest  strength 
consistent  with  light  weight  may  be  obtained  and 
that  the  metals  coming  into  contact  at  the 
bearing  surface  mav  be  of  such  varying  compo- 
sition as  to  cause  tue  least  friction. 

Take,  for  the  purpose  of  better  illustration, 
an  American  transit,  illustrated  herewith,  as 
typical,  as  far  as  the  construction  is  concerned, 
of  nearly  all  engineering  instruments.  The  plate 
of  the  instrument  on  which  the  magnetic  needle 
is  mounted,  or  as  it  is  termed,  tbe  compass 
circle,  is  turned  with  great  care  ao  that  the 
sarface  may  be  absolutely  true  and  is  gradu- 


,5le 


BHOIHBKRZSO  SCHOOL 


ated  UBiially  into  720  spaces,  each  representing 
one-half  of  a  degree. 

Compasi  circles  are  usually  finned  in  quad- 
rants of  a  circle,  that  is,  from  0  at  the  point 
marked  *N*  or  "North"  to  90  and  back  again, 
while  the  figuring  of  the  limb  varies  with  the 
custom  of  the  maker  or  the  requirements  of 
the   engineer. 

In  engineers'  instruments,  however,  the  angu- 
lar measurements  are  made  usually  without  the 
use  of  the  needle,  by  a  telescope  so  mounted  as 
to  revolve  in  a  vertical  or  a  horizontal  plane. 
The  angular  measurement  of  its  movement  is 
indicated  on  circles  divided  into  fractional 
spaces  of  a  degree  and  read  for  convenience  to 
finer  spaces  by  one  or  more  verniers.  Accuracy 
of  graduation  of  the  compass  circle,  and 
especially  of  the  limb,  is  essential  to  the 
perfection  of  the  instrument,  and  great  pains 
are  taken  by  manufacturers  in  perfecting 
and  improving  engines  for  graduating.  The 
best  machines  are  automatic  in  action  and 
the  spaces  are  so  accurately  laid  off  that  there 
is  no  appreciable  error  in  the  finished  work. 
The  instrument  rests  on  the  socket  or  bearing 
surface  to  which  the  compass  plate  and  limb  are 


rays  of  light  entering  the  object  itess  m^  be 
properly  refracted  and  concentrateid  at  a  point 
called  the  focus. 

The  making  of  the  lenses  is  an  operation 
requiring  much  skill  in  manufacture,  as  upon 
the  accurate  grinding  of  the  curved  surfaces 
depends  the  quality  of  the  telescope. 

At  the  focus  of  the  object  ^ass  are  placed 
the  cross'wires,  which  are  filaments  of  spider 
web  or  very  fine  jflatinum.  In  conjunction  with 
these  are  often  used  two  more  wires  commonly 
called  stadia  wires,  so  placed  that  they  intercept 
on  a  rod  a  space  proportional  to  its  distance 
from  the  instrument,  thus  furnishing  an  efR- 
cient  method  of  ascertainins  distances  di- 
rectly by  the  observer.  The  metal  parts 
of  the  instrument,  having  been  prepared, 
are  polished  with  some  suitable  material,  a  prep- 
aration of  rouge  being  generally  used  for  fin- 
ishing the  surface  of  uie  screws,  and  the  larger 
surfaces  being  finished  with  fine  emery  paper. 
The  larger  parts  are  usually  colored  dark  to 
avoid  reflectcon  of  the  sun,  while  the  smaller 
ones,  such  as  screws,  etc.,  are  left  bright  in 
order  that  there  may  be  a  pleasing  contrast  be- 
tween the  different  parts  of  the  instrument.  The 


BniiiMer'*  Wye  LsveL 


attached;  ttfe  surfaces  of  the  socket  must  be 
so  accurately  fitted  together  as  to  produce  no 
error  when  the  parts  are  moved  on  each  other. 
The  socket  is  mounted  on  a  leveling  head,  which 
is  actuated  by  three,  or  in  the  usual  American 
practice,  by  four  leveling  screws,  as  shown,  by 
means  of  which  the  instrument  can  be  accurately 
leveled.  Upon  the  compass  plate  are  placed  the 
standards  which  support  the  telescope,  the  prep- 
aration of  the  optical  parts  of  which  is  next  in 
importance  to  the  fitting  of  the  socket  and  the 
graduation. 

The  telescope  consists  of  an  eye  piece  and 
object  glass  mounted  in  a  tube.  The  eye  |ttece  is 
simply  a  magnifier  of  the  image  produced  at 
the  focus  of  the  object  glass.  Two  lands  of 
eye  pieces  are  used,  one  showing  the  Image 
erect,  and  the  other  showing  the  image  inverted. 
The  object  glass  is  composed  of  two  plates  of 
optical  glass  of  such  specific  gravity  and  re- 
fractive index  that  it  will  magnify  the  image 
clearly  without  prismatic  colors.  To  secure 
achromatism  the  two  parts  of  "the  object  lens 
are  made  the  one  of  crown  and  the  other  of 
flint  glass,  the  crown  being  a  tight  glass  of 
soda  and  silica  and  the  flint  being  a  heavier 
glass  containing  potash  and  lead.  Tlie  surfaces 
of  each  are  curved  to  such  a  degree  that  the 


parts,  prepared  as  above,  are  covered  with  a 

thin  coat  of  lacquer,  a  preparation  of  shellac 
and  alcohol,  applied  after  heating.  All  the  parts 
are  assembled  and  fitted  together,  and  the  in- 
strument is  then  readi^  for  the  final  complete  ad- 
justment. This  consists  in  fitting  the  socIkIs 
so  that  they  will  move  freelv  on  each  other, 
placing  the  compass  plate  anci  limb  in  position 
on  the  sockets,  making  the  limb  truly  concen- 
tric with  the  socket  and  placing  the  verniers  in 
position.  The  telescope  must  be  so  adjusted 
that  its  parts  mav  work  freely,  and  having  been 
supplied  with  optical  parts,  etc.,  it  is  then  fitted 
to  the  standards  or  supports  previously  placed 
in  position  on  the  compass  circle.  The  whole 
instrument  is  then  tested  for  accuracy  and  if 
found  correct  is  packed  in  its  case  and  is  ready 
for  use. 

The  above  description  is  only  intended  to 
give  a  general  idea  of  the  construction  of  a 
typical  instrument,  but  the  same  methods  will 
practically  apply  in  the  construction  of  all  enRi- 
nee  ring  instruments,  such  as  levels,  plane-tables, 
alidades,  and  the  various  kinds  of  compasses, 
etc. 


,y  Google 


BNGINB8RING  TBRHS 


ENGINKBRING   TERUS.      Enxineering 

has  apTea.<I  into  so  many  branches  l£at  it  is 
diflicutt  to  differentiate  between  them  and  much 
more  difficult  to  serrate  the  technical  verbiagie 
of  the  several  divisions  of  the  profession.  The 
more  common  technical  terms  have  therefore 
been  gathered  together  here  for  the  benefit  of 
the  lay  reader. 


dividing     ^- 

,;;  »■ 

boiifl-:   .  bo 

BUDOIKC 

—  Shor 

wooden  bmcet  ot 

tortlplEcedb 

th™ 

'°  raS^'t;. 

(AbbTTviBted  B.  T,  a.)  — Tlu 

ATDOim  of  hut  required  to  rmiae  the  temperatuTE  of  viLt«r 
0»  dssiw  Pihmibdt,  at  or  about  39.1-F.  To  convert 
valuet  of  tfierff/  expressed  in  foot-pGunds  to  their  ei^v- 
■lent*  in  Britiui  ThBrmal  Units,  divide  the  vslura  by  778. 
By-Pass. — A  pipe  erruigad  to  paw  by  or  around  a  valvo 


a  (tb»  kvn,  Itvtra  aMieoaiuetknu  te 
1  RHMtly  ID  thepfaJriM 


:hnia,  ■■  ■  piano- 


iS 


1  wcrtdng  operatioBi  under  water.    A 

..J  the  ibaha  and  the  own  work  undn   _  

h  much  uned  in  layine  foundationB  for  piers  and  dricka. 

Cu-IKtm. — A  pair  of  rolls,  or  more  uiuaHy  a  machine  i 
cJudiiu  wcrvl  pKita  of  coatactin^  iron  cylinders.  u> 
In  >Afacing  paper,  cloth,  etc. 

Cahbbr.^  The  upward  corvaturs  giTen  to  an  ardied  h 


nub  tinel;  in  early  nae.  bd  adt. 

AxLK. —  Th*  i»otnl  find  part  on  iriddi  ■    . 

■apeciallT  a  rod  or  bar  on  ■  nhida  bavhif  a  aplndk  on 
each  «Dd  tot  a  «h«l.    Ccmipaa,  'Sk^'  in  tldi  liM. 

Balanck. —  Tb«  condition  mm  o^yiyad  fonaa  aiaetly 


curvaturv  reaulting 

machinery,  it  ia  apoc_ 

like  thoM  of  loooinoti 

to  the  arching  of  briojp 

of  luipenaion  bridgea. 
Cahal. — An  artificial  m 

barg?i  or  for  drainaffe. 

groove  or  duct. 
CANTiiBVJim. — A  lai 

tained'by  tbe  babii 

a  tvidge  haT.....  .... 

lecture,  a  bracket  [or  a  cornice,  et< 
CASTma. —  See  Poundby  Praciici. 
Ca^KTi.—  See  PoBTi-unt  Ckhevt. 
Centbb. —  The  middle  of  a  thins:  i 


the  Hpplieatinn  of  the  lead.  In 
^appliui  to  the  arching  of  aprinoa 
In  structural  worW.  it  i>  applied 
TuMca  like  the  stifFenins  truMea 

(See'  Canal).    Alio  ■  cluiuiei. 


. _jndna  weialit  of  an  opposite  part  project- 

the  other  side  of  the  pter;  a  buanced  trust.    Akap 
I  BBiDGSi).     In  ardit 


ittoke  — 


Any  one  of  amibr  inattu- 

.    .      t   tonion-balBnce,  elactrlo   balano*    (Wheat- 
ttone'i  biidie).  the  failaiKe-wliea)  <H  ■  watch,  «tc. 
9aTn> — A  taiuc  or  a  (olntion  ia  a  tank,  aa  for  elactroplatin(i 
-^la  tile  mohes  maaa  in  a  leverbcratory  furtiaee, 

uo. — A  •upoortifls  port,  that 

Bbarino. —  The  box  or  ^umal  (r. 


c  work,  the  I 


.IX  geometry,  Iht 


I  dead 
d  thS 


■ntre  of  buoyanc 


about  which  tl„ 

^ _. , . tiie  lorcaa 

that  buoy  her  up.    It  must  be  above  the  centre  of  gravity 

ia  the  line  in  which  tne  resultant  of  the  comfresoive  furcea 
in  the  lower  part  of  a  l*»m  is  loailed.  Tlie  "  centre  (o 
gravity  "  is  the  point  in  a  body  abrmt  which  the  body  wiH 
sin  balanced  when  pbced  in  any  podtion.  Tba 
'ntre  of  ^ymtton  "  is  the  point  in  which  the  momentum 

r^ment^  "  is  the  point  about  widen  the  forces  applied  to 
ri^  body  act.  The  "  cenlrr  of  oscillation '  is  the 
int  in  the  axis  of  a  vibrating  body,  such  as  a  pendulum, 
m  which  if  an  the  matter  of  the  body  were  ctjocentrBtod, 
tlis  body  would  vibrate  in  the  same  time.  The  "  centre 
of  tension  *'  is  the  line  where  the  remltant  of  the  teusiia  ^ 
timet  in  the  upper  part  of  a  beam  is  located. 

CiBcuLAR  Inch. —  The  area  of  a  circle  one  inch  in  diameter, 
as  distiTwuiahcd  from  a  sguare  inch.  The  nunjber  of  dr- 
cuIbt  incries  in  a  given  dumeter  is  obtained,  by  squanng 
the  diameter. 

CoEFncwwTS. —  NmnBHcal  valtiea  deduced  from  data  ob- 
tained by  experiments  and  used  as  ojnstant  multiplien 
in  engineering  calculations.  They  have  been  determined 
for  friction,  elaatidiy,  tension,  rupture,  resistance,  the 
" ' --      Pot  '-       "- -' '- — 


It  will  ctongata  an  clastic  bar  of 


Boojn.— The  (teal  Caak  a 


B^f?^: 


le  steam.  ,  (See  BorLSB),     Also  a  hot-mtor 

rod  of  maul  (or  tightly  lecurine  taKether  the  narts 
ut  a  strurtun.  having  uioally  an  enlarasd  end  calEtd  a 
bead,  and  at  the  other  end  a  threaded  porttoo  for  holding 

■  Bitt;  whn  threaded  at  bol"-  — ' "-■■  '—'■'-  —■--■- 

when  made  with  a  ring  or  eyi 

(CoiDpare'Kivet'iD  tfaislin). . 

ptocc  of  a  door-lock;  also  a  block  of  wood  suitabla  for  cut- 
Bouse. — An  opCTation  not  to  be  confused  with  drilling. 


at  weight  that  wiu'ct... 

andoCuaiform  lection  t,  .  .- , 

nitted  as  the  "coefficient  of  clastid 
Also  tcnned  "  laodulus  "  bs  the  "  n 
the  "  modulus  dt  reatstance."  etc. 
Cohesion. —  The  condition  at  things  that  si 


or  the  forca  that  brings  them  togetnei . 

cohesion  or  tensile  •trength;  liquids  have  litiie  ana  gain 
none.     See  '  Tfiuiaii '  in  itua  list. 
Conmu. — An  upright  beam,  shaft  or  trti»,  oa  for  support- 
ing  a  structure.     The  datsical  column  is  cylindricaT  and 
tapend,  with  a  sltohi  bulge  at  the  centre  of  height.    The 

The  steel  column  is  frequently  formed  of  several  beam* 
riveted  or  laced  together. 
CoLUMNiATiON.—  The  arranatmeat  of  mhuntu  Ia  a  bnild- 


wood.  witiL  a  lever  for  pressiog  it  against  a  wheels  or  an 
codrcling  band  of  metid  on  a  drum,  as  nn  an  automol^; 

or  a  complei  system  ol  iziachan'  

Brako  horae  power  ia  the  aino 


and  actually  available  for  doing  work. 


.  ir-braVe  (q.v.) 
a  delivered  by 
x  pulley  shaft. 


!    cranbuMioD    an    the    vapocosa    portioas    of 


.,gk 


■NOINBESING  TERHS 


■pux.  Air  a  cDmpnsicd  by  b  michtoe  bt  ._.  .  _. 
pump,  the  piston  paddug  and  condeMiiig  the  ur  li 
cylinder  at  tach  nrolce.  Air  lo  compreoed  it  usn 
pioduiaiic  power,  and  lor  tapiAyiat  worken  in  caii 

pksivt  chaise  ■  nibjected  to  prenure  to  heat  it  an 
enaae  iti  cxplotivc  pRipertiea.  The  meabcn  of  a 
that  an  strained  hy  lonsitudinal  pmaure  are  c 
oomprenioa  mcmben.    See'Tnui'i     -■      ■' - 


COHDEMSBR.— Any  o 


Mated  in  foatpooodi.  The  daty  of  a  Main  eng! 
ntimber  of  poiuidB  imiaed  to  the  beishi  nt  on*  bx 
burning  of  »  budksl  of  coal.  In  th*  ett  ol  painpiiii 
the  duty  wai  formerly  eipreeied  in  niiUutii  of  j 
wBta-  hSua  to  Ihe  height  of  one  foot  by  the  h 
a  of  ooal;  but.  at  tba  rinalin'  </ 


DvNAiais. —  Sea  Dyhakics;  Butcntic  Mjtcann.  ate. 
BcciHTUC — A  wheel,  eev.  etc..  mouiled  oat  of  cm 
■o  that  iti  pvriphery  haa  an  irrecular  or  ecnnnic  moU 


iUi 


mutual  induclL      . ,  ,„ 

lena  <»'  combinatifin  of 

.  r    optical    imtmincnt,  tor  a 

(4)  In  cotton-piaaing  a  device  t 

(5)  A  mechanum    tor   •epaiBlinj 

CoKEIANt. — A  numbei  dAdund  frc 
tual  IMti  made  upoil  the  itianstl] 
■nd  Bied  in  calciuation*  rtlativt 


Bppuratui.      (See    C 


pBflicuIu  material, 
e  atrviHth  of  atmc- 
mrei  ouiii  oi  mat  maienaj.  For  example  —  bavins  aacer- 
tainad  by  actual  experimsnt  tba  wwht  leqiiind  to  rupture 
a  iteal  bar  meaanrma  3  i  2  1 1  in<&*.  that  weiabt  can  be 
BHd  to  eUimala  the  itreaaai  in  nnictuiei  made  of  the 
aama  material  but  differing  in  length,  breadth,  and  depth. 

CaNVKYO*. —  See  Cohvbvik. 

CouTLK. —  In  pbyoca,  two  equal  and  oppoaite  force*  acting 
upon  a  body,  which  ii  therefore  in  a  itate  of  equ-'-''— '- — 
Alio  any  two  anular  thinga  joined  together  lo  bi 
pair,  aa  two  different  metali  joined  in  a  t^ 

(^EBriNC— Sbtr    movement    cauHd    by    t_    

eaaily  foreaeen.  aa  the  creeiting  of  a  rauway  track  doe  to 
onuBial  heat  and  eipanaion  ol  the  raib.  If  a  belt  teoda 
3  work  »Jowl»  out  of  poaitioo.  or  a  machine 


ir  filed  standard  of  rrferei 
jiency  ol  a  riveted  joint  il  ,_ 
itrength  calculated  relatively  b 
The  efficiency  of  • '■^—  -  " 


ben  timply  supported. 
uniMu>i. —  AUEK/ent   CBpocity    for   doing 
gniahed  fnan  forcB.  which  i*  ntergv  m  ai 
direction,  and  power,  ithich  ia  the  gui 


applied  to  itoced  a 


vibmion  gniduatiy  shifu  it 

CKusaia.— See  ^usHcn  a: 
CvcLK. —  In  mechanic,  a  »e_. 
CvUNDBK. — A  Blid  bearing  ti 

nected  by  one  mntmn™!.  r, 

■hort  called  a 


rhen  rela*ively 


D  Grekding  Machinekt. 

-Jea  of  motion*  I' 
two  flat  •urfacei 

,  when  relatively  long 

Familiar  examplei  of  the  cyun 
in  the  itaam-cngine  and  the  printing  pret*. 
Datum  ob  Datum  Line. — Any  baie  "--  ' — 

work,  or  in  graphical  calculation*. 
DtAL*. —  Sawn   limber   which  usually   m 
than  3  1  9  inchea.  and  not  rnore  uan 

DlTFBuniTMt.. — A  mechanical 


^^ 


theai 


nechanical  niotion,  in  which  the  operm- 
is  determined  bj  the  diSeience  between 


equal  to  the  product  ol  half  the 
the  vdodty.    Potential  energy  ia 
a*  in  a  ponnd  of  ooil.  which  whe 
nak*  Hfam  appenn  aa  kinetic  energy.    A  storage 
when  chaiged  haa  potontial  enog)'.  tboiKh  it  i 
idk.      Electric  energy   ia  defined   at  mofecubi 
eneigy,      (See    EkscixoH).      Radiant    snergy    i 
radiant  heat,  X  ray*  or  any  form  of  enesgy  tran 
throogh  the  hypothetical  etJier. 
BtbER. — A  theontical  medium  mopaaad  to  fill  •! 

and  pervade  all  •ubMaocea.  being  that  in  whidi  ele 

UghC.  radiant  heat,  cathode  raya  wid  similar  phemmena 


,  jgecwny  td  atsm.  as 

-.    .  .  .  'e  fluid.    Also  the  point  in  a  patorxtroke 

oX  which  nch  eipaniion  becomea  «<ai)abl*  and  thepehod 


:  yor 


ce.  if  01 


en tial  Motion, 
ential  on  f 
fenmtial  ia 


ner  4U  K.i',  m  -,  cue  amcient  j 
IS  8.P.M.;  cJlcd  oIki  Difft 
-nmoniUuitration  is  the  diSer- 
n  automobile.     Hie  term  dif-  ■ 

icribB  a  double  «crew,  having 

,. I*  of  thread*  oE  diSerent  pitch,  or  iDme  other  mech- 

'       aniam  embodying  different  double  action, 
Dicasm. — A  chemical  apparatua  for  dijiesting  or  partially 

diiBolving  something  hy  neat  and  motature. 
DocE. — A  wharf  or  pier,  •*  on  the  maisin  of  a  body  ol 
water,  to  which  vessel*  may  tie  up  and  load  or  diacharm 
cargo.  The  term  dock  »  more  oonunonly  used  in  Encland 
than  America  to  describe  the  endosed  basin  where  vessels 
kxata  in  a  harbor.  In  the  United  States  the  term  pier 
ii  more  common,  representing  one  of  a  row  of  long  wharve* 
with  slips  between  which  the  vessel*  tie.  In  America  the 
wold  dock  ii  med  mainly  for  the  dry  dock,  being  a  bamn 
in  which  a  vessel  can  be  docked,  and  the  water  pumped 
out.  in  that  repain  can  be  made  to  the  hull,    A  floating 


I*  nscesMiy  to  provide  for  umtLmBCMa 

^ lack  of  nnifarm  quality  in  Di**iriak,  in- 

feiionty  of  materials,  wear  and  tear  of  parts,  tht  une3t- 
psctsd  application  at  loads,  etc.  This  provision  it  made 
tv  the  use  of  mottipliei*  such  aa  4.  tt,  S.  and  in  •nnteuet 

aniple  —  the  appKotioa  o(  a  factor  of  iafoty  of  four  win 

to  carry  tba  load  it^A  bi 
FmDINt^— 'Hie  supplyinfE 

u  teeding  ol  coai  b; _ 

' ' ■      --rpresfc  feeding  k)gsta 

rw>    or  cntton  to  a  In"""'""" 


md  then  by  duing  the  gates  of  the  dr 
It  the  water,  the  vessel  i*  left  dry  rei 


the  fcor  rf  the  fl . 

Duu,. —  See  Drills  and  DrilunC 

Drivihc. —  The  act  or  procen  of  moving  or  directing  the 

motion  of  some  other  thing,  espcdotly  that  part  of  a 


sudden  accelersti 


.neitia,  and  i*  nsefnl 


mu:hlne  ihst  impart*  i 

ewer  Ol 

r  momentun- 

1  to  otW  parti. 

ml 

I  dnving-pulley  or  i 
ibioation   of   parts 

'S'X 

axle.    A  driving  gear  u  tne 

drii 

usuauy 

lla-v 

i^'fi!S.^ey''.fS 

1utrf« 

fCT 

lo  the  thing 

When 

twc 

•  wheels  ore' geared  together  the  one 

?.'. 

lource  of  power  sni 
ailed  the  driver,  wl 

Sft' 

zg;s 

i^to^h 

e  other 

cycle,  to  prevent  slowing  Dp  or  racuig, 
ORCB. —  EietBy  in  action  wrth  Tcterenco 
mechanical  power  as  apparent 
: —   ^^ — .^ .J  -spelling:  e 

wMe'" 


together,  »nd  likewise  the  radii  of  all  the  driven,  and  divide 
the  latter  by  the  former. 
Duty. —  The  endency  or  usiAil  work  aecomidldiBd  by  an 


attractmg  ana  ropeinng:  e* ^  — — -  — 

I  in  pouodi  or  units.      Force  always  haa  dnaiteA 
"     "rgy  ha*  not,  being  rather  the  static  idat    A 

„-      ittery  may  poaaess  great  energy,  Kid  yet  inhibit 

nofoTceforlaiiofacondnctor.  Compat* ' Boetgy,  P<"»« 
and  '  Hone  Power,'  in  this  hit. 
Gas.—  Matter  in  the  aeriform  lUte,  uanally  invaibla  and 
apparent  to  the  senses  only  bj-  it*  odor  or  motion.  Ccal 
gal.  witer  gai  petroleum  vapor  and  various  other  ^sei, 
when  milled  with  atmoapheitc  air  in  a  proportion  cf  ab^it 
1  to  10,  readily  uplode  aiien  in  contact  with  a  fkoa. 


SNQINXEKIHG  TKRliS 


■ad  lU*  priKdpb . 

■n^w.    9ia  bnoiHAt.  CettavsTtoH  Bxcim. 

'  MacHAMicAt.  MovnnKis. 

culatjon.  M  of  an  afigiB* 
«  bdnc  the  ball-sovaniDr 

ORAPSIC~St'«no.--~  Ttia  gnpUcal  mothodi  nnployed  for 
aacvttiniiB  tlis  Mnhia  oo  mnioturn,  velodty  rmtKB,  etr.. 
by  rnunt  ci  Une*  itaiLwn  to  b  nmlonn  Kila  ind  Tepfaeat- 
Dv  the  dinction  and  irit«n>Hy  of  active  forrts. 

HoBM  PowwL — A  theontical  unit  cf  mirV.  uninwd  to  be 
the  oaaiTalaDt  ni  what  a  banc  am  do;  it  cquah  33.1100 
poimiU  lifted  QUE  foot  in  one  minute.  The  power  of 
flnstoea  and  motqn  ia  frequently  *^prc*iwd  m  hone  powo' 
Diuta.  A.H.P.  ia  Ktatl  bona  Wwei;  B.H.P.  ia  brake 
hone  (own-:  I.H.P.  ii  indicated  hone  pomr:  and  P.K.P. 
it  Eiktion  horn  Ppwc-  Hone  power  ii  abo  the  nanis  ol  a 
toiin  ol  tnd-miU  ia  which  tb*  tntetion  power  □[  honei 

HI  ol  ta*t  metal  from  a  moid.    Ilv  tnore  val- 
la wbea  lut  ihaiied  aa  ban  or  rodi  an  uiuall 

M. —  That  ayatem  of  .mamiiaclw 

mfl  moclunerr  by  which  each  part  or  piece  ■■  ao  exactl 
fonnod  or  machinad  that  it  may  be  raplaccd  by  aBr  nx 
liar  i«it.  It  orilinated  in  Aawrica  and  haa  becom 
■BtwaL      Sea  iHTSRCOAJfOAaLB  Pasts. 

Lat. — A  part  that  extenda  beyond  the  body  of  a  thine 
over  loaw  otber  part,  apaoflcaUr.  in  ■team-angiDeering. 
the  ntenaion  on  a  iK^valve  that  determinea  the  nutant 
of  oendnff  or  ■*^^^"j  a  ataam-poit-  Alto  a  piece  of  loft 
wood.  mAaL  leathar.  etc  for  poliahtnc. 

Load. —  The  aijiilit  or  prewure  a^attuctura  carriea  «  siiM- 

—  a  bridle,  and  dead  load  vheo  itatknani.    Live  load  ii 
^  to  cnoM  twioe  the  atnM  of  dead  load,  and  must 
«,  provided  for  in  the  itrenj^  of  the  structure. 
HACinm  Toot. — A  machine  for  mtting,  planing,  drilHTS. 
■"■   -  --*-  — -'■-  -  IT  iiiLau  tooli;  Foniany 


iltlDg  power,  ai  of  irater 
al  diatbiguiihed  from  an 

e  ground  for  the  purpoae  of 
ineral.     Alw  a  burled  or  atib- 


HoLDmo. —  8*a  Pooh— .   ,.- 

OaciLunoH.— A  awinsinc  from  aide  to  aide,  a 
rsvanal  of  rotaOon;  alao  vibration,  aa  <-'  - 
Compan  '  Rechnocation '  te  thii  Uat. 
PATmui.-^  model  or  origina]  form  of  a 
ha  oat.  aa  tor  tmning  in  mn.    See  Poi 
A  latae  heavy  timbet,  pointed  and 


No*  Riwle  alio  of  oc 


in  onall-eDd- 

r  oCi  tbe  ed^ie  of  a  body 
fonoerly  called  a  apde. 


Power. —  Mechanical  encisy  aa  viewed  from  tb> 
point  of  capadty;  the  measuiable  amount  of  ai 
ergyi  capability  of  performing  a  given  amoont  < 
Caaatn  '  Energy,  '  Pitcb  '  and  '  Hone  Power 
lilt. 

Paaasuma. —  Stma  mch  aa  would  tend  to  move  a  body 
contact:  the  impelling  force  of  a  load.  It  ia  uinally  ei 
matod  by  noita  of  weight.     See  '  Load  '  and  '  Stnai ' 

PbDII  MoT*It.~An  mtrinn  or  tbe  like  fro 
fTtigiiiatfa.    Tlie  electric  dynamo  depcodi 


which  a 


denly  lelMaad 

a  weuc^ed 


-Running  at  an  eiccaaive  apdcd. 
ileaaad  of  iu  load.     It  ii  liable  t 


la  an  enfdne 

hole  by  ioiertina  and  tumiai 
rquuB  -  Qone  to  taper  a  hole  or  remor 
by  puoching. 

The  act  of  moving  hack  and  forth  lyi 
Hunananiy,  ai  a  pialoii.     Compan  '  OadllatiDn  '  in  Ui 

RnHiciHG. —  Drawing  to  a  amaller  acale;  aho  lapering  ii 
diametol;  alio  the  imelting  or  reduction  of  on  in  »  fnrnacr 
gno  the  act  of  withdnwing  flnid  under  pnawrt,  aa  by  i 
ndocins-valve. 

lUvotvInn.—  Turaiiw  armind  in  an  orhit.  after  the  manne 
^afilanet,  or  a  ba»  in  a  ban-bearing.  Such  a  baU  rotate 
pa  ita  own  centre,  but  ramlvea  arotind  tlie  center  of  thi 
bnring, '  Sea  '  Rotalkn  '  in  thia  Ikt. 


Rkviuikatokv. —  BefltetinfL  or  opcntins  by  raSactlaa,  aa 
a  puddliai  (unuce.  where  the  Santa  and  heat  an  refle^cd 
from  the  vaulted  not  to  the  top  of  the  material  to  ba 


natead  of  having  a  thread' 


Roujwo. —  Paaaioi 
ihape.  aa  ateel  n 


and  beaou.    Alao  Alenderiag. 
n.ujAijun,— ^  jiiQ  JAI.-L   of  tuTCinfi   OTOund   iti  own  centre. 

Compan  '  Revolving  '  in  this  uat. 
SiiAnra. — A  nuichiae  tool  for  cutting  oi  "■— '■■"■"g  email 
metal  partv  tha  work  being  atatbnaiy.  and  tbe  cotting 
toot  mounted  to  naprocato. 
SpiMnLtt. — A  ilendar  rod  or  pm.  usually  for  loma  robary 
itial  rod  of  a  bobbin. 
workiag,  the  operation  of  drawing 
■no  MpmiMiing  into  a  cup  or  cone  firm,  by  preanm 
rotation.     In  teitile  manufacture,  the  dnwjng  oM 
twiatixw  of  alrver  to  form  thread. 
inc.—  The  operation  of  forming  tight  n 


a  nidden  blow  of 


ETAitrata. 

in  the 

SlATK. — iH  real 
BroEntc. —  Tbe 
ical  itoken  a 

boileta.  but  are 


Alao  the  cnahing 

..  in  eqoillbrtBm.     See  BuciudTT. 

ipplying  c^  a  furnace  with  fuel.    Mechai^ 
for  aupplying  coal  under  ata- 


-.ith  tha  problnn.  a .  — .......__„   , 

■  undertaken  to  aecnn  unifonn  and  known  atrencth 

■tnctural  matcriala.      The   force  that  nsiMa  bong 
Had  apart  a  tarmad  eeuilf  itrenglh;  that  reaittiug 
isluaa  la  termed  itrength  oi  compreanoa.    Then  ia  alao 
noniil  and  bending  Urengtb. 
B,~Aiiy  force  or  power  that  tendg  to  deform,  bend 

I — .__  _  .1 ._«_    ^j^  ^  ,pj^  eontfdend 


SwricH. — A  machaniaiD  for^  aid^traddng  a  thing.    An  eleo- 

itiUted  handle,  by  which  conductfin  can  be  connected 
or  diKonnecMd.  A  railKsy  iwitcb  ia  a  pair  of  jointed 
and  pointed  raili  for  guidiiy  oar-wbeeU  lo  an  adjacent 


TmnauNn. —  The  procoi  of  bringlBg  iteel.  etc.,  to  a  cv- 
tain  degree  of  turdneai  by  heating  and  ludden  cooling 
In  water  or  oil.  Also  tho  lo'ocea  of  bringing  clay  to  proper 
working  condition  by  moistening  and  knqding. 

Trkfi-Aik. — A  flat  pattern,  twilly  of  metal,  aerving  aa  a 

Alio  ipelled  templet. 
Tkwsioc. —  The  force  or  lyitom  of  forces  tending  to  dnw 
a  body  apart  or  lengthen  it;  palling  itreai  aa  oppoaed 

that  ia  lubiected  to  a  pulling  strain. 
TlsTiHG. —  The  operation  of  teiting  matcriala.  See 'Strength 
of  Malaiiali '  in  thia  hit.     A  testing  machine  pulli  apart 
piece)  of  metal  and  measutea  tbe  elongation  and  itrain 
of  rupture,  and  alio  determinea  cruihing  or  comprmion 

Truad. — A  apinl  projection  on  a  screw  for  enabling  it  to 
nip  a  softer  substance,  aa  wocd,  or  to  fit  into  a  nvane 

TkaiM. — A  aeries  of  porta  acting  together,  as  a  train  of 


'^'*      TKAHSHissioti.-^  The 


-  , „-  of  something  over  or  throlMSl 

as  bent  Ibrnugh  the  air,  or  electrio^ 

'— ninom  win.     Also  the  aending 

.    Abo  a  mechanism  that  tnna- 


?«1:      TuMih-i 


a  reoelve  the  unpact  o 


See  Hvoko-Bleciuc  biYELopimn. 


■eight,  second  tor  time.    See  Met . ,^ 

nticAL  Unns. 
Work.— The  accompKihmenl  of  machinery  or  mechaniod 

motion  by  the  eipenditnre  of  enemy.     The  work  don 

by  lifting  10  pounds  tO  feet  ia  100  foot-pounds. 
WORXI4C .^Adapted  to  work;  accurate  in  opeistion.  aa  ■ 

working  model. 

Cbarles  H.  Cochrane, 
Author  of  'Modem  Induitriai  I^ogress.' 


,5lc 


85S 


BM^SNEOSS  —  SNOLAHD 


ENGINKBRS,  Corps  of,  a  branch  of  the 
United  States  army  which  takes  charge  of  the 
construction  and  repair  of  fortifications,  both 
tetnporary  and  pernianent,  military  reconnoiter- 
ing  and  surveying,  the  selection  and  planning 
of  camp  sites,  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  roads,  railroads,  bridges,  storehouses,  etc., 
and  divers  other  technical  services  which  are 
not  under  the  supervision  of  special  branches 
of  the  army.  It  also  superintends  river  and 
harbor  improvements,  the  collection  and  (treser- 
vation  of  documents  relating  to  the  Washington 
aqueduct  and  public  buildings  in  the  District 
of  Columbia  and  the  construction  of  bridges 
and  roads  in  the  Crater  Lake  and  Yellowstone 
National  Parks.  The  Panama  Canal  was  built 
under  engineer  officers. 

EJigineer  ofhcers  were  authorired  by  Con- 

Sss  on  16  June  1775  and  in  the  same  year 
,  R.  Gridley  became  chief  engineer.  Many 
French  en^neers  served  with  the  United  States 
army  during  the  Revolution.  A  corps  of 
artillerists  and  engineers  was  established  by  the 
act  of  9  May  1784,  In  1802  the  artillery  and 
engineers  were  separated  and  the  Corps  of  En- 
^neers  was  established.  This  was  gradually 
increased  in  size  until  the  present  establishment 
is  SOS  oiBcers,  one  band,  seven  regiments  and 
two  mounted  battalions.  In  1813  appointments 
were  first  made  to  the  rank  of  topographical 
engineer.  After  various  vicissitudes,  tne  topo- 
graphical service  of  the  army  was  organized  as 
the  Corps  of  Topographical  Eln^neers  in  1S38. 
In  1863  this  corps  was  mei^d  in  the  Corps  of 
Enzmeers. 

Engineer  officers  are  appointed,  in  general, 
from  West  Point,  although  competitive  exami- 
nations are  held  which  are  open  to  civilian 
engineers.  Commissions  in  the  engineers  are 
generally  given  to  those  West  Point  cadets 
with  the  highest  academic  standing.  Officers 
in  the  Conts  of  Engineers  are  considered  as  in 
the  line  when  they  are  on  service  with  engineer 
troops.    Otherwise  they  are  staff  officers. 

During  the  Great  War  the  uses  of  engineer 
troops  and  the  organizations  which  thn*  form 
have  undergone  great  diversification.  Whereas 
the  engineer  troops  of  the  United  States  army 
were  formerly  grouped  into  pioneer  regiments, 
mounted  pioneer  battalions  and  pontoon  bat- 
talions, there  are  now  also  labor  regiments, 
railroad  regiments,  lumbering  regiments  and  so 
on  indefinitely,  made  up  from  men  in  the  Na- 
tional Army  or  National  Guard  and  under 
en^neer  officers.  The  technical  training  of 
officers  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  is  divided  be- 
tween the  United  States  Engineer  School  at 
Washington  and  the  Army  Field  Engineer 
School  at  Fort  Leavenworth.  The  Royal  Engi- 
neers of  the  British  Army,  the  'technische 
Truppen'  of  Germany  and  the  Engineer  Corps 
of  tne  French  Armv  correspond  very  closely  to 


nal  Corps  as  well.  Tht  foreign  corps  also  (MfTer 
from  the  American  in  that  they  draw  in_  general 
from  technically  trained  men,  whereas  in  times 
of  peace  American  engineers  receive  the  greater 
part  of  their  training  after  enlistment.  See 
Army  Organization  ;  United  States,  Army  of. 
ENGIS,  6ft-zhe,  Belpum,  on  the  Meuse, 
southwest  of  Liige,  in  the  neighboiliood  of 
which  there  are  many  caves.    In  these,  in  1832, 


there  were  discovered  by  Dr.  P.  C.  Schmeiling 
a  human  skull  and  parts  of  a  man's  skeleton 
together  with  bones  of  the  rhinoceros,  mam- 
moth, cave-bear  and  hyena  imbedded  in  de- 
posits belonging  to  the  Quaternary  period.  This 
discovery  gave  cause  for  much  discussion  among 
anthropologists.  The  skull,  usually  known  as 
*the  Engis  Skull,*  though  of  uncertain  age,  is 
beyond  any  doubt  very  old.  Similar  discoveries 
were  made  ifl  nearby  caves,  especially  at  Engi- 
houl.  Consult  Avebury,  J.  L.,  'Prehistoric 
Tiracs>  (7th  ed.,  London  1913);  Doudon,  E.. 
'Nouvelles  explorations  dans  les  cavemes 
d'EngihouP  (in  Soc.  d'Anthrop-  de  Paris, 
Bull,  el  Mem.,  Ser.  V,  Vol.  IV.  p.  177,  Paris 
1903) ;  Dupont,  E.  F.,  'Les  Temps  Prehis- 
toriques  en  Bel^que>  (Brussels  lS/3);.Hux- 
liy,  T.  H.,  'Man's  Place  In  Nature*  (New  York 
1899) ;  Schmerljng,  P.  C,  'Recherchcs  sur  les 
ossements  fossiles  decou  verts  dans  les 
cavemes  de  la  province  de  Li^e*  (L-*ge 
1833) ;  Spring,  'Les  Hommes  d'&igis  et  de 
Chauvaux>  (in  ButlettHS  de  L'Academit  Royale 
de  Belgi<jue,  Ser.  II,  Vol.  XVIII,  pt.  2,  No.  12, 
Bruxefles  1^4). 

ENGLAND,  John,  American  Catholic  prel- 
ate: b.  Cork.  Ireland,  23  Sept.  1786;^  d  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  11  April  1842.  He  wms  educated  in 
the  schools  of  Cork  and  studied  law  for  two 
years,  but  in  1803  entered  the  theological  col- 
lege of  Carlow.  Here  his  progress  in  his  studies 
was  so  brilliant  that  after  his  second  year  he 
was  selected  to.  deliver  public  lectures  OH  re- 
ligious subjects.  He  also  devoted  much  of  the 
time  given  him  for  recreation  to  the  instruction 
of  the  militia  stationed  in  the  town.  He  also 
founded  an  asylum  for  unprotected  females 
which  afterward  suggested  the  plan  of  the 
Presentation  conVent  and  established  free 
schools  for  the  education  of  poor  boys.  In 
1808  he  was  recalled  by  his  bishop  and  appointed 
president  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Cork. 
He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  agitation  for 
Catholic  emancipation  and,  with  me  view  of 
helping  the  cause  of  religious  liberty,  founded 
the  Chronicle,  which  he  continued  to  edit  until 
his  departure  from  Ireland.  When  the  see  of 
Charleston,  embracing  the  States  of  North  Car- 
olina, South  Carolina  and  Geor^a,  was  founded 
Dr.  England  was  nominated  its  first  bishop. 
As  he  tud  determined  to  become  an  American 
citizen  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
exacted  from  Irish  bishops  on  their  consecra- 
tion. After  some  difficulty  he  was  consecrated 
in  Cork  in  1820  and  arrived  in  Charleston  the 
same  year.  He  had  many  obstacles  to  contend 
with.  There  were  only  two  priests  and  two 
churches  in  the  three  States  under  bis  jurisdic- 
tion and  his  flock  was  made  up  chieily  of  poor 
Irish  emigrants  and  refugees  from  Santo  Do- 
mingo. In  order  to  provide  priests  for  his 
diocese  he  opened  a  classical  school  in  Charles- 
ton, and  the  success  that  attended  his  efforts 
in  this  respect  enabled  him  to  support  several 
of  his  ecclesiastical  students.  Not  only  did  he 
succeed  in  training  a  body  of  educated  mission- 
aries for  his  church,  but  contributed  largely  to 
the  revival  of  classical  learning  in  South  Caro- 
lina. Several  schools  were  reopened  and  the 
College  of  Charleston,  which  haa  suspended  for 
some  time,  resumed  its  studies.  He  infused 
new  life  into  the  Philosophical  Literary  Asso- 
dattan  of  Charleston  as  soon  as  he  became  a 


member  and  did  mucli  to  juptress  dueling,  not 
by  intemperate  denunciations  but  by  forming 
*the  most  influential  gentlemen  of  the  State  into 
an  anti-dueling  association.  ,  He  was  invited 
by  Congress  to  preach  in  the  HalT  of  Repre- 
senlativES  at  V/ashington  and  was  the  nrSt 
Catholic  clergyman  on  whom  this  honor  was 
conferred.  To  e:tplain  and  defend  the  doctrines 
of  his  church  he  established  the  Untied  Slates 
Catholic  MiseeHany  at  Charleston,  n  was 
through  the  columns  of  this  periodical  that-most 
of  his  writings  found  (heir  way  to  the  pobiic. 
His  influence  was  felt  in  every  part  6f  the  Cath- 
olic church  in  the  United  States  and  his  influ- 
ence at  Rome  was  decisive  in  affairs  connected 
with  the  church  in  America.  His  courses  of 
lectures,  which  he  delivered  in  all  the  great 
cities  of  the  Union,  were  attended  by  cimens 
of  every  creed.  Nothing,  however,  endeared 
him  to  the  people  of  Charleston  so  mocJi  as  bis 
heroism  during  the  frequent  visitations  of  the 
yellow  ■fever,  when  he  continued  at  his  post 
night  and  day.  In  1834  he  visited  Ireland  and 
obtained  the  services  of  three  nuns  of  Hie 
Ursuline  Order,  by  whose  aid  he  established 
the  Ursuline  schools  o£  Charleston.  He  alio 
founded  orjrfian  asyhims,  boarding-sdiools  and 
free  schools,  which  he  placed  in  charge  o¥  the 
Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of^  Mercy.  He  conceived 
the  plan  of  assemUing  the  prelates  in  council 
for  mutual  aid,  and  has  been  styted  "the  author 
of  our  provincial  councils.'  He  visited  Europe 
four  times  in  the  interests  of  his  dioceie,  was 
sent  twice  as  Apostolic  Delegate  to  Haiiti  and 
was  offered  an  Irish  See,  which  he  declined. 
On  his  zeMtn  from  Europe  in  1841  malignant 
dysentery  broke  out  among  the  rteeragc  pas- 
sengers, and  Dr.  Et«land's  attendance  on  them 
was  incessant  until  he  was  attacked  by  the  dis- 
ease himself.  He  finally  died  from  its  efiects, 
which    were    heigblened    by    overwork.      His 

Jrincipal  works  are  'Discourse  before  the 
liberniaa  Society  of  Savannah'  (1824) ; 
'Explanation  of  the  Construction,  Furniture 
and  Ornaments  of  a  Church'^  ^Letters  on 
Slavery' ;  and  'Works,"  edited  by  Bishop 
Reynolds  (S  vols.,  Baltimore  1849). 

ENGLAND,  including  WA1.BS,  the  sooth- 
em  and  larger  portion  of  the  island  of  Great 
Britain,  is  situated  between  lat.  50°  and  55* 
46'  N.  and  long.  1°  46'  E.  and  5*  4?  W.  Eng- 
land covers  42  per  cent,  and  Wales  6  per  cent, 
toother  48  per  Cent  of  the  whole  area  of  the 
British  Isles.  For  geographical,  administrative 
and  statistical  purposes'  Wales  is  usually  in- 
cluded with  England,  of  which  it  forms  a  west- 
em  peninsula,  similar  to  the  counties  of  Devon 
and  Cornwall.  Bounded  on  tbe  East- by  the 
North  Sea  or  German  Ocean,  whitfi  seiiarates 
the  territory  from  Germany,  Holland,  Denmark 
and  Belgium;  on  the  south  by  tbe  English 
Channel,  dividing  It  from  France,  and  on  the 
west  hy  the  Saint  George's  Channel  and  the 
Irish  Sea,  its  only  land  frontier  is  that  irreg* 
ular  line  of  UO  miles  facing  Scotland  on  the 
North.  As  the  crow  flies,  that  border  line  is 
barely  70  miles;  forraine  a  roui^  triangle,  the 
eastern  side  measures  350  miles  in  a  straight 
line;  the  western  425,  and  the  southern  325 
miles — a  total  of  1,170  miles.  But  the  shores 
within  this  triangle  are  so  deeply  indented  by 
bays  and  estuaries  that  the  actual  coast  line  is 
more  than  twice  that  distance,  estimated  at  not 
less  than  2,765  miles.    The  length  of  the  coun- 


try, measured  on  a  meridiim  from  Berwidc 
nearly  to  Saint  Alban's  Head,  is  365  miles.  Its 
breadth,  calculated  on  a  paralTel  of  latitude,  at- 
tains its  maximum  between  Saint  David's  Head, 
in  South  Wales,  and  the  Naze,  in  Essex,  where 
it  amounts  to  280  miles,  The  area  of  England 
without  Wales  is  50,8?3  square  miles ;  that  of 
Wales,  7,366;  together,  5S.239  square  miles. 
The  seas  surrounding  the  British  lales  are  shal- 
low. If  the  waters  were  to  subside  to  the  oi- 
tent  of  300  feet,  the  whole  of  the  Britiaii 
Islands,  including  Ireland,  would  once  more  be 
nnited  to  Continental  Europe. 

GeDjPvphical  Hlatoiy. —  This  great  island 
possession  of  Rome  had  been  virtually  aban- 
doned by  tbe  Romans  (a.S.  410)  before  the 
Teutonic- settlements  in  it  began.  The  invaders 
bad  tiierefore  to  struggle  rather  with  native 
Britons  thaii  with  Romans.  Moreover  thsy 
were  tmradera  who  came  by  sea,  and  from  lands 
where  Uttle  at  nothiilg  was  known  ol  the 
Roman  law  or  reU|^on.  They  met  with  a  de- 
gree of  strictly  national  resistance  such  sa  m> 
other  Teutonic  conquerors  enconntered,  amd 
therefore,  in  the  end,  th^  svtept  away  all  trades 
of  the  earlier  state  of  things  in  a  radical  WV 
which  took  place  nowhere  else,  As  far  as 
such  a  process  is  possible,  they  slew  or  drove 
out    the    older    iiriiahitants ;    they    kept    their 


_  ..  their  new  home  without  any  impor- 
tant intermixture  with  the  earlier  inhabitants, 
Rotnan  or  British.  The  conquerors  wbo 
wrought  this  change  were  the  forefathers  of 
the  present  day  English, —  the  low  Dutch  in- 
habitants of  the  borderlands  of  Germany  and 
Denmai^c.  Amotig  them  three  tribes,  the  An- 
gles, the  Saxons  and  the  Jutes,  had  the  chief 
share  tn  the  conquest  oS.  Britain.  The  Saxons 
had  already  attempted  a  settlement  here -in  the 
4th  century  and  were  consequently^  the  tribe 
first  known  to  the-  Roman  and  Celtic  inhabit- 
ants, of  the  island.  Hence  it  came  that  the 
Celts  of  Britain  and  Ireland  have  called  all  the 
"Teutonic  settlers  Saxons  to  this  day.  But,  as  tbe 
Angles,  or  English,  occupied  in  the  end  by  far 
the  greater  part  ot  the  land,  it  was  they  who, 
when  the  Teutonic  tribes  in  Britain  began  to 
form  one  nation,  gave  their  name  to  that  nation 
and  its  land.  That  nation  was  the  English  and 
their  land  was  England,  '^'hile  Britain  thi^s 
remains  the  proper  geographical  name  of  the 
whole  island,  England  is  the  political  name  of 
that  part  of  Britain  which  was  step  by  st^ 
conquered  by  the  English.  Before  the  end  of 
the  Sth  century  several  Teutonic  kingdoms  had 
been  founded  in  Britain,  The  Jutes  began  the 
conquest  by  their  settlement  in  Kent,  and  pres- 
ently the  Saxons  bcpn  to  settle  on  the  south 
coast  and  on  a  small  part  of  the  east  coast,  in 
Sussex,  Wessex  and  Essex.  Along  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  eastern  coast  variotls 
Anglian  settlements  were  also  made,  whidi 
gradually  grew  into  the  kingdoms  of  East- 
Anglia,  Deira  and  Bemlcia.  By  their  ultimate 
union  the  last  two  formed  the  great  kingdom 
of  Norlhumberiand.  At  the  close  of  the  6tih 
century,  however,  the  English  had  not  got  very 
far  from  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts.  The 
Britons,  whom  the  English  called  Welsh,  or 
strangers,  held  out  in  the  west,  and  the  Picts 
and  Scots  in  the  north.  The  Scots  were  prop- 
erly the  people  of  Ireland;  but  a  colony  of  them 


.  8M 


had  settled  on  the  western  coast  of  northern 
Britain  —  distant  at  one  part  only  13  miles  from 
Ireland  —  and  in  the'  end  gave  the  name  of 
Scotland   to   the   whole   northern   part   of   the 

The  changes  of  boundary  between  England 
and  Wales  began  with  the  great  Welsh  cam- 
paign of  HaroM  in  1063.  All  the  border  shires, 
Cheshire,  Shropshire,  Herefordshire  and  Glou- 
cestershire seem  to  have  been  enlarged  at  this 
period.  The  English  border  stretched  to  the 
Conwy  in  the  north  and  to  the  Usk  in  the 
south.  But  part  of  this 
have   been    recovered    by    the   Welsh"  princes. 


itoiv  appears 
._.    by    the   Welsh   princi  . 
while  part  passed  into  the  great  march  district 


of  England  and  Wales,  under  the  rule  of  the 
Lords  Marchers.  The  gmdual  conquest  of 
South  Wales  began  under  the  Conqueror  and 
was  continued  by  his  sons ;  but  it  was  more  the 
work  of  private  adventurers  than  of  the  kings 
themselves.  The  lands  of  Morgan wg,  Bre- 
heini(^,  Dyfed  and  Ceredigion,  answeritig 
neady  to  the  modem  South  Wales,  were  grad- 
ually subdued  In  some  districts,  especially  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  present  Pembroke- 
shire, the  Britons  were  actually  driven  out,  and 
the  land  was  settled  by  Flemish  colonists,  the 
latest  of  the  Teutonic  settlements  in  Britain. 
Elsewhere  Norman  lords,  with  Norman,  Eng- 
lish and  Flemish  followers,  held  the  towns  and 
the  more  level  country,  while  the  Welsh  kept 
Up  a  semi-independence  in  the  western  moun- 
tains. In  North  Wales,  meanwhile,  native 
princes  still  ruled  as  vassals  of  the  English  king 
til]  the  war  of  Edward  1.  In  1277  tbe  vassal 
prince  was  compelled  to  relinquish  again  the 
territory  east  of  the  Conwy  to  his  overlord. 
The  final  conquest  followed  in  1282,  but  com- 
plete incorporation  with  England  did  not  take 
Elace  until  the  rei^  of  Henty  VlII,  253  years 
Iter.  During  this  long  interim  North  and 
South  Wales  remained  a  separate  dominion, 
giving  the  princely  title  to  the  eldest  son  of  the 
English  king,  a  dynastic  custom  that  still  exists 
to-day.  Some  stires  were  formed  or  remod- 
eled, new  towns  founded,  and  the  border  dis- 
tricts maintained  under  the  anomalous  juris- 
diction of  the  Marchers  till  the  ultimate  ab- 
sorption in  1S3S.  Thirteen  new  counties  were 
then  formed  and  some  districts  added  or  re- 
stored to  the  border  shires  of  England.  One 
of  the  new  counties,  Monmouthshire,  was  added 
to  an  English  circmt  under  Charles  II,  and  has 
since  been  considered  an  English  county. 
Curiously^  enough,  it  frequently  appears  in- 
cluded with  Wales  even  in  official  publications 
at  the  present  time. 

With  the  exception  of  these  new  creations, 
all  the  existing  shires  of  Ewland  were  in  being 
at  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  save  those 
of  Lancaster,  Cumberland,  Westmoreland  and 
Rutland.  The  boundaries  were  not  always  ex- 
actly the  same  as  at  present,  but  the  differences 
are  commonly  slight  and  of  mere  local  interest. 
As  they  stood  at  the  Conquest  the  shires  were 
of   two   classes;  _  some  were  old   kingdoms   or 

Klncipalilies  which  still  kept  their  names  and 
undarics  as  shires,  while  others  seem  to  have 
been  mapped  out  afresh  when  the  land  was  re- 
covered from  the  Danes.  All  the  shires  on  the 
Welsh  border  stretched  further  west  in  "Domes- 
day' than  they  do  now.  On  the  Scottish  border 
Westmoreland  and  Cumberland  were  formed 


out  of  the  Cumbrian  conquest  of  William  II 
and  enlarged  by  territory  which  appears  in 
'Domesday'  as  part  of  Yorkshire.  Lancashire 
was  made  up  of  lands  taken  from  Yorkshire 
and  Cheshire,  the  river  Ribble  forming  the 
older  boundary  of  those  shires.  The  older 
divisions  tire  marked  by  the  boundaries  of  the 
dioceses  of  York,  Carlisle  and  Litchfield  or 
Chester,  as  they  stood  until  the  changes  under 
Henry  VI 11.  In  central  England  the  only 
change  was  the  formation  of  the  stnallest  shire 
—  Rutland — out  of  the  Domesday  district  of 
Rutland,  an  appendage  to  Nottinghamshire,  en- 
larged l:^  a  small  part  of  what  was  then 
Northampton  shi  re. 

If  one  were  to  trace  these  changes  over  a 
series  of  ancient  and  modern  maps,  tbev  would 
reveal  but  very  little  alteration  of  boundaries  in 
the  island  since  the  Uth  century.  The  land, 
as  a  whole  has  not  been  mapped  out  afre^ 
since  the  10th  century.  While  a  map  of  France 
or  Germany  in  the  Uth  century,  or  even  in  the 
18th,  would  be  useless  for  immediate  practical 

Srposes,  a  map  of  England  in  the  days  of 
snesday  (1065-86)  hardly  differs  from  tbe 
map  of  England  as  we  know  it  to-day.  The 
only  changes  of  any  import  — and  they  are 
neither  many  nor  great  — are  the  shires  on  the 
Welsh  and  Scottish  borders.  William  the 
Conqueror  put  the  finishing  stroke  to  the  woric 
of  Egbert  and  made  England  forever  one.  By 
uniting  that  country  under  the  same  ruler  as 
Normandy  (namely,  himself),  he  led  her 
into  the  general  curretit  of  continental  affairs, 
and  gave  her  a  European  position  such  as  she 
had  never  held  under  her  native  kings. 

Althougfi  there  have  been  but  slight  changes 
in  the  botmdaries  of  England  itself  within  a 
thousand  years,  the  extra-territorial  expansion 
of  that  country  beyond  the  seas  constitutes  the 
most  remarkable  phenomenon  in  the  world's 
history.  England  alone  is  about  the  size  of 
Rumania,  less  than  a  fourth  of  France  or  of 
Germany,  and  but  little  larger  than  the  State 
of  New  York.  England  and  Wales  together 
are  not  equal  in  area  to  the  State  of  Georgia, 
nor  a  quarter  the  siie  of  Texas.  There  are  29 
States^  or  Territories  in  the  Union  each  larger 


than  England,  and  several  much  lai^r  than  the 
whole  United   Kingdom   put   ti^ether.      WI " 
the  area  of  the  British  Isles  is  less  than  c 


Whilst 


four  hundredth  part  of  the  land  surface  of  the 
globe,  the  colonies  and  dependencies  which  Eng- 
land has  aci|uired  within  about  300  years  cover 
something  like  one-fifth  of  the  earth,  or  11,- 
351,046  square  miles,  with  a  population  esti- 
mated at  over  40,000,000. 

Topography.— The  chief  indentations  are; 
On  the  east,  the  Humber,  the  Wash  and  the 
Thames  estuary;  on  the  west,  the  Solway  Firth, 
MoTccambe  Bay,  Cardigan  Bay  and  tbe-  Bristol 
Cliannel ;  those  on  the  south  are  less  prominent, 
though  induding  some  useful  harbors.  The 
greater  part  of  the  coast  consists  of  cliffs,  in 
some  places  clay^,  in  others  rocky-  and  some- 
times jutting  out  into  bold,  lofty  and  precipi- 
tous headlands,  as  at  Whitby  and  Flamborough 
Head  on  the  east,  Beadiy  Head,  the  Isle  of 
Portland,  the  Lizard  and  Land's  End  on  the 
south  and  southwest,  Saint  David's  Head  and 
Saint  Bees  Head  on  the  west.  The  most  ex- 
tensive stretches  of  flat  coast  are  on  the  east,  in 
the  county  of  Lincoln,  and  from  die  south  part 


.yGooi^le 


i  iiJ'ch.Goo'jIe 


,™=h,Gooslc 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


of  Suffolk  to  t*e  SouOi  Foreland  in  Kent,  and 
in  Sussex  and  Ha.<ts  on  the  south  coast  The 
chief  islands  are  Holy  Island,  the  Fame  Is- 
lands, Sheppy  and  Tlunet  on  the  east  coast ; 
the  Isle  of  Wight  on  the  south;  the  Sdlly 
Isles  at  the  southwestern  extremity;  and  Luady 
Island,  Anglesey,  Holyhead  and  Walney  on  the 

The  loftiest  heights  of  Elngland  and  Wales 
iire  situated  at  no  great  distance  from  its  west 
shores  and  consist  of  a  succession  of  mountains 
and  hills,  stretching,  with  some  interruptions, 
from  north  to  south,  and  throwing  out  numer- 
ous branches  on  both  sides,  but  particularly  to 
the  west,  where  a1]  the  culminating  summits  are 
found.  The  northern  portion  of  this  range  has 
received  the  name  of  dte  Pennine  Chain  and  is 
commonly  designated  "the  backbone  of  Eng- 
land.* It  is  properly  a  continuation  of  the 
Gicviot  Hills,  and,  commencing  at  the  Scottish 
border,  proceeds  south  for  about  270  miles,  till, 
in  the  counties  of  Derby  and  Stafiord,  it  as- 
surties  the  form  of  an  elevated  moorland 
plateau.  In  Derbyshire  The  Peak  rises  to  the 
hei^t  of  2,0S2  feet.  By  far  the  most  important 
of  Its  offsets  are  those  of  the  west,  more  espe- 
cially if  we  include  in  them  the  lofty  mountain 
masses  in  northwestern  England,  sometimes 
classed  separately  as  the  Cumbrian  range.  Amid 
these  mountains  lie  the  celebrated  English  lakes, 
of  which  the  most  important  are  Windermere, 
Derwent  Water,  Coniston  Lake  and  Ullswater. 
Here  also  b  the  highest  simimtt  of  northern 
England,  Sea  Fell  (3,210  feet).  The  Pennine 
Chain,  with  its  appended  Cumbrian  range  is 
succeeded  by  one  which  surpasses  both  these  i 


greater  part  of  Wales,  deriving  from  this  its 
name,  the  Cambrian  range,  its  principal  ridge 
stretches  through  Canjarvonshire  from  norOi 
and  west,  with  Snowdon  (3,560  feet)  as  the  cul- 
minating point  of  south  Great  Britain;  across 
the  Bristol  Channel  from  Wales  is  the  Devonian 
range.  It  may  be  considered  as  commencing 
in  the  Mendip  Hills  of  Somerset  and  then 
pursuing  a  southwest  direction  through  that 
county  and  the  counties  of  Devon  and  Corn- 
wall to  the  Land's  End,  the  wild  and  desolate 
tract  of  Dartmoor  forming  one  of  its  most 
remarkable  features  (highest  summit.  High 
Willhayes,  2,039  feet).  Other  ranges  are  the 
Cotswold  Hills,  proceeding  in  a  norUieast  direc- 
liou  from  near  the  Mendip  Hills ;  the  Cihlltem 
Hiils  taking  a  similar  direction  farther  to  the 
east  and  the  North  and  South  Downs  running 
east,  the  latter  reaching  the  southern  coast  near 
Beachy  Head,  the  former  reaching  the  southeast 
coast  at  Folkestone. 

A  la:^  part  of  the  surface  of  England  con- 
sists of  wide  valleys  and  plains.  Beginning  in 
the  north,  the  first  valleys  on  the  east  side  are 
those  of  the  Coquet,  Tyne  and  Tees;  on  the 
west  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Eden,  which,  at 
first  hemmed  in  between  the  Cumbrian  range 
and  Pennine  Chain,  gradually  widens  out  into 
a  plain  of  about  470  square  miles,  with  the 
town  of  Carlisle  in  its  centre.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  northern  plains  is  the  Vale  of 
York,  which  has  an  area  of  nearly  1,000  square 
miles.  On  the  west  side  of  the  island;  in  south 
Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  is  the  fertile  Chnhire 
plain.    In  Wales  there  are  no  extensive  plains. 


the  valleys  generally  having  a  narrow,  rugged 
form  favorable  to  romantic  beauty,  but  not 
compatible  with  great  fertility.  Wales,  how- 
ever, by  giving  nse  to  the  Severn,  can  justly 
claim  part  in  the  vale,  or  series  of  almost  un- 
rivaled vales,  along  which  it  pursues  its  roman- 
tic course  through  the  counties  of  Montgomery, 
Salop,  Worcester  and  Gloucester.  Southeast  of 
the  Cotswold  Hills  is  Salisbury  plain,  a  large 
elevated  plateau,  of  an  oval  shape,  with  a  thin, 
chalky  soil  only  suitable  for  pasture.  In  the 
southwest  the  only  vales  deserving  of  notice 
are  those  of  Taunton  in  Somerset  and  Exeter 
in  Devoa  A  large  portion  of  the  southeast 
may  be  r^arded  as  a  continuous  plain,  con- 
sisting of  ttie  Wealds  of  Sussex,  Surrey  and 
Kent,  between  the  North  and  South  Downs, 
and  containing  an  area  of  about  1,000  square 
miles.  The  southeast  angle  of  this  district  is 
occupied  by  the  Roraney  marsh,  an  extensive 
level  tract  composed  for  the  most  part  of  a  rich 
marine  deposit  Extensive  tracts  of  a  similar 
nature  are  situated  on  the  eastern  coast  in 
Yorkshire  and  Lincoln,  where  they  are  washed 
by  the  Humber;  and  in  the  counties  which 
either  border  the  Wash,  or,  like  Northampton, 
Bedford,  Huntingdon  and  Cambridge,  send 
tlieir  drainage  into  it  by  the  Nen  and  uie  Ouse. 

For  the  clinuUe  of  England  see  Gr&at  Bsit- 
AiN  —  Geooeaphicai.  Envihonmekt. 

River*.—  England  is  well  supplied  with  riv- 
ers, many  of  them  of  great  importance  to  in- 
dustry and  commerce.  Most  of  them  carry 
their  waters  to  the  North  Sea,  If  we  consider 
the  drainage  as  a  whole,  four  principal  river 
basins  may  be  distinguished,  those  of  the 
Thames,  Wash  and  Humber  belonging  to  the 
North  Sea;  and  the  Severn,  belonging  to  the 
Atlantic;  The  basin  of  the  Thames  has  its 
greatest  length  from  east  to  west.  130  miles,  and 
its  average  breadth  about  50  miles,  area,  in- 
cluding the  Medway,  6,100  square  miles.  The 
river  itself,  which  is  the  chief  of  English  rivers, 
has  a  length  of  210  miles.  The  basin  of  the 
Wash  consists  of  the  subordinate  basins  of  the 
Great  Ouse,  Nen,  Welland  and  Withara,  which 
all  empty  themselves  into  that  estuary,  and  has 
an  area  computed  at  5350  square  miles.  Ilie 
basin  of  the  Severn  consists  of  two  distinct 
portions,  that  on  the  right  baidc,  of  an  irregularly 
oval  shape,  and  having  for  its  principal  tribu- 
taries the  Tcmc  and  the  Wye ;  and  that  on  the 
left,  of  which  the  Upper  Avon  is  the  princi^l 
triliutary  stream.  The  area  of  the  whole  basin 
is  8,580  square  miles.  The  next  basin,  that  of 
the  Humber,  the  largest  of  all,  consists  of  the 
three  basins  of  the  Humber  proper,  the  Ouse 
and  the  Trent,  and  its  area  is  9,293  square  miles, 
being  about  one-sixth  of  the  whole  area  of 
England  and  Wales.  Other  rivers  uncoimected 
with  these  systems  are  the  Tyne,  Wear  and 
Tees,  in  the  northeast;  the  Eden,  Ribble,  Mers^ 
and  Dee,  in  the  northwest.  The  southern  coast 
streams  are  very  unimportant  except  for  their 
estuaries.     See  Tuaues. 

Areas  and  Population.— The  total  area  of 
England  and  Wales  amounts  to  58,340  square 
miles,  and  the  population  (1911  census)  aggre- 
gated—England. 34.045.290;  Wales,  2,025,202. 
making  a  total  of  36,070.492,  A  later  official 
estimate,  made  in  1914,  placed  the  total  at 
36,960,684;  while  the  National  Register,  taken 
in  August,  1915.  placed  the  civilian  population 


■8l^ 


at  35^,000.  In  1901  Enriand  and  Wales  con- 
tained !^  per  cent  of  tne  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom;  in  19U  it  rose  to  79B  per 
cent,  or  four-fifths  of  the  whole  British  Iste. 
The  density  of  the  population  in  EnKland  is 
greater  than  in  any  other  European  country 
(disregarding  Monaco)  except  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony  (829  per  square  tniJe).    In  19II 


only  154,  and  Ireland  137  per  square  mile. 

The  first  uniform  census  of  the  United 
Kingdom  was  taken  in  1801.  The  powth  of 
population  in  England  and  Wales  diirinf;  264 
years    is    shown    by    the    following    availabte 


inl65D  tatimted; S,4.'>0,000 

1750  Siob^y) e.WO.OOO 

ISOl  (cninu) S.«91.SM 

1S4I  (Bngknd) 13.001.443 

1S51  (toaath^ le.Ml.BSS 

1S61          '         IS. 954. 444 

1S71          •         31,495,331 

ISBl          •         14.613,016 

isgi          •         IP. oca, 325 

1901          •         31.516.075 

1011          ■         36.070.492 

■      -   -■ 


Daring  the  100  years  (1801-1901)  the  popu- 
lation of  the  United  Kingdom  rose  from  16,- 
000.000  to  41,000,000.  The  1911  census  revealed 
17,445,608  males  and  18,624,884  females,  an  ex- 
cess of  1,179,276  female*.  Men  serving  in  the 
army,  navy  and  merchant  service  abroad  are 
not  included  in  this  calculation.  The  number 
of  separate  families  in  1911  was  8,005,290,  as 
compared  with  7,036,868  in  1901.  In  1914  there 
■were  879,096  birrtis,  37.329  illegitimate  births, 
294,401  marriages  and  516,742  deaths.  The  pro- 
portion of  mate  to  female  births  for  that  year 
was  1,036  male  to  1,000  female,  while  of  the 
,^tal  estimated  population  17,^7,052  were  males 
and  19,083,632  females.  The  following  table 
Fhows  the  areas  and  population  of  the  40  Eng- 
lish and   12  Welsh  counties   (1911): 


COOKTIBS 


■qiun       PopukliDD 


. 491. S 

ChMhin I.027.« 

Carnnn 1.356.6 

Cumbariwid 1.520.4 

Dertiyihire 1,019.5 

DavoMhin 1.604.9 

Doniatahin VS7.9 

piiih«m 1.014.6 

EiHx 1 ,513. 1 

Gloacotanbira 1.243.3 

HaoiBt^ 1.623  5 

HanbmUhin 839.6 

HuntlDadouhiie 366,0 

lile  of  Sly 371  9 

Snt 1.554.7 

ncsdiira 1,880.2 

LacoMnhin 615,6 

Ijnrolnihira: 

HirflBort 410.6 

Xwteran 717.9 

Lindwy 1 .501 . 1 

London 117.0 

Middlaax 2S3.3 

Monmoothitun 534.0 

KoHoOc 2,0*4.4 

gDrthainptonahira 1 ,  003 , 1 

nke  of  Petartjoro' 83,3 

NorthmtibM-liinit 3,OIR.O 


223.366 

919.114 

1.061 .tSl 


Are*  in 

SijU 

S:a 

i-M 

fgi^.::::;:::::::: 

■■'■  '-Wt 

wertRidir^v,:;;:::;::; 

S39.0 

:::  ViSi 

1S4.76* 
1.584:SK> 

'=,• 


BiikrahMid 

Binningham,  City  of 

Blacibarn 

Bbckioal 

Sootity.'.'.'.'.'.y.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

Boumetnoolh 

Bn4ford.  CHf  of 

Hnghton. ..................... 

Bristol,  Gly  of 

C«ntCTbur¥,  Giy  ot '..'. 

Cbeater.  CSty  of. 

CovBntnr.  Otr  of 

Croydon 

Derby 

Daronport 

Dndtey 

BMtboarna 

Enter.  City  cf 

a«Habeid 

Ohncelttf.  City  cd 

Great  YafmouUi 

Grlmitiy 

Holitu 

HuddMifieid .""!!;!!!!.'!!:!!" 

^nb>a-upfli>.HnU.  Citr  of 

I^igoId.  ^tr  of ,  .    . .    ..,..,... 

Urarpool,  Qty  of 

MapiAaitaT,  City  sf 

Middbalmugli , 

NewcaKla-upaii-Tyne.  CHy  of. . , 

Neveort  (HaOinoutli) 

Northampton 

Norwich,  Qty  of 

NottinghwB.  City  of 

Obllum 

Oiford,  City  of , 

Plymooth 

Reading , 

RjichdaU 

Rotbertiui - , 

St-Hekos,  .> 

Salford 

Sheffield.  City  of 

Smethwiek 

Soutbnmpton 

Snalbport 

South  Shield! 

Stodkport ...,..,,... 

Stoln-oihTnat , 

EuTidirland 

WSnt 


SO.  035 
55.905 
74.659 


104.767 
166.60] 
U.Wl 


53.04S 
112. OJO 
U1.141 
1»,0M 


61. 4» 

M..*51 
131. 35T 
454.631 

TV, 694 
119.011 

51.643 
l«.647 
I0i.6lll 
234.534 


Google 


County  BoKoucua 
'g"^*"-!) -n^)  - 

WcttBromwich 9.1  «,3J0 

WeMHun 7.3  2m. OU 

W«nU«nlepaol *.J  63,921 

Wimi 7.6  TO.lSl 

Wolvwlumpton S.S  95. MS 

Womitcir,  City  if 4.9  47. 9U 

Yirk-Citrof 5.8  U,2S1 

WiUH  CouxTin  (12) 

Ai«l«y 27«,0  SO. 928 

Bncknocklhire 7U:  2  59,187 

Cudigkailun t92,S  S9.879 

919. S  160,405 

571. S  125. M3 

665,7  1M,78S 

254,7  92,7CIS 

764. S  742,998 

6,^9.9  4S,56S 

797.0  53,146 

614.0  89.960 

RadDordiin 470,5  22,590 

WSLn   BOROVGIIS   (3) 

Cniliir,  City  of 9.S  182,259 

MerthyiTydai 27.7  80.990 

3iran«» g.l  114,665 

The  political  divisions  are  — England,  40 
counties  in  231  divisions  retuminff  231  members 
to  Parliament ;  134  cities,  boroughs,  etc,  in  204 
divisions  rettiming  225  members;  and  three 
universities  S  members.  Total,  England,  461 
members.  Wales,  13  counties  in  22  divisions  — 
22  members;  10  cities,  boroughs,  etc.,  in  11 
divisions— 12  members.  Total,  Wales,  34. 
Total  parliamentary  representatives,  England 
and  Wales,  495  (Scotland.  72;  Ireland,  103). 

Historicsl  Summary. —  The  leading  events 
in  English  history  (whidi  arc  treated  more  fully 
elsewhere),  may  be  briefly  summarized  here 
for  ready  reference; 

B.  C.  55  —  Knt  RomsD  iDTBdon  under  Julia  Cmu.  led 

A.  p.  410  — Ronuaevmciution:  left  BriUtn  >nd her  eu-lieit 

449  — En^iih  lind  in  BriUin;  tnrth  of  feudBlism  and  local 

597  —  landing    of    Au^uBtiTie;    converwm   of    Bosliih    to 

ChiiTtikiuty;  besJniuD^  of  papal  domisatiDn. 
787  —  Ba^noinfl  of  Dannh  invatiou;  inaupiratad  a  period 

BBRland  kir  to-avett  hy  the  Nnrmaiu. 
825  —  BBsodanc  aad  nprnnacr  of  Wmwx:  soioii  of  BaKlali 

kjoadinn  nndcr  B«bcrt. 
878  —  Etbandnne  and  Treaty  of  WedmorB:  Bni[l»nd  mvwsl 

from    anarcby  arid    devattatioa^   iuKguntion    of    Ring 

lose  —  Battle   <rf    Haltiagi:    Nonnao*   conquand   Saion; 

introductioa  of  NonDan  civilisation;  Vugipnirg  of  Bug- 
land'i  KieatneaL 
1086  —  Doswadar  book  and   Saliabttnr  Oath;  otatdiiOMd 
feudal  cyiteni,  and  the  power  of  the  Crown;  Teformed 

1095  —  CniHdet  beiwn;  undermiDed  [eadaliam:  aided  the 
rile  of  th«  middle  claiiei;  introduocd  Bastcni  mvilixation. 

1100  —  Charter  of  Libertiia;  buii  of  Bngliih  litwty  and 
<4Uaan  Carta. 

1106  —  Tenchebni;  conqust  of  NonnBTuIy;  beginnina  of 
ootonial  empirB  and  of  English  power  in  France, 

1170  —  In*anan  of  IrtUadj  inai»unted  inceoant  mimde 
and  anrachy  in  a  part  of  the  Britiih  Bmpirc;  opened  a 
prablem  not  vet  lofved  in  the  20th  century. 

Ills  —  Magna  Carta:  tint  written  law  and  flnt  real  guar- 
»  of  the  liberty  of  the  mbject;  baaia  of  all  lubaequest 

-  De  Mnnlfnrt'i  Parliament; 
lament;  beginning  of  popular  repreientatia 
15  —  Model  Pirlianent  of  Edward  I ;  firn  h 
Jl  cialaea  compietely  repreaeated, 
.4  — Battle?  Baanocitiura;  eatabliitacd  SratlaBd'I 


1311  —  ConBooM  gala  a  ahara  in  legnkliim:  the  middle 
ctaaaaa  begin  ciiuunc  tbeir  way  into  flrtt  plan  in  Iha 

■346  —  Banle  of  Creey;  dafioiteb-  iJ'iiNKil  Bagland  into  a 
— '■  strngle  with  Frann;  «atab)i*hed  Um  au|>niuM^ 


1349- The   "Black   Death;"— depopola tad   Europe;  pro- 
jeath  ntniggle  betwem  capital  sod  laboi, 

.  _  .  *  Peawnti'  Ramlt. 

-Peiuants'  Revolt;  TevoKition  in  the  maaotiiit  ayMem; 
lonation  of  Bei^  new  era  in  the  history  of  labor. 
'  tSepoaition  of  Richard  II  and  acrCBiDn  of  Henry 
overthrow  of  roynl  deipotiim;  eetabliBhmeut  of  con- 
lionat  moanrchy;  it>  failure  nmrked  a  century  and  > 


Yevi' 


,?*: 


of   Orleani;  t 


frar  of  the  Roaea. 


Bngliah  C<intinBD(al  %npire; 


1430  —  Disftanchiaing  Act;  iowe 


S  TowtoQ  and  d  Moitimer'a  Croaa;  i 

:onatitutional  expert- 
larchy  (the  "  bcnev- 

naugurated  the  "  New 


ma^  in  Bwope. 
Dehat  of  the  Spaniih  A 

uijiiiand  miftrcaa  of  the  eeaa.  „ 

between  Crown  and  Parliament. 
1604  —  The   name    "Great    Britain"   given   to    Bngland. 

Scotland  and  Wales, 
1607  —  Colonization  of  Virgiuia;  began  rivalry  of  Bngliih 

nod  Froich  in  America, 
1678  —  Petition  of  Right;  fiint  frreat  victory  of  Parliaroant 

oyer  Stoait  deapotism;  ranjn  with  Magna  Cart*  ea  a  bulwark 

a  Booliib  UbcTtin. 
1640 — Meeting  of  the  Long  Parhament;  overthrew  Stuart 

deapoiinti. 
lAtl— Soot  and  E 

^nged  Bnglaod 

Puhtaniim  oier  £., , 

1645  —  Battle  of  Naseby;   victory  of  Puritan  array  over 

Royalirta;  led  to  eucution  of  Charles  t.  av 

1649  —  Bucutiin  of  Chartea  I.;  overtbrott  of  the  Cofliti- 

tutioii,  MotMrchy.  Chorch  and  Parlit^ent;  estahliihment 

of  npublic. 
1660  »-Reatoration;  overthrow  of  Poritaiuim;  reatoration 

of  Monarchy.  Church  and  Parliament;  renewal  of  Stoait 


B  grcfit  Civil  War;  victory  of 


1679  —  Habeu  Corpua  At 
mcntj  guamuteed  to  the 

1688- -Hie    "Glorioiu    Fi 
royal  deapotinn:  eetabl 
ment;^!)    of  HighU 


accused  a  fair  trial. 


d  arbitrary  imprison.- 


.le  of  Blenheim;  saved  England  and  Burope  from 
rn  of  Great 
■jitem;    party 


iiui  —  uoioo  wita  acotianai  comiaetaa  tne  uu 

Biitaiai  new  era  in  Scottioi  develoiimenl. 
1721  —  Welpole    Prime    Miniiter;    cabinet    sjil 


. ,  juiugurated  a  peat 

le  foundation  of  Bngland  'i  future  supremacy. 
'  —  Battle  of  nuaey;  conqurttof  India; ' 


^pire  in  Om  Bait. 


policy  which  formed 
^-ed  Bngland's 


HlratAk"— the  n 
littory:  gave  her  Can 
M  to  IVeaty  of  Parii 
■     ■  •  "       re. 

■;  Pitt  Pi 


abaolutiam. 

1788  —  Settlement  in.  New 
Australia,  and  «atabliahini„ , 

1789  —  Outbreak  of  French  Revolution:  overthrow  of  Con_ 
nental  feudalism;  inaugnated  revott  of  the  oppreescd; 
phinged  BuTope  into  great  wars;  produced  Napoleon; 
arrested  reform  is  England  fnr  40  yenra. 

1801  —  L'nion  with  Ireland;  Pitt's  failure  to  eolve  the  Irish 

tios  —  fVnfalgar;  Enally  eatablishcd  Britain'*  navnlnprem- 

acy.  and  saved  ba  fixim  Nvpcdeoe's  dotmnation. 
181S  —  Waterloo. 


joogle 


EHQI.AKD 

<^  J^jP°^  Redutribation  RecommeBdations  for  Kng- 

pjj,^,„„                                                "'™  ""  Und  and  Wales.—  On  4  Oct.  1917  the  report 

1832— i^^mGnBtRcIann  Bill;  ■w<rt:4i«K  in puKutPDUTV  of  the  boundary  commission  was  published  as  a 

rrform;  K»ve  the  fnnchiH  to  the  uppic  mkUk  fbuM;  blue     book     in     three     volumes.     The     COmilUS- 

I8:fl^iu^'  S^  ^L.w.;  triumph  o(  (».  «d.;  f}°^^  reconunended  the  extinction  of  27  Eng- 

cfaeap  foid  [or  the  muwa.  lis"  boroughs  and  merging  them  in  county  con- 

1SS4-SS  —  Crinmn  Wbt.  stititencies  in  order  to  remove  the   *confusion 

IBM  — SeenD4  Great  Rtfom  Bill;  gave  tta  (r»dii«  to  and     inconvenience"     caused     by    overlapping 

.*S°-DLSl'th^S*^fn^i^i;™T^i.«,  boundaries.    It  was  not  intende{ to  create  any 

the  icliaiaua  liberty  enjoyed  br  tinst  Bntun;  mukcd  a  new  parhamentary  boroughs  With  a  population 

nee  phue  in  the  Iridi  queitioo  —  th*t  ol  rrfonn  and  of  less  tban'70,000,  yet  in  several  cases  it  would 

un^^  ffiooUtmn.  ^  necessary  to  do  so  owing  to  peculiar  local 

1S8J  ~- Biitiih  eupretnKi  in  Egyirt  enebUibcd  at  Tel-el-  conditions.      According  to  die  estimated  popula- 
Kebir;  end  of  ihe  Anali>French  condurainiuini  beginmiiB  tion  in   1914  (the  last  Census  was  in   1911),  the 
..Sl^"i^J°?'™f*i.ji!i^-.^^'  .1.    ._    >.:_  .    ...  average  population  per  member  in  die  new  con- 
IMS— Third  Great  Refonn  Bill;  oave  the  fnocbue  to  the  ,,;,„„„;„    ,  „,     ^  ITL     ,„    71  t^e     („       ir_j^  j 
Uboring  elamrei  completed  popiir  repnaenUtion;  added  Stltuencies    was     given    as    /1,0U5     for    hngland 
ovei  two  million  vaicn.  and   72,099    for   Wales ;    the    two  countries    to- 
iloi~^A'^1S™'vicioTia.  K*.'*"*^'  ^''°^^-  ""•«  general  effect  of  the  scheme 
1910- Death  of  King  Bdmnt  VII.  will  be  to  increase  me  number  of  members  for 
19U  —  Gnat  Biitain  declared  war  oD  Germanr.  English    constituencies    from    461    to    485 ;    of 

—  GENEALOGICAL  TABLE  OF  ENGLISH  SOVEREIGNS,  975-1918 

England  Nnrmandy 

Badgar.  975  RicBASD  I,  996 


I,  lOBt  =  Hatuu 


WlLUAH  IL    11<,0.       IIlKBV  I.  113S.      AlUOA 

NT  or  Anjol'  (PiAKTAowmT)  =1:  Matilda 

^ HpjryII.  1189 

Ric^AU)  I.  1199.      John.  1216.       Gor«n>Y.  UK.       MaTiUia 
MnniT  III,  1172  RidiAU)  o*  Coknwauis.  UTZ 

Bdwakd  II.  1317 
EowAItn  in,  1377 


Slack  Puhce.  1376.  Claibkcb,  136S.  Youc  1402.      Lancaster,  1400 


Richard  II.  1400    Phillippa  |     Hknrv  IV,  1413.  Charles  VI  or  Prance.  BEAinoiT.  1410.  Card.  Bbauvdrt 

RocRR  MoRTtuiR,  1399  I      Renkv  V,  1412  =  Catharine  =  O.  Tudor.       Johm.  1444 


Boto.'Nii,  1424.  Aim>=  Cambridge.  1415.  York.  1415.  Hbnbt  VI,  I47I.  Bumnoi  ^Uarcaret 


Edtvard  IV.  14g3.        Richard  III,  1485.         Clarewce.  I4?g 

Bditard  V.  14S3.  York.  I4S3.  BuuvrtH  £3  Han 


JAMK  IV  o*  Scon-AMD.  15U  =  MARGAaeT=  DoiKHj™,  1537.      Hkwrt  VIII.  1547,  Marv 

JaIOB  V,  1S4I  MaRCARBT        HarvI  li5<.      EtilAMTTH,  I«(W.      Bdwaw)  VI,  1 


Mary  StuaBt  ^  Daihlky.  1S67.     Charles,  i; 


Charles  II.  1685.       James  II.  1701.        Marv  =  William  or  Orange    SormA  =  Dokb  oi 
Annr,  1714.     TuR  Pkbtender,  1766.     Mary,  1694  =  William  III,  1702         GeorgeI.1727 

Gromr  II,  1760 
Phiideiice,  Princi  op  Wales.  171 
GeOhge  III,  ISZO 
GccnCElV.  1830.       Wiluam  IV.  1837.       Edward.  DokeofKent,  IgJO^ViCTiu 

ViCTOHi*.  1901  =  Albert,  1861 
Kdwabd  vn,  1910  =  Alexandra. — 
OaoaOE  V.——  =VicTORiA  Mary  — 


jOOgIc 


BHGLANiyS  HXLICOH  — BNGLISCH 


W«l$h  conatitiieBcics  intn  34  to  35 ;  total  in- 
crease for   England  and  Wales,  2S  mnnbers. 

Some  of  the  chai^tes  under  the  redistributiati 
scheme  arc  given  below.  BirminKham  is  allotted 
12  members  instead  of  7 ;  Bradford,  4  instead 
of  3;  Bristol,  5  instead  of  4;  Kingston-upon- 
Hatl,  4  members  instead  of  3;  Leeds,  6, 
formerly  S;  Leicester,  3  members,  formerly  2; 
Liverpool,  11,  formerly  9;  Manchester,  10  mem- 
bers, formerly  6;  Portsmoutii,  3,  formerly  2; 
Staefiield,  7  members,  formerly  5.  New  bor- 
oaghs  created  are  Accrington,  Bamsley,  Black- 
pool, Bootl«,  Bromley,  Kent,  £aling.  East  Ham, 
Eccles,  Edmonton,  Homsey,  Ilford,  Kingston- 
uyon-Thames,  Leigh,  Leyton,  Morlw,  Nelson, 
Rjchmond,  Surrey,  Rossendele,  -Rotherham, 
SmethwictL  Southend-on-Sea,  SouHiport.  Tot- 
tenham, Wallasey,  Wallsend,  Wafthamstow, 
Willesden,  Wimbledon. 

ENGLAND'S  HELICON,  an  anthology  of 
150  poems  by  popular  writers  of  the  period, 
edited  by  John  Bodenham  in  1600.  It  was  re- 
published in  1812. 

ENGLEHBART,  Georce,  English  minia- 
ture painter:  b.  Kew,  1752;  d.  1829.  He  was  a 
pimil  of  Gtorge  Barret  and  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
ncuds,  In  l?73be&rst  exhibited  at  the  Academy. 
He  retired  in  1813.  He  is  reputed  to  have 
fiainted  in  all  about  4350  miniatures,  mostly  on 
ivoiy,  but  also  on  enamel.  He  was  a  good 
drau^tsinan .  and  a  skilful  pslorisL.  He  was 
appomted  mibtature  painter  to  George  IH  in 
1790,  whom  he  painted  2S  times.  He  was  the 
most  important  rival  of  Richard  Cosw^  for 
court  honors.  Consult  Williamson  and  Engle- 
heart,  'George  Engleheart'  (London  _  1902). 

ENGLBS,  Edmund  Arthur,  .American  edu- 
cator; b.  Saint  l^uis.  Mo..  23  Dec.  1&56l  H« 
was  graduated  at  Washington  University  in 
1876,  where  be  Uught  mathematics  from  ISSl 
Co  1901.  In  1901-11  he  was  president  of  the 
Worcester  Polvtechnic  Institute  and  in  1911 
returned  to  WashinKton  University  as  secre- 
tary and  treasurer.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Washington  University  eclipse  party  to  Nor- 
man, Cal,  in  1889,  served  as  chairman  of  the 
jury  of  the  department  of  manufactures  at 
the  Buffalo  Ex[>ositiori  of  1901,^  and  chairman 
of  the  international  jury  on  instruments  of 
precision  at  the  Saint  Louis  Exposition  of 
1904.  He  is  Fellow  of  the  American  Association 
for  die  Advancement  of  Science  and  member  of 
many  other  scicntifie  societies,  serving  as  presi- 
dent in  1898-1901  and  again  in  1912-15  of  the 
Saint  Louis  Academy  of  Science,  He  is  a 
frequent  contributor  to  magazines  on  scientific 
subjects, 

ENGLER,  Heinrich  Gustav  Adolf,  German 
botanist :  b.  Sagan  1S44.  He  received  his  edu- 
cation at  Breslau,  held  the  chair  of  botany  at 
Kiel  in  1878-64,  and  at  Breslau  in  1884-^.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  anointed  to  the  chair  of 
botany  at  BerHn,  becommg  also  director  of  the 
Botaiucal  Gardens.  His  work  has  been  more 
or  less  exclusively  devoted  to  classification  and 
plant  geography.  After  1881  he  edited  the 
leading  journal-  in  this  field,  the  Botanische 
JakrbUcher.  His  most  remarkable  publication 
is  'Syllabus  der  P  flan  zenf  ami  lien,'  the  classifi- 
cation of  which  has  been  almost  universally 
adopted.  With  PrantI  he  issued  a  systematized 
presentation  i^  the  plant  genera  of  the  world, 


of  the  different  regions  under  the  title,  'Die 
Vegetation  der  Erde.* 

ENGLEWOOD,  Colo.,  city  of  Arapahoe 
County,  five  miles  south  of  Denver.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  National  Swedish  Sanitarium  and 
the  Molkeray  Sanitarium.  The  surrounding 
region  is  engaged  in  agriculture,  dairying  and  ■ 
stock-raising,  which  represent  the  ci^'s  prin- 
cipal interests.  The  citj;  contains  many  beautiful 
homes,  and  is  a  favorite  residential  suburb  of 
Denver,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  trolley. 
Pop.  2,983. 

ENGLEWOOD,  N.  J.,  dty,  in  Bergtn 
County,  near  the  Hudson  Kver,  on  a  branch  of 
the  £rie  liailway,  about  13  miles  north  of 
Jersey  City.  It  lies  on  the  lotw;  slope  toward 
the  west  from  the  crest  of  the  Palisades  of  the 
Hudson.  It  is  a  beautiful  residential  city,  con- 
tains two  summer  homes  for  working  girls,  a 
hospital  and  a  library  with  over  10,000  volumes. 
The  township  of  Englcwood  was  set  ott  from 
the  old  township  of  Hackensack  in  1871.  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1895,  but  because 
of  error  under  the  constitution  of  the  State  it 
was  reincorporated  in  1899.  While  not  im- 
portant in  manufactures  the  United  States 
census  for  19I4  showed  within  the  city  limits 
19  establishments  of  factory  grade,  employing 
135  persons;  91  being  wage  earners  receiving 
annually  a  total  of  $51,000  m  wages.  The  capi- 
tal invested  aggregated  £257,000,  and  the  year's 
output  was  valuetfat  $321,000 ;  of  this,  $210,000 
was  the  value  added  by  manufacture.  Pop. 
11,487. 

BNGLIS,  John,  American  shipbuilder;  b. 
Brooklyn,  25  Nov.  1808:  d.  Brooklyn.  25  Oct 
1888.  He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of 
New  York  and  learned  the  shipbuilding  trade 
there.  In  1837  he  went  to  Lake  Erie  where  he 
built  his  first  steamships.  A  few  years  later  he 
returned  to  New  York,  opened  a  shipyard  of 
his  own  on  the  East  River  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  building  of  steamships,  a  science  then  still 
in  its  infancy  and  facing  many  difficult  problems. 
To  the  solution  of  these  he  brought  a  keen 
scientific  mind  and  a  gp'eat  capaciw  for  hard 
work,  which  soon  put  him  into  the  forerank  of 
American  shipbuilders.  During  his  long  busi- 
ness career  he  built  a  total  of  89  boats,  mostly 
side- wheelers.  Amongst  them  were  many  of 
the  most  famous  boats  of  this  period,  sudi  as 
the  steamboats  Saini  John,  Dean  Richmond, 
Daniel  Drew,  Grand  Republic  and  especially  the 
Long  Island  Sound  liner  Newport.  The  last- 
named  boat  was  340  feet  long  and  made  the 
trip  from  New  York  to  Newport  in  eight  hours, 
a  record  which  stood  for  many  years.  In  1861 
he  built  the  Unadilia,  the  first  gunboat  built 
for  the  United  States  government.  Many  im- 
provements in  shipbuiloiug  were  due  to  him. 
After  his  retirement  his  son  and  grandsons 
continued  his  shipyard. 

BNGLISCH,  Joseph,  Anstrian  surgeon :  b. 
Freudenthal.  Austrian  Silesia,  1835.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  University  of  Vietma 
and  in  1871  was  appointed  one  of  the  chief  phy- 
sicians at  the  Rudolfstiftung,  In  1892  he  was 
apponted  to  the  chair  of  surgery  at  the  Univei^ 
si^  of  Vienna.    He  was  wide^  recogniied  u 


.lOogle 


BNOLIBH  — KH0I.I8H  AKCHrreCTURB 


luthori^  < 


hemien'  (1871);  'Zur  Kadikalbebandluns  der 
Eingewcidebriiche'  (1878);  'Ikber  abnonne 
LagecutiK  des  Hodeni  ausserhalb  der  Bauch- 
liohle'  (1885);  'Ueber  angeboreae  Penisfisleln' 

(lBy2). 

ENGLISH,  Thomas  Dunn,  American  au- 
thor: b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  29  June  1819;  d. 
Newark,  N.  }.,  I  April  1902.  He  was  gradu- 
ated in  medicine  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1839.  In  1842  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  From  1844-52  and  1857-59  he  engaged  in 
journalism  in  New  York  and  Washington,  From 
1852-57  he  practised  medicine  in  what  is  now 
West  Virginia,  During  the  years  1859-79  he 
divided  his  time  between  New  York  city  and 
Fort  Lee,  N.  J.  In  the  latter  year  he  removed 
to  Newark,  li.  J.,  where  he  resumed  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
New  Jersey  State  assembl/  in  1863-64,  and  of 
Congress  in  1891-95.  Dunng  all  these  years  he 
was  also  very  active  in  literary  work.  He  was 
the  author  of  'Ben  Bolt.'  an  exceedingly  popu- 
lar ballad  (1843),  which  after  having  long  fal- 
len into  obscurity  was  revived  by  its  employ- 
ment in  Dti  Maurier's  novel  'Trilby,'  but  which 
owed  its  popularity  more  to  its  sentimentality 
and  its  musical  setting  than  to  any  inherent 
poetical  merit.  His  published  writings  are 
'Zephaniah  Doolittler  a  Poem.  From  the 
Uanuscripts  of  Montmorency  Sneerlip  Snags, 
Esq.'' (Hiiladelphia  1838);  "Walter  Woolfe> 
l&G);  '1844;  or,  the  Power  of  the  'S.F.»  A 
Tale' ;  'Developing  (he  Secret  Action  of  Parties 
During  the  Presidential  Campaign  of  1844' 
(New  York  1847)  ;  together  with  C.  G.  Foster. 
'The  French  Revolution  of  1848,  etc'  (Phila- 
delpfaia  1846)  ;  'Ambrose  Fedt.  or,  the  Peer 
and  the  Printer*  (New  York  1867)  ;  'American 
Ballads'  (New  York  1880);  'The  Bey's  Book 
of  Batde-Lyrics'  (New  York  1885);  'Jacob 
Schuyler's  MiUions'  (New  York  1886);  'The 
Rules  of  Order  (governing  Public  Ueetings, 
etc'  (under  the  pseud.  V.  M.  Payne,  New 
York  1887);  'Old  Gloiy:  A  Song>  (1895); 
<Fairy  Stories  and  Wonder  Tales'  (New  York 
1897)  :  'The  Uttle  Giant,  the  Big  Dwarf  and 
Two  Other  Wonder  Tales,  etc'  (Oiicago  19IM). 
During  the  period  of  his  New  York  residence 
he  alao  wrote  about  20  plays  for  Palmo's  OpcTa 
House,  later  Burton's  Theatre,  on  Chamber3 
street.  New  York,  of  which  only  one,  'The 
Mormons;  or,  Life  at  Salt  Lake  City,  A  Drama 
in  Three  Acts,*  has  been  published  (New  York 
1858),  Consult  Noll,  A.  H.,  'Thomas  Dunn 
English'  (in  Midland  Monthly,  Vol.  VII,  p.  3, 
Des  Moines  1897). 

ENGLISH,  WUliam  Hiyden.  American 
capitalist:  b.  Lexington,  Ind.,  27  Aug.  1822;  d. 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  7  Feb.  1896.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Hanover  College,  Indiana,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1840.  However,  he  soon 
became  interested  in  politics,  gave  up  the  prac- 
tice of  law,  and  successively  held  various  local. 
State  and  Federal  positions.  In  1851  he  was 
elcicted  to  the  Indiana  State  legislature  where 
'  be  served  as  speaker.  He  was  elected  to  On- 
greas  in  1852  and  served  there  through  four 
consecutive  terms.  As  a  member  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Territories,  in  opposition  to  his  own 
party,  he  worked  agamst  the  admission  of  Kan- 
sas to  the  Union.    He  reported  from  the  Com- 


mittee of  ConferetKe  what  waa  knowD  ai  die 
■English  bill,*  in  i^ch  it  was  urged  that  the 
question  of  admission  be  referred  bai-k  to  the 
people  of  Kansas  according  to  the  provisioa  of 
the  Lecompton  constitution.  This  was  adopted 
and  the  people  voted  against  admiaiion.  He 
strongly  opposed  s^ession,  and  wumed  South- 
ern Congressmen  that  the  North  would  never 
countenance  such  a  policy.  He  also  served  as 
regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  eight 
years.  He  finally  refused  the  offer  for  a  re- 
nomination  for  a  fifth  term  in  Congress  and  in 
1863  removed  to  Indianapolis  where  he  founded 
the  First  National  Bank  and  soon  made  a  repu- 
tation for  himself  as  a,  banker.  Though  not 
taking  an  active  part  in  the  Civil  War,  he  was  an 
ardent  supporter  of  the  Union.  He  continued 
his  interest  in  politics,  and,  in  1880,  was  unani- 
mously nominated  by  the  Democratic  pany  for 
the  ofhce  of  Vice-President  on  the  unsucccfsful 
ticket  with  General  Hancock  against  Garfield 
and  Arthur.  He  was  president  of  the  Indiana 
Historical  Society,  a  number  of  whose  publica- 
tions were  financed  by  him.  He  also  published 
'Conquest  of  the  Country  Northwest  of  the 
River  Ohio,  1778-83.  and  Life  of  General  G.  R. 
Gark'  (2  vols.,  Indianapolis  1896).  Consolt 
■■■■  "         r  of 


utadelphia  1880). 

ENGLISH  AECHITECTURE.  The  ear- 
liest architecture  of  England  (not  indudins;  the 
megalithic  remains  at  Stondenge,  Avebury, 
etc.,  whose  date  and  history  are  still  in  con- 
troversy and  which  can  hardly  be  classed  as 
architecture)  dates  from  the  Roman  occupation, 
which  has  left  many  remains  of  waits,  villa' 


there  is  but  little  left  of  any  architecture  pre- 
vious to  the  Norman  Conquest  (1066  a.d.),  for 
the  active  building  of  churches  and  monastcric< 
which  followed  involved  the  demolition  of  most 
of  the  earlier  Christian  or  "Saxon'  edifices.  A 
few  walls,  crypts  and  fragments  show  that  they 
were  without  exception  rudely  built,  with  little 
of  architectural  elegance  in  design  or  decora- 
tion. The  tower  of  Earl's  Barton  is  the  most 
noted  of  these  remains. 

Following  the  Conquest,  there  began  und:r 
the  Norman  kings  a  remarkable  activity  in 
building,  especially  of  abbeys  and  castles.  The 
imported  Norman  style,  itself  a  provincial 
phase  of  the  French  Romanesque,  was  modified 
in  English  hands,  developed  into  the  Anfjlo- 
Norman,  and  applied  in  the  building  of  great 
monastic  churches,  many  of  which  surpassed 
in  siae  those  of  France  or  Italy.  This  style 
was  marked  by  its  great  massiveness;  the  use 
of  the  round  arch  of  stepped  section;  huge 
piers  sometimes  round,  sometimes  clustered; 
square  lantem-towers  at  the  crossing  of  nave 
and  transept;  timber  ceiUngs  in  ^ference  to 
vatilting  for  the  high  central  aisle;  and  re- 
stricted but  bold  decoration  in  which  the  aig- 
xag  is  the  most  frequent  motive.  Interlaced 
ardies  frequently  appear  as  a  wall  decor«tiat. 
The  original  abb^- cathedral  of  CanteHxiry,  St 
Alban's  abbey,  Romsey  abbey,  Ely  and  Pcter- 
boro'  cathedrEils,  Winchester,  Southwell,  Dur- 
ham, Norwich,  Gloucester  and  Hereford  cathe- 
drals, the  churdi  of  Cbristcburcl]^  Saint  Btf 


V.Google 


SNOUaS  CHANNBV 


asi 


tholonKw')  at  Landvn.  the  Tower  of  London- 
with  its  Saint  John's  chapel,  and  many  feudal 
castles  belong  to  this  style,  which  lasted  Itosa 
107D  to  12W.  Most  of  the  above  churches 
weie  in  part,  Canterbuiy  almost  wholly,  rebuilt 
in  the  foUowiug  centuries. 

The  Antflo-Nonnan  snle  passed  away  with 
the  introdu^on  from  France  of  the  Gothic 
stj;le  (see  Gothic  AjtcHixEcrutt)  in  the  re- 
building of  the  choir  of  Canterbury  Cathedral 
destroyed  bj  Ere  in  1174,  The  iiointed  arch 
had  been  used  occasionally  before  this  dale  in 
Eingland,  but  from  about  U9Q  its  use  became 
the  general  rule,  and  with  it  the  English 
adopted  the  ribbed  vault  and  traceried  window 
and  less  universally  the  flying  arch  and  buttress. 
The  new  style  they  developed  on  indei)endent 
lines,  retaimng  more  of  the  early  massiveness 
ihan  did  the  French,  with  less  display  of  the 
structural  framework  in  stone;  The  English 
cathedrals  of  1190  to  1350  are  longer,  lower 
and  narrower  than  the  French,  less  ornate 
externally,  more  ornate  internally,  having  often 
two  transepts^  square  east  ends  in  place  of 
apses  and  apsidal  chapels,  and  with  west  fronts 
often  fomuus  a  screen  of  picturesque  design 
instead  of  a  logical  expression  of  the  form  of 
that  end  of  the  church.  As  there  were  many 
cathedrals  which  were  abbey-charches  as  well, 
the  practice  became  general  of  grouiniig  with 
ihem  cloisters,  chapter-houses,  libraries  and 
residences  for  the  dergy.  Nearly  til  the  cathe- 
drals have  great  square  towers  at  the  crossing, 
forming  internal  lanterns ;  at  Ely  this  takes  the 
form  of  a  superb  octagon  as  wide  as  the  three 
aisles  together.  But  one  cathednti  was  buih 
continuously  in  one  style  from  end  to  end, — 
Salisbury  (1220-58)  ;  Lichfield  Cathedral  and 
Westminster  Abbey  present  internally  a  fairly 


)  often  rebuilt  in  one  or  another 
part  at  different  periods  that  they  exhibit 
dearly  the  changes  of  style  from  one  centufv 
to  another.  It  is  customary  to  distinguish 
these  different  phases  and  periods  by  nunea 
derived  from  the  window  designs,  e.g.,  the 
Lancet  (or  Early  English),  1174-1250;  the 
DtcoraUd  (subdivided  into  ''geometric*  and 
•Curvilinear*).  1250-1375;  and  the  Perptndicv- 
lar,  1375-1500  or  1520.  During  these  346  years 
the  vaulting  was  developed  by  the  multi^ying 
of  the  main  and  subordinate  ribs  Into  the  ex- 
tremely ornate  form  seen  in  Henry  VH's 
Chapel  at  Westminster-  and  other  late  works, 
and  known  as  fon^vautting.  The  Et^ttA  were 
consummaie  woricers  in  wood,  and  many  of  ihe 
larger  parish  and  collegiate  chnrches  and  secu- 
lar llalu  have  timber  ceilings  with  *hammeT- 
bean "  "      -  -  -'  -  —   '■         •       .... 

of     !.___ 

churrhes  s 

the  foidgi    _...   _ „ _.__ 

portant  of  the  predominantly  Gothic  cathe- 
drals are  Canterbury,  Liocolo,  Salisbury,  Dy, 
York.  Winchester;  of  iha  second  rank.  Wells, 
Lichfield,  Exeter  and  Gloucester  may  be 
named:  among  the  parish  churches  Boston, 
Sa=nt  Michacrs  (Coventry),  Saint  Mary-Red- 
clffc  at  Bristol,  and  Fatnngton:  and  among 
abbey-churches  Westminster,  Sherborne  and 
Beverley. 

During  the  14fh  and  ISth  centuries  secutar 
architecture  was  developed  in  new  lines  in  the 


great  tuiivenitics  a«d  schools,  and  in  vut 
maoorial  residences  and  palaces;  to  this  phase 
the  name  of  Tudor  architecture  is  often  given. 
Under  Henry  VIU  (1507-47)  artists  from 
Italy,  Germany,  Holland  and  Flanders  were  im- 
ported, by  whose  works  the  decorative  details 
□f  Renaissance  art  were  made  known  to  the 
English;  but  the  Renaissance  taste  made  slow 
progress  in  architecture,  even  m  the  manor 
houses  of  the  wealthy,  which  continued  to  dis- 
play the  square  muUioned  windows,  battle- 
mented  parapets  and  irregular  plans  of  the 
Tudor  Gothic  period.  Under  Elizabeth  (155&^ 
16Q3)_  and  James  I  (1603-25)  the  use  of 
Renaissance  forms  steadily  increased  —  round- 
arches,  the  classic  'orders,'  openwork  balus- 
trades and  a  peculiar  fashion  of  flat  relief- 
ornament,  called  'strapworlc'  and  derived  from 
Germany,  became  more  and  more  frequent 
(•Elizabethan'  and  'Jacobean'  styles).  This 
prepared  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  a 
more  purely  Italian  or  classic  style  by  Inl^o 
Jones  under  James  I  and  Charles  I.  and  for  its 
culmination  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  (q.v.)  by 
the  great  Sir  Christopher  Wren  (q.v.),  whose 
53  churches  built  after  the  Great  Fire  of  1666, 
and  his  works  at  Hampton  Court,  Greenwich, 
Oxford  and  C^ambridge  firmly  established  the 
style.  It  continued  to  be  used  throughout  the 
I8tb  century  and  was  the  parent  style  of  our 
own  'Colonial'  or  Georgian  swle  (see  Archi- 
TECTTTRE— United  States).  The  19th  century 
was  marked  by  attempts,  partially  successful,  to 
revive  the  Greek  and  (Jothic  styles  in  modem 
work;  but,  except  in  church  architecture,  the 
tendency  of  English  design  has  since  1880  been 
toward  Renaissance  forms  very  freely  adopted. 
The  most  notable  example  of  the  Ciothic  Re- 
vival is  the  Houses  of  Parliament  by  Barry 
(1835-50).  The  best  work  of  the  present-day 
architects  of  England  is  in  domestic  archi- 
tecture, in  which,  on  the  whole,  they  are  un- 
Sualed  or  at  least  unsurpassed.  In  the  design 
rural  buildings,  of  small  cottages,  of  garden  ' 
suburbs  and  of  country  churches  they  especially 

Bib1iograph7.^-Tfae  literature  of  English 
architecture  is  enormous  in  volume.  Only  a 
few  leading  works  can  be  mentioned.  (>n  ute- 
diaval  arckiteciurt  the  works  of  Sir  T.  G. 
Jackson,  E.  S.  Prior  and  F.  Bond,  and  the 
earlier  works,  now  somewhat  out  of  date,  of 
Rickman,  Purin,  Britton,  Parker,  etc.;  also 
Moore,  t,  'Medieval  Church  Architecture  of 
England.'  On  the  Rena-ssance  developments: 
Blomfield,  R.,  'A  Short  History  of  Renaissance 
Architeciure  in  England^ ;  Gotch  and  Brown, 
'Architecture  of  the  Renaissance  in  England' ; 
Richardson,  C  J.,  'Monuments  of  Qassic  Ar- 
chitecture in  Great  Britain.'  For  the  more  re- 
cent developments  one  must  consult  the  archi- 
tectural periodicals.  There  is  no  single  woric 
devoted  to  the  wort  of  the  last  50  years. 

A.  D.  F.  HamIiw. 
Professor    of    ArehHeeHre,    Columbia    Uni- 

BNGLISH  CHANNEL,  or  THE  CHAN- 
NEL (Rom.  Mare  BriUintticus,  French  La 
Manehe),  an  arm  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ex- 
tending into  the  west  coast  of  Europe  to  the 
Strait  of  Dover,  hy  which  it  is  connected  with 
the  North  Sea.  The  land  bodies  seoarated  by 
this    channel    are    F^gland    and    prance,    tts 


.lOogle 


ENGLISH  CtiROHKL^ 


length  from  the  Strait  of  Dover  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  ia  about  350  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth, 
from  Saint  Malo,  in  France,  to  Sidmouth,  in 
England,  is  140  miles;  its  narrowest  width, 
called  the  Strait  of  Dover,  is  about  20  miles. 
At  its  juncture  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  it  is 
about  100  miles  wide.  Its  total  area  is  about 
30,000  square  miles.  The  average  depth  of 
the  western  half  is  about  300  feet,  the  maxi- 
mum about  500.  In  the  eastern  half  the  aver- 
age is  only  200,  and  in  the  Strait  of  Dover  the 
depth  vanes  from  6  to  120  feet.  The  length  of 
the  north  coastal  line,  from  Land's  End  to 
Dover,  is  390  miles ;  and  of  the  south  coastal 
line  from  Calais  to  Ushant  is  570  miles.  Some 
of  the  largest  indentations  on  the  coast  of  Eng- 
land arc  the  bays  of  Falmoutkl'lymouni, 
Lyme,  Weymouth,  Spithead  and  The  Solent. 
On  the  coast  of  France  are  Baie  de  )a  Seine, 
Bale  de  Saint  Brietic  and  Baie  de  Mont  Saint 
Michel.  The  principal  islands  in  the  Channel 
are :  Isle  of  Wight,  Channel  Islands  and  sev~ 
eral  other  islanos  near  the  coast  of  France; 
Scilly  Isles  and  Ushant  at  the  entrance.  The 
most  important  ports  are :  on  the  English  coast, 
Falmouth,  Plymouth,  Southampton,  Ports- 
mouth, Brighton,  Folkestone,  Anaover;  on  the 
French  coast,  Cherbourg,  Lc  Havre,  Dieppt 
Boulogne  and  Calais.  Many  of  these  and 
many  other  towns  and  villages  on  both  coasts 
have  become  famous  as  watering  places  and 
seaside  resorts.  The  tides,  coming  both  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  from  the  North  Sea, 
possess  many  peculiarities  and  make  navigation 
difficult  at  times.  There  are  many  liehthouses 
and  ligiit  ships,  the  most  famous  of  which,  per- 
haps, is  the  Eddystone  Light  off  Plymouth. 
The  prevalent  winds  are  most  westerly.  Gales 
are  frequent,  especially  between  October  and 
January.  Fog  and  thick  weather  are  also  fre- 
quent occurrences  throughout  the  entire  year. 
The  water,  most  of  the  time,  is  rough  and 
makes  travel  in  the  Channel  as  a  rule  a  most 
unpleasant  experience.  This  has  been  a  chief 
factor  in  bringing  forth  many  plans  for  a  direct 
non- water  connection  between  England  and 
France,  either  by  means  of  a  bridge  or  a  tun- 
nel. Of  the  former  the  most  important  has 
been  a  project  put  forward  by  the  famous 
French  engineenng  firm,  Schneider  &  Co., 
Lc  Creusot,  in  conjunction  with  English  and 
French  engineers,  which  provided  for  a_biidge 
24  miles  long  witti  120  piers  and  permitting  the 
passage  of  ships  beneath  it.  The  tunnel  project 
was  found  feasible  from  an  engineering  point 
of  view,  and  preliminary  shafts  and  headways 
were  started  on  both  coasts.  On  the  English 
side  the  shaft  at  Shakespeare's  Oiff.  Dover,  |s 
164  feet  deep,  and  a  driftway,  7  feet  in  di- 
ameter at  an  inclination  of  1  in  72,  extends 
eastward  under  the  Channel  for  2,300  yards. 
During  the  borings  valuable  coal  beds  were  dis- 
covered. So  far,  nowever,  neither  the  bridge  nor 
the  tunnel  projects  have  been  able  to  get  the 
final  approval  of  either  the  English  or  the  French 
government.  Many  historic  naval  engagements 
have  been  fought  in  the  Channel.  Consult 
Channel  Bridge  and  Railway  Co..  'Pont  sur  la 
Manche>  (Paris  1890)  ;  Great  Britain,  Admi- 
ralty, Hydrographic  Department,  'The  Channel 
Pilot'  (2  parts.  Londoni  ;  Hawkshaw,  J.  C, 
'The  English  Channel  Tunnel  and  Its  Early 
History*    (in  Scientific  American  Supplement, 


Vol.  LXXVIII,  pp.  18  and  34,  New  York  1914) ; 
Hersent^  H.,  and  Sir  John  Fowler,  and  Benj. 
Baker,  'Pont  sur  la  Manche,  Avant-Projets  de 
MM.  Schneider  et  Cie.,  etc.'  (Paris  1889); 
Jukes-Brown,  A.  J.,  'Geographical  Evolution- 
of  the  English  Channel'  (in  Contemporory 
Review.  Vol.  LXI,  p,  855,  London  18K); 
Mackinder,  H.  J.,  'Britain  and  the  British  Seas* 
(New  York  19^)  ;  McMoIlen,  R.  T.,  'Down 
OianneP    (London  1893)  ;  Perkins,  W.  T.,  ed.. 


^Channel     Tnnnel :     Reports    by    British    and 

"Engineers*  (London  19(w)  ;  Spethmann, 

H.,  'Der  Kanal  mit  seincn  Kusten  und  Flotlen- 


French  Engi 


stiitzpnnkten'     (in    Kreigsgeographiteke    Ztil- 
bildir.  Part  3,  Leipzig  1915). 

ENGLISH  CHRONICLES.  The  writing 
of  English  chronicles  begins  with  the  'Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicl^'  the  earliest  English  history 
written  in  the  English  language,  and  the  ear- 
liest vernacular  record  of  national  events  in 
modern  Europe.  The  '(Hironicle'  opens  with 
the  Christian  era,  combining  in  its  earlier  parts 
records  of  Roman,  Christian  and  British  events. 
I.t  rapidly  becomes  strictly  national,  carrying  the 
record  of  English  histoiy  forwara  to  a  consid- 
erable period  after  the  Norman  Conquest  It 
treUs  in  general  of  the  afiairs  of  all  the  Eng- 
lish-speakuig  peoples  in  Great  Britain,  and  as 
one  of  the  first  attempts  at  an  expression  of 
coherent  national  life  and  as  a  trustworthy 
source  of  information  concerning  the  language, 
history  and  social  manners  and  customs  of  the 


.  dlyb 

thou^  the  work  itself  does  not  mention  the 
name  of  its  author,  there  is  strong  evidence  to 
show  that  in  its  orifpnal  form  it  was  under- 
taken at  the  suggestion  of  King  Alfred  and 
waa  in  part  actuaJ^r  written  by  him.  From  this 
original  form,  now  _  no  longer  extant^  _  copies 
were  made  and  carried  to  different  sections  of 
England,  where  they  served  as  foundations  of 
what,  from  that  time,  became  separate  and  in- 
dependent chronicles.  Seven  of  these  local 
chronicles,  with  a  fragment  of  an  eighth,  have 
come  down  to  us.  The  date  at  which  the  orig- 
inal parent  version  was  made  was  about  892, 
and  the  place  was  probably  Winchester,  the  cap- 
i^  of  the  West-Saxon  kingdom.  The  form  in 
which  the  'Chronicle'  Is  written  is  that  of  a 
book  of  annals,  the  entry  for  each  y;ear  contain- 
ing usually  the  record  of  hut  a  single  occur- 
rence. For  the  early  years  the  records,  derived 
chiefb'  from  literary  sources,  are  brief  and 
colorless,  but  in  the  later  parti,  particularly  in 
the  accounts  of  the  Danish  wars,  when  the  nar- 
rative becomes  more  neariy  contetnporary  with 
the  time  of  the  cotnpitalion  of  the  work,  they 
become  more  detailed  and  vigorous.  At  no 
time,  however,  is  there  an  attempt  to  write  ■ 
philosophic  htstorr,  to  fioint  oat  the  causes  or 
the  trend  of  events.  This  is  in  accord  with  the 
main  puriwse  of  chronicle  writing,  which  is 
merely  to  keep  the  events  of  tustory  in  their 
right  chronological  perspective,  the  details  cen- 
tering about  these  events  being  largely  entrusted 
to  oral  tradition.  This  annalistic  purpose^  of 
the  'Chronicle' _  determined  also  its  mechanical 
forni.  The  scribe's  method  was  to  rule  off  a 
number  of  pages  as  thot^h  preparing  a  loumal 
in  which  the  entries  were  to  be  made  b7  years 
instead  of  days.  Eadi  year  was  thus  given  a 
blank  space  opposite  its  pnmber  sufEctent  usn- 


BH0M8H  COLLSOB   AT   BOMB 


lect,  leaving  the  spaces  for  which  he  bad  no 
materials  to  be  filled  in  later  when  new  mate- 
rial should  become  available.  This  method  of 
chronicle' writing  remained  long  in  use  in  Eng- 
land, being  followed  by  Capgrave  as  late  as 
the  15th  century. 

Although  no  single  model  or  source  for  ihft 
'Cbronide*  is  known,  there  were  in  existence  in 
Alfred's  time  a  number  of  Latin  works  which 
were  of  help  in  its  first  compilation.  Of 
these  the  most  important  were  Bede's  'Historia 
Ecclesiastica  Gentis  An^^onim,'  finished  in  731 ; 
Bede's  <De  temporum  ratione,'  a  chronological 
essay  containing  a  short  epitome  of  the  history 
of  the  world  from  Adam  to  729  a.d.  ;  Orosius' 
'Universal  History*  ('Pauli  Orosii  Historianim 
Adverstim  Paganos  Libri  VJI') ;  and  doubtless 
many  records  of  national  events  preserved  in 
local  monastic  libraries.  But  the  'Chronicle' 
was  an  original  work  in  that  it  strove  to 
record  the  life  of  a  nation.  Just  as  the  codes 
of  laws  systematized  the  customs  and  rules  of 
living  of  the  people,  so  the  'Chronicle'  fixed 
for  them  the  ever-receding  events  of  their 
history. 

From  the  period  of  its  original  conyxisitioi) 
t(>  the;  middle  of  the  lltb  c«ntury,  the  'Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle'  established  the  form  for  all 
historical  writing  in  England.  Although  we 
now  know  only  seven,  with  the  fragmentary 
eighth,  versions  of  the  'Chronicle,'  the  number 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  must  have  been 
mtich  greater,  copies  being  probably  kept  at 
every  important  monastery  and  town.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  however, 
the  'Chronicle*  tends  to  become  less  and  less 
national  and  more  and  more  ecclesiastical  in 
its    character.      In   harmony   with   this   change 


1154,  the  date  of  the  latest  entry  in  that  tongue, 
appears  only  in  one  version,  and  is. plainly  due 
to  reasons  of  respect  for  the  traditional  lan- 
guage of  the  "Chronicle.'  To  lake  the  plaoe 
of  tne  English  annals  of  the  'Chronicle,'  new 
histories  began  to  be  written  in  Latin.  The 
earliest  of  these  was  that  of  Ethelwerd;  others 
from  the  beginning  of  the  12th  to  the  14th 
century  were  the  histories  of  Symeon  of  Dur- 
ham, Florence  of  Worcester,  William  of 
Malmesbury,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  Roger  of 
Hoveden,  Matthew  of  Paris,  Matthew  of  West- 
minster, Roger  of  Wendover,  and  Ralph  Higden, 
whose  'Polychronicon'  was  the  ^standard  work 
of  general  history  in  the  14th  and  15th  cen- 
turies' (Babington,  ed  of  'Higden'  in  the  Rolls, 
Series,  p.  uliii)-     AH  of  these  Latin  histories 


derived  much  of  their  material  either  directly 
__  ^.  Erectly  from  the 'Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.' 
In  the  Middle  English  period  several 


hiftories  were  wntten  m  English,  the  'Brut' 
of  Layamon,  the  chronicles  of  Robert  of 
Gloucester  and  of  Robert  Manning  of  Brunne: 
but  these  are  better  characterized  as  historical 
romances  than  as  attempts  at  veracious  history. 
The  writing  of  prose  histories  in  English  begins 
again  with  Trevisa's  translation  of  Higden's 
'Polychronicon,'  made  in  1387,  and  with  John 
Capgrave's  original  chronicle,  written  about  the 
middle  of  the  following  century.  The  tone  of 
Capgrave's  work,  as  compared  with  the  'Anglo-- 
Saxon    Chronicle,'    is    extremely   naive.     The 


writefs  of  the  'Chronicle'  had  a  most  rigid  sente 
of  historical  fac^  but  the  work  of  Capgrave  and 
his  contemiporaries  is  marked  by  an  attogethet 
uncritical  and  credulous  mingling  of  legend  and 
history.  As  a  result,  however,  of  this  infusion 
of  the  romantic  spirit  into  historical  writing, 
the  older  annalistic  method  gave  way  to  one  u 
which  greater  attention  was  paid  to  a  consecu- 
tive narrative  interest,  after  the  manner 
of  modem  historical  writing,  liie  national 
awakening  accompanying  the  reigns  of  Henry 
V!1I  and  Elizabeth  resulted  in  a  renewed  in- 
terest in  the  writing  of  these  history-chronicles. 
in  1516  appeared  Fabyan's  'New  Oironicles  of 
England  and  France';  in  1562  Grafton's 
'Abridgment  of  the  Chronicles  of  England' ;  in 
1565  Stowe's  'Sununarie  of  Englyshe  ChroniT 
cles' ;  and  in  1578,  the  most  important  of  the 
Elizabethan  chronicles  because  of  the  use  made 
of  it  by  Shakespeare,  'The  Chronicles  of 
England,  Scotland  and  Ireland,'  written  by 
HoUnshed  with  the  assistance  of  several  others. 
The  term  chronicle  continued  to  be  used  in  the 
titles  of  historical  works  to  the  end  of  the  17th 
century,  as  in  Sir  Ro^er  de  Coverley's  favorite 
book,  Baker's  'Chronifcle  of  the  Kings  of  Eng- 
land,' 1643;  by  this  time,  however,  the  naive 
annalistic  cnronide  had  krgely  given  way  to 
the  more  philosophical  treatment  of  events 
which  is  designated  by  the  name  of  history. 

Bibliop^hv.—  For  general  biblfogiaphy, 
consult  Gross,  'Sources  and  Literature  of  bng- 
Udi  History  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  about 
1485'  (1900).  Editions  of  most  of  the  chroni- 
cles will  be  found  in  the  Rolls  Series;  the  best 
edition  of  the  'Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle'  is  that 
o{  Earie  and  Plununer  (Oxford  1892-^).  The 
literary  significance  of  the  chronicles  is  dis- 
cussed by  Schofield,  'English  Literature  from 
the  Norman  Conquest  to  Chancer'  (pp.  29-46) ; 
and  by  Sehellino;  'English  Chronicle  Plays' 
(New  York  I9(S).  Consult  also  'Cambridxe 
History  of  En^sh  Literature*  (Vol.  I,  chap.  7, 
1907). 

George  P.  Ksapp, 
Proftssor  of  English,  Columbia  University. 

ENGLISH  COLLEGE  AT  ROME,  an 
ancient  institute  in  the  papal  city,  erroneously 
suKKised  to  have  been  founded,  according  to 
statements  of  mediieval  chroniclers,  about  81& 
In  reality  it  dates  from  the  middle  of 
the  14th  century,  when  the  Hospice  of  Saint 
Thomas  of  Canterbury, — which  owed  its  estab- 


Ushmeu  visiting  the  Holy  See.  In  the  t 
Heniy  VIII  refugees  from  England  were  nar- 
bored  in  the  hostel.  In  the  rei^  of  Elizabeth 
the  institution  was  transformed  into  a  seminary 
for  the  education  of  aspirants  to  the  priesthood 
who  proposed  to  serve  in  the  English  mission, 
which  they  entered  with  pretty  fair  assurance 
of  the  martyr's  crown.  This  seminary  was 
placed  under  Jesuit  control,  the  date  of  ap- 
pointment of  die  first  rector  —  the  real  birth- 
day of  the  college  — being  23  April  1579. 
Between  1578  and  1647,  40  of  the  alumni  of  the 
institution,  serving  as  missionary  priests  in  Eng- 
land, were  executed  for  the  high  treason  o£ 
exercising  the  Catholic  ministry  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  me  realm ;  and  when  Saint  Philip  Neri, 
fouiuler  of  the  Congregation  of  the  OratorianB, 
met  any  of  the  young  English  ecclesiastics  in 


8l^ 


ENGLISH  CONSTITUTION  — SMOUBH  LANGUAGE 


the  streets  of  Rome,  his  invariable  salntation 
was  Avete  flares  martyntm  —  'Hail  fiower  of 
^e  martyrs,"  The  college  was  plundered  and 
wrecked  by  the  French  republican  army  1798 
and  its  resources  dissipated ;  it  was  resuscitated 
1818;  its  president  from  1S31  to  1846  was  Nicho- 
las Wiseman,  afterward  first  ardibishop  of 
Westminster,  and  cardinal. 

ENGLISH  CONSTITUTION.  See 
Great  Brttain  — History;  Parliament. 

ENGLISH  COURTS.    See  Court. 

ENGLISH    FURNITURE.     See    Furmi- 

lURE,    iiatlXVAL. 

ENGLISH  HARBOR,  a  harbor  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Antigua  (q.v.),  one  of  the 
Leeward  Islands.  It  is  the  site  of  a  British 
naval  station,  which  from  its  location  is  one  of 
the  important  British  possessions  in  the  West 
Indies.  Consult  Oliver.  V.  L.,  'The  History  of 
die  Island  of  Antigua'  (3  vols.,  London 
180+.99). 

ENGLISH  LACQUERWORK.   See  Lac- 

QUEBS  AND  L ACQ UER WORK. 

BNGUSH  LAND.  See  Pale,  The, 
ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  The  English 
language  is  a  direct  development  of  the  An^lo- 
Saxon,,  a  circumstance  which  makes  it  qnestion.- 
able  whether  the  latter  speech  ought  to  be  dia- 
tinguished  by  a  separate  name.  But  although  a 
direct  development  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  it  is  not 
a  development  which  has  been  allowed  to  take 
place  regularly  and  gradually,  as  the  result 
merely  of  internal  causes.  One  important  ex- 
ternal influence  was  brought  to  bear  on  the  orig- 
inal form  of  our  language,  which  bad  the  double 
effect,  first,  of  producing  a  much  more  sudden 
and  complete  modification  of  die  grammatical 
structure  than  could  have  taken  place  if  the 
language  had  grown  up  independently  of  for- 
eign influences ;  and  secondly,  of  ^ving  a 
composite  character  to  the  vocabulary  of  the 
language  by  the  introduction  of  a  large  number 
of  foreign  words.  This  external  influence  was 
the  Nornum  Conquest,  in  consequence  of  which 
a  new  language,,  the  Norm  an -French,  came  to 
be  spoken  m  England  by  those  who  had  made 
themselves  the  masters  of  the  country,  and  who 
formed,  therefore,  almost  the  only  class  that  had 
leisure  and  opportunity  for  literary  pursuits. 
The  immediate  result  of  the  Norman  Conquest 
(1066)  was  thus  that  the  language  of  the  Nor- 
mans came  to  be  the  chief  literary  language  of 
England  (except  where  Latin  was  used),  and 
that  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  reduced  to  a  very 
subordinate  place,  When  the  latter  language 
again  comes  into  notice  as  a  written  language 
a  great  change  is  seen  to  have  been  wrought 
in  It.  Before  the  Conquest  it  was  a  very  highly 
inflected,  or  what  is  called  a  synthetic  language, 
that  is,  one  in  which  the  substantives,  adjectives, 
verbs  and  articles  are  subject  to  numerous 
modifications,  each  of  which  expresses  a  modi- 
fication of  the  root-meaning  of  the  word,  or 
^ows  the  relation  of  the  word  to  the  other 
words  in  the  sentence.  During  the  period  when 
Anglo-Saxon  ceased  to  a  great  extent  to  be  a 
written  language  these  inflections  dropped  ofi ; 
and  when  it  re-emerges  as  a  written  language 
about  the  end  of  the  12th  century  it  is  no  longer 
synthetic,  but  analytic,  that  is,  prepositions  and 
auxiliaries  are  now  used  instead  of  inflectional 
prefixes  and  terminations  to  express  the  various 


modifications  of  the  idea  contained  in  any  word, 
and  the  relations  of  the  words  in  a  sentence  to 
one  another.  At  this  period,  however,  the  lan- 
guage still  continued  to  be  essentially  homoge- 
neous in  respect  of  its  vocabulary :  the  Norman 
words  that  occur  are  so  rare  that  they  need  not 
be  taken  into  account.  And  it  was  natural  that 
it  should  be  so,  for  the  Saxon  language  was 
stilt  confined  to  the  Saxon  inhabitants  of  the 
country;  and  those  who  wrote  in  it  addressed 
themselves  only  to  that  portion  of  the  commu- 
nity, and  accordingly  had  no  occasion  to  use  any 
word  of  Norman  orifpa.  This  state  of  matters 
lasted  till  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century, 
which  is  the  period  at  which  English  proper  is 
usually  regarded  fts  having  begun  to  be  spoken 
and  written.  Bv  this  time  the  Normans  began 
to  experience  the  inconvenience  of  not  being 
acquainted  with  the  language  of  the  people 
among  whom  they  dwelt,  and  in  learning  to 
speak  and  write  it  they  very  naturally  used  a 
large  number  of  Norman  words,  and  these 
words  were  adopted  by  all  such  writers  belong- 
ing to  the  subject  race  as  wished  to  make  them- 
selves understood  by  Norman  as  well  as  by 
Saxon  readers.  A  very  rapid  mixing  of  the  two 
languages  thus  took  place,  and  a  second  im- 
portant change  was  wrought  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. It  is  no  longer  homogeneous  in  its 
vocabulary,  but  contains  a  large  admixture  of 
foreign  words. 

The  whole  of  what  precedes  may  be  shortly 
summarized  thus:  From  450  to  1066  the  lan- 
guage spoken  in  England  was  the  so-called 
Anrfo-Saxon,  a  dialect'  of  Low  (jerman,  veiy 
highly  inflected.  From  1066  to  1250  two  lan- 
guages were  spoken  in  England,  Anglo-Saxon 
and  Norman- French,  by  two  different  sections 
of  the  population  occupying  different  political 
positions.  During  this  period  the  erammatical 
structure  of  the  former  langiiage  began  to  be 
broken  up,  chiefly  owing  to  its  being  disused 
for  literary  pnrposes;  and  toward  the  end  of 
the  period  we  (ind  a  few  works  written  in  a 
language  resembling  Uie  English  of  our  day  in 
grammar,  but  differing  from  it  b^  the  homo- 
geneousness  of  its  vocabulaiy.  llnally,  about 
1250  the  two  languages  begin  to  mingle  and 
form  one  intellieible  to  the  witole  population, 
Normans  as  well  as  Saxons.  This  is  what  is 
usually  called  Engtirti  proper.  English  is  thus 
seen  to  be  a  composite  language,  deriving  part 
of  its  stock  of  words  from  a  Cierman  source, 
and  part  from  a  Latin  source,  Norman-French 
being  in  the  main  merely  a  modified  form  of 

The  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the 
English  language  subsequently  to  1250  are  by 
no  means. as  striking  as  those  which  took  place 
in  the  transitional  period  between  1066  and  1250. 
Some  few  inflections  which  the  English  of  the 
13th  and  14th  centuries  still  retained  have  now 
been  dropped,  but  the  chief  change  which  the 
language  has  experienced  consists  in  its  gradual 
growth  and  expansion  in  obedience  to  the  re- 
quirements of  advancing  science,  more  compli- 
cated social  relations,  and  increased  subtlety 
of  thought.  This  growth  has  been  going  on  at 
all  times,  but  there  are  some  periods  which  may 
be  pointed  out  as  more  remarkable  than  others 
for  the  rapiditv  with  which  it  proceeded.  Such 
a  period  was  the  end  of  the  16th  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  I7th  century,  the  period  of  &e 
Reformation  and  following  the  revival  of  letrn- 


joogle 


KNOU»l  UTKUTURC 


ing,  when  nvnierous  words  of  Latin  ortajin  were 
introduced  by  scholkTS  directly  from  toat  lan- 
guage, instead'of  through  the  French,  the  chan- 
nel through  which  most  of  the  haxin  words 
previously  found  in  the  language  had  come. 
Another  such  period  is  the  present,  when  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  sciences  already  existing, 
and  the  creation  of  new  sciences,  have  caused 


Greek. 

It  would  scarcely  be  in  olaoc  here  to  diSdHS 
the  various  excellencies  and  defects  of  the  Et^- 
lish  as  compared  with  other  languages,  but  we 
may  mention  the  following  as  among  the  <]uali- 
ties  which  the  English  language  is  general^ 
allowed  to  ^ssesa.  1.  Strength  and  expressive- 
ness, adapttiw  it  admirably  for  poetical  conv- 
positcon.  2.  Copiousness,  enhanced  as  shown 
under  assimilation,  by  the  extraordinary  recq>- 
tivity  of  the  language,  that  is,  it*  capacity  for 
adopting  new  words  from  all  sources,  and  of 
naturalizing  them  at  once,  so  that  they  may  be 
treated  without  any  a^peanmce  of  strangeness 
entirely  as  native  English  words.  3.  Simplicity 
in  form  and  construction.  4.  Great  flexibility,  or 
adaptability  to  all  kinds  of   composition,  the 

Kve  and  gay,  the  impassioned  and  calm,  forel- 
and tender,  subLme  and  ludicrous.  S,  Power 
of  assimilation,  words  being  readily  adapted 
from  other  languages,  Italy,  France,  Spain,  Hol- 
huid  and  distmctive  terras  originating  in  the 
American  continent,  alt  contributing  to  its  rich 
and  full  expressiveness.  The  influence  of  Eng- 
lish colonizing  is  seen  in  words  borrowed  from 
India,  South  Africa  and  other  colonies. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  the  English 
language,  we  may  here  further  observe,  that 
England  and  the  United  States  offer  the  first 
instance  in  history  of  two  great,  independent 
and  active  nations  having  a  conamon  language, 
hut  situated  at  a  great  distance  from  each  other, 
and  daily  developing  new  and  charactenstlc 
features.  These  relations  must,  sooner  or  later, 
exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  common 
language,  for  no  language  is  so  staUe  as  not  to 
nndergo  continual  changes,  if  spoken  by  a  peo- 
ple in  the  full  vigor  of  social  and  political  life. 
This  state  of  things  has  already  produced  some 
effect  on  the  English  langu^e.  The  most  ma- 
terial difference,  probably,  has  been  in  the  pro- 
nunciation' of  the  langu;^,  which,  however 
important  in  our  daily  conversation,  is  of  sec- 
ondary importance  in  relation  to  the  literature 
and  written  language  of  the  two  countries.  It 
has  often  been  ohaerved  by  English  travelers 
and  others  that  the  pronunciation  of  the  United 
States  is  far  more  uniform  than  that  of  Eur- 
land;  and  so  nearly  alike  everj^here,  that  the 
people  of  an^  one  town  or  district  are  perfectly 
understood  ui  every  other  part  of  the  country, 
whidi  is  not  true  of  the  lower  ranks  of  Eng- 
land. When  (xmsidered  more  minutely,  how- 
ever, there  has  for  a  long  time  existed  a  marked 
distinction  between  the  pronunciation  of  the 
New  England  and  Soulherxi  States.  Only  in 
New  Enf^nd  States  is  there  what  may  be 
termed  a  distinctive  dialect.  It  is  noted  by 
visitors  to  the  United  States,  especially  to  New 
Enc^and,  that  many  words  and  turns  of  expres- 
sions, familiar  to  the  Entfland  of  Shakespeare, 
and  which  in  their  country  of  origin  have  either 
become  obsolete  or  degraded  into  provincialisms, 
are  living  a  full  and  vigorous  lire  on  this  side 
of  the  Atlantic.    The  ortbograi^  of  the  Eng- 


lish language  has  undei^one  no  material  change 
in  America,  it  being  the  general  inclination  to 
follow  that  of  the  best  English  writers  of  the 
age.  Under  the  inspiration  of  the  Simplified 
felling  Board,  President  Roosevelt  in  August 
1906  authorized  the  adoption  by  the  public 
printer  of  about  300  amended  spellings;  but  so 
great  was  the  storm  of  criticism  that  the  order 
was  withdrawn  except  in  so  far  as  related  to  the 
correspondence  of  the  White  House. 

The  Eogliab  bnguage  may  be  divided  into 
five  periods : 

1.  First  Period  450-1100  a.D. 

2.  Second  Period  1100-1250  a.d. 

3.  Third  Period  12SO-1350  A.n. 

4.  Fourth  Period  1350-1460  a.d. 

5.  Fifth  Period  1460  a.d  — the  present  day. 
In  the  first  period  (called  also  Anglo-Saxon 

or  Old  English),  the  language  was  inflectional; 
in  the  second  it  began  to  show  a  tendcncv  to 
become  analytic,  the  tendency  increasing  till  in 
the  fourth  period  inflections  had  virtually  disap- 
peared. Before  the  Norman  Con au est  there 
were  two  dialects  in  English,  a  southern  and  a 
northern,  the  former  of  which  was  the  literary 
language.  After  the  Conquest  dialects  became 
much  more  marked,  so  that  we  can  distinguish 
three  great  varieties,  the  northern,  the  midland, 
and  the  southern,  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  various  grammatical  differences.  The  raid- 
land  dialect — or  rather  the  subdivision  known  as 
the  east  midland  —  was  that  most  widely  spread, 
and  it  ultimately  became  the  standard  language, 
a  result  principally  due  to  the  influence  of  Chau- 
cer, and  in  a  less  degree  of  Wyclif,  Gower  and 
others.    See  Dialect;  Language,  Science  cf. 

ENGLISH  LITBKATUSS.  The  Norman 
Conquest  made  a  great  change  in  the  develop- 
ment of  an  En^sK  literature,  as  in  all  other 
forms  of  Ejigitsh  life.  Conditions  were  at 
first  most  unfavorable:  the  English  languooe 
might  be  used  by  any  who  pleased,  but  the 
clergy  natumlty  used  Latin,  and  people  of  any 
position  French,  or  Anglo-Narman,  as  it  is 
commonly  called.  For  uree  centurice,  there- 
fore, we  do  not  And  in  English  any  strikii^ 
cmginal  work,  anything  to  compare  in  interest 
with  die  Shaldic  poetry  and  the  Saeas  in  Ice- 
land, with  the  French  romances  and  fabtiaux, 
with  the  German  epic  and  courdy  poet^.  Dur- 
ing these  centuries,  however,  we  do  find  in  Eng- 
land what  is  in  its  way  most  interesting,  namely, 
a  singularly  rich  rcprescntatiDn  of  the  iliffereot 
phases  of  raediaval  thought  We  may  con- 
veoiemtly  bcgiii  with  the  work  connected  with 
the  older  order  of  diings.  The  'Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle'  was  still  kept  up  at  Worcester  and  at 
Peterborough.  Of  these  the  former  b  preserved 
only  as  far  as  1079;  the  laUer  is  a  moch  later 
work;  in  1121  the  whole  chronicle  was  rewritten 
and  Hien  carried  on  to  1154.  being  somethiiw; 
more  than  a  mere  set  of  annals,  with  a  distisct 
character  of  its  own.  After  this,  bec^nning  in- 
deed before,  comes  a  stately  series  of  Latin 
chronicles,  though  in  Ejoglish  we  find  oriy 
chronicles  in  verse.  Layamon's  'Brut'  (c. 
1200,  after  the  Anglo-Norman  of  Wace,  whidi 
itself  is  a  paraphrase  of  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth) U  most  mteresting  as  language,  litera- 
ture and  legend,  giving,  among  other  thinn, 
the  introduction  of  King  Arthur  to  Englid 
readers.  Much  later  are  the  chronicles  of 
Robert  of  Gloucester  (c.  1300)  and  Robert  of 


8lc 


ENGLISH  LITBRATUKS 


Brunne  (1330).  Layaraon  is  hardly  as  mucli 
history  a.s  romance.  Of  this  latter  almost 
evtrythiag  is  from  French,  Scandinavian  or 
Celtic  sources :  there  is  little  native  English 
either  in  form  or  substance.  'Kinff  Horn'  (c. 
1250)  and  <Have!ock  the  Dane'  (c.  1275)  prob- 
ably go  back  to  Scandinavian  onginals,  though 
they  are  still  regarded  by  some  as  English 
legend  material :  more  purely  national  are  the 
stories  of  'Bevis  of  Hampton'  (c.  127S)  and  of 
<Gi]y  of  Warwick*  (c.  1300),  though  the  ver- 
sions preserved  are  probably  from  Anglo-Nor- 
man originals.  Renderings  of  Continental  r<i- 
mances  are  numberless,  beginning  about  1250 
with  the  Alexander  story  and  going  on  with  the 
tale  of  Troy  and  stories  of  Ring  Arthur,  the 
Round  Table  and  the  Holy  Grail,  where  the 
material  is  partly  Celtic,  giving  even  some  of 
the  legends  of  Charlemagne,  and  many  minor 
stories,  as  'Floris  and  Blancheflor,'  'Amis  and 
Amilon,'  'Sir  Tjistram.*  Somewhat  later 
(1300),  and  less  fully,  come  versions  of  the 
fabliaux,  'Dame  Sirii,'  "Reynard  the  Fox,*  the 
'Land  of  Cokayne,'  the  'Lay  of  the  Ash.' 
About  this  time  appear  the  great  mediaeval  col- 
lections of  stories,  the  'Seven  Sages'  and  the 
'Gesta  Romanorum,'  which  latter,  thoueh  in 
Latin,  was  collected  in  England.  Beside  all 
this  epic  and  narrative  material  there  is  a 
smaller  l^ic  element;  oftenest  anonymous,  like 
'Sumer  is  ycumen  in'  (c,  1250),  'Winter 
wakeneth  all  my  care^'  and  other  love  son^, 
as  well  as  many  political  songs,  amonj^  which 
are  the  ^triotic  poems  of  Lawrence  Minot  (c. 

(1325).     But  generally  where  it  is  not  rurrative, 
the  Middle  English  poetry  is  didactic ;    the  so- 
called    Proverbs    of    Alfred,    dating    from    the 
12lh  century  and  preserved  in  several  versions, 
may  have  old  material  and  certainly  keep  some- 
thing of  the  old  alliterative  form,  though  there 
/  is  also  the  Norman  element  of  verse.    And  as 
/    the  Anglo-Saxon  priestly  writers  used  allitera- 
tion in  their  didactic  prose,  so  now  much  of  the 
1    religious  literature  is  put  into  rhyme,  a  fashion 
N,of  the  Norman.     The   'Poema  Morale'    (1200) 
is  a  sermon  in  verse,  though  now  and  then  with 
3.  personal  element  aad  Oiere  are  many  other 
shorter  homilies.    A  common  form  is  ibt  dia-' 


dialogue  between  'Mary  and  the  Cross,'  and 
others  including,  in  hghter  mood  from  a  French 
source,  the  'Owl  and  the  Nightin^le'  (1220), 
a  poem  full  of  popular  wisdom  in  which  the 
gay  and  the  gloomy  views  of  life  are  cham- 
pioned respectively  by  the  two  birds  who  refer 
the  dispute  to  Master  Nicholas  of  Guilford,  gen- 
erally taken  as  the  author.  Less  original  in 
substance  are  the  versions  of  Scripture  of  which 
the  'Ormuium,'  a  metrical  paraphrase  of  the 
Gospels  by  Orm  of  Lincolnshire  (1220)  is  most 
important  for  linguistic  reasons,  preserved  in 
an  autograph  copy  (probably)  with  an  indi- 
vidual system  of  phonetic  spelling.  Versions  of 
Genesis  and  Exodus  (c.  1225)  are  also  to  be 
mentioned,  while  much  later  in  the  north  (1320) 
'Cursor  Mundi'  reviews  the  whole  extent  of 
history  from  the  creation  lo  the  day  of  judg- 
menL  Lives  of  the  saints  there  were  also, 
especially   of   Saints   Katherine,   Margaret   and 

Juliana,  and  much  devotional  poetry,  some  Ivric, 
ike  the  "Wohung  of  ourc  Loverde'  (c.  122S), 
and  others,  some  didactic,  like  'Hali  Meiden- 
heid'  {c  1250).    ITiere  are  also  certain  larger 


religious  treatises:  the  'Ancren  Riwte'  (1225), 
a  prose  work  of  considerable  merit,  giving  the 
conditions  of  convent  rule,  and  in  the  early  part 
of  the  14th  century,  three  books  on  holy  living, 
the  'Prick  of  Conscience,'  by  Richard  RoUe  of 
Hampole ;  the  ' Ayenbite  of  Inwit,'  by  Dan 
Michael  of  Northgate  and  'Handlyng  Syroie,' 
by  Robert  of  Brunne,  the  two  latter  from  the 
French.  Also  to  be  noted  is  the  very  character- 
istic 'Bestiary'  (122S),  a  compilation  of  the 
mediaeval  speculation  on  natural  history.  Such 
are  the  main  elements  of  Middle  English  litera- 
ture before  1350,  although  the  number  of  partic- 
ular works  is  far  greater.  As  is  common  in 
medixval  literature  the  language  is  dialectic:  no 
one  dialect  gains  entire  pnmacy  till  much  later, 
although  by  this  time  the  East  Midland  has  be- 
come the  most  important.  The  second  half  of 
the  14tfa  century  was  a  period  of  great  literary 
activity.  England  had  been  long  separate  from 
Normandy,  and  the  English  language,  like  the 
Ejiglish  people,  had  digested  its  different  ele- 
ments into  an  or^nic  combination.  Literature 
now  becomes  more  literary.  The  old  forms 
were  now  only  to  some  degree  preserved :  Tre- 
visa  translated  the  'Polychronicon'  of  H^dm 
(c  1387) ;  Barbour  in  the  north  wrote  a  rhymed 
chronicle  of  Bruce  (c.  1375).  There  are  num- 
bers of  romances  from  the  French.  But  didac- 
tic or  allegoric  poetry  appears  in  forms  which 
though  not  new  have  yet  a  certain  original 
character.  There  are  two  great  poets ;  one  of 
name  unknown,  the  author  of  the  'Pearl,' 
'Gawain  and  the  Green  Kjiight,'  'Cleanness,' 
and  'Patience,'  the  other  William  Lan^and  (as 
is  most  commonljr  thought),  the  author  of  the 
'Vision  Concerning  Piers  the  Ploi^man.* 
Fine  as  is  their  work,  it  is  outshone  by  the 
genius  of  Chaucer,  who  gathered  up  and  sum- 
marized the  spirit  of  the  century  and  whose  in- 
fluence  was  carried  through  the  century  fol- 
lowing by  companions  or  followers  of  whom 
the  most  noteworthy  were  Gower,  Hoccleve  and 
Lydgate.  The  epodi  was  also  illuminated  by 
Wiclif's  great  translation  of  the  Bible  (c  1382). 
Two  more  popular  forms  of  literature  must  be 
mentioned,  as  beginning  lines  of  literary  de- 
velopment still  important  The  ballads  of  Robin 
Hood  probably  go  back  to  this  period,  while 
many  of  the  Scotch  ballads  are  older.  The 
four  cycles  of  mystery  plays,  those  of  Coventry, 
Chester,  Wakefield  (Towneicy  pbys)  and  York, 
belong  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  century.  One 
remarkable  book  comes  in  no  category,  the 
'Voiage  and  Travaile  of  Sir  John  Mandeville,' 
widely  spread  in  England,  and,  though  a  trans- 
lation, a  monument  of  noteworthy  prose.  The 
ISth  century  was  a  period  of  bloody  civil  strife, 
and  in  literature  a  period  of  great  dearth.  Lit- 
tle can  be  mentioned  tn  a  summary.  Sir  Thomas 
Malory  dosed  the  period  of  the  romances  of 
chivalry  by  the  'Mortt  d'Arthur'  (c  1475),  a 
collection  to  which  he  gave  organic  form  and 
unity.  The  book  was  first  printed  (15^)  at  the 
press  of  Caxton,  himself  a  writer  and  compiler. 
Some  prose  treatises  are  noteworthy,  in  reli- 
gion Pecock's  'Repressor  of  Over-much  Blam- 
ing of  the  Clergy'  (c  1450);  in  politics; 
Fortescue's  'Monarchy'  (c.  1425),  while  of 
lighter  interest  is  the  treatise  on  'Hawtdng'  by 
Dame  Juliana  Bcrners  (c.  1425),  and  the  every- 
day 'Paston  Letters'  which  belong  to  literature 
because  they  are  so  interesting. 

With  the  16th  century  new  mfluences  become 


SNOUSH  LITERATURE 


powerful.  The  revival  of  dassic  leiuning  stim- 
ulated English  scholars  under  the  leadendiip  of 
Gnsxn,  Linaere,  Cal^,  Cheke.  The  idea*  of 
the  RefdfmStian  stirred  up  clouds  of  contro- 
versy in  which  appear  the  great  figures  of  Tyo- 
dale,  Latimer,  Coverdale.  The  spirit  of  fierce 
and  doomj  satire  which  infected  the  whole 
world  is  seen  in  Skelton  and  Barclay,  the 
fonncr  in  a  number  of  pieces,  the  latter  in  a 
translation  of  Brant's  'Ship  of  Fools'  (1508). 
The  spirit  of  nationality  was  aroused  and  More 
"Utopia*  (1515)  and  Elyot  '(iovemour,' 
(1531)  thought  deeply  on  questions  of  poUtics. 
These  men  wrote  not  so  much  for  literary 
reasons  as  for  some  particular  purpose;  later 
came  the  impulse  of  the  Renaissance  which 
brought  forth  in  England  a  wonderful  burst 
of  literature,  generally  included  in  the  age  of 
Elizabeth.  Most  important  was  its  manifesta- 
tion in  the  drama.  To  the  mystery  plays  had 
succeeded  miracle  plays,  and  then  moral  inter- 
ludes and  imitations  and  translations  from 
Seneca  and  Terence,  By  the  latter  half  of 
the  century  appeared  the  first  specimens  of 
modern  drama,  'Ralph  Roister  Ulster,'  by 
Nicholas  Udall  (1550)  and  'Gorbudnc,'  later 
called  'Ferrei  and  Porrex,'  by  Sackville  and 
Norton  (1569).  The  theatre  was  buiii  in  1579, 
the  Curtain  not  long  afterward,  and  in  the  last 
decade  of  the  Cfntury  the  Rose,  the  Globe,  the 
Fortune  and  others.  The  theatre  of  the  day  de- 
liianded  a  drama  rich  in  poetry,  rhetoric,  decla- 
mation and  action.  The  first  group  of  dram- 
atists, Lyly,  Peele,  Kyd,  Greene  and  preatest  of 
them,  Marlowe,  were  all  of  necessity  experi- 
mentalists. They  created  the  romantic  drama, 
with  tragedy,  comedy,  history,  into  which 
Shakespeare  poured  his  inexhaustible  stores  of 
imagination,  observation  and  wisdom.  His 
plays  are  n^ical  of  the  Elizabethan  drama; 
there  is  little  in  the  other  dramatists  that  you 
cannot  find  in  him.  Yet  there  were  others  of 
great  power.  Ben  Jonson  is  usually  accorded 
secona  place  and  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Mars- 
ton,  Middleton,  HCTWood,  Chapman,  Massinger, 
Ford  and  Shirley,  besides  others,  had  each  spe- 
cial powers.  In  time  a  decline  occurred  and  in 
1642  the  theatres  were  closed  by  order  of  Par- 
liament and  a  great  dramatic  tradition  came  to 
an  end.  One  later  form  deserves  special  men- 
tion :  the  masoue  was  originally  a  form  of  pri- 
vate theatrical  and  always  remained  distinct 
from  the  plays  presented  at  the  public  theatres. 
It  was  produced  for  some  special  great  occa- 
sion and  employed  all  the  possibilities  of  the 
day  in  scenery  and  costume,  music  and  dancing. 
The  words  were  often  written  by  dramatists  of 
great  abilitjj  notably  by  Ben  Jonson,  The  most 
lamotTS  and  beautiful  masque  was  written  at 
the  end  of  the  period,  the  'Comus'  of  John 
Milton.  In  lyric  poetry  as  well  ni  In  dramatic 
was  the  age  pre-eminent.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII,  Wyatt  and  Surrey  had  led  the  way, 
though  Under  the  influence  of  Italy,  and  in  1S57 
appeared  Tottel's  'Miscellany,'  an  anthology 
which  gathered  up  the  verse  of  preceding  years, 
while  some  years  afterward  came  another,  the 
'Paradise  of  Dainty  Delights.*  Later  collec- 
tions are  the  'Bower  of  Dclirf)ts>  (1591); 
'The  Phanix'  Nest'  (!5W):  'The  Passionate 
Pilgrim,'  (1S99);  'England's  Helicon.*  (1600). 
Another  characteristic  production  was  the 
sonnet-sequence,  of  which  Sidney's  'Astrophel 
■ad  Stdla*  (1591,  but  written  before),  is  one  of 


famous    l._     ...     __    ,._.  _,    __     __ 

Daniel's  'Delia'  (1592),  Drayton's  'Idea* 
(1593),  Spenser's  ■Amoretti'  (1595),  among  a 
host  of  odiers.  One  great  lyric  poet  is  pre- 
eminent, John  Donne,  whose  poems,  written  in 
his  earlier  years,  had  immense  influence.  This 
form  of  the  lyric  is  in  the  imitationa  fandful 
and  finespim,  but  in  Donne  hunself  it  is  alive 
and  wonderful.  Last  among  the  lyrics  and 
as  important  an  anything  else  arc  the  sonn. 
Music  had  an  important  plac«  in  Englisb 
life,  and  where  there  was  so  much  singing, 
there  had  to  be  good  songs.  There  appears 
great  numbers,  some  in  the  plays  and  others 
in  song-bo'oks,  of  which  many  still  exist. 
A  good  many  are  translations  and  more  are 
very  slirfit,  bu^  Shakespeare's  and  Jonson's 
among  tne  dramatists,  and  Campion's  among 
the  song-writers  are  worthy  a  high  place  in  any 
anthology.  In  the  17th  century,  while  the 
drama  lost  power,  the  lyric  sust^ned  itself  re- 
markably, thou^  in  the  hands  of  fewer  artists. 
They  are  generally  followers  along  well-known 
line^    in    the    paths    of    Spenser,    of    Jonson, 


Milton  the  exquisite  'Hesperides*  (1647)  of 
Herriek,  the  t^jurtly  and  araaiopr  poetry  of 
Carew,  Suckling,  Lovelace,  the  reli^ous  poetry, 
passionate  and  almost  sensuous  in  Crashaw, 
earnest  and  devoted  in  Herbert,  these  show  no 
failure  in  power  or  in  genius.  One  great  name 
in  Elijabethan  poetry  is  still  to  be  mentioned, 
that  of  Spenser.  The  'Amorelti'  is  as  beauti- 
ful as  any  of  the  sonnet  cycles,  (he  'Shepherd's 
Calendar'  (1579)  was  an  immense  influence  for 
a  long  time,  but  his  great  title  to  fame  is  the 
'Faene  Queene'  (1590-96),  a  work  which  in 
literary  form  stands  a  little  apart  from  its  time. 
It  is  a  romantic  epic,  akin  to  the  Italian  poetry 
of  the  preceding  century,  but  Spenser's  ovm, 
in  its  high  idealism,  its  pictorial  quality  aftd  its  ■ 
mastery  of  poetic  expression,  h  had  imitations 
and  followers,  but  none  of  great  merit  It  is 
well-nigh  impossible  to  bring  the  prose  of  this 
period  under  any  scries  of  heads.  Poetry  always 
comes  first  in  literary  development ;  in  the  16th 
century  prose  was  commonly  written  for  some 
practical  purpose.  It  is  true  there  was  some 
growth  of  style;  many  men  labored  at  improv- 
ing the  vocabulary  and  elaborating  the  sen- 
tence-structure and  the  resources  in  figure  and 
ornament.  Yet  there  were  hardly  any  well- 
established  prose-forms,  although  the  'Arcadia' 
(1580-90)  of  Sidney,  the  'Ecclesiastical  Polity' 
(1592^7)  of  Hooker,  the  'Essays'  (1597)  of 
Bacon,  were  each  of  some  infhience,  espedalty 
the  last  named.  Even  Lyiy's  'Eufrfiuea'  (157fr- 
79),  which  was  extensively  imitated  for  a  dec- 
ade, produced  no  permanent  form.  The 
pamphlet  or  the  tract  is  the  one  diaracteristic 
Elizabethan  production  in  prose ;  its  master  was 
Tom  Nash,  who  poured  forth  numbers  of  these 
ephemeral  pieces,  of  wonderful  vigor  and  spirit. 
Of  the  same  sort  of  prose  the  succeeding  c 
■      ich.    -The  :    ■ 


tury  showed  much.    TTie  reign  of  Elizabeth  had 
been  a  time  for  Englishn  .... 

establish  their  position  a 


been  a  time  for  Englishmen  to  get  together  and 
.losition  EKainst  the  world.    Hav- 
ing made  themselves  a  place,  they  turned  to  ptit 


in  order  their  own  house;  the  I7th  century 

period  of  dvil  strife  and  contention.  Liten- 
ature  could  not  avoid  the  effect  of  politics ;  the 
distut^ace  of   opinion  dragged  with  it  intt> 


8l^ 


BMOUSH  UTERATUBB 


pol'tkal  or  religious  controveny  maBy  who 
mi^t  otherwise  have  found  expression  in  liter- 
ature. Even  Millon  for  a  dozen  years  wrote 
chieAy  prose.  W«  cannot,  therefore,  look  for 
a  vaned  and  definite  literary  development.  The 
great  work  of  the  century  was  in  prose  and 
the  greatest  and  most  influential  single  monu- 
ment was  the  King  James  version  of  the  Bible 
(1611).  The  spirit  of  the  B.ble  is  everywhere 
to  be  felt  in  the  great  prose  of  the  time,  trans- 
muted into  varying  substance  in  the  eloquence 
of  leremy  Taylor  ('Holy  Living,'  1650),  the 
qnaint  richness  of  Fuller  ('The  Holy  State,' 
16'2),  the  stately  roll  of  St  Thomas  Browne 
('Rel'i?io  Medici,'  1643),  the  powerful  vigor 
of  Milton's  prose  —  written  during  the  Civil 
War,  to  answer  in  his  own  way  the  call  of  the 
country  —  and  the  intimate  simplicity  of  Bun- 
yan.  A  few  olh;r  writers  have  little  tincture 
of  the  stru^Ie  of  the  time.  Overbuiy's  'Char- 
acters'  (1614),  Burton's  'Anatomy  of  Melan- 


widely  different  nature,  but  showing  the  quiet, 
contemplative  side  of  the  century  inat  was  so 
d-Stractcd  by  controversy.  The  Civil  War  oc- 
curred in  the  very  middle  of  the  century  and 
makes  a  definite  bar  at  least  in  the  poetry  of 
the  time.  Before  it  was  the  Elizabeuian  age; 
after  it  the  Restoration.  The  drama  and  the 
lyric  before  and  after  are  different;  even  the 
external  form  of  poetry  shows  a  marked 
change.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the 
verse  was  free  and  fluent;  at  the  end  it  had 
become  concise  and  brilliant.  To  the  blank 
verse  of  Shakespeare  succeeded  the  rhymed 
couplets  of  Dryden,  organic  power  giving  place 
to  elegant  skill.  In  point  of  time  belonging  lo 
both,  John  Milton  in  reality  belont;s  to  neither. 
More  fully  than  anybody  else  he  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  Puritanism  in  literature ;  its  zealous 
,  rages,  its  fanaticisms^  its  blemishes,  its  love  of 
liberty  and  of  God  give  life  to  his  prose  tracts 
on  church  government,  on  divorce,  on  freedom 
of  speech,  on  the  acts  of  the  people:  its  higher 
dreams  and  ideals  and  aspirations,  its  unat- 
tained  possibihiics  of  beauty  in  'Paradise  Lost' 
(1667)  and  his  later  poems. 

With  the  restoration  of  Charles  11  began  a 
new  p«riod  of  literature,  often  called  the  classic, 
most  immediately  noticeable  in  the  drama.  The 
influence  of  France  in  the  direction  of  strictness 
of  classic  art  and  looseness  of  moral  life  was 
strong:  added  to  it  was  a  change  in  stage  condi- 
tions, which  allowed  the  development  of  scenic 
effect  A  realistic,  if  not  spectacular,  char- 
acter, was  given  to  the  theatre  and  the  Eliza- 
bethan plays,  with  all  their  poetry,  fell  out  of 
fashion,  save  in  versions  of  the  day.  A  new  set 
of  dramatists  sprang  up  to  fulhl  the  conditions. 
Drvden  was  a  leader,  equaUy  strong  in  tragedy 
and  ccnnedy  and  what  he  called  the  heroic 
drama,  after  French  models.  Otway  had  the 
greatest  tragic  genius  ('Venice  Preserved,' 
I6S2),  but  could  not  so  well  adapt  himself  to 
the  taste  of  the  age.  Congreve.  Wycherley,  Far- 
quhar  and  many  others  wrote  comedies  depic- 
ting a  brilliant  social  world,  but  of  such  gross 
immorality  that  Jeremy  Collier  launched  an  at- 
tack on  the  whole  theatre  (1696).  His  words 
had  some  effect  and  the  drama  became  more 
decent,  but  as  it  really  seems  to  havt  been  quite 
rcpreseatative  of  the  life  of  the  time  (not  arti- 


ficial as  Charles  Lamb  loved  to  think  of  it),  Ae 
succeeding  drama  lacked  vitality,  and  for  a  hun- 
dred years  hardly  a  play  was  written  wh'di 
is  now  remembered.  Addison's  <Cito'  (1713), 
Rowe's  'Jane  Shore'  (1714).  (ia/s  'Begrar's 
Opera'  (1728),  Johnson's  'Irene'  (1745), 
Home's  'Douglas'  (1756).  are  noteworthy  for 
various  reasons,  but  not  as  constituting  a  pow- 
erful drama.  It  was  in  other  directions  that 
the  18th  century  was  successful  and  most  im- 
mediately in  the  periodical  essay.  The  example 
of  Bacon  had  given  rise  to  the  essay  form;  one 
particular  kind  called  the  'character*  was  espe- 
cially cultivated.  The  character  was  like  the 
essay,  except  that  while  the  essay  was  usually 
on  some  idea,  the  character  was  on  some  per- 
son or  kind  of  person.  There  was  a  great  num- 
ber of  character-books  in  the  17th  century, 
among  the  most  important  ones  being  those  of 
Overbury  and  Earle.  In  this  century  too  come 
the  earliest  newspapers.  These  were  generally 
little  more  than  letters  with  account  of  news 
usually  from  abroad.  The  earliest  is  the 
'Coranto'  of  1621  of  Nathaniel  Butters,  Be- 
sides Corantos  there  were  'Mercuries,'  'Posts,' 
'CJazcttes,'  'Toumals,'  'News,'  By  the  end  of 
the  eenlury  tne  newspaper  was  a  common  form. 
In  1709  Richard  Steele  published  a  small  paper 
every  other  day  which  he  called  the  Tal'er. 
This  was  not  precisely  a  newspaper,  but  con- 
sisted of  a  series  of  essays  on  all  sorts  of  sub- 
jects, sometimes  bySteele,  sometimes  by  Addi- 
son, Swift,  or  a  number  of  oihers^^wno  lent 
occasional  help  to  the  enteiTirise.  The  Tat'er 
was  very  popular,  and  was  brought  to  a  close 
only  lo  be  continued  in  the  Spectator,  in 
which  Addison  took  the  chief  part.  He  took 
up  the  idea  of  Steele  and  found  m  it  a  form  of 
expression  exactly  suited  to  lUs  especial  powers. 
His  essays  were  popular  in  the  best  sense ;  they 
were  read  with  delight  by  all  sorts  of  people, 
but  they  dealt  with  subjects  of  intelligent  inter- 
est Addison  was  a  student  of  human  nature, 
an  observer  of  life  and  character,  a  genial 
philospher,  and  all  these  elements  of  his  nature 
were  exhibited  in  the  little  essays  which  he 
wrote  for  the  Spectator.  The  success  called 
forth  followers.  Addison  and  Steele  followed 
their  joint  productions  with  separate  publica- 
lionSj  which  were  sometimes  political  as  well 
as  literary.  Among  the  many  18th  century 
periodicals  should  be  mentioned  the  World 
(1752),   by  Lord   Chesterfield   and  others;   the 


abroad  was  also  very  great:  it  continued  even 
to  the  beginning  of  the  19th  centuiy.  when  a 
number  of  clever  young  men  of  New  York. 
Washington  Irving  among  them,  joined  in  the 
production  of  SaltiMg*>*di  (1807).  One  dis- 
tinguishing element  in  these  periodical  essays 
was  that  of  personal  character.  Some  imaginary 
person  was  the  means  by  which  they  were  put 
before  the  public.  The  Taller  was  edited  by 
Isaac  Bickerstafl.  the  Spectator  by  a  club  of 
the  Spectator  and  others,  including  the  famous 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverley,  This  personal  element 
was  characteristic  of  the  century,  which  was 
extremely  sociable  and  very  much  interested  in 
human  nature.  This  interest  in  character  for 
itself  is  paralleled  by  an  interest  in  life  in  ac- 
tion obaervable  in  the  stories  of  Defoe;    Defoe 


ENGLISH   LITBRATURB 


was  a  man  who  lived  by  his  pen  (one  of  the 
first  who  had  not  been  connected  with  ifae 
theatre  or  the  court),  whose  great  gift,  so  far 
as  I.terature  was  concerned,  was  his  power  of 
representing  life.  His  famous  'Robinson  Cru- 
soe' (1719)  attained  inordinate  popularity,  not 
only  for  its  adventurous  incident,  but  for  its 
power  of  realistic  story-telling.  A  httle  more 
and  _  these  books  would  have  been  novels. 
Addison's  'Sir  Roger  de  Coverley'  papers  are 
sketches  of  life  and  character  without  a  story. 
'Robinson  Crusoe'  and  the  many  other  stories 
of  Defoe  have  too  much  action,  without  atten- 
tion to  life  and  character,  in  spite  of  their  real- 
ism. These  elements  were  combined  by  Rich- 
ardson and  Fielding:  'Pamela'  (1741),  'Clar- 
issa Harlowe'  (1748),  <Sir  Charles  Giandison' 
(17U),  by  the  former,  were  extensively  read 
and  influenced  all  Europe ;  'Joseph  Andrews' 
(1742),  'Torn  Jones'  (1749),  'AmelU'  (1751), 
by  the  latter,  are  quite  as  excellent  and  some- 
what more  modem  in  form.  Smollett  followed 
with  'Roderick  Random>  (1748),  'Peregrine 
Pickle*  (1751),  and  some  others  which  are 
a  sliglit  variation  npon  the  first  of  Field- 
iner"s.  Goldsmiths 'Vicar  of  Wakefield'  (1766) 
and  Miss  Bumey's  'Evelina'  (1778)  give  us, 
the  one  the  life  of  the  country  and  the  other 
of  the  town,  and  we  have  the  English  novel 
of  domestic  life,  a  form  of  literature  which 
for  a  hundred  and  fifty  j'ears  has  lost  and 
gained  but  little  in  essential  character.  The 
essay  and  the  novel  were  new;  si^ch  things 
had  been  in  England  before,  but  never  the 
definite  literary  understanding  necessary  to  con- 
stitute a  true  literary  form.  Meanwhile  the 
older  forms  of  literature  were  not  neglected. 
There  had  been  no  such  histories  in  England 
before  Qarendon's  'Histoiy  of  the  Great  Re- 
bellion' (1702)  and  Burnet's  'History  of  My 
Own  Times'  (edited  by  his  son,  1723).  These 
men  wrote  of  what  they  had  seen;  later  writers 
learned  to  take  a  larger  view  and  handle  larger 
materiaL  Robertson  ('Charles  V,'  1769), 
Hume  ('History  of  England,'  I75+-6!)  and 
Gibbon  ('Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,*  1776-88),  gave  example  of  the  com- 
bination of  scholarly  research  and  literary  skilL 
Oratory  also  flourished  in  the  exciting  Parlia- 
mentary struggles  which  now  took  the  place  of 
court  faction.  Chatham,  Burke,  Fox,  and  many 
others  created  a  standard  and  form  of  elo- 
quence, which  yet  serves  as  a  model  for  many 
speakers  and  a  foundation  for  more.  A  special 
form  of  oratory  becomes  important  in  litera- 
tore;  sermons  were  widely  read,  Barrow,  South, 
Stillingfleet,  Tillotson,  published  their  dis- 
courses in  the  last  half  of  the  I7lh  century  and 
had  many  successors  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th. 
The  interest  in  reli^on  was  a  part  of  the  gen- 
eral intellectual  curiosity  of  the  century;  phllos- 
Difhy  also  became  a  part  of  literature.  Locke's 
'Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding'  (1690) 
was  more  widely  read  than  any  other  book  of 
such  a  kind.  Philosophy  was  discussed  by 
Christian  as  well  as  by  free-thinkers.  Berkeley 
was    the    former :    bis    'Principles    of    Human 


Knowledge'  (1710)  has  been  of  importance 
in  the  development  of  metaphysical  ideas. 
Hume    was   the   latter,    so   mucfi   of   a   skeptic 


that  his  'Essays'  (1746)  incited  Kant,  .- 
Germany,  to  that  profound  examination  of 
the  human  reason  that  has  been  the  founda- 
tion of  modem  philosophy.    The  18th  century 


in  the  wonderful  prose  of  Dean 
UEiapproached  master  of  satire  as  particitlarly 
in  'Gulliver's  Travels'  (1726).  As  the  century 
— '■— ed,  style  became  more  elaborate,  of  great 


lurposes  admirably  effective  as  in  the  best  of 
Johnson.  The  time  was  intellectual  and  loved 
the  things  of  the  intellect;  hence  its  poetry  was 
not  such  as  to  satisfy  the  more  emotional  periods 
that  came  after.  It  was  too  obviously  didactic 
or  satiric,  for  one  thing.  Dryden  was  the  first 
great  master  in  these  directions  with  the  'Hind 
and  the  Panther'  (1687),  and  the  'Religio 
Laici'  n6S2).  In  Pope  the  classic  poetry  (as 
it  is  called)  came  to  perfection;  the  'Essay  on 
Criticism'  (1711)  and  the  'Essay  on  Man' 
(1732),  the  'Dunaad'  (1728)  and  the  'Rape  of 
the  Lock'  (1712),  have  never  been  equaled  in 
Enghsh  for  their  telling  brilliancy.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Pope  caught  something  of  his  manner, 
but  produced  nothing  ^eat,  save  Goldsmith, 
who  infused  a  charm  into  this  as  into  every 
other  kind  of  literature.  Dr.  Johnson  wrote 
two  strong  poems,  but  his  chief  power  lay  else- 
where. The  minor  exemplars  of  the  character- 
istic 18th  century  poetry  are  of  far  less  value. 
Addison  as  a  poet,  Garth,  Prior  in  'Solomon' 
(1718),  Young,  the  author  of  'Night  Thoughts* 
(1742),  Blair  in  'The  Grave'  (1743),  even 
Akenside,  the  author  of  'Pleasures  of  the  Imag- 
ination' (1744),  did  not  all  write  the  character- 
istic couplet,  but  they  are  all  of  the  classic  school 
and  all  wrote  that  intellectual  poetry  that 
now  seems  so  strangely  unpoetic.  In  lighter 
forms  of  verse  there  were  more  successful  prac- 
titioners, Prior  and  Gay  and  Swift,  but  in  di- 
dactic and  satiric  poetry,  save  in  the  work  of 
the  greatest,  the  18th  century  produced  nothing 
permanent  But  durii^  the  whole  classic  century 
there  had  existed,  in  its  lime  had  been  growinfc 
a  feeling  for  other  things  than  those  which  the 
reason  could  put  into  brilliant  and  elegant  form. 
It  found  expression  in  various  ways,  chiefly  in 
love  for  the  mediaival  past,  before  the  classic 
conventions  had  been,  and  in  a  feeling  for  the 
present  wherever  those  conventions  did  not  ex- 
ist, namely,  in  nature  and  in  the  heart  of  man. 
The  first  feeling  came  to  expression  in  various 
ways,  often  imperfect,  as  when  Thomas  Whar- 
ton wrote  'Runic  Odes'  (1748),  when  Gray 
wrote  poems  inspired  by  the  Norse,  'The 
Fatal  Sisfers,>  'The  Descent  of  Odin'  (1761), 
when  Sir  Horace  Walpole  imitated  Gothic  ; 
architecture  in  his  house  at  Strawberry  Hill. 
In  1760  Macpfaerson  published  what  purported 
to  be  translations  of  Ossian,  also  'FingaP 
(1762);  'Temora'  (1763),  and  whether  they 
were  genuine  or  not,  the  fact  that  they  were  read 
shows  the  interest  that  was  felt  in  the  remote 
past.  In  1767  Chatterton  found  that  he  could 
pain  a  public  for  his  poetry  by  pretending  that 
It  had  been  written  by  a  monk  of  the  iSth  cen- 
tury. In  1765  Percy  published  the  'Reliques  of 
Ancient  Poetry,'  a  collection  of  old  l^llads,  a 
kind  of  literature  full  of  the  spirit  of  the  past, 
and  absolutely  different  from  the  classic  poetry 
of  the  day.  There  had  been  plenty  of  ballads 
printed  before,  even  collections  of  old  ballads 
Ramsay's  'Tea-Table  Miscellany,'  'Evergreen' 
(1724) ;  and  they  had  inspired  a  few,  but  now 


STO 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


they  became  an  immense  influence.  In  the 
other  direction,  love  of  nature  and  human  sjTn- 
pathy  existed.  Thomson's  'Seasons'  (1726-30) 
shows  his  fresh  and  charming  view  of  nature, 
though  his  use  of  blank  verse  and  the  Spenser- 
Ian  stanza  was  more  in  keeping  with  earlier 
times.  Gray  produced  very  hllle  poetry,  but 
his  best,  the  famous  'Elegy*  (1751),  has  none  of 
the  brilliancy  and  inlcliectuality  which  marked 
the  century,  and  it  is  notewortliy  that  in  stanza 
15,  where  he  originally  wrote  the  classic  names 
of  Cato.  Tully,  Caesar,  he  afterward  put  the 
national  names  of  Hampden,  Milton,  Cromwell. 
Bums  was  too  much  of  a  man  to  be  bound  or 
curbed  by  fashions,  unless  more  congenial  than 
those  of  the  18th  century.  He  took  inspiration 
from  the  ballads  and  son^s  of  his  own  coimtry 
and  produced  poetry  which  touched  the  heart 
at  once.  Cowper,  though  by  no  means  like 
him,  nor  apparently  of  the  character  of  a 
reformer  at  all,  wrote  with  a  sincere  direct- 
ness that  seems  like  that  of  an  earlier  or  a  later 
time.  The  turn  of  the  century  shows  the 
characteristic  works  of  the  Romantic  move- 
ment: 'Tintera  Abbey>  (1798)  and  'MichaeP 
(1800),  by  Wordsworth,  may  represent  the 
poetry  inspired  by  love  of  nature  and  sympathy 
with  man.  Coleridge's  'Rime  of  the  Ancient 
Mariner>  (1798),  and  Scott's  'Lav  of  the  Last 
Minstrel'  (1805,  preceded  by  'Minstrelsy  of 
the  Scottish  Border'  1802)  stand  for  the  de- 
light in  ballads  and  medievalism.  With  these 
fine  poems  and  others  only  less  fine,  it  is  plain 
thai  a  new  form  of  art  had  appeared  tju'te  dif- 
ferent from  the  classic  conventions  of  the  18th 
century.  The  first  great  excitement  of  romance 
was  for  strange  adventure  and  the  glowing  life 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Wordsworth  was  for  the 
time  unread,  while  the  poetry  of  Scott  delighted 
all.  Scolt,  however,  was  eclipsed  in  the  popu- 
lar mind  hy  Byron,  -who  really  was  personally 
the  very  thing  thai  Scott  and  the  public  ad- 
mired. They  longed  to  hear  of  men  of  lofty 
spirit  and  recklessness  and  devotion.  Byron 
was  such  a  man;  in  'Childe  Harold'  (1812)  he 
took  England  out  of  itself.  In  the  'Giaour,' 
'Bride  of  AVdos,'  'Corsair,'  'Lara,'  'Para- 
sina'  (1813-lS),  he  presented  figures  full  of  the 
romantic  spirit.  As  the  century  continued,  how- 
ever, that  spirit  expressed  itself  in  all  sorts  of 
dilTerent  ways.  Wordsworth  presents  the  com- 
mon delight  in  nature ;  Shelley,  noble  ideas  for 
the  regeneralioD  of  mankind ;  Keats,  the  power 
of  beauty.  Succeeding  poets  go  in  much  the 
same  directions.  Tennyson  is  the  most  rep- 
resentative poet   of   the   century  in   presenting 


scientific,  patriotic,  literary.  Browning  gives 
us  a  vigorous  optimistic  conception  of  life  and 
work,  presented  in  a  wonderful  scries  of  dra- 
matic figures.  Morris,  Rossetti,  Swinburne 
(sometimes  called  Pre-Rairfiadites)  may  be  said 
to  follow  Keats  in  their  love  of  beauty,  lyhich 
they  seek  not  only  in  medievalism,  but  through- 
out all  history  sacred  and  profane.  Matthew 
Arnold's  poetry  has  classic  qualities  of  style  and 
great  elegiac  charm  of  thought,  hut  he  rightly 
saw  that  his  true  field  lay  elsewhere.  By  the 
last  decade  of  the  19th  century,  however,  the 
great  pocis  of  the  Victorian  age  were  dead  or 
silent  and  it  had  for  some  time  been  felt  that 
they  had  left  no  successors.  At  about  this  time 
there  was  a  strong  feeling  for  reahsm  in  poetry 


as  in  other  forms  o£  literature,  and  by  choice  of 
realistic  themes  and  his  realistic  manner  W.  H. 
Henley  became  noteworthy.  Very  different 
was  w.  B.  Yeats  who  expressed  the  craving 
for  some  world  quite  different  from  current 
realism.  Expressing  both  of  these  common 
feelings  the  poetry  of  Kipling  ('Ballads'  and 
■Barrack-room  Ballads')  met  with  immediate 
welcome.  It  was  evidently  realistic,  but  it  was 
also  clearly  romantic.  These  two  lines  of  poetic 
interest  and  feeling  may  be  seen  respectively  in 
John  Davidson  and  Stephen  Phillips,  and  are 
represented  at  the  beginning  of  the  2t}th  centurj- 
by  John  Masefield  and  Alfred  Noyes.  The  end 
of  the  19th  century  had  many  minor  poets,  but 
Francis  Thompson  by  virtue  of  'The  Hound 
of  Heaven,'  will  probably  have  a  higher  posi- 
tion in  the  mind  of  posterity.  He  had  much  of 
the  t7ih  century  in  his  makeup  and  much  of 
the  intense  imagination  that  is  generally  felt 
to  be  the  most  poetical  possession  of  the  poet 
In  the  earlier  years  of  the  20th  century  there 
was  a  great  increase  of  poetic  feeling  which 
gradually  took  more  or  less  definite  form  in 
the  works  of  many  writers,  so  that  by  the  2d 
decade  of  the  century  the  'new  poetry*  was 
a  common  phrase.  Besides  Masefield  and 
Noyes  (who  was  hardly  in  sympathy  with  the 
rest)  the  chief  names  that  have  come  to  general 
knowledge  are  those  of  Rupert  Brooke  (d, 
1915)  ;  James  Elroy  Flecker  (d.  19IS)  ;  James 
Walter  Delamare,  William  Davies,  Lascellcs 
Abercrorabie,  James  Stephens  and  D.  H.  Law- 
rence. The  drama  has  been  weak  for  the  whole 
century,  although  alt  die  greater  poets  essayed 
the  form.  Only  Browning  and  Tennyson  had 
even  temporary  success  on  the  stage,  while  the 
works  of  the  professional  pi  ay- writers  have 
without  exception  failed  of  a  place  in  literature. 
By  1890  a  new  spirit  became  active.  The 
comedies  of  Oscar  Wilde  made  a  great  im- 
pression on  the  popular  mind,  by  their  brilliant 
dialogue,  but  the  work  of  Arthur  Pinero  and 
Henry  Arthur  Jones  was  more  representative  of 
the  moment  in  that  their  effort  was  usually  to 
deal  with  the  idea  of  modem  social  life.  The 
leading  spirit  in  the  movement,  however,  was 
George  Bernard  Shaw,  who  though  he  began  to 
write  plays  before  1890  and  had  some  successes 
as  early  as  1895,  did  not  seriously  impress 
people  till  the  beginning  of  the  20th  century. 
When,  however,  he  did  begin  to  gain  cousidera- 
tion  he  attracted  public  attention  by  his  plays 
which  always  presented  not  merely  interesting 
or  amusing  dramatic  situations,  but  some  dis- 
cussion of  general  social  ideas.  Other  dram- 
atists of  importance  have  beeen  James  M.  Barrie 
and  Grenville  Barker,  as  well  as  the  novelists 


a  definite  form  of  1       .  

the  early  years  of  the  century  Miss  Austen, 
Miss  Edgeworth,  Miss  Ferrier  produced  pic- 
tures of  life  in  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland, 
respectively,  the  first  of  surpassing  excellence. 
A  great  change  was  effected  by  Scott  in  the 
Waverley  novels  (1814-Jl).  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  the  lasting  power  of  these  novels  de- 
pends on  their  full  and  vital  knowledge  of 
Scottish  life  and  character.  Scott,  at  the  be- 
ginning, had  some  idea  of  doing  for  Scoll'sh 
life  what  Miss  Austen  had  done  for  English. 
But  the  real  immediate  effect  of  the  Waverley 
novels  was  to  give  an  enormous  impulse  to 
the  romance  of  adventure  and  scenery  and  cos- 


jOOgIc 


ENGLISH   UTBRATURB 


lume,  a  romance  which  Eound  its  best  ex- 
pression in  the  historical  novel.  The  Waveriey 
novels  are  great  historical  novels,  thougb,  of 
course,  some  have  Little  history  in  them,  and 
they  gave  a  conception  and  an  inspiration  which 
was  not  wasted.  In  1825  appeared  the  first 
works  of  importance  of  G.  P.  K.  James  and  of 
Harrison  Ainsworth,  who  for  a  quarter  of  a 
century  acliieved  a  very  considerable  popularity, 
thongfa  they  added  but  little  to  the  possibilitiei 
of  historic^  fictioa  More  powerful  than  eitlier 
was  Bulwer,  whose  first  work  appeared  in  1827, 
and  who  for  40  years  producea  not  only  his- 
torical novels,  but  novels  of  every  kind,  works 
of  great  talent,  though  the  jui^^ent  of  time 
refuses  them  genius.  At  much  the  same  time 
two  other  writers  somewhat  extended  the  field 
cf  the  novel :  Mart^at,  by  sea-stories,  which 
remind  one  of  Smollett;  Ch'arles  Lever,  by 
stories  of  the  army  as  well  as  of  Irish  life. 
Brilliant  historical  novels  have  appeared  through 
the  centtiry:  Thackeray's  '  Henry  Esmond' 
(1852).  and  'The  Vii^nians'  (1857);  Kings- 
ley's  'Westward  Ho'  (1855),  Dickens'  <A  Tale 
of  Two  Cities'  (1859),  Charies  Reade's  'The 
Goister  and  the  Hearth'  (1861),  Ckorge  Eliot's 
'Romola'  (1862),  Blackmore's  'Loraa  Doone' 
(1869),  Shorthouse's  'John  Inglesant*  (1880), 
Pater's  'Marius  the  Epicurean*  (1885),  Maurice 
Hewlett's  'Richard  Yea  and  Nay'  (1900),  con- 
stitute a  series  of  remaricable  value.  But  the 
great  successes  of  fiction  in  the  middle  of  the 
century  were  made  in  the  long-familiar  forms. 
Charles  Dickens  had  many  minor  character- 
istics, and  50  had  Thackeray,  but  their  novels, 
as  well  as  those  of  George  Eliot,  are  novels  of 
every-.day  life.  In  the  main  these  three  are 
realists,  striving  chiefly  to  depict  the  life  that 
they  knew  and  saw  about  them.  So  chiefly  were 
those  who  came  after  them.  The  Brontis, 
George  Meredith,  Charles  Reade,  At)thony 
Trollope,  William  Black,  Thomas  Hardy. 
(leorge  Gissing,  these  are  realists  also,  though 
in  only  the  last  two  cases  of  the  consistent  type 
developed  by  their  contemporaries  in  France. 
Some  of  them  sought  in  every-day  surrotmd- 
ings  the  romance  of  character,  like  the  Brontfe; 
some  could  perceive  the  rich  spirit  of  comedy, 
like  Meredith.  But  none  felt  the  need  more 
t^n  once  or  twice  of  straying  from  the  familiar 
Kfe  of  England.  Toward  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tunr  the  craving  for  romance  began  again:  it 
haa  never  been  entirely  quieted,  but  it  did  not 
come  to  full  expression  till  Stevenson  and 
Kipling.  Both  sought  the  romance  of  life  and 
character  and  of  the  soul,  but  both  were  masters 
also  of  adventure  and  Incident  and  striking  cir- 
cumstance and  interesting  background.  Anthony 
Hope,  Stanley  Wcyman,  Conan  Doyle,  Maurice 
Hewlett,  have  In  general  followed,  and  in  some 
cases  surpassed  them.  In  the  last  decade  of  the 
century  appeared  several  novelists  who  have 
Mnce  come  to  be  the  leading  figures  of  current 
fiction,  Arnold  Bennett  and  H.  G.  Wells  both 
began  with  work  of  an  imaginative  and  even 
fantastic  character,  but  in  different  ways 
turned  to  something  more  realistic.  Arnold 
Bennett's  'The  Old  Wives'  Tale'  and  the  books 
conceived  and  linked  as  a  series,  'Oay- 
hanger,'  'Hilda  Lessways'  and  'These  Twain,' 
are  careful  and  thorough  presentations  of  char- 
acter and  manners,  differing  chiefly  from  the 
older  conceptions  of  the  novel  in  their  recogni- 
tion of   the    ideas    dominating    modem    fife. 


Wells  about  1906  began  a  series  of  studies  of 
life  of  which  'The  New  Machiavelli*  and  'Mr. 
Britling  Sees  it  Through'  have  been  the  most 
widely  read,  in  which  the  ideas  of  the  present 
are  embodied  in  the  career  of  the  individual. 
Besides  these  are  Joseph  (Zonrad,  who  gives  a 
strong  realistic  turn  to  his  stories  of  the  sea  and 
of  exotic  romance,  and  John  Galsworthy,  whose 
chief  novels  are  ironic  presentations  of  the 
conservative  character  of  life  in  England. 
There  are  also  many  others  who  follow  not  dis- 
similar courses,  of  whom  the  best  known  arc 
Hugh  Walpole,  Compton  Mackenzie,  Ethel 
Sidgwick,  J.  D.  Beresford,  Gilbert  Cannan, 
May  Sinclair  and  Oliver  Onions.  A  third  de- 
velopment of  the  century  has  been  in  the  path 
of  criticism,  which  at  first  found  expression 
chiefly  in  the  periodical.  The  magazine  has 
been  otie  of  the  most  cliaracteristic  elements  of 
19th  century  literature.  There  were  magarines 
in  the  18th  century  —  the  Monthly  Review,  the 
Critical  Review,  the  Gentleman's  Magojnne  — 
but  the  chief  periodical  was  the  Addisonian  es- 
say. The  Edinburgk  Review  (1802)  and  the 
Quarterly  Review  (1809)  were  tte  beginning  o£ 
a  new  movement.  Blackwood's  Magazine 
(1817),  the  London  Magatine  (ISX)  and 
Fraser's  Maqwtint  (1S30),  together  with  many 
weeklies  and  dailies,  were  the  beginning  of  a 
flood  of  literature  that  is  now  the  form  most 
familiar  to  us.  The  influence  was  at  first  chiefly 
critical.  TeflfrCT,  the  first  editor  of  the  £dt»- 
burgh.  with  Gifford  of  the  Quarterly,  set  the 
style  of  a  criticism,  which  thou^  often  unfairly 
slashing  and  ridiculously  high  and  mighty  in 
tone,  had  merit  often  in  expressing  sincere, and 
definite  opinions  in  literature  ana  politics.  A 
sort  of  gaiety  and  even  charm  was  given  1^ 
Wilson,  who  wrote  under  the  name  of  Chris- 
topher North,  by  Sidney  Smith  and  Lockhart. 
But  the  most  important  develc^ment  came  in 
the  field  of  the  personal  essay.  The  'Essays  of 
Elia'  (1820)  by  Charles  Lamb,  go  beyond  the 
Addisonian  essay  in  their  unfettered  expres- 
sion of  a  charming  personality.  'The  English 
Opium  Eater'  (1821),  of  Thomas  De  Quince/, 
is  still  farther  away  from  the  18th  century  in 
form  and  spiri^  and  so  is  the  'Table  Talk' 
(1824)  of  HazlitL  All  these  are  sincere  per- 
sonal utterance,  and  in  their  sincerity  and  per- 
sonality lies  their  strength.  In  the  main  we 
may  call  the  work  of  these  men  critical,  for 
they  were  all  absorbed  in  letters,  and  their  view 
of  life  was  essentially  a  criticism  of  literature. 
Something  more  in  the  way  of  established  form 
were  the  famous  'Essays'  (beginning  1825)  of 
Macaulay,  the  most  remarkable  works  of 
their  time  in  the  power  of  focusing  wide  read- 
ing and  immense  knowledge  into  forms  of  ex- 
treme brilliancy.  A  striking  contrast  is  offered 
by  Carlyle,  who  began  by  essays  of  the  accus- 
tomed character,  though  not  ordinary  in  style, 
but  after  some  j^ears  produced  'Sartor  Resartus' 
(1833),  expressive  of  his  own  vigorous  person- 
ality and  thinking,  more  extraordinary  in  form 
than  any  of  his  later  work,  but  not  more  original 
□r  powerful.  Carlyle  had  by  no  means  the  im- 
mediate fame  of  Macaulay.  but  his  in^uence  on 
the  thought  of  his  time  has  been  vastly  greater. 
Both  were  historians  as  well  as  critics,  and  by 
their  interest  in  life  and  sympathy  with  man 
they  brought  in  a  new  and  fascinalinglv  ii  ' 
estmg  kind  of  historical  writing,  \"  ' 
-  "       ■  ■  •  of  s 


Google 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE,   MIDDLE   PERIOD 


eral,  has  done  much  to  deaden.  Hatlam'  before 
Ihem  should  also  be  mentioned  and  Green  after 
tbem.  John  Rusldn  began  his  career  as  critic 
with  what  seemed  the  impossible  task  of  de- 
throning false  masters  of  painting,  and  estab- 
lishing an  ethical  foundation  for  art.  About 
1850,  having  succeeded  in  his  earlier  task,  he  be- 
gan a  struggle  against  a  much  wider  range  of 
evil,  which  was  not  so  fortunate.  Matthew 
Arnold  also  understood  the  range  of  the  critic 
as  extending  beyond  the  field  of  art;  his  views 
on  politics  and  religion  were  an  influence  in  the 
history  of  thought,  but  naturally  will  not  last  as 
long  as  his  conceptions  on  literature.  Walter 
Pater  took  even  a  wider  view  of  art,  being  at 
home  with  painting,  architecture,  sculpture,  as 
well  as  with  literature.  He  represents  the  so- 
called  'Ksthetic'  position  which  developed  from 
Preraphaelitism.  The  most  noteworthv  essayist 
of  the  opening  century  is  Gilbert  K.  Chesterton, 
whose  ready  paradoxes  cover  much  sound 
thought  In  philosophy  and  science  the 
century  has  been  pre-emment,  and  many  great 
books  have  been  produced.  The  last  field  hardly 
belonra  to  literature,  although  Darwin,  Huxley 
and  Tyndall  were  masters  of  style  and  could 
make  the  results  of  scientific  work  absorbingly 
interesting.  Uore  might'be  said  of  philosopay 
and  theology,  though  here  little  has  been  pro- 
duced that   will   last   as   literature,   except  per- 


and  parts  of  Spencer's  "Synthetic  Philosophy' 
(1860-1900),  all  of  which  stand  as  representa- 
tive of  important  movements  in  the  history  of 
thought 

There  are  many  histories  of  English  litera- 
ture. The  most  elaborate  and  authoritative  is 
the  'Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature,' 
the  work  of  a  great  number  of  representative 
Students.  That  of  Gamett  and  Gosse  is  an 
interesting  general  account,  richly  illustrated 
by  extracts  and  reproductions  of  manuscripts 
and  prints.  The  three  volumes  on  different 
periods  by  Sainlsbury  and  Gosse  cover  the  last 
four  centuries  tn  a  convenient  form.  The  work 
of  T«nc  (translated  by  Van  Laun)  expresses 
his  views  of  the  development  of  literature  from 
national  life.  That  of  Ten  Brink  (translated  by 
Keneday)  is  unfinished,  but  covers  the  ground 
where  German  scholarship  is  strongest,  namely, 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Middle  English.  Brandl  in 
Paul's  'Grundriss  der  germ.  Philologie,'  gives 
a  veiy  full  and  convenient  summary.  Morlcy's 
'English  Writers'  is  a  veiy  full  account  in  10 
volumes,  but  has  not  got  beyond  Shakespeare. 
The  'Ejiglish  Men  of  Letters*  series  provides 
lives  of  (he  greatest  authors.  Ward's  'Ensiish 
Poets,'  and  Craik's  'English  Prose,'  are  valu- 
able, giving  a  summary  of  facts,  a  criticism  by 
a  writer  of  note,  and  a  number  of  extracts  in 
case  of  all  distinguished  poets  and  prose  writers. 

Edward  E.  Hai.e, 
Professor  of  English,  Union  College,  Schenec- 
tady. N.  Y.  . 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE,  Middle 
Pftriod.  The  term  Middle  English  may  con- 
veniently he  taken  to  include  the  period  1100- 
1500.  For  more  than  a  century  after  the  Con- 
qiwst,  however,  the  majority  of^  works  produced 
and  read  in  England  were  written  either  in 
French  or  Latin.  Literature  in  the  vernacular, 
which  had  sunk  to  a  low  level  by  the  beginnina 
of  die  lllh  centurr,  did  not  revive  materially 


until  the  reign  of  John.  The  'Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle'  continued  to  the  year  1154,  and  a  few 
religious  works,  chiefly  of  linguistic  interest, 
almost  exhaust  production  in  Ei^ish  during 
this  era  of  transition.  During  the  13ih  century 
English  began  to  compete  with  the  other 
tongues  for  supremacy,  and  by  the  time  of 
Chaucer  its  victory  was  assured,  although 
French  and  Latin  continued  to  be  widely  used. 
At  first,  the  progress  of  the  vernacular  was 
greatly  hindered  by  dialectical  differences  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  The  West-Saxon 
and  Kentish,  the  Mercian,  and  the  Norlh- 
lunbrian  of  the  earlier  period  had  developed  re- 
spectively into  the  Southern,  Midlandand  North- 
em,  with  some  changes  of  boundary.  Of  these. 
East  Midland  was  most  important,  as  the  dialect 
of  London  and  Chaucer,  and  the  parent  of 
Modem  English.  The  language  as  a  whole 
shows  very  marked  differences  from  Anglo- 
Saxon,  not  only  in  the  addition  of  many  foreign 


L  freer  use  of  particles  and  connectives.  The 
dialectical  pecuUarities  gradually  became  less 
marked,  until  at  the  end  of  the  period  there  v  r.i 
practically  only  one  literary  dialect,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Scottish. 

The  influence  of  An^lo-French  and  Anfflct- 
Latin  upon  Middle  English  was  exceedingly  im- 
portant. The  Normans  took  great  interest  b 
historical  writing  after  their  settlement  in  Eng- 
land, as  the  Latin  chronicles  of  such  men  as 
Ordericus  Vitalis,  Henry  of  Huntingdon  and 
Wiiliam  of  Newburgh  attest.  A,bout  _  1136 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  produced  his  fictitious 
'Histona  Regum  Britannia:,'  a  book  condemned 
by  serious  historians,  but  of  great  significance 
for  medieval  romance.  It  was  later  reworked 
in  French  rhymed  versions  by  Gaimar  and  Wacc. 
The  Normans  were  fond  of  romantic  stories, 
and  even  retold  in  their  own  tongue  the 
deeds  of  various  native  English  heroes.  More 
serious  historical  work  was  done  in  French 
verse  by  such  men  as  Gamier  de  Pont  Saint 
Maxence  or  Jordan  Fantosme.  Churchmen  like 
Lanfranc  and  John  of  Salisbury  wrote  on 
theological  matters,  and  there  was  early  much 
activity  in  the  new  English  universities.  Lat'n 
writing  of  a  lighter  sort  is  represented  by  the 
'De  Nugis  Curialium'  of  Walter  Map,  or  the 
'Speculum  Slultorum'  of  Nigellus  Wirekcr. 
The  Normans  were  a  people  of  practical  mind, 
and  most  of  their  literature  consisted  of  utili- 
tarian or  devotional  prose.  Scientific  facts,  or 
supposed  facts,  interested  them  greatly.  They 
were  clever  tellers  of  tales,  both  of  the  fabliau 
type  and  those  pointing  a  moral.  Especially 
noteworlhy  is  the  work  (c.  117S-8S)  of  ih- 
poetess  Marie  de  France,  who  wrote  a  charmi-T 
collection  of  'Lais,'  and  a  book  of  fables,  the 
'Ysopei.' 

Earlier  Middle  English  literature  is  better 
studied  by  types  than  by  authors.  Originality, 
as  a  general  thing,  counted  for  little  in  medixval 
days,  and  works  in  the  vernacular  during  the 
13th  century  were  hased  almost  without  excep- 
tion upon  French  and  Latin  models.  The  nar- 
rative literature  is  of  far  greater  interest  than 
the  religious  and  didactic  writing.  The  French 
metrical  romances,  artistic  poems  dealing  with 
love  and  war,  and  chiefly  intended  for  the 
higher  classes,   were   made   accessible   to   the 


BNOUSH  UTBKATURK.  MIDDLE  PERIOD 


English  after  tbt  middle  of  the  13th  century. 
The  <^de  of  King  Arthur  and  hia  knights  was 
the  most  important  and  papular.  A  smaller  and 
less  favored  division  dealt  with  'the  matter  of 
France," — the  deeds  of  Charlemagne  and  bis 
warriors.  A  third  group  is  based  on  native 
English  and  Germanic  uemes  —  King  Horn, 
Havelock,  Bevis  of  Hampton,  Guy  of  Warwick, 
etc  Stories  of  Troy  and  Thebes  form  a  fouftb 
class.  The  Troy-story  deserves  attention  be- 
cause of  versions  of  the  Troilus-Cressida  theme 
by  Chaucer,  Heniyson,  Lydgate  and  Shakes- 
peare. Romances  of  eastern  origin,  with  a  few 
others  not  readiN_  classifiable,  complete  the  list. 
fiy  the  time  of  Chaucer,  the  metrical  romances 
were  showing  signs  of  degeneration,  and  in  the 
15th  century  prose  romances  took  their  place. 
In  strong  contrast  to  these  are  the  fabliaux, 
short,  witty,  rhymed  tales,  intended  for  the  tow- 
er classes,  usually  of  a  satiric  character,  and 
frankly  indecorous.  They  were  never  as  popu- 
lar in  England  as  in  France,  althoi^h  stones  of 
this  type  form  the  largest  genre-division  of  the 
'Canterbury  Tales.'  Fious  tales,  generally  rep- 
resenting supernatural  occurrences  in  every-day 
life,  and  beast  stories,  like  the  'Fox  and  the 
Wolf  (13th  century),  were  popular.  Note- 
worthy, too,  are  the  collections  of  stories,  often, 
as  in  the  case  o£  the  'Geata  Romanorutn, '  used  by 
preachers  as  exempla  upon  which  to  base  homi- 
lies. Many  romantic  narratives  reappeared  in 
altered  form  in  the  ballads.  These  "stories  in 
song"  differed  widely  from  the  romances,  being 
short,  stanzaic,  allusive  pieces  of  unknown  au- 
thorship, perpetuated  among  the  people  by  oral 
tradition,  and  dealing  with  a  great  variety  of 
material.  The  popular  lyric  ^  quite  a  different 
thing  —  is  represented  by  such  pieces  as  'Sumer 
is  ycuinen  in,'  or  'Blow,  Northern  Wind.'  In 
the  secular  lyric  the  French  influence  was  again 
predominent.  Secular  love-poet cy  was  often 
applied  to  religious  ends,  as  in  the  'Love-Rune' 
of  the  Franciscan  monk,  Thomas  de  Hales.  In 
the  14th  century  French  lyrics  were  extensively 
imitated,  as  the  work  of  Chaucer  and  Gower 
shows.  As  for  metrical  dironides,  three  de-. 
serve  especial  mention.  Most  important  is  the 
'Brut'  of  Layamon  <c.  1205),  ao  galled  because 
it  traces  British  history  from  Brutus.  Although 
dependent  upon  earlier  French  and  Latin  work, 
it  shows  imaginative  power  and  patriotic  feel- 
ing. The  same  love  of  England  appears  in  the 
chronicle   of   Robert   of   Gloucester    (late   13th 


Robert  Mannyng  of  Brunne  in  the  i4th  century. 
The  devotional  and  didactic  literature  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  classify,  since  the  various 
types  were  not  always  clearly  differentiated,  and 
borrowed  much  from  secular  writing.  A  favor- 
ite form  of  conveying  wisdom  was  the  provert) 
poetry.  An  early  collection  of  this  sort  was 
attributed  to  King  Alfred,  and  another  was  put 
into  the  mouth  of  a  personage  called  "Hending.* 
A  similar  purpose  was  served  by  the  'debates,' 
the  most  noteworthy  of  which  is  the  'Debate  of 
the  Body  and  Soul'  (12th  century),  in  which 
each  speaker  accuses  the  other  of  being  respon- 
sible for  the  death  of  the  dead  man.  The  'Owl 
and  Nightingale'  (c.  1220)  is  the  most  im- 
portant secular  debate  in  En^ish.  There  was 
much  work  on  scientific  subjects,  and  this  was 
often  made  to  point  a  moral,  as  in  the  'Bestiary* 
of  the  early    13th   century,  which  appends  a 


written.  The  'Poema  Morale,'  "a  penitential 
sermon  in  verse,"  dates  from  1 1 70.  The 
'Ancren  Riwle,'  or  Rule  for  Nuns,  is  an  early 
prose  monument  of  some  importance.  Uore 
celebrated  is  the  'Ormulum'  (c.  1200),  a  set 
of  pedestrian  metrical  homilies  valuable  to  the 
philologist  on  account  of  a  peculiar  system  of 
spelling.  In  the  14ih  century  Dan  Michel  of 
Kent,  the  author  of  the  'Ayenbite  of  Inwit,* 
William  of  Shoreham,  who  wrote  stiff  didactic 
poems,  Robert  Manny ng  of  Brunne,  who  versi- 
fied a  French  manual  and  gave  it  the  title 
'Handlyng  Sinne,'  and  Richard  RoUe  of  Ham- 
pole,  are  all  noteworthy.  Richard  Rolle,  the 
mystic,  hermit  and  preacher,  was  more  im- 
portant as  a  personality  than  an  author,  yet  his 
works  were  much  esteemed  in  their  day. 
Chief  among  Bible  paraphrases  are  an  early 
version  of  Genesis  and  Exodus  (c.  1250),  in 
the  Midland  dialect,  and  the  'Cursor  Mundi,' 
written  in  the  north.  Legends  and  hves  of  the 
saints  were  much  in  demand,  and  huge  legend  . 
collections  were  made  for  homiletic  work.  The 
Tales  of  the  Prioress  and  Second  Nun  in  Chau- 
cer illustrate  this  genre. 

The  most  important  figure  in  Middle  Eng- 
lish literature  is  Geoffrey  Chaucer  (1340-1400). 
A  L.ondoner  by  birth,  he  was  brou^nt  up  in  the 
atmosphere  of  the  coiu't,  took  part  m  the  French 
wars,  was  often  employed  upon  diplomatic  mis- 
sions, and  held  various  public  offices.  His  work 
may  be  sotuewhat  arbitrarily  divided  as  follows ; 
The  first  period,  to  about  1372-73,  when  he  first 
visited  Italy,  reflects  the  influence  of  French 
poetry.  Besides  a  number  of  shorter  lyrical 
pieces,  most  of  which  are  not  extant,  the  period 
includes  a  translation  of  a  part  of  the  'Romance 
of  the  Rose,>  and  'The  Book  of  the  Duchess,'  a 
lament  for  the  death  of  the  wife  of  his  patron 
John  of  Gaunt.  The  second  period,  which  closes 
about  1335,  reveals  him  imitating  Italian  models, 

[larticulariy  the  work  of  Boccaccio.  Here  be- 
on^  'Troilus  and  Cressida,'  'Anelida  and 
Arcite,*  'The  House  of  Fame,'  'The  Parliament 
of  Birds'  and  some  stories  later  utilized  in  the 
'Canterbury  Tales'  This  period  shows  a  great 
advance  in  versatility  and  poetic  power.  The 
so-called  English  period,  in  which  he  attaitted 
the  summit  of  his  powers,  has  been  held  to  in- 
clude the  'Legend  of  Good  Women,'  but  recent 
research  puts  much  of  it  earlier  and  makes  plain 
the  strong  influence  of  French.  The  chief  work 
of  this  period,  and  his  masterpiece,  is  the  'Can- 
terbury Tales.*  The  stories  were  borrowed 
from  various  sources;  the  plan  of  the  whole 
resembles  that  of  the  'Decameron,'  but  there  is 
no  evidence  that  Chaucer  was  acquainted  with 
it.  Besides  two  prose  Tales,  Chaucer  trans- 
lated Boethius  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
astrolabe.  The  chronolo^  of  his  writings  has 
not  yet  been  determined  with  complete  accuracy. 
Four  important  alliterative  poems  of  the 
latter  half  of  the  14lh  century,  written  in  the 
West  Midland  dialect,  may  be  referred  to  one 
auihor,  whose  name  has  not  been  preserved : 
'Sir  Gawa'n  and  the  Green  Knight,'  'The 
Pearl,'  'Purity'  and  'Patience.'  The  first  of 
these  is  gaierally  considered  the  finest  of  the 
metrical  romances,  because  of  its  elevation  of 
lone,  descriptive  power  and  narrative  skill.  It 
is  written  in  a  highly  artificial  style  of  verse. 
*The  Pearl'  describes  the  appearance  of  a  beau- 


8l^ 


374 


ENGLISH  LITBRATURS,   MIDDLE  PERIOD 


tiful  maiden  in  Heaven,  seen  in  a  dream.  It  is 
probably  to  be  interpreted  allegorically,  although 
the  poem  has  often  been  held  to  reflect  the  grief 
of  a  real  bereavement.  The  other  two  poems, 
which  arc  of  minor  value,  exalt  the  virtues 
indicated  in  their  titles.  Alliterative  verse,  with- 
out end-rhyme,  was  employed  by  William  Lang- 
land,  whose  bitter  satire  contrasts  with  the 
genial  irony  of  Chaucer.  'The  Vision  of  Piers 
the  Plowman'  attacks  the  evils  of  the  day  by 
means  of  various  allegorical  figures  seen  in 
dreams.  A  continuation  of  the  same  material 
appears  in  the  pieces  called  'Do  Wei,'  'EJo 
Bet'  and  'Do  Best.^  The  allegory  is  sometimes 
realistic  and  sometimes  mystic.  The  'Vision' 
appeared  in  three  different  versions  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  14th  century.  It  has  been  doubted 
that  this  is  all  the  work  of  one  man  and  too 
much  weight  has  been  attached  to  supposed 
autobiographical  evidence  in  it.  'Richard  the 
Redeless'  is  generally  assigned  to  Langland. 


the  'Vox  Claraantis'  in  Latin,  dealing  with  the 
social  unrest  of  his  day,  and  the  'Confessio 
Amantis'  in  English,  his  best'known  poem.  The 
'Confesiio'  consists  of  a  series  of  tales,  strung 
on  a  thread  of  story.  The  priest  of  Venus  is 
sent  to  "confess"  the  lover,  and  gives  him  in- 
struction by  means  of  tales  illustrating  the  vices 
and  virtues,  with  special  applications  to  matters 
of  love.  Many  of  these  tales  are  well  and  sim- 
ply told,  but  the  artificial  and  highly  finished 
octosyllabic  couplet  soon  becomes  monotonous. 
The  poem  is  too  long  (nearly  34,000  lines),  and 
is  far  inferior  to  tne  work  of  Chaucer.  An 
enormously  prolific  poet,  too,  was  John  Lydgate. 
His  long  poems,  like  'The  Troy-Book,'  or  'The 
Falls  of  Princes,*  are  tedious  versifying;  his 
minor  poems  and  'Fables'  show  him  at  his  best. 
As  a  disciple  of  Chaucer  he  stands  wilh  Thomas 
Occleve  or  Hoccleve,  a  more  interesting  person- 
ality, but  less  productive  and  accomplisned  than 
Ly;dgate.  Occleve's  chief  work  is  'The  Gonver- 
nail  of  Princes.' 

The  prose  work  of  John  Wiclif  was  pri- 
marily utilitarian.  He  was  greater  as  a  per- 
sonalily  than  as  a  writer,  but  his  translation  of 
the  Bible  (c.  1380)  did  much  to  fix  the  form 
of  the  language,  and  his  simple  aiid  direct  ser- 
mons appealed  strongly  to  the  lower  classes. 
He  was  assisted  in  translating  the  Old  Testa- 
ment by  Nicholas  of  Hereford,  and  the  whole 
was  later  revised  by  John  Purvey.  An  undue 
importance  has  sometimes  been  attached  to  the 
fictitious  'Travels'  supposed  to  have  been  made 
by  a  Sir  John  Mandeville  in  the  14th  century. 
The  hook  was  originally  written  in  French,  but 
the  facts  of  its  authorship  are  not  yet  fully 
known.  Though  purporting  to  be  authentic,  it 
is  full  of  grotesque  descriptions  of  the  East, 
mostly  borrowed  from  mcdixval  travel-books. 
See  StANnKviLLE. 

The  15lh  century  was  a  singularly  barren 
era.  England  was  almost  devoid  of  poetry  of 
distinction ;  the  example  of  Chaucer  inspired 
little  in  the  south,  and  the  Wars  of  the  Roses 
had  3  most  tmfavorable  effect  upon  Uterary  pro- 
duction in  general.  Some  advance  was  maoe  in 
prose  writing,  however,  through  the  interest 
taken  in  historical,  legal,  controversial  and  re- 
ligious subjects.     Reginald   Pecocl^  the  great 


opponent  of  the  doctrines  which  had  been 
advocated  by  Wiclif,  is  remembered  for 
his  'Repressor  of  Over-much  Blaming  of  the 
Clergy.'  Sir  John  Fortescue,  the  author  of 
'The  Gouvemance  of  England,'  and  the  chroni- 
clers Capgrave  and  Fabyan  also  deserve  men- 
tion. Periiaps  the  most  distinguished  work  of 
the  century  was  Sir  Thomas  Malory's  'Morte 
d'Artbur'  This  collection  of  romantic  tales 
dealing  with  King  Arthur  and  his  knights,  told 
in  melodious  prose  wilh  great  skill  and  chann, 
was  finished  about  1470,  and  printed  15  years 
later  by  Caxton.  Malory  drew  most  from 
French  romances.  Although  he  invented  little, 
he  was  no  mere  compiler,  but  a  great  literary 
artist.     The  introduction  of  printing  and  the 

fiuhlications  of  Caxton  mark  a  new  era  in  Eng- 
ish  letters.  Much  of  the  material  which  Caxton 
printed  he  translated  from  other  languages  him- 
self. His  activity  exerted  a  strong  influence  in 
the  development  of  English  prOK. 

A  compensation  for  the  dearth  in  English 
proper  in  ue  l5th  century  appears  in  the  emei^- 
ence  of  Scottish  literature.  The  first  note- 
worthy work  in  this  dialect,  with  the  exception 
of  certain  legends  and  romances,  is  the  'Bruce' 
of  John  BarBoor,  whose  life  falls  within  almost 
the  same  dates  as  that  of  Chaucer.  The  poem 
partakes  of  the  nature  both  of  a  rhymed  chroni- 
cle and  a  romance,  and  though  ladnng  in  fini^ 
is  full  of  vigor  and  animated  by  patriotic  spirit 
It  celebrates  the  deMs  of  Robert  Bruce,  with 
occasional  lapses  from  historical  accuracy.  An- 
drew of  Wyntoun's  'Original  Chronicle' — SO 
called  because  he  began  from  the  very  begin- 
ning—  is  an  exceedingly  monotonous  piece  of 
versifying.  The  expk>its  of  William  Wallace 
were  celebrated  by  Henry  the  Minstrel,  or  Blind 
Harry,  as  he  is  often  called,  in  a  poem  which 
takes  great  liberties  with  history.  Of  Blind 
Harry  little  is  known.  A  pronounced  imitator 
of  Chaucer,  and  not  an  unworthy  one,  was  King 
James  I  of  Scotland,  who  celebrated  his  love  for 
Lady  Jane  Beaufort  in  'The  King's  Quair* 
(1423).  In  structure,  language  and  general  lit- 
erary treatment  it  is  highly  artificial,  but  full 
of  grace  and  poetic  feeling.  It  derives  addi- 
tional interest  from  the  romantic  career  and 
early  death  of  its  author.  In  variety  and  excel- 
lence of  work,  Robert  Henryson,  who  flourished 


English  pastoral,  'Robene  and  Makyne,'  and  a 
notable  collection  of  'Fables.'  The  influence 
of  Chaucer  is  seen  in  'The  Testament  of  Cres- 
sida,'  which  describes  Cressida's  unhappy  death 
wilh  great  dramatic  power.  In  minor  poems  he 
was  often  felicitous.  An  elaborate  though 
tedious  and  awkward  "bird- fable  is  the  'Howlat' 
or  'Owlet*  of  Holland.  The  greatest  poet  of 
the  period  was  William  Dunbar  <146Q?-1S20?), 
who  led  a  wandering  life  in  his  youth,  was  later 
attached  to  the  court  of  James  IV  of  Scotland, 
and  entered  holy  orders.  Most  of  his  poems  are 
short  and  a  large  number  of  them  are  satiric^ 
More  ambitious  are  'The  Thistle  and  the  Rose,* 
which  commemorates  the  marriage  of  die  king, 
and  'The  Golden  Targe,*  an  elaborate  allegory. 
"The  Dance  of  the  Seven  Deadly  Sins,»  'The 
Flyting  with  Kennedy,'  a  brother-poet,  'The 
Two  Married  Women  and  the  Widow,'  and 
'Tidings  from  the  Session'  are  all  representa- 
tive pieces.  'The  Two  Friars  of  Berwick.'  ■ 
piece  of  vigorous  Chaucerian  narrative,  is  a»- 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE,   ELIZABETHAN  PERIOD 


37D 


cribed  to  him.  'The  Lament  for  the  Makers* 
strikes  the  elegiac  note,  but  Dunbar  was,  on  the 
whole,  lacking  in  pathos  and  tenderness.  He 
was  a  poet  of  great  variety  and  originality, 
using  both  the  'aureate  style"  then  in  vogue,  and 
the  rude  dialect  of  the  people  with  equal  skill. 
Gawin  Douglas,  Bishop  of  Dunkeld  (1475-1522), 
wrote  rather  stiff  allegorical  poems,  'The  Palace 
of  Honor'  and  'King  Heart.'     His  most  im- 

Krtanl  work  is  his  translation  of  Virgil.  Doug- 
i  was  the  most  learned  of  the  Scottish  poets, 
and  his  work  was  designed  to  appeal  chiefly  to 
the  upper  classes.  Much  of  the  work  of  Dunbar 
and  Douglas  falls  outside  the  formal  boundary 
of  this  hteraty  period,  1500,  yet  in  the  general 
character  of  their  poetry  and  especially  in  their 
imitation  of  raediafval  models  they  are  properly 
to  be  considered  with  the  earlier  men.  The 
same  is  hardly  true  of  the  work  of  Sir  David 
Lyndsay  of  the  Mount  (1490-1545),  who  com- 

?letes  this  group  of  Scottish  poets.  The  re- 
ormatory  tone  and  national  appeal  in  his  writ- 
ings place  them  in  the  era  following. 

In  English  literature  proper  a  similar  dis- 
tinction is  to  be  made.  Alexander  Barclay's 
translation  of  the  'Narrenschifl'  of  Sebastian 
Brandt^which  he  called  'The  Ship  of  Foules,' 
and  'The  Pastime  of  Pleasure*  of  Stephen 
Hawes,  a  "belated  Chaucerian,"  both  prodiiccd 
in  the  first  decade  of  the  16th  century,  belong 
far  more  to  the  age  that  had  passed  tnan  does 
the  poetry  of  Skelton.  Although  some  of 
Skelton's  early  work  suggests  imitation  oE  the 
older  poetry,  nis  most  characteristic  pieces  do 
not  fall  within  the  bounds  of  Middle  English. 
Neither  Hawes  nor  Barclay  were  even  second- 
rate  poets ;  their  prominence  is  chiefly  due  to 
the  fact  that  they  lived  in  a  time  when  little 
good  poetry  was  written. 

The  miracle  plays'  flourished  in  England 
from  the  early  part  of  this  period  until  the  end 
of  the  15th  century.  The  morality  play,  a  less 
important  genre,  arose  in  the  second  quarter  of 
the  15th  century,  and,  with  the  interlude,  for  a 
time  rivaled  the  popularity  of  the  miracles. 
For  a  discussion  of  the  rise  of  the  drama  in  the 
Middle  English  Period,  see  Miracle  Pi-iys. 

Biblioeraphy. —  There  is  a  comprehensive 
and  detailed  discussion  of  the  earlier  Middle 
English  period  by  Schofield,  W.  H.,  'Eiiglish 
Literature  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to 
Chaucer,'  which  contains  '  bibliography  and 
chronological  tables;  for  individual  authors 
consult  the  'Dictionary  of  National  Biography' ; 
for   bibliography  and  brief   discussions.   Wells, 

;,  E.,  'Manual  of  the  Writings  in  Middle  Eng- 
ish' ;  for  literary  history  in  general,  the  'Cam- 
bridge History  of  English  Literature'  (Vols. 
I  and  11.  Cambridge  1913),  'Grundriss  dcr 
germ.  Philologie' ;  JusscraniL  'Literary  His- 
tory of  the  English  People'  (2  vols.)  ;  Morlcy, 
H-,  'English  Writers'  (Vol.  HI-VIl);  Saints- 
bury.  'A  Short  History  of  English  Literature' ; 
Chambers,  E.  K.,  'The  Medijeval  Stage.'  For 
the  French  literature  of  the  period,  cf.  Paris, 
G.,  'La  litt.  frang.  au  moven  age,* — 'Medifeval 
French  Literature,'  in  Temple  Primer  Series. 
For  (he  Scottish  poets,  Henderson,  T.  F.,  'Scot- 
tish Vernacular  Literature,  A  History' ;  and 
chapters  ly  Gregory  Smith  in  the  'Cambridge 
History  of  English  Literature'  (Vol.  11,  Cam- 
bridge 1913). 

Wnj.IAM    WiTHERT.E   LAWRENCE, 

Professor  of  English,  Columbia  University. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE,  Elizabethan 
Period. 

THE  DRAMA. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
the  conflict  between  medisevalism  and  humanism 
was  rife  in  the  drama  as  in  other  forms 
of  literature.  For  the  preceding  half  cen- 
tury there  had  been  a  confusion  of  t^pes; 
miracle,  morality,  interlude,  and  farce  existing 
side  by  side  and  exhibiting  various  difierentia- 
lions  and  there  had  been  a  confusion  of  theatri- 
cal conditions,  play-acting  still  remaining  largely 
in  amateur  hands.  Neo-latin  imitations  of  the 
classics  were  being  succeeded  by  academic  at' 
tempts  in  the  vernacular.  'Ralph  Roister 
Doister,'  written  by  Nicholas  Udall  tor  the 
school  performance,  had  already  in  1552  marked 
the  appearance  of  comedy  as  a  distinct  form 
after  the  Plautian  model,  and  'Gorboduc,'  by 
Sackville  and  Norton,  performed  in  1562  before 
the  Queen,  was  the  first  vernacular  tragedy. 
Two  other  extant  plays  written  within  the  next 
few  years  and  performed  by  amateurs,  'Jocasta' 
and  'Tancred  and  Gismunda,'  wert  like  'Gor- 
boduc,' attempts  by  Englishmen  of  culture  to 
imitate  the  tragedies  of  Seneca  in  accord  with 
the  practice  of  Italian  humanists.  Meantime 
'Apius  and  Virginia'  and  'Damon  and  Pithias,' 
mixtures  of  tragedy  and  comedy,  exhibited  the 
persistence  of  popular  methods  combined  with 
classical  borrowings,  while  'Cambyses'  and 
'Horestes'  were  formless  chronicles  of  atroci- 
ties without  any  perceptible  classical  decorum. 
The  building  of  the  first  London  theatre  in  1576 
was  the  sign  of  a  speedy  triumph  of  the  profes- 
sional companies  as  the  chief  purveyors  of  the 
drama.  A  dozen  years  later  the  advent  of  a 
group  of  gifted  poets  prepared  the  way  for 
Shakespeare  by  determining  the  course  of  a 
popular  drama  that  was  to  be  literary  though 
disrcgardful  of  classical  restrictions. 

Comedy,  where  the  departure  from  mediaeval 
forms  required  by  the  humanists  was  far  less 
than  in  tragedy,  was  the  first  to  attract  literary 
talent  to  the  public  stage.  The  plays  of  Wilson 
revealed  a  satirical  comedy  of  manners  emerg- 
ing from  the  morality,  and  the  entertainmenta 
devised  by  Lyly  for  the  children  companies, 
combined  lyrical  and  spectacular  attractions 
with  a  refined  wit  and  a  certain  graceful  court- 
liness. Later  Green  introduced  sentimental  com- 
edy with  its  averted  tragedy  and  its  idealization 
of  women.  Such  hastv  summarizing,  however, 
does  scant  justice  to  tne  variety  and  ingenuity 
of  the  experiments  that  preceded  Shakespeare, 
drawing  their  material  from  every  field  from 
classical  myth  to  native  folk  lore,  and  essaying 
and  amalgamating  every  department  of  comedy 
from  the  Plautian  to  the  pastoral.  Most  char- 
acteristic, perhaps,  of  all  was  romantic  comedy, 
usually  based  on  Italian  noveUe  and  offering  a 
medley  of  fun,  sentiment  and  adventure. 

In  tragedy  Kyd  adapted  Seneca  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  popular  theatres,  discarding  most  of 
his  structural  scheme  but  retaining  the  story  of 
revenge,  the  accompanying  ghost,  the  horrors 
and  the  moralizinir;  and  Hius  in  the  'Spanish 
Tragedy'  (r-r.  1587).  creatingasoecial  type  des- 
tined to  a  vrrorous  existence.  Martowe  (IS64- 
93)  turned  his  back  on  Senecan  methods  and 
brought  to  the  rambling  and  discordant  struc- 
ture of  the  current  popular  history  plays  Ws 
splendid  blank  verse  and  his  soaring  imagina- 
tion.     'Tamburlaine,'   'Fauslus,'    the   'Jew      * 


'8l^ 


ENGLISH  LITBRATURB,  ELIZABETHAN  PERIOD 


Malta,'  and  'Edward  II,'  the  chief  plays  of  his 
half  aozen  years  of  dramatic  activity,  delighted 
the  vulgar  by  their  violence  and  spectacle,  and 
at  the  same  time  made  the  public  stage  the  abode 
of  noble  poetry  and  genuine  passion.  His 
genius,  though  never  fully  developed,  remade 
tragedy  and  history,  giving  to  the  chronicle 
Structure  the  unity  of  a  protagonist,  possessed 
by  extraordinary  ambition  and  en^gedin  tragic 
conflict  with  overpowering  opposition. 

In  Marlowe,  as  in  the  other  early  Elizabeth- 
ans, there  is  much  that  is  fantastic,  crude  and 
absurd.  The  primary  aim  of  each  dramatist 
was  to  present  a  story  so  as  to  delight  a  motley 
audience ;  hence  the  tendency  was  naturally 
toward  stories  of  sensational  crimes  for  tragedy 
and  of  romantic  adventures  for  comedy,  without 
much  care  for  the  isolation  of  either  species. 
Like  Marlowe,  however,  the  other  dramatists 
were  poets  as  well  as  playwrights,  stimulated 
by  that  imaginative  idealism  so  nobly  character- 
istic of  the  national  temper  in  the  years  of 
Elizabeth's  greatness,  and  in  their  exuberant 
and  .somewhat  over-fantastic  verse  reflecting 
the  audacity,  adventurousness,  emotional  ex- 
travagance  and   undaunted   aspiration    of    the 


age. 


Shakes 


i   apprenticeship  was  served  i 


it  and  exhibit  the  qualities 
most  prominent  in  other  dramatists.  The 
'Comedy  of  Errors'  is  an  adaptation  of  Plau- 
tus ;  'Love's  Labour's  Lost'  follows  Lyly;  the 
'Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona'  recalls  the  senti- 
mental comedy  of  Greene;  'Titus  Andronicus' 
is  a  melodrama  of  atrocities  after  the  fashion  of 
Kyd;  'Henry  VI'  is  dominated  by  Marlowe, 
and  'Richard  III,'  following  the  Marlowean 
formula,  surpasses  the  master  in  the  vigorous 
'  delineation  of  the  villain  protagonist  and  in  the 
stage  effectiveness  of  his  part.  But  Shake- 
speare soon  left  his  fellows  far  behind.  The 
'Midsummer  Night's  Dream'  and  the  'Mer- 
chant of  Venice'  transcended  the  romantic 
comedies  that  had  made  them  possible  on  the 
London  stage,  and  'Romeo  and  Juliet'  as  cofn- 
pletely  surpassed  the  prevailing  tragedy  of 
blood.  By  1600  Shakespeare  had  created  his 
great  series  of  comedies  and  in  the  Falstaff 
plays  had  wrought  a  union  of  comedy  and  his- 
tory such  as  the  early  chronicle  plays  had  only 
dimly  foreshadowed. 

By  1600  new  forces  were  manifest  in  the 
drama.  A  young  jjoet,  Marston,  was  following 
his  successful  satires  by  a  series  of  plays,  in 
part  tragedies  of  blood  on  the  Kydian  mode], 
and  in  part  satirical  tragi- conicdies,  which  aimed 
to  be  searching  studies  of  evil.  In  1599  Ben 
jonson's  'Even'  Man  in  His  Humour'  acted 
by  Shakespeare  s  company,  was  prefaced  with  a 
declaration  of  war  on  the  absurdities  of  chroni- 
cle history  and  romantic  plays,  and  with  the 
promise  of  the  creation  of  a  comedy  dealing 
with  contemporary  manners,  Jonson,  indeed, 
continued  a  powerful  force  in  the  drama  for  the 
next  25  years.  His  preaching  was  all  directed 
toward  the  establishment  of  a  more  conscious 
and  painstaking  art,  and  its  regular! zati on  by 
classical  examples,  while  his  practice  resulted 
in  a  noteworthy  series  of  satirical  comedies, 
presenting  with  powerful  humor  and  realism 
the  follies  and  vices  of  the  day.  Chapman  and 
Middleton  were  also  writing  comedies  of  do- 
,  and  the  whole  trend  of  the 


drama  from  1600  to  1608  was  away  from  ro- 
mance and  scnt.mcnt,  resulting  in  a  satirical  and 
realistic  treatment  in  comedy  and  a  more  search- 
ing analysis  of  evil  in  tragedy.  Under  these 
circumstances  Shakespeare's  great  series  of 
tragedies  was  produced.  This  is  not  the  place 
to  speak  of  their  lasting  significance,  but  merely 
to  note  that  his  genius,  now  in  the  full  maturity 
of  its  powers,  was  still  engaged  in  transforming 
the  prevailing  types  of  drama.  Narratives  from 
chronicle  and  novella,  so  often  the  sources  of 
formlessness  of  structure,  resulted  in  the  splen- 
did dramatic  concentration  of  'Macbeth'  and 
'Othello' ;  the  absurd  tragedy  of  blood,  popular 
again  through  the  efforts  of  Marston  and 
others,  became  'Hamlet'  with  its  infinite  sug- 
gestivcness  of  human  tragedy;  the  grotesque- 
ness  characteristic  of  mediaeval  as  well  as 
Elizabethan  drama  had  its  final  justification  in 
'Lear.' 

By  1607-08  the  success  of  the  heroic  plays  of 
Beaumont  and  Fletcher  had  brought  the  roman- 
tic and  idyllic  again  into  favor  and  perhaps 
given  the  suggestion  for  Shakespeare's  retnrn  to 
romantic  tragi-comedy  in  'Cymbeline,'  a  'Win- 
ter's Taie,'  and  the  'Tempest.'  Heroic  ro- 
mances, such  as  'Philaster'  and  the  'Maid's 
Tragedy'  succeeded  not  only  because  of  their 
poetry  and  their  sensational  contrast  of  senti- 
mental love  and  sensual  passion,  but  even  more 
because  of  the  telling  theatrical  effectiveness  of 
their  situations  and  the  clever  alternations  of 
suspense    and    surprise   with    which    their    in- 

f  anions  plots  were  complicated.  The  comedy  of 
caumont  and  Fletcher,  especially  in  its  later 
development  by  Fletcher,  like  their  heroic  plays, 
had  a  long  continued  influence  on  the  drama. 
Possessing  ready  wit,  great  poetic  facility  and 
an  abundant  invention,  but  without  moral  taste 
or  any  serious  criticism  of  life,  Fletcher  marks 
a  stage  in  the  drama  that  may  fairly  be  called 
decadent  when  wc  recall  the  sound  moral  sense 
and  the  artistic  aspiration  of  the  early  plays. 
Yet  the  last  decade  of  Shakespeare's  fife  was 
the  time  of  Jonson's  greatest  comedies,  of  the 
masterpieces  of  Beaiimont  and  Fletcher,  and 
of  some  of  the  best  work  of  Chapman,  'Tour- 
neur,  Webster  and  Middleton. 

The  very  existence  of  these  masterpieces  was 
of  itself  a  factor  in  the  drama's  decline.  Web- 
ster, writing  in  1612,  made  the  first  avowal  of 
obligations  to  his  great  contemporaries ;  and 
henceforth  the  increasing  recognition  of  the 
greatness  of  the  immediate  past  seemed  to  stifle 
rather  than  to  inspire  innovation  and  experi- 
ment. Webster  himself,  borrowing  freely  from 
others,  carried  the  tragedy  of  blood  to  its  final 
development  in  the  powerful  and  gloomy  'White 
Devil'  and  'Duchess  of  Malfi.'  Middleton  In 
collaboration  with  Rowley  created  scenes  of 
powerful  tragic  interest  in  'A  Fair  Quarrel' 
and  the  'Changeling.'  Massinger,  collaborating 
often  with  Fletcher  and  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent borrowing  Fletcher's  methods,  produced  a 
body  of  tragedy  and  tragi-comedy,  morally  di- 
dactic, and  rhetorically  excellent,  hut  in  char- 
acterization and  poetiy  somewhat  deficient 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  writers  of  tragedy 
during  the  reign  of  James  I ;  in  the  development 
of  comedy,  where  less  poetical  excellence  is  de- 
manded, the  number  of  important  contributor! 
was  much  larger.  Middleton's  most  character- 
istic work  was  a  group  of  lively  comedies  that 
exposed  contemporary  manners  with  the  frank- 


BNOLI8H  LITERATURE,    ELIZABETHAN  PERIOD 


877 


est  realism.  Massinger,  though  on  the  whole 
deficient  in  humor,  produced  in  'A  New  Way 
to  P^  Old  Debts*  the  noteworthy  diaracter  o£ 
Sir  Giles  Overreach  that  has  attracted  many 
great  actors,  including  Kean.  Dekker  cind  Hey- 
wood,  writers  without  great  literan  pretensions, 
wrote  a  lar^e  number  of  successful  plays.  Dek- 
ker ranged  from  the  romantic  idealism  of  'Old 
Fortunatus'  and  the  sentiment  and  merriment 
of  the  'Shoemaker's  Holiday'  to  tiie  painful 
realism  of  the  'Honest  Whore.'  He^ood,  al- 
ways a  skilful  and  inventive  playwright,  like- 
wise wrote  plays  of  every  kiniL  achieving  a  real 
masterpiece  in  his  'A  Woman  Killed  with  Kind- 
ness.' This  play  may  be  classed  as  a  sentimental 
tn^ic-comedy  or  as  a  domestic  tragedy,  a  class 
which  includes  a  number  of  plays  depicting  cur- 
rent crimes  and  goes  back  at  least  as  far  as 
'Arden  o£  Feversham'  in  Marlowe's  day.  One 
other  dramatic  form,  extremely  popular  in  the 
court  of  James  I,  must  be  mentioned,  the  court 
mask.  For  these  scenic  and  musical  entertain- 
ments many  dramatists,  and  notably  Jonson, 
wrote  libretti;  and  the  spectacles  and  dances  in 
turn  had  an  important  influence  on  the  popular 
theatres.  The  dramatic  product  of  the  reign  of 
James  I  (1603-25)  was  indeed  fully  as  large 
as  that  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and,  indudiiw 
as  it  did  the  last  nine  years  of  Shakespeare  3 
career,  vastly  greater  in  valne.  But  the  enthusi- 
asm and  earnestness  of  the  days  of  the  Armada 
were  succeeded  hy  a  time  of  immorality,  cor- 
ruption, and  national  weakness.  The  people 
were  turning  more  and  more  to  Puritanism, 
but  the  drama,  following  the  court,  grew  less 
serious,  more  licentious  and  gradually  forgetful 
of  its  high  calling. 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  I  the  drama 
offered  little  that  remains  notable,  outside  of 
the  continued  work  of  the  older  writers  and  the 
pla^  of  Ford  and  Shirley.  Ford,  a  poet  of 
original  and  lofty  genius,  ranks  with  the  great 
dramatists  in  the  intensity  of  his  tragic  crises, 
but  he  sought  themes  and  motives,  abnormal 
and  decadent,  liie  great  dramatists  of  the 
preceding  generation  stimulated  Shirley,  who 
was  their  last  worUiy  follower  and  who  often 
recalls  but  never  quite  equals  their  best  work. 
Of  comic  dramatists  Brome,  of  "the  tribe  of 
Ben,"  and  DavenanL  who  belongs  to  the 
Restoration,  are  possibly  the  most  noteworthy. 
But  the  great  majority  of  the  many  plays  pro- 
duced were  mediocre.  The  drama  no  longer 
represented  the  nation ;  nor  in  the  approach 
of  the  civil  conflict  could  it  longer  command 
the  interest  and  ener^  oE  ECreat  intellects  or 
ima^nations.  It  had  little  virility  left  when  the 
Puntans  closed  the  theatres  in  1642. 

Within  a  few  years  Chapman,  Dekker  and 
Jonson,  the  last  surviving  dramatists  of  Eliza- 
beth's time,  had  died.  Their  lives  had  spanned 
the  entire  course  of  the  drama's  development, 
its  rapid  rise  and  its  splendid  culmination  as 
well  as  its  decline.  The  30  years  from  Mar~ 
lowe's  first  play  to  (he  death  of  Shakespeare 
include,  in  fact,  all  that  is  great  in  this  amaz- 
ingly rapid  development.  Incomparable  as  this 
period  is  because  it  contains  the  career  of 
Shakespeare,  it  is  hardly  less  astonishing  be- 
cause of  the  variety  and  range  of  the  work  of 
his  fellows.  Lacking,  as  even  Shakespeare's 
plays  lack,  in  the  symmetry  and  unity  of  the 
Athenian  drama;  faulty,  as  his  plays  are  often 
faulty,  in  the  over-exuberance  of  language  and 


the  violence  and  extravagance  of  scenes;  suf- 
fering, as  his  genius  suffered,  from  the  crudity 
of  a  bare  stage  and  an  immature  dramaturgy; 
these  Elizabethan  plays,  taken  as  a  whole,  reveal 
in  however  inferior  measure,  his  great  excel- 
lences, the  untrammcled  play  of  wit,  sentiment, 
fun  and  fancy;  a  splendid  energy  of  diction 
and  of  dramatic  treatment ;  a  searching  revela- 
tion of  human  character,  and  an  abounding 
Bace  and  power  of  poetic  expression.  See 
RAMA;  English  Literature;  Engush  Lit- 
EBATURE  —  Middle  Periob;  Great  Britain- 
Trend  OF  Thought  and  Literature  in  the 
19th  Century,  and  consult  works  there  re- 
ferred to.  A.  H.  Thorndik^ 
Professor  of  English,  Cohmbia  Universtty. 

KON-DEAMATIC   POETS Y. 

Elizabethan  poetry  is  the  product  of  the 
Renaissance, —  the  flowering  of  the  English 
slock  under  the  fertilizing  power  of 
European  thought,  English  literature  at 
all  points  —  in  Alfred's  time,  in  Eliza- 
beth's, in  the  18lh  and  19th  ventures,  —  has 
owed  its  great  moments  to  foreign  inspiration, 
but  this  is  true  of  no  age  so  conspicuously  as 
of  the  Elizabethan.  The  period  is  short,  if  it 
be  measured  strictly  by  Elizabeth's  reign,  1558- 
1603;  and  even  if  the  limits  be  broadened  to 
include  Wyatt  and  Surrey  at  the  beginning  and 
all  of  Shakespeare's  work  at  the  end,  it  is 
still  but  narrow  room  (or  the  development  of 
the  crude  religious  play  into  the  drama  of 
Shakespeare  and  Jonson,  — of  the  clumsy  son- 
nets of  Wyatt  mto  the  great  sequences  of 
Sidney,  Spenser  and  Shakespeare,^  of  the 
stiff  "Tudor  music  into  the  noble  harmonies  of 
the  madrigals  and  the  sweet  melodies  of  the 

Perhaps  because  of  this  swiftness  of  devel- 
opment, the  age  illustrates  with  unusual  clear- 
ness the  transference  of  life  to  books.  The 
rush  of  genius  draws  into  its  vortei  most  of 
the  experience  about  it;  Spenser's  friends  enter 
the  'Faerie  Queene'  uncbac^cd,  and  in  spite  of 
the  allegory,  undisguised ;  Sidney's  passion 
takes  over  the  incidents  of  his  wooing  with  art 
immediateness  that  the  occasional  bookishness 
of  his  inspiration  cannot  smother ;  history, 
scarce  made,  is  subject  for  a  play;  the  gossip 
of  a  shipwreck  becomes  the  '"Tempest';  and  — 
perhaps  most  interesting  of  all  —  those  first 
poets  themselves,  the  type  of  the  age,  Surrey, 
Sidney.  Greville,  Raleigh,  are  caught  up  as  they 
drop  from  life,  and  continue  immortal  in 
Shakespeare's  young  men  —  Biron,  Valentine, 
Romeo.  The  contrast  here  suggested  between 
the  mass  and  power  of  its  literary  inheritance 
and  the  directness  of  its  foundation  upon  life, 
is  the  distinction  of  Elizabethan  poetry,  ana 
perhaps  the  source  of  most  of  its  problems. 

In  this  swift  drawing-in  of  Continental  Ren- 
aissance thought  with  ^glish  history  and  char- 
acter, the  age  is  set  off  by  three  great  names  — 
Spenser,  Shakespeare  and  Milton  —  for  though 
Milton  stands  well  outside  the  Elizabethan 
period,  he  is  the  last  term  in  its  development 
The  apparent  remoteness  of  Spenser,  his  un- 
English  quality,  is  due  probably  to  the  fact  that 
he  IS  nearest  to  the  great  wave;  he  takes  over 
a  larger  quantity  of  unnaturalized  material ;  he 
represents  the  early  school  of  wholesale  colo- 
nizers of  Italian  thought  on  English  soil.  Yet 
he  takes  over  into  his  writings  quite  as  much 


,^le 


8T8 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE,  ELIZABETHAN  PERIOD 


of  English  life,  even  of  English  incident,  and 
quite  as  much  of  English  character,  as  Shakes- 
peare. The  great  dramatist,  at  first  glance  so 
natural,  so  near  to  his  race,  so  untouched  by 
the  tyranny  of  books,  is  indeed  all  these  things, 
yet  his  imagination  starts  always  in  some  for- 
eign  St^eslion.  Aside  from  the  different  scale 
of  genius,  he  is  as  English  as  Spenser  — no 
raore  so;  but  he  represents  a  more  complete 
blend  of  the  foreign  themes  with  the  native 
mind.  So  Milton  also,  heir  to  the  assimilated 
learning  of  the  Renaissance  —  to  humanism,  yet 
draws  on  the  most  English  sources  of  life- 
English  experience,  English  character,  English 
landscape.  These  three  poets  illustrate  the 
Elizabethan  age  in  that  they  are  typically  in- 
dividual, typically  English,  and  typically  chil- 
dren of  the  Renaissance  mind. 

It  is  usual  to  take  as  the  beginning  of  Eliz- 
abethan poetry  the  book  in  which  the  Eliza- 
bethans themselves  saw  the  herald  of  their  day 
— 'Tottel's  Miscellany*  (155?).  This  book,  a 
publisher's  venture,  contained  the  work  of  sev- 
eral courtly  poets,  notably  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt 
(1503-42)  and  of  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of 
Surrey  _(151&-47).  Though  the  selections 
were  written  before  Elizabeth's  reign,  they  un- 
folded already  the  characteristics  of  the  new 
age.  The  sonnets,  modeled  after  Petrarch  or 
translated  from  him,  foretold  the  later  sonnet 
fashion^  with  its  heavy  draughts  upon  (he  Ital- 
ian spring;  the  imitations  of  classical  poetry 
showed  that  the  Enriish  writers  had  found  the 
feeding  root  of  the  Renaissance  itself;  and  the 
translations  as  a  whole  pointed  in  the  direction 
of  the  more  notable  transfcrrings  of  tiie  world's 
imagination  to  English,  Golding's  (IS36?-1(>05) 
Ovid,  1S67,  and  Chapman's  (1559?-1634?)  Iliai 
1598,  and  Odyssey,  1616.  So  also  the  lighter 
lyrics,  the  best  of  them  by  Wyatt,  foretold  the 
song-books;   Surrey's   sonnet  to   Clare  and  his 

fiem  on  Windsor  witnessed  the  vitality  of  the 
liiabelhan  theme  of  friendship  —  the  nearness 
of  the  living  incident  in  his%'erse;andGrimald's 
(1519-^1?),  'The  Garden'  prophesied  at  long 
range  the  love  of  English  country  life  that  was 
to  find  noble  expression  in  Marvell  and  Walton. 
The  fame  of  Toitel's  book  made  the  miscel- 
lany a  fashionable  vehicle  of  publication 
throughout  the  Eliiabethan  age  though  the 
growing  habit  of  general  publishing  tended  to 
diminish  its  importance.  'The  Paradise  of 
Dainty  Devices'  (1576),  is  interesting  for  the 
work  it  preserves  of  Richard  Edwards  (1523?- 
66),  of  Edward  de  Vers,  Earl  of  Oxford 
n550-16CM),  and  of  Sidney's  friend.  Sir  Edward 

Dyer"  ( P-I607),  whose  fine  "My  mind  to 

me  a  kingdom  is,'  appears  in  this  anthology. 
*A  (iargeous  Gallery  of  Gallant  Inventions' 
(1578),  illustrates  the  fashion  of  translation, 
and  bears  witness,  in  the  names  of  tunes  for 
the  poems,  to  the  growing  invasion  of  poetry  by 
music.  <A  Handful  of  Pleasant  Delists' 
(1584),  is  a  weaker  anthology,  of  practically  no 
merit,  but  'The  Phoenix  Nest*  (1593),  is  note- 
worthy for  the  elegies  on  Sidney  —  one  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  (1552?-16I8),  and  for  other 
poems  by  Raleigh  and  Thomas  Lodge  (1558?- 
1625).  'England's  Helicon'  (1600)  includes 
selections  from  Sidney.  Spenser,  Breton,  Lodge, 
Peele  and  Bamfield  the  great  writers  of  the 
first  Elizabethan  period,  strongly  marked  by 
the  pastoral  vein-  the  book  would  be  notable 
for    one  poem   alone,    Marlowe's    "Come   live 


with  me  and  be  my  love.*  'England's  Parnas- 
sus' and  'Belvidere,  or  the  Garden  of  the 
Muses'  (1600),  are  mere  collections  of  quota- 
tions; 'Davison's  Poetical  Rhapsody'  (IGCfe),  is 
of  little  more  importance,  though  its  selections 
reflect  the  sonnet  vogue.  An  earlier  and  more 
important  book,  'The  Passionate  Pilgrim,  by 
William  Shakespeare'  (1599)  is  clearly  a  mis- 
cellany, as  only  part  of  its  contents,  some  songs 
from  'Love's  Labour's  Lost'  and  some  sonnets, 
are  by  Shakespeare. 

In  subject  matter  the  earlier  part  of  fht 
Elizabethan  age  was  pastoral,  following  the  tone 
set  by  Sidney's  'Arcadia*  (1590).  This  Eliz- 
abethan pastoral,  literary  and  artificial  as  in 
Sanazzarro  and  other  Italian  models,  left  its  im- 
press on  the  incidental  songs  in  the  prose  ro- 
mances. Sidney  himself  was  the  most  zealous 
experimenter  in  classical  metres,  in  the  general 
attempt  that  Gabriel  Harvey  fostered,  to  bring 
English  verse  under  the  laws  of  Latin  prosody. 
Green  and  Lodge,  the  great  writers  of  prose 
after    Sidney,   were    less   pedantic   (" 


The    best    representative    of    this 

Kriod  is  Edmund  Spenser  (q.v.).  His  first 
ok,  'The  Shepherd's  Calendar'  (1579).  was 
an  imitation  of  the  Virginian  eclogue,  with  the 
same  bookish  flavor  — here  increased  by  Edward 
Kirke's  commentary  — and  with  the  same  alle- 
gorical treatment  of  contemporaries  and  events 
under  the  pastoral  mask;  but  with  an  English 
setting  anJwith  English  ideals  that  stamp  the 
book  as  native.  In  °Th  Faerie  Queene'  (1590- 
96)  and  the  'Amoretti'  (1595),  Spmser 
speaks  also  through  the  pastoral  convention  — 
tnat  subduing  of  all  things  to  loveliness,  which 
is  the  mark  of  the  world  of  the  Sicilian  Muses. 
The  'Faerie  Queene'  especially,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  Its  ancestry  In  the  Italian  romantic 
epics,  has  the  irresponsibility  of  'pastoral  ro- 
mance—  the  arbitrary  maiiagcmenl  of  the  facta 
of  life  as  if  those  facts  themselves  were  a  flex- 
ible language.  The  paradox  of  the  Renaissance, 
of  Eliiabeuian  literature,  is  illustrated  here  on 
the  largest  scale,  in  the  gorgeous,  archaic  lan- 
guage, the  luireal,  un-Engiish  world  of  the  story 
on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  the  stem 
English  fibre  of  the  ground  theme.  This  same 
blending  of  Italian  imagery  and  expression  with 
English  spiritually  is  seen  in  the  'Epithala- 
mion'  (1595)  and  in  the  'Prothalamion'  and 
the  'Four  Hymns'   (1596^. 

The  pastoral  convention,  molded  by  Spen- 
ser, remained  popular,  thou^  less  characteris- 
tic, in  the  succeeding  decades.  Michael  Dray- 
ton (1563-1631),  remembered  now  for  his  splen- 
did 'Battle  of  Agincourt'  (1605).  and  for  his 
great  sonnet,  'Since  there's  no  help'  (1619), 
wrote  much  in  the  Spenserian  pastoral,  as  diij 
William  Browne  (1591-1643).  In  another  way 
also  the  pastoral  habit  of  beauty  was  trans- 
ferred to  poems  not  strictly  pastoral,  such  as 
Shakespeare's  Venus  and  Adonis'  (1593), 
'Lucrece'  (1594),  and  Marlowe's  'Hero  and 
Lcander'  (before  1593),  where  the  convention 
of  old-world  beauty  blends  with  the  Elizabethan 
rest  for  a  story,  evidenced  more  popularly  in 
the  broadside  ballads.  The  tradition  of  narra- 
tive poetry  was  strong  throughout  the  Tudor 
period,  from  the  'Mirror  for  Magistrates* 
(1559)  to  Drayton's  'Barons'  Wars'  (1603J. 
As  the  first  period  of  Elizabethan  poetry  ii 


ENGLISH  LITERATUKB,   ELIZABETHAN  PERIOD 


paitonl,  so  the  second  period,  roughly  from 
1590  to  1600,  is  matktd  hy  the  Mnnet  fashion. 
The  Italian  sonnet  had  been  introduced  in  de- 
tached imitations  and  translations  by  Wyatt  and 
Surrey  but  the  fashion  of  sonnet  sequences  was 
set  by  Sir  Phihp  Sidney's'  (1554-86)  <Astro- 
pfael  and  Stella,'  published  in  1S9I,  but  known 
much  earlier.  Sioney  here  followed  Petrarch, 
aftei  the  example  of  the  innumerable  French 
sonneteers.  His  sonnets,  however,  derive  vital 
and  individual  interest  from  the  circumstances 
of  his  own  love  for  Penelope  Devereux,  a  pas- 
sion a.s  famed  among  his  contemporaries  as  Pe- 
trarch's love  for  Laura.  His  poems  have  had 
the  not  unprecedented  fate  of  being  called 
merely  literaiv  in  their  inspiration,  and  it  can- 
not be  denied  that  his  borrowings  were  prob- 
ably many;  yet  in  the  medixval  way  he  con- 
sidered himse'lf  sincerely  original,  and  much 
in  his  work  supports  the  claim.  The  amount  of 
actual  incident  that  he  takes  over  from  his  own 
life  is  large,  especially  in  the  noble  sonnets  that 
deal  wilb  horsemanship  and  knightly  exercise, 
and  his  story  in  one  point  was  radically  differ- 
ent from  Petrarch's  or  Dante's.  His  love  was 
known  and  returned;  the  bar  between  Penelope 
and  himself  was  one  of  honor,  since  she  was 
married  to  another;  this  lofty  sense  of  this 
kind  of  honor  was  Sidney's  characteristically 
Engli^  coDttibution  to  the  world- theme  of 
love. 

In  most  cases  the  "love  passionings'  of  Sid- 
ney's imitators  were  of  the  nead  rather  than  of 
the  heart.  This  undeniable  note  of  artifice  has 
led  to  serious  doubts  as  to  the  sincerity  of  the 
greater  sequences  —  Sidneys,  Spenser's  and 
Shakespeare  s.  With  due  allowance  for  the  un- 
doubted imitations  in  all  three  poets,  it  remains 
true  that  their  sonnets,  as  distinguished  from 
others,  have  the  very  tone  of  sincerity.  It  would 
be  an  interesting  question,  though  hard  to  an- 
swer, whether  through  the  impress  of  similar 
ideals  of  love  and  courtly  behavior,  the  poets 
in  England  and  their  fellows  in  France  had  not 
acquired  for  tne  moment  the  same  channels  of 
dlought  —  whether  the  similarities  in  their  work 
are  not  frequently  coincidences  rather  than  bor- 
rowings. 

Sidney's  'Astrophel  and  Stella*  had  been 
preceded  1^  Thomas  Watson's  'Hekatompathia' 
(15S3),  a  series  of  pedantic  poems  on  love 
themes,  which  had  the  respect  but  not  the  imi- 
tation of  his  contemporaries.  In  lS9Z  appeared 
Samuel  Daniel's  (1659-1731)  'Delia,*  in  honor 
of  the  Countess  of  Pembroke,  Sidney's  sister  — 
a  finely  written  series  remembered  for  some 
cfaarmintt  lines  and  for  the  oft-imitated  'Care- 
charmer  Sleep,"  itself  an  imitation  from  Des- 
portes.  <Parthenophil  and  Parthenophe*  (1593-) 
by  Bamabe  Barnes  (1569-1609),  though  it  con- 
tains in  its  enormous  mass  some  poems  of 
charm,  is  clearly  literary  in  inspiration.  Lodge's 
'Phillis,'  in  the  same  year,  reverts  to  die  pas- 
toral background  of  the  romances ;  the  sonnets 
have  the  same  chann  as  Lodge's  incidental 
lyrics. 

Spenser's  'Amoretti'  (1595)  record  his  own 
lore  stoiY,  and  should  be  read  with  his  beau- 
tiful wedding  song,  the  'Epi  thai  am  ion.'  The 
s  exhibit  almost  in   excess  his  sweetness 


soul,  indicates  the  true  Spenser,  and  the  son- 
nets rank  third  among  Eliiabethan  series. 

Shakespeare's  'Sonnets,'  printed  in  1609  but 
written  much  earlier,  mark  the  supreme  reach 
of  this  kind  of  writing.  Some  of  the  attention 
they  have  received  comes  from  the  poet's 
ereater  fame  as  a  dramatist;  some  of  it  comes 
from  the  mystery  that  still  on  many  sides  en- 
velopes the  sonnets ;  but  the  story  itself,  the  con- 
flict of  the  two  angels  of  friendship  and  of  dark 
love,  is  the  most  striking  of  the  sonnet  themes^ 
and  the  powerful  directness  with  which  the  sub- 
ject for  the  most  part  is  treated  places  the 
series  above  anything  else  of  its  kind  m  English. 
Natural  as  tbe  sonnets  seem,  however,  and 
spontaneous  as  the  themes  appear,  yet  compari- 
son with  other  sequences  shows  that  Shakespeare 
assimilated  much  of  his  predecessors ;  how  much 
of  his  own  life  is  in  the  story  remains  the 
puzzle  of  his  biographers. 

In  the  years  immediately  following  the  son- 
net-writing, the  characteristic  vehicle  of  Eliza- 
bethan non-dramatic  poetry  was  the  song-book. 
The  manuscript  miscellanies  of  Henry  VlII's 
time  had  contained  the  notes  as  well  as  the 
words  of  son(p,  and  the  Elizabethan  period  was 
rich  in  musicians  as  well  as  poets.  In  1588 
Nidiolas  Younge  published  his  'Uusica  Trans- 
alpina,'  a  collection  of  Italian  madrigals  with 
English  words.  The  madigral  was  a  strict 
musical  form,  a  contrapuntal  part  song,  built  up 
on  many  repetitions  of  a  musical  theme,  and  so 
needing  few  words  ^  only  a  short  poem,  or  part 
of  a  longer  one.  With  tlie  development  of  the 
lute  and  the  growing  popularity  of  lute  music, 
came  the  song  built  on  a  metoOT,  with  harmon- 
ized accompaniment  —  wliat  the  Elizabethans 
called  an  Air.  John  Dowland,  the  greatest  of 
the  lutanists,  introduced  this  new  kind  of  song 
in  1597,  in  his  'First  Book  of  Songs  or  Airs,* 
and  the  form  was  perfected,  in  bofli  words  and 

music,    by   Thomas   Campion    ( ?-1619)    in 

several  booI»  of  Airs.  As  the  Air  was  but  a 
short  melody,  repeated  without  change,  it  needed 
for  words  a  short  lyric  of  several  stanzas.  This 
need  encouraged  the  composition  of  short,  finely 
wrought  songs^  frequenuy  in  the  lighter  vein, 
such  as  Campion  himselt  wrote,  and  such  as 
became   a  model   for  Herrick    (q.v). 

Beginning  with  Wyatt,  there  had  been  a  vein 
of  satire  in  Elizabethan  poetry.  Gascoigne 
(1525-77)  in  his  'Steel  Glass'  (1S76),  Lodge 
in  his  'Fig  for  Momus'  (1595),  Joseph  Hall  in 
his  'Virgidemiarum'  (1597),  and  Marston  in 
his  'Satires*  (1598),  and  many  lesser  writers, 
kept  the  tradition  alive.  One  otber  minor  strain, 
which  was  destined  to  flower  later  into  larger 
expression,  was  reli^ous  verse  —  often  crude 
and  moralizing,  as  m  the  miscellanies,  often 
fantastic,  as  foreshadowing  Donne  (q.v,),  but 
often  devout.  In  Robert  Southwell  (1S6I- 
95),  this  writing  becomes  passionate  and  of 
the  first  quality.  His  'Saint  Peter's  Complaint* 
(1595)  contains  that  one  poem.  "The  Burning 
Babe,'  that  Ben  Jonson  preferred  to  all  bts  own 

These  are  the  main  forms  of  Elizabethan 
non-dramatic  poetry.  If  we  except  the  'Faerie 
Queene,'  the  genius  of  the  age  is  perhaps  best 
seen  in  the  drama.  But  in  these  other  forms 
the  Elizabethan  mind  preserved  for  us  a  broad 
and  varied  record  of  tts  amazinff  power  to  ab- 
sorb the  literary  past,  and  to  feel  deeply  its  own 
experience.  See  Ekglish  LrratATUtiE;  Encush 


.gk 


ENOLISH  LITERATURE,  ELIZABETHAN  PERIOD 


Adjunct  Proft 

PBOSE. 

Elizabethan  prose  has  neither  the  sig- 
nificance nor  the  splendor  of  Elizabethan  poetry. 
The  greatest  masters,  Sidney,  Lyly,  Hooker, 
have  no  supreme  ' 


of  English  speech 
science  and  thought  of  the  17th  century  was  the 
result  of  the  efforts  of  Elizabethan  prosetnen. 
Before  the  period  itself  commences,  the  work 
of  More,  Elyot  and  Latimer,  of  Coverdale,  Tyn- 
dale  and  the  editors  of  the  English  Prayerbook, 
had  atreadjT  brought  a  simple  and  vigorous 
vernacular  into  being;  but  the  ancestors  of 
Augustan  prose  were  the  group  of  Cambridge 
scholars,  Cheke,  Wilson  and  Ascham,  whose 
writings,  with  the  exception  of  the  'Schole- 
master,'  antedate  the  accession  of  Ehzabeth. 
This  group  devoted  considerable  attention  to 
the  study  of  English  rhetoric;  they  aimed  at 
plainness  and  purity  of  speech  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  literary  vernacular  in  emulation  of 
the  classics;  they  objected  to  archaisms  and 
affectations  of  all  sorts,  and  Wilson's  condemna- 
tion of  "ink-hom  terms*  is  one  of  the  signifi- 
cant loci  of  English  criticism.  The  introduc- 
tion of  classical  studies  as  a  result  of  the  revival 
of  learning  had  necessitated  a  complete  revision 
of  the  medixval  curriculum,  and  Ascham's 
'  Scholemaster,'  published  posthumously  in  1570, 
follows  the  fashion  set  6y  the  humanists  of 
Italy,  France  and  Germany,  in  a  very  largo 
number  of  pedagogical .  treatises.  Like  these 
humanists,  it  was  nis  purpose  to  indicate  the 
education  necessary  to  a  cultivated  gentlemai), 
His  own  prose  style  is  simple  and  direct,  bor- 
rowing the  more  inconspicuous  excellences  of 
Latin  prose.  But  his  mood  is  in  gome  respects 
that  of  the  Puritan ;  and  in  his  suspicion  of 
romance  and  of  the  erowing  Italian  influence, 
he  is  at  odds  with  the  whole  spirit  of  Eliza- 
bethan life  and  letters.  Prose  and  poetry  alike 
were  to  be  saturated  with  the  Italianate  spirit 
which  he  contemns. 

Ascham  is  in  some  measure  the  father  of 
that  whole  school  of  Ellizabethan  sblists,  whose 
model  was  Eloquence*  in  the  classical  and 
bumanislic  sense,  and  who  disregarded  the 
ornate  and  "aureate*  tendencies  of  Continental 
prose.  The  full  and  rich  notes  of  Hooker  are 
the  final  culmination  of  this  manner.  The  first 
four  books  of  the  'Ecclesiastical  Polity*  were 
published  in  1594:  several  schools  of  Novella 
Elocutio  had  intervened  since  the  composition 
of  the  'Scholemaster,'  but  they  have  not 
affected  the  purity  and  directness,  the  calm  and 
judicious  argumentation  of  Hooker's  style  and 
manner.  In  this  great  book,  moderation  and 
passion  temper  each  other  after  the  fashion  of 
the  best  Latin  prose;  and  Hooker  realizes  the 
ambitions  of  the  earlier  English  humanists  who 
bad  made  this  their  ultimate  goal.  Other  models 
and  other  ambitions  could  alone  make  it  pos- 
sible to  arrive  at  a  higher  standard  than  that 
which  Hooker  achieves  at  his  best.  Much  of 
the  book  is  unreadable  to-day,  like  the  technical 
s  of  the  Attic  orators;  but  its  soaring 


„  I,  like  theirs,  are  monuments  of  tbe  race 
ind  religion  whose  ardor  and  conviction  tiiey 
express. 

Directness  and  vigor  were  also  put  to  far 
different  uses  both  in  secular  and  in  religious 
polemics.  Of  the  latter,  the  Martin  Marprel- 
ate  Controversy  relating  to  the  problem  of 
church  disdpiine,  which  ra^d  between  1587 
and  1590,  gave  opportunities  which  secular 
pamphleteers  only  too  soon  made  use  of.  The 
significance  of  'Hay  any  work  for  Cooper?* 
and  'Pap  with  a  Hatchet'  has  been  greatly  over- 
rated; in  them  the  instmraent  which  the  Cam- 
bridge group  bad  prepared  for  use  was  blunted 
and  used  as  a  cudgel.  Nor  can  much  more  b« 
said  of  the  controversial  writing  of  Nash, 
Greene  and  Harvey,  in  which  is  illustrated  the 
nearest  Elizabethan  approximation  to  modem 
journalism,  but  with  manners  and  morals 
untempered  by  a  wholesome  or  cultivated  pub- 
lic opinion.  Other  miscellaneous  writings  of 
these  men,  and  of  Dekker,  Breton  and  others, 
are  concerned  with  every  variety  of  subject,  and 
their  models  include  Aretino,  Rabelais,  Dede- 
kind,  as  well  as  other  Continental  writers  of  a 
wholly  different  type. 

Literary  criticism  began  in  this  period  and 
employed  for  the  most  part  the  prose  style 
whose  tradition  goes  back  to  Ascham.  In  con- 
•  -   --•     ' ■-  '-'-  Italian. 


of  introducing  literary  ideals  which  had 
been  current  in  Italy  for  nearlv  a  century. 
The  group  of  the  Areopagus,  which  parallels 
the  Plfiade  of  France  in  a  few  more  or  less 
important  respects,  found  its  highest  critical 
expression  in  the  'Defence  of  Poesy'  of  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  written  about  1580,  and  pub- 
lished posthumously  in  1S9S.  Sidney's  ideals  of 
prose  style  are  not  those  of  Ascham,  but  his 
practice  here  is  without  those  excesses  and 
affectations  which  in  the  'Arcadia'  furnish  the 
model  for  a  whole  school  of  imitators.  His 
book  is  an  impassioned  apology  for  the  poetic 
art  against  the  onslau^t  of  Ue  Puritans;  but 
tbe  objections  which  it  refutes  are  universal, 
and  its  answers  to  these  questions  have  in 
themselves,  too,  the  temper  of  universality. 
There  are  parallels  for  all  its  ideas  in  the  al- 
most contemporary  works  of  Frenchmen  and 
Italians.  Tbe^,  too,  from  the  dawn  of  the  Re- 
naissance, as  in  Boccaccio's  'Genealogy  of  the 
Gods,'  which  Sidney  doubtless  knew,  tiad  writ- 
ten defenses  of  poetry;  but  Sidney's  is  an  Eng- 
lish book,  and  in  its  passion,  unity  and  general 
spirit  seems  the  native  product  of  Elizabethan 
genius,  Puttenham's  'Arte  of  English  Poesie' 
conforms  more  to  the  model  of  tbe  formal 
treatises  which  the  Italians  devoted  to  tbe  the- 
ory and  practice  of  poetry.  Its  purpose,  like 
theirs,  is  to  consider  the  whole  range  of  criti- 
cism; it  deals  with  the  history,  dignity,  forms, 
metre  and  ornaments  of  poetry,  continually 
illusiraling  tbe  theory  both  by  example  and  ^ 
anecdote.  The  critical  work  of  Jonson  be- 
longs to  tbe  Jacobean  age,  and  its  ideals  and 
its  style  indicate  die  great  changes  that  had 
taken  tJlace  since  the  'Defence  of  Poesy.'  Itts 
impossible  to  date  the  'Discoveries'  with  any 
degree  of  certainty,  but  no  word  it  contains 
antedates  the  death  of  Elisabeth.  Jonson,  de- 
spite the  fame  of  this  work,  coandates  no  sinsle 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  BLIZABBTHIAN  PERIOD 


381 


original  idea  in  regard  to  the  art  of  literature; 
but  the  luminous  utterances  of  the  later  Latin 
rfaetoriciana,  and  the  rational  classicism  of  the 
Dutch  critics,  are  alike  embedded  in  his  robust 
prose,  and  become  an  influence  on  Elnglish  crit- 
icism even  after  the  Restoration. 

The  formal  treatise  or  preface  was  the  vehi- 
cle of  criticism  in  the  Elizabethan  Age;  the 
chief  vehicle  which  it  was  to  use  in  future  was 
introduced  into  England  by  Bacon  at  the  very 
end  of  the  16th  century.  Montaigne  is  the 
father  of  the  modem  essay;  and  to  Turn  Bacon 
owed  the  name  and  a  number  of  definite  ideas. 
But  in  everydiing  else  no  two  works  could 
differ  more  than  theirs.  The  air  of  lo<]uacity, 
the  personal  anecdote,  the  amused  curiosity,  the 
vivid  imagery  of  Montaigne  are  not  to  be 
sought  for  in  the  essays  of  Bacon.  The  states- 
man Utters  his  brooding  thousfat  in  curt  and 
dipt  sentences;  Seneca  and  Pliny  here  speak 
English;  and-the  sent^tious  manner  enters  our 
speech,  destined  to  saturate  prose  and  verse, 
and  resulting  after  many  changes  in  the  pointed 
couplets  of  Pope.  Each  sentence  is  its  own 
world  and  has  its  own  message.  Bacon,  even 
in  his  scientific  work,  has  been  called  a  mere 
phrase  maker  by  a  modern  scientist  whose  dis- 
tinction in  this  respect  is  not  unlike  his  own; 
in  the  essays  this  power  is  unrestrained  by  the 
need  of  argument  and  experiment.  Emerson  is 
the  great  American  example  of  tlus  dogmatic 
use  of  the  disjointed  sentence,  and  like  Bacon 
he,  too,  has  fed  deeply  on  the  thought  of  Mon- 
taigne. 

A  wholly  different  ideal  of  prose  style,  dis- 
daining directness  and  simplicity,  was  current 
throughout  the  Elizabethan  Age,  and  found  its 
most  natural  expression  in  the  novel  Fenton's 
version  of  Bandello,  adapted  through  the 
French,  and  the  varied  collection  of  Painter's 
'Palace  of  Pleasure,'  introduced  the  Italian 
novella  into  England.  Their  interest  is  almost 
wholly  in  the  story,  and  Herodotus  and  Boc- 
caccio are  made  to  speak  the  same  language  of 
fiction.  In  Pettie's  'Petite  Pallace  of  Pettie 
his  Pleasure,*  which  is  modeled  on  the  work 
of  Painter,  a  new  element  intrudes  itself,  and 
the  style  which  culminates  in  Ly!y  may  be  said 
to  have  been  inaugurated.  The  sources  of 
Euphuism  have  been  sought  in  individual  works 
of  Continental  literature,  notably  in  those  of 
Guevara;  but  modem  scholarship  finds  in  it 
simply  one  manifestation  of  a  disease  which 
was  rife  throughout  Europe  at  this  period,  as 
a  result  of  the  disintegration  of  Humanism. 
The  excesses  of  the  Ciceronians  find  a  parallel 
in  the  antithetical  balance  of  Lyle's  sentences; 
and  die  absurd  imagery  was  a  natural  result 
of  a  literature  which  had  exhausted  its  content 
and  ""iKht  for  originality  in  affectation  of  man- 
ner. This  explains  the  kindred  writings  on 
the  Continent;  and  although  English  prose  was 
young,  it  could  not  fail  to  be  anected  by  these 
influences.  The  well-known  marks  of  euphu- 
ism, the  so-called  *parisonic  antithesis,*  the 
'unnatural  natural  history,*  and  the  like,  may 
all  be  explained  on  these  grounds.  'Euphues* 
itself  is  in  some  senses  a  novel  of  psycnolo^ 
and  character  rather  than  of  incident;  but  its 
chief  purpose  is  the  fashioning  of  a  perfect 
gentleman  after  the  manner  of  Castiglione's 
'Courtier.'  Here  Lyly's  purpose  meets  Spen- 
ser's ;  and  'Euphues'  may  be  considered  as  the 
connecting  link  between  the  purely  pedi^^ogical 


treatise  like  the  'Scholemaster'  and  the  final 
poetic  idealisation  of  Renaissance  education  in 
the  'Faerie  Queene.'  The  vo^e  of  Euphuism 
is  indicated  by  the  number  of  its  imitators ;  but 
it  is  unnecessary  to  consider  the  forms  which 
Euphuistic  romance  assumed  at  the  hands  of 
Loik^,   Greene  and  others. 

Sidney  is  credited  by  his  contemporaries, 
notably  Drayton,  with  having  put  an  end  to 
this  fashion;  but  if  the  'Arcadia'  is  referred  to, 
it  can  only  be  said  that  one  affectation  has  suc- 
ceeded another.  The  '  Arcadia, '  which  has 
come  down  to  us  as  a  large,  posthumous  frag- 
ment, is  the  chief  representative  in  English  of 
the  pastoralized  romance.  It  owes  much  to 
Herberay  des  Essarts's  French  version  of  the 
■Amadis  of  Gaul,'  and  something  to  the 
'Diana'  of  Montemayor;  in  it  the  Renaissance 
transmutations  of  Greek  romance  find  a  climax. 
The  mannerisms  of  Sidney's  style  are  not  those 
of  the  arciiaic  or  affected  word,  nor  of  "un- 
natural .  natural  history,*  nor  of  alliterative 
antithesis;  but  the  exaggerated  imagery,  the 
pomp,  the  prettiness  of  the  Spanish  romances 
are  mingled  in  the  'Arcadia'  in  an  inextricable 
jungle  oi  sentence  and  paragraph.  Its  vices  are 
those  of  eoneeplinno  rather  than  of  the  paral- 
lel Spanish  vice  of  culUranismo.  The  mild  and 
modulated  Ciceronianism  of  Hooker,  and  all 
of  Latin  eloqitenlia  that  Cheke  E^nd  Ascham  had 
hoped  to  introduce  into  English  speech,  are 
wholly  absent  The  'Unfortunate  Traveller' 
of  Nash  may  be  mentioned  as  an  indication  of 
a  tendency  antipodal  to  the  chivalric  pastoral- 
ism  of  Sidney;  it  introduces  in  a  racier  style  a 
picaresque  experiment  in  English  fiction  be- 
tween the  period  of  'Gurman'  and  'Lararillo.' 
But  the  novelist  and  the  preacher  in  general 
succumbed  to  the  temptations  of  the  ornate 
style :  the  novel  throughout  the  period  of  its 
origins  was  tainted  with  Euphuism  or  Arcad'an- 
ism,  and  pulpit  oratory  acquired  a  definite  man- 
nerism, which  persisted  until  Eacfaard,  Glanvill 
and  other  pamphleteers  ridiculed  it  out  of 
existence. 

With  the  accession  of  James  I  Jacobean 
erudition  and  science  superseded  the  creative 
impulse  of  the  Eliiabethans.  Bacon  and  Jon- 
son  represent  the  new  sententious  manner  at 
its  best;  other  writers  lose  themselves  in  a  sea 
of  detail ;  still  others  add  a  hectic  fervor  to 
thought  or  feeling.  But  these  things  do  not 
properly  belong  to  the  Elizabethan  spirit.  The 
opposition  of  the  vernacular  and  ornate  styles; 
the  inauguration  of  formal  criticism  and  prose 
ficfion ;  the  passion  for  controversy ;  these  are 
the  main  impulses  of  Elizabethan  prose, 

BibUography. —  Jusserand  'Histoire  lit- 
tiraire  du  Peuple  Anglais'  (Vol.  II)  ;  Saints- 
bury,  'Elizabethan  Literature>  (London  1887)  ; 
Smith,  G.  Greaory,  'Elizabethan  Critical  Es- 
says' (Oxford  1504)  ;  Child,  C.  G.,  'John  Lyiy 
and  Euphuism'  (Erlangen  1894) ;  Jusserand. 
'The  English  Novel  in  the  Time  of  Shakespeare' 
(London  1890);  'The  Cambridge  History  of 
English  Literature'  (Cambridjte  19131 :  Raleigh, 
'The  English  Novel  to  Waverlev'  (New  York 
1894)  ;  Landmann,  'Shakespeare  and  Euphuism* 
(New  Shakespeare  Society  Publications,  1880- 
85,  Ser.  I,  No.  9)  ;  Spingam,  'Critical  Ess^s  of 
the  I7th  Century'  (Oxford  1908-09).  and 
'Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance'  (New 
York  1899)  ;  Einstein,  'Italian  Renaissance  in 
England*    (New  York  1902);  The  studies  of 


„8le 


ENGLISH  LITSRATURB,  VICTORIAN  PERIOD 


Jolm  Lyly  by  R.  Warwicic  Bond,  Feuillerat  and 
Croll;  Lee,  'French  Renaissance  in  England' 
(New  York  1910).  See  Encush  Liteka- 
tuke;  English  Litbiatube  —  Middle  Period; 
LiTEitATUKE.  and  Consult  works  referred  to 
under  those  headings. 

J.  E.  Spimoarm, 
Uajor,  InfoMtry,  U.  S.  A.,  formerly  Profetsor 
of   Comfaralive   Literature,   Columbia   Uni- 

ENGLISH     LITERATURE,     Victorian 

Period.  The  name  •Victorian'  is  popidarly 
given  in  honor  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria 
(1819-1901),  and  the  hterature  designated 
by  thai  adjective  is  rou^y  coincident 
with  her  reign  (1837-1901),  and  is  limited 
to  England.  The  death  of  Scott  (1832) 
is  commonly  taken  as  die  most  con- 
venient date  for  fixing  the  term  to  the  brilliant 
literary  movement  of  the  last  years  of  the  18th 
century  and  the  eariy  decades  of  the  19th ;  and, 
from  this  point  of  view,  Victorian  literature 
stands  for  the  new  literary  impulses  that  suc- 
ceeded the  decline  of  the  great  work  of  Burns, 
Cowper,  Wordsworth,  Gale  ridge,  Byron,  Shel- 
ley, Keats,  Scott  and  their  con  tempo  nries. 
The  literary  movement  of  the  Victorian  ^riod 
may  best  be  defined  by  the  main  tendencies  in 
poetry,  prose  and  the  drama. 

rorrav  and  prose. 
Poetry. — The  first,  the  most  popular,  and  the 
most  prolific  poets  of  the  period  were  Alfred 
Tennyson  ana  Robert  Browning.  Three  main 
interests  may  be  observed  in  their  work  and 
that  of  their  contemporaries  and  succetsors. 
The  ideal  interest  in  humanity,  best  represented 
in  the  preceding  epoch  by  Sbelleyj  found  its 
most  vivid  expression  in  Browning,  whose 
work,  at  first  written  under  the  spell  of  the 
great  lyric  poet,  early  took  on  those  traits  of 
vigorous  interest  in  the  experiences  of  man- 
kind which  are  the  source  of  its  ori^nality  and 
popularity.  Browning's  poems  arc  distinguished 
for  their  pervasive   feeling  for  the  moods  and 


these  respects  he  represents  a  verv  important 
movement  of  the  century,  and  many  of  the 
same  characteristics  inform  the  poetry  of  his 
wife,   Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning. 

In  the  second  place,  the  serious  moral  poetry 
of  Wordsworth,  the  poetry  'of  man,  of  nature 
and  of  human  life,*  justly  celebratea  as  one  of 
the  chief  glories  of  English  literature,  had  a 
legitimate  successor  in  the  KtAve,  reflective 
poetry  of  Matthew  Arnold  and  Arthur  Hugh 
Clough.  They  began  writing  a  few  years  later 
than  Tennyson  and  Browning.  Like  many  of 
their  contemporaries,  of  whom  they  are  the 
best  mouthpieces,  they  were  oppressed  by  the 
melancholy  of  life,  and,  to  a  greater  dearee  than 
their  literary  prototype,  they  deal  with  morals, 
with  duty,  with  the  vanity  of  human  effort  and 
with  "the  eternal  note  of  sadness.*  Their 
poetry,  particularly  that  of  Arnold,  is  brilliant 
m  style  and  finely  finished,  and  a  high  place  is 
accorded  to  them  as  exponents  of  the  graver 
and  more  solemn  side  of  the  poetry  of  the  cen- 
tury. Their  temper  is  expressed  in  a  more 
sentimental  strain  in  such  poets  as  Arthur 
O'Shaughnessy. 

Contemporaneous  with  the  decline  of  this 
impulse,  which  spent  itself  in  the  endeavor  to 


express  some  solution  of  the  enigma  of  exist- 
ence, there  arose  the  third  school  of  poets,  who, 
foregoing  this  quest,  gave  themselves  up  to 
the  search  for  beauty  of  form  and  sentiment, 
who  busied  themselves  with  the  retelhng  of  old 
tales,  who  were  concerned  with  romance,  and 
who  strove,  for  the  most  part,  to  recreate  a 
picturesque  and  ideal  world.  Three  names 
stand  out  conspicuously ;  the  painter-poet, 
£>ante  Gabriel  Rossetti;  William  Morris,  poeL 
story-teller,  socialist  and  manufacturer ;  and 
Algernon  Charles  Swinburne.  With  them  i<  to 
be  named  Christina  Rossetti,  sister  of  D.  G. 
Rossetti. 

In  some  respects,  Tennyson  more  than  any 
other  poet  of  the  century  is  representative  of 
these  three  groups.  Beginning,  in  his  first 
volume  (1827),  under  the  spelt  of  Keats,  he 
had  within  a  decade  produced  much  original 
work  and  by  1860  established  his  reputation  as 
the  best-beloved  poet  in  England.  In  much 
of  his  earlier  work,  he  treated  subjects  from 
human  life  not  unlike  those  of  Browning 
though  with  more  calm  and  repression  and 
less  lively  vigor.  The  ethical  ideas  of  his  time 
found,  as  in  Arnold  and  Qough,  a  current  and 
lasting  expression  in  many  of  his  shorter  lyrics, 
such  as  'The  Two  Voices'  and  'Locksley  Hall,> 
as  well  as  in  the  longer  'In  Memoriam'  (1850) 
and  as 'Idylls  of  the  King*  (18S8-).    Throi^-  i 

out  his  poetical  career,  Tennyson  was  a  most 
distinguished  and  careful  workmEin,  and  in  this 
respect  he  is  akin  to  the  poets  who  were 
spoken  of  in  the  third  group,  as,  like  them,  he 
is,  in  some  respects,  a  reteller  of  tales.  Unlike 
them,  however,  an  ethical  and  not  chiefly  an 
xsthetic  motive  is  dominant  in  him. 

Besides  these  chief  poets,  there  should  be 
mentioned  WilUam  Barnes,  the  painter  of  the 
homely  life  of  Dorsetshire;  two  dtstinguished 
writers  of  vers  de  iociiti,  Frederick  Locker- 
X^amson  and  (Tharles  Stuart  (Zalverly  ■  Tenny- 
son's own  less  celebrated  brothers,  Frederick 
Tennyson  and  Charles  Tennyson  Turner,  Cov- 
entry Patmore  and  many  other  poets  who  have 
written  in  a  touching  way  of  sim^e  things; 
and  above  all,  Edward  Pitegerald,  whose  trans- 
lation of  the  'Rubaiyit'  ofOmar  Khayyim  is 
not  only  classical  in  its  finish  but  also  not  un- 
representative of  much  of  the  melancholy  of 
the  poetry  of  the  century.  Of  contemporary 
English  poets,  the  greatest  amount  of  popular 
fame  has  fallen  to  Mr.  Rudyard  Kipling. 

Prose.— Important  as  is  (he  poetry  of  the 
era,  it  is  many  wayi  surpassed  hy  the  amount 
and  richness  of  the  prose.  During  the  period 
the  great  popular  form  of  imaginative  litera- 
ture was  the  novel.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  tiie 
preceding  part  of  the  century,  did  more  than 
any  one  else  in  the  history  of  English  literature 
to  establi^  the  widespread  vogue  of  fiction, 
and  in  the  field  of  historical  romance  he  re- 
mains an  object  of  the  detracting  envy  and  real 
despair  of  his  successors.  The  main  develop- 
ment of  the  novel  in  the  Victorian  period  was, 
however,  along  a  different  line  from  that  es- 
tablished by  Scott,  whose  more  immediate  suc- 
cessor, Edward  Bulwer-Lvtton,  a  prolific  writer, 
marked  a  decadence  of  the  romance  from  the 
standard  of  the  Kreat  master.  Rather  the  novel 
develooed  according  Co  the  principles  laid  down 
ind  exemolified  by  the  great  writers  of  the  18th 
centurv,  Richardson,  Fielding  and  Smollett,  and 
brilliantly  carried  on  in  the  early  19th  centoiy 


.Google 


ENGLISH  UTBRATURE,   VICTORIAN  PERIOD 


368 


-by  Maria  Edgeworth  and  Jane  Austen.  Ac- 
cordingly the  Kreat  fiction  of  the  Victorian 
period  IS  largely  realistic  in  tendency.  The 
most  brilliant  and  most  popular,  as  well  as  the 
earliest  of  the  men  of  the  period,  was  Charles 
Dickens,  who,  in  the  type  of  story  and  the 
method  of  narrative,  followed  the  school  of 
LeSagc  and  Smollett,  but  added  to  the  English 
novel,  considered  as  a  whole,  a  new  kind  of 
buoyant  humor  and  a  warm  and  polemic  hatred 
of  wrongdoing  and  oppression.  Almost  con- 
temporary, though  flowering  laKr  and  declining 
earlier,  was  William  Makepeace  Thackeray, 
often  spoken  of  as  the  chief  of  English  novel- 
ists. Like  that  of  Dickens,  his  material  was 
largely  drawn  from  contemporary  life,  but  he 
wrote  of  higher  sodal  strata,  and  viewed  his 
world  more  as  a  panorama,  calmlv  and  with 
less  personal  intensity  and  less  polemic  sense. 
Almost  contemporary  with  the  rniest  work  of 
■'  I,  was  represented  a  very  different 


the  intense  personal  novel   from   time 
io  vogue. 

Of  the  Ivpes  of  material  furnished  by  these 
novelists,  that  represented  by  the  humanistic 
novels  of  Dickens  was  the  most  conspicuous  in 
the  group  of  slightly  less  great  novelists  of 
this  early  Victorian  period.  The  purposeful 
spirit  found  a  very  interesting  expression  in 
the  religio'historical,  and  modem  ethical,  novels 
of  Charles  Kingsley,  the  gist  of  whose  teach- 
ing is  that  no  earthly  happiness  exists,  save  in 
the  surrender  of  self  to  the  faith  of  Christianity 
(understood  in  an  Anglican  sense)  ;  in  Eliza- 
beth Gaskell.  whose  classic  and  charming  'Cran- 
ford'  (1865)  is  less  representative  of  her  in- 
terest in  social  questions  than  such  earlier 
novels  as  'Mary  Barton'  (1848) ;  and  in  the 
vigorous  and  voluminous  Cnarles  Reade,  who, 
besides  being  a  writer  of  historical  fiction,  was 
also  a  vehement  champion  of  the  oppressed  and 
a  challenger  of  injustice.  These  writers  were, 
in  many  respects,  akin  to  Dickens.  The  most 
distinguished  representative  of  the  more  realis- 
tic school,  in  many  respects  a  follower  of 
Thackeray,  was  Antnony  Trollope,  a  writer  of 
pleasant  stories  of  Enghsh  life,  and  one  of  the 
most  consistent  of  the  realists. 

Charlotte  Bronte  and  her  sisters  may  be 
called  specialists  in  representing  emotional  in- 
tensity. The  term  "specialist'  may  also  be 
applied  to  several  writers  of  the  early  Victorian 
period,  fi'rederick  Marr^at  was  a  specialist  in 
the  writing  of  sea-stones,  and  some  of  his 
nautical  creations  are  famous.  Charles  Lever 
dealt  chiefly  with  the  military  hero.  An  inter- 
esting picture  of  the  out-of-the-way  life  of 
peasants  and  gypsies  is  to  be  had  in  the  works 
of  George  Borrow.  A  oopular  writer  on  school 
and  college  life  was  Thomas  Hughes.  There 
may  be  named  also  Benjamin  Disraeli,  G.  P,  R. 
James,  Samuel  Lover,  and  of  a  somewhat  later 
period,  contemporary  with  Gcorp;c  Eliot,  Rich- 
ard Doddridge  Blackmore  and  Margaret  01  i- 

Since  the  time  of  the  p:rcat  panoramic  novel- 
ists of  the  early  Victorian  period,  the  novel 
has  tended  to  specialization,  such  as  has  been 
described,  though  of  a  larger  kind.  Among 
«-rlers  belonging;  to  the  so-called  later  Victorian 
period,  stands  out  the  name  of  the  great  special- 
ist in  states  of  the  human  mind,  in  questions  of 


duty,  in  ethics,  'George  Eliot*  (Marian  Evans 
Cross).  Though  in  one  or  two  novels,  as 
' Middlemarch'  (1871-72),  she  attains  the  pan- 
oramic view  and  produces  classical  types,  her 
interest  was  chiefly  centred  in  the  problems 
mentioned,  which  «ie  illustrated,  for  the  most 
part,  in  die  lives  of  people  of  humble  and  rural 
circumstance.  Her  artistic  aim  was  to  make  in- 
teresting the  life  of  the  lowly.  Contemporary 
with  her,  but  continuing  his  production  down 
to  a  much  later  date,  was  Mr.  George  Meredith. 
In  a  series  of  powerful  novels,  he  exhibited 
various  phases  of  human  temperament,  and  has 
tried  to  express  what  is  most  native  and 
fundamental  to  human  actiqn.  He  was  the 
foremost  living  English  novelist  of  the  day 
with  the  possible  exception  of  Mr.  Thomas 
Hardy,  who  is  still  wiih  us ;  the  latter  however, 
has,  in  a  lon^  series  of  brilliant  novels^  been  Ies4 
concerned  with  the  problems  of  the  individual 
soul  and  the  expression  of  types  of  human 
temperament,  than  with  the  workings  of  an 
external  and  unaccountable  chance  and  caprice 
in  human  destiny,  and  in  this  respect,  as  in 
his  beautiful  pictures  of  rural  life,  Hardy  also 
is  a  great  specialist  With  them,  in  a  totally 
different  field,  that  of  the  romance  built  on 
the  tradition  of  Scott,  but  embodying  more 
allegorical  and  figurative  elements,  is  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson.  The  most  briljiant  and  popu- 
lar work  of  Mr.  Rudyard  Kipling  also  belongs 
to  this  period. 

Quite  as  important  and  striking  as  either 
the  poetry  or  the  fiction  of  the  Victorian  period 
is  the  large  body  of  humanistic,  critical  and 
scientific  prose  that  is  regarded  by  Victorian 
writers  as  among  the  chief  glories  of  English 
literature.  During  the  period,  the  essay  form, 
owing  largely  to  the  growing  prevalence  of 
magazines  and  reviews,  was,  and  still  is,  in 
vogue,  but  it  was  used  more  and  more  widely 
for  other  than  strictly  literary  purposes.  There 
have  been  practically  no  important  successors  of 
such  essayists  as  Lamb,  Hazlitt  and  DeQuincey 
(who,  like  Landor,-  falls  also  within  the  early 
Victorian  period).  The  ancestry  of  the  litera- 
ture of  1830-1900  is  rather  to  be  traced  back, 
in  humanism,  to  Burke  and  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, with  some  diffusion  and  dispersion;  in 
criticism,  to  Coleridge;  in  history,  to  Gibbon; 
Adam   Smith  and   Bentham; 


ideas  from  Germany. 

This  last  was  the  initial  source  of  inspira- 
tion of  one  of  the  greatest  humanists  of  the 
century,  Thomas  Carlvie,  Beginning  with 
translations  of  German  writers  and  essays  and 
excursions  into  German  ideas,  Carivle,  not  far 
from  die  opening  of  the  reign  of  Victoria,  be- 
came at  once  the  prophet  and  the  scourge  of 
his  countrymen.  Moved  bv  the  same  spectacle 
that  had  stirred  Dickens  and  Kii^ley,  he  pro- 
ceeded somewhat  illogically  but  verv  eloquently 
to  demonstrate  the  futility  of  contemporary 
institutions,  to  decry  the  impotence  of  the 
democracy,  and  to  point  out  the  one  way  of 
salvation,  the  dominance  of  the  "hero°  whom  he 
illustrated  in  several  important  works,  as 
'Heroes  and  Hero-Worshin*  (1841);  <Crom- 
vclP  nS^S)  ;  and  'The  History  of  Friedrich 
I'  (1858-65).  It  would  be  wrong  to  say  that 
(he  mantle  of  Eliiah  fell  upon  the  Elisha  of 
John  Ruskin,  for  the  careers  of  the  two  overlap 


,,  Google 


384 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE.    VICTORIAN  PERIOD 


by  many  years.  But  Ruskin  continued  vehe- 
mently the  task  of  upbraiding  his  countrymen 
for  their  failure  lo  observe  what  was  of  good 
report.  Starting  his  career  as  a  critic  of  art, 
and  trying  to  reform  the  taste  and  the  esthetic 
manners  of  the  time  and  lo  lead  his  readers 
back  to   a  true  idea   of   the   beautiful   and  the 

fjod,  he,  by  the  middle  of  his  career,  'Unto 
his  Last'  {I860),  broadened  the  scope  of  his 
interests  so  that  they  included  economic  and 
social,  as  well  as  literary  and  artistic,  questions. 
His  influence  has  been  very  widely  diffused,  like 
that  of  Carlyle,  and  their  contemporary  human- 
ist, Emerson.  A  third  jfreat  chastiser  of  the 
evil  which  men  do  and  think  was  Matthew 
Arnold,  already  mentioned  as  a  poet.  From 
about  18?0  to  1880,  his  literary  energies,  origi- 
nally devoted  to  poetry  and  next  to  literary 
criticism,  were  directed  toward  trying  to  make 
his  stubborn  island  countrymen  thmk  rightly  on 
political,  literary  and  religious  matters  in  ac- 
cord with  that  formula  which  he  continually 
charaeteriicd  as  "culture." 

With  these  spiritual  ^ides  is  to  be  named 
the  great  humanist,  the  friend  and  contemporary 
of  Carlyle,  John  Stuart  Mill,  who,  besides  being 
an  admirable  technical  stuaent  and  expounder 
of  logic  and  political  economy,  attempted  to 
disseminate  the  principles  of  moderation,  of 
justice,  of  right  reason,  and  in  all  his  works,  as 
in  his  famous  essays  'On  Liberty'  (1859)  and 
'The  Subjection  of^  Women'  (1869J,  sowed  the 
seed  of  righteousness.  For  a  discussion  of 
Mill's  work  as  an  economist  and  a  philosopher, 
the  general  articles  and  the  special  article  on 
Mill  should  be  consulted,  since  it  is  out  of  the 
province  of  the  present  article  to  touch  on 
scientific  studies  of  the  century  except  in  so 
far  as  they  relate  lo  literature. 

The  humanistic  movement  in  its  earlier 
phases  is  often  regarded  as  an  asiKct  of  what 
IS  called,  for  the  purposes  of  classification,  the 
romantic  movement,  the  impulse,  that  is,  which 
expressed  the  desire  for  individual  expansion 
rather  than  the  submission  to  the  limits  im- 
posed by  authority,  and  which  implied  the 
manumission  of  the  human  spirit  and  intellect 
from  current  and  traditional  bonds.  In  the 
religious  field,  the  so-called  Oxford  Movement 
of  1833-41  is  sometimes  called  romantic  in 
that  it  was  the  work  of  a  few  young  men  who 
revolted  at  the  religious  custom  of  ttie  time 
and  endeavored  to  re-establi.sh  an  earlier,  and 
as  thejr  conceived  it,  a  purer  form  of  belief  and 
worship.  The  Oxford  Movement  received  at 
once  its  best  exposition  and  severest  criticism 
in  the  controversial  autobiography  of  the 
originator  of  the  movement,  'The  Apologia 
Pro  Vita  Sua'  of  John  Henry  Newman,  written 
in  defense  of  his  conversion  to  Catholicism. 
Newman  stands  in  English  literature  as  one  of 
the  great  masters  of  finished  prose  of  a  formal 
but  winning  cast  and  as  a  specialist  in  some- 
what technical  religious  controversy.  The 
orthodox  Anglican  feeling  of  the  time  is  best 
represented  m  the  sermons  and  writings  of 
Frederick  Dcnison  Maurice,  Frederick  Wil- 
liam Robertson  and  Charles  Kingsley,  the 
novelist. 

The  more  strictly  critical  movement,  as  re- 
lated to  literature,  goes  back  to  Coleridge  and 
Germany.  The  dogmatic  manner  and  air  of 
finality  which  distinguished  the  pronouncements 
of    the    EdinbuTf^    and    Quarterly   reviewers. 


found  its  descendant  chiefly  in  the  cominon- 

sense  criticism  of  Macaulay.  Most  of  the 
critics  of  the  early  decades  of  the  century. 
Lamb,  Hazlitt,  De  Quincey  and  others,  were, 
in  one  way  or  another,  frankly  personal  or  de- 
liberative rather  than  ex  cathedra  in  their  atti- 
tude, and  in  Coleridge  criticism  tended  to  the 
ascertaining  and  expounding  of  principles 
rather  than  the  assertion  of  dogmas.  The 
early  work  of  Carlyle,  the  next  important  critic 
after  the  ^oup  just  named,  was  largely  critical, 
and  it  busied  itseif  with  the  exposition  and  in- 
terpretation of  Schiller,  Goethe,  Richter  and 
other  contemporary  German  writers,  for  the 
benefit  of  his  countrymen.  Carlyle,  however, 
was  too  busy  exploiting  the  doctrine  of  the 
"hero"  and  sounding  the  sins  of  his  fellow  men 
become  a  literary  critic  of  lasting  influence. 


schools,  had  sprung  from  the  stimulating  power 
of  the  German-derived  Coleridgeianism.  The 
chief  tenets  of  that  influence  were  the  casting 
aside  of  authority  in  favor  of  appreciation  :  any 
work  of  art  contained  in  itself  toe  reason  vii^ 
it  was  ^ood:  and  consequently  an  author's  pur- 
pose, )us  range,  his  total  production  and  his 
vogue  were  things  lo  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion. This  principle  passed  naturally  in  the 
later  Victorian  period  to  the  criticism  of  types, 
wherein  criticism  tended  to  become  character- 
ization rather  than  censure  or  commendation. 
Two    great    critics_  are    illustrative    of     the 


pounder  of  artistic  personality.  The  same 
tendencies,  with  different  material  and  different 
emphasis,  are  to  be  observed  in  the  work  of 
such  distinguished  modern  critics  as  Leslie 
Stephen,  John  Addington  Symonds,  Viscount 
Morley  (1838-),  and  others.  Matthew  Arnold, 
poet  and  humanist,  second  to  none  in  import- 
ance as  a  critic  represents  a  reaction  in  favor 
of  a  more  abstract  and  ideal  standard.  His- 
torically important  as  having  done  much  to  en- 
large the  confines  of  English  criticism  and  to 
rid  it  of  insularity,  he,  nevertheless,  was  at 
variance  with  his  contemporaries  (as  in  ma 
of  religion  and  politics)  in  askinn  for  i 
authority  and  standarm ration  of  jud^ent, 
which  standard  is  largely  a  matter  of  his  own 
predilection. 

Much  of  the  critical  study  of  literature 
during  the  period  was  dominated  by  the  histori- 
cal and  the  scientific  method.  That  aspect  of 
criticism,  except  in  such  invaluable  work  as 
Stephen's  'Dictionary  of  National  Biography' 
and  other  excellent  biographical  works,  is,  how- 
ever, less  important  in  the  field  of  literature 
proper  than  that  of  history  and  science.  Thoueh 
these  subjects  do  not  properly  enter  into  the 
present  article,  they  are  so  important  that  men- 
tion of  them  cannot  be  wholly  ignored.  In 
history,  besides  such  men  as  Carlyle,  who  wrote 
histories,  and  Symonds,  the  historian  of  the 
'Renaissance,'  there  were,  in  the  Victorian 
period,  since  the  time  of  Hallam,  such  dis- 
tinguished names  as  Mil  man,  Grote.  Macaulay, 
Harriet  Martineau,  Kinglake,  Froude,  Buckle. 
Freeman,  Gardiner,  J.  R.  Green,  Lecky  and 
Viscount  Bryce.  In  philosophy  and  science 
the  names  of  Lyell  and  Spencer  are  eminent 


jOOgIc 


BNOUSH  LITERATURE,  VICTORIAN  PERIOD 


and  the  tlieory  of  natural  selection  as  presented 
b>  Darwin  and  expounded  by  Huxley  has  pro- 
foundly influenced  the  whole  train  of  19th  cen- 
tun  thought  since  the  publication  of  'The 
Ongin  of  SDCcies'   (1859). 

fiibllop'aphy, —  References  are  so  numerous 
that  it  is  impossible  for  the  preceding  and  the 
following  section  to  make  more  than  a  ceneral 
reference  to  the  lists  contained  under  the  arti- 
cles on  the  writers  specifically  named,  though 
such  books  as  Saintsbury's  'History  of  Nine- 
teenth Century  Literature' ;  Stedman's  'Victo- 


;ries),  and  G.  K.  Oiesterton's  'Victorian  Lit- 
-ature*  may  be  cited. 

WOXIAK  T.  BSEWSTEB, 
Professor  of  English,  Columbia  Vtiivtrnty. 


At  the  beginning  of  the  Victorian  period, 
the  English  stage  was  still  contentedly  support- 
ing the  traditions  of  two  preceding  centuries. 
The  objects  and  methods  of  both  actors  and 
plays  were  practically  the  same  as  they  had  been 
at  the  Restoration.  In  both,  the  rhetorical  style 
prevailed.  The  two  Patent  theatres  created  by 
Charles  II  still  had  the  sole  privilege  of  play- 
ing the  legitimate  drama,  and  Uacready  was 
striving  to  perpetuate  the  histrionic  tradition 
which  went  back  through  Edmund  Kean  and 
John  Kemble,  to  Garrick  and  to  Bettenon.  The 
pla^  themselves  still  ke^t,  with  slight  modifi- 
cations, notably  in  the  direction  of  morati^,  to 
the  Restoration  models,  of  comedy  which  de- 
rived from  Moliere  with  a  sli^t  infusion  of 
lonson ;  and  of  tragedy  which  was  either 
Elizabethan  simple  or  Elizabethan  Restora- 
tionized.  Since  Goldsmith  and  Sheridan,  lit- 
erature had  showed  a  widening  separation 
from  the  stage  which  almost  to  their  time 
had  been  its  chief  mouthpiece.  This  had 
been  mainly  brought  about  by  the  great  ex- 
tension of  journalism  and,  later,  by  the  signal 
success  of  the  novel  in  the  hands  of  Scott. 
These  two  forms  of  literary  endeavor  -were 
offering  larger  and  securer  returns  than  play- 
making,  and  thus  naturally  drew  away  from  the 
theatre  men  of  mark  and  left  only  the  adapters 
and  the  hacks.  Such  was  the  position  at  the 
outset  o^  Victoria's  reign.  Dramatic  history 
during  her  reign  is,  until  the  very  latter  end  of 
it.  one  rather  of  movements  than  of  men.  The 
changes  which  were  to  take  place  during  her 
occupation  were  brought  about  by  social,  eco- 
nomic and  physical,  as  well  as  literary  forces; 
(or  more  than  any  other  artistic  activity,  the 
stage  is  responsive  to  the  conditions  under 
which  it  exists.  These  changes  embraced  the 
decay  of  the  old  traditions,  the  even  wider  sepa- 
ration of  the  stage  from  literature,  the  birth  of 
a  new  drama  followed  by  a  partial  return  of 
literature  to  the  stage,  and  finally  the  growth  of 
a  serious  conception  of  the  drama  as  a  criticism 
of  life,  3  conception  already  achieved  by  other 
European  nations. 

London,  during  the  first  40  years  of  the  cen- 
tury, had  more  than  doubled  its  population. 
and,  as  a  result,  the  Patent  theatres  were  on  all 
sides  encroached  upon  bv  minor  theatres  wh'ch, 
in  spile  of  their  legal  disabilities,  proved  for- 
m-daUc  rivals.  When  the  Act  of  1843  abolished 
the  privilege  of  the  Patent  theatres,  an  era  of 
vot.  10— js 


more  active  competition  began.  This  compe- 
tition naturally  relied  upon  displaj;  as  its  best 
means  of  advertisement ;  and  the  invention  of 
gas  and  lime-light  about  the  same  period — in- 
ventions of  great  significance  to  the  stage— con- 
firmed the  universal  tendency  toward  the 
spectacular  treatment  of  plays.  Inevitably  there 
set  in  the  decline  of  the  rhetorical  drama,  the 
appeal  of  which,  on  a  poorly-lighted  stage, 
was  primarily  to  the  ear  and  not  to  the  eye. 
Meanwhile  another  cause  was  contributing  not 
only  to  destroy  the  rhetorical  tradition  but  to 
wiaen  the  gap  between  literary  men  and  the 
theatre.  What  small  demand  there  was  for 
original  work  would  doubtless  have  in  time 
recalled  writers  from  the  novel  and  the  news- 
paper, but  unfortunately  the  demand,  just  be- 
ginning to  be  felt  in  the  early  Victorian  period, 
was  checkmated  by  an  outside  influence.  The 
Romantic  revival  in  France  had  suddenly  broken 
away  from  the  frigid  classicism,  so  unattractive 
to  English  audiences,  and  Hugo  had  ushered 
in  a  kind  of  play  which  the  English  found 
more  to  their  taste.  These  new  plays  proved 
easily  imitable  and  adaptable  in  London,  but 
the  habit  of  importation  did  not  become  whole- 
sale until  the  advent  of  Scribe.  Scribe  perfected 
the  mechanics  of  story-telling  In  dramatic  form, 
and  in  so  doing  largely  deleted  everything  else 
from  a  play  —  witty  dialogue,  atmospnere,  local- 
ity, and  characteriEation.  Thus  his  plays,  being 
simply  'Stories,  could  be  given  anyivhere  with 
equal  effect,  and  as  London  managers  could  get 
them  for  nothing,  his  output  and  that  of  his 
school  became  an  inexhaustible  storehouse  for 
adaptation. 

The  result  upon  the  home  product  was  two- 
fold. It  reduced  to  a  minimum  the  meagre  band 
of  English  writers,  and  tbose  that  remained  no 
longer  even  attempted  to  represent  Ejiglish  life 
and  thought.  Instead,  they  provided  for  the 
public  an  impossible  milange  of  French  ideas 
and  emotions  served  up  in  British  dishes.  In 
the  second  place,  the  adaptation  and  imitation  of 
Scribe's  methods  proved  the  finishing  blow  to 
ihe  moribund  rhetorical  conception  of  comedy 
by  bringing  in  a  French  realism  of  mounting 
and  stage -setting.  When  a  stage  room  had 
three  sides,  a  ceiling  and  real  doors,  many 
conventions  of  action  and  lUalogue,  unnoticed 
when  an  interior  consisted  only  of  wings  and  a 
back-drop  with  painted  chairs,  became  ridicu- 
lous and  unendurable.  Thus  gradually  a  new 
ideal  was  developed,  by  whicD  the  play  was 
forced  to  move  a  little  nearer  to  the  life  now 
in  a  material  way  presented  with  considerable 
reality.  Internally,  however,  the  plays  remained 
as  artificial  as  they  had  been  before,  their  char- 
acters puppets  impelled  by  theatrical  and  ab- 
surd sentiments  and  exhibiting  the  crudest  of 
psychologies.  The  main  dramatists  of  the  per- 
iod which  this  development  closes  were  Bulwer, 
Tom  Taylor  and  Charies  Reade.  and  Dion  Bou- 
cicault.  Bulwer,  under  the  influence  of  the 
Romantic  revival  in  France,  produced  'The 
Lady  of  Lyons*  and  'Richelieu,'  and  his  com- 
edy 'Money'  shared  the  distinction  of  being 
the  last  representation  of  rhetorical  comedy 
with  Boucicault's  'London  Assurance'  and  'Old 
Heads  and  Young  Hearts,'  with  Taylor  and 
Rcade's  'Masks  and  Faces,'  and  with  Taylor's 
'Still  Waters  Run  Deep.'  Boucicault,  the  arch- 
adapter  and  plagiarist  of  the  period,  had  the 


.lOogle 


386 


ENGLISH  MAIL  COACH 


good  fortune  to  tut  upon  a  type  oC  his  own  in 
nis  series  of  very  successful  Irish  plays,  but 
the]'  are  no  nearer  real  studies  of  life  than  the 
others  of  the  period  The  predominance  of 
Scribe  and  his  school  had  paralyzed  native 
authorship. 

Into  this  lifeless  world  came  T.  W.  Robert- 
son —  a  dramatist  whose  pleasant  work  has  no 
great  intrinsic  value,  although  he  possessed  a 
strain  of  original  genius  —  Co  create  a  new  form 
of  drama.  It  ignored  not  only  the  old  rhetor- 
ical tradition  but  the  new  French-English  mon- 
grel species.  It  was  merely  the  corned}  of 
manners,  clothed  in  natural  speech  and  realistic 
setting,  but  it  seemed  absolutely  original  and 
spontaneous.  It  viewed  the  commonplace  50- 
aal  relations  from  the  outside,  with  a  nalvetf 
and  humor  which  disguised  to  an  unsophisti- 
cated public  the  insipidity  of  its  characters  and 
the  shallowness  of  their  sentiments.  Though 
he  brought  new  life  to  the  drama,  fortunately 
his  school,  represented  by  H.  }.  Byron  and  Al- 
bery,  did  not  long  survive  him,  else  the  stage 
would  have  found  itself  in  almost  as  lifeless 
a  way  as  when  he  rescued  it  and  with  an  artifi- 
ciality different  from,  yet  as  great  as,  that 
against    which    he    effectively   protested. 

Though  W.  S.  Gilbert  could  not  be  called  a 
follower  of  Robertson,  he  made  the  same  pro- 
test against  the  fustian  of  the  Stage,  and  car- 
ried on  the  verbal  flippancy  which  had  vied 
with  sentimentality  in  the  tatter's  plays.  So 
thoroughly  original  was  he  that  only^  the  ad- 
jective Gilbertian  can  cover  the  precise  blend 
of  wit,  delicate  fancy,  satire  and  extrav^^nza, 
which  achieved  some  brilliant  successes  on  the 
legntimate  stage  and  which  finally  secured  the 
aid  of  musical  accominniment  in  a  long  series 
of  comic  operas  that  stand,  like  their  author, 
in  a  class  apart. 

In  spite  of  Robertson  and  Gilbert,  however, 
the  theatre  lapsed  i^ain  into  a  period  of  adapta- 
tion from  France.  But  there,  meanwhile,  had 
sprung  up  a  larger  type  of  social  drama  than 
that  of  Scribe, —  a  type  of  which  'Diplomacy' 
is  an  illustration, —  and  imitation  of  this  wider 
species  was  less  deadening  than  the  former 
had  been.  When,  however,  international  copy- 
right was  at  last  secured  and  French  works 
could  no  longer  be  adapted  for  nothing,  the 
effect  of  fair  play  for  the  English  dramatist  was 
seen  almost  immediately,  A  group  of  young 
writers  arose  who,  beginning  as  Imitators,  were 
soon  applying  French  methods  to  original  and 
native  pnmoses.  Of  this  group.  Mr.  A,  W, 
Pinero  and  Mr.  H.  A.  Jones  were  pre-eminent. 
The^  sought  their  material  at  home  and,  ob- 
serving carefully,  reproduced  sincerely.  An- 
other decade  had  to  pass  in  experiment  before 
these  men  really  undertook  a  drama  which 
evinced  anything  like  a  serious  psychology  and 
a  vital  relationship  with  life.  Not  until  1890 
did  they  disoense  with  elementary  love-idylls 
and  the  Vnd  of  story  which  had  been  up  to  that 
time  inevitable  to  every  nlay,  or  set  out  defi- 
nitely for  a  more  thoughtful  and  virile  drama 
covering  the  fifld  of  social  intercourse.  Fol- 
lowing their  lead,  Oscar  Wilde  and  Mr.  Ber- 
nard Shaw  developed  the  social  comedy  into 
a  more  serious  content.  Wilde's  pyrotedinic 
brilliance  of  dialc^e  and  inverted  epigram 
concealed  at  first  his  genuine  dramatic  quality 
and   adroit   constructtveness  as   a  playwri^t 


tr.  Shaw  took  up  the  stage  as  a  lively  foi 


ipf 

illiant  plays  hardly  ■ 
there  can  be  no  question  of  their 
ith  the  public  and  as  Uterature. 
1  with  Mr.  Pinero  and  Mr.  Jones 
more   elevated  the   English   drama 

J  the  level  of  Continental  drama  but 

of  the  literature  of  their  own  land. 

The  poetic  drama  during  the  reign  is  repre- 
sented by  Westland  Marston,  Talfourd,  Brown- 
ing and  Tennyson.  The  formal  dramas  of  the 
first  two  are  long  forgotten.  Masterly  as  are 
some  of  Browning's  plays,  they  seem  remote 
from  the  purpose  of  tne  sta^e,  and  when  some 
of  them  got  there  it  was  discovered  that  ihcy 
could  be  only  recited,  not  acted :  at  any  rate, 
they  can  be  successful,  if  at  all,  only  in  the 
manner  of  the  rhetorical  tradition  for  which 
they  were  conceived.  Tennyson's  plays,  al- 
though loosely  constructed  in  the  loosest  of 
Elizabethan  formulas,— the  chronicle  history, — 
have  been  acted  with  considerable  success. 
This  was  due,  no  doubt^  to  the  circumstances  of 
their  production,  for  his  fine  verse  lacks  vigor 
and  he  has  not  seized  upon  the  essential  mo- 
ments of  his  stories,  the  crucial  parts  of  most 
of  his  dramas  taking  place  behind  the  scenes. 
In  'Queen  Mary'  and  'Harold,'  however,  he 
presented  genuine  dramatic  material.  If  the 
taste  for  the  poetic  play  can  be  revived  in  the 
future,  it  must  be  as  drama  first  and  poetry 
afterward,  and  drama  conceived  in  a  modem 
rather  than   Shakespearian  type. 

Alcernon  Tassik, 
Lecturer  in  Engtisk,  Columbia  University, 

ENGLISH  MAIL  COACH,  The.  Thomas 
De  Quincey's  <The  English  Mail  Coach' 
consists  of  three  sections,  the  first  of  which 
appeared  in  Blackwood's  Edinburgh  Maaa- 
Etne  in  October  IS49,  with  the  added  title, 
'On  the  Glory  of  Motion,'  and  with  no  intima- 
tion that  more  was  to  follow.  In  December 
appeared  what  the  author  subsequently,  in  the 
collective  edition  of  his  writings,  called  'Section 

II.  The  Vision  of  Sudden  Death,'  and  'Section 

III,  Dream-Fugue,  Founded  on  the  Precedit^ 
Theme  of  Sudden  Death.'  It  would  seem  that 
the  'Dream -Fugue'  was  composed  in  1&44 
(when  De  Quincey  had  virtually  conquered  the 
opium  habit),  and  the  two  Introductory  sections 
five  years  later;  these  are,  then,  subordinate  to 
the  'Dream -Fugue,'  which  is  a  specimen  of  De 

Suinceys  rtytnmicalr  "impassioned'  prose  — 
e  medium  which,  for  his  special  punx>se,  he 
E referred  to  metre.  'The  English  Mail  Coach' 
eitig  a  kind  of  sequel  to  'The  Confessions  of 
an  English  Opium-Eater,'  the  'Dream  Fugue,> 
as  the  author  would  have  us  believe,  constitutes 
one  of  the  poetical  dreams,  full  of  beauty  and 
terror,  which  arose  from  his  indulgence  in 
opium,  though  based  upon  actual  occurrences  in 
his  life.  Accordingly,  in  Section  I,  his  experi- 
ences while  a  student  at  Oxford,  traveling  to 
and  fro  by  coach  during  the  time  of  the  Napo- 
leonic war,  are  related,  with  much  circumstance 
and  digression,  in  a  less  imoassioned  style;  in 
Section  II  is  recounted  an  accident  on  tlie  high 
road,  in  which  a  young  man  and  ^rl  in  a  frail 
carriage  narrowly  escape  destruction  from  the 
flying  mail  coach ;  and  in  Section  III  sueges- 
tions  from  these  ftemes  are  elabotnted  in  a 
highly  ornate  st^e,  the  "music*  of  which  is  in- 


-glc 


ENGLISH   HBBCURT— BNORAVINGS 


deed  beaatiful,  diough  the  value  of  the  content 
is  slight.  The  allusions  to  Waterloo,  and  to 
the  way  the  news  of  the  battle  spread  through 
England,  give  the  document  Hn  interest  for  the 
historian.  Consult  Hart's  edition  of  'The  Eag- 
Ush  Mai)  Coach'  (New  York  1893)  ;  and  Cooper 
'The  Prose  Poetry  of  Thomas  De  Quincey' 
(Leipzig  1SI02). 

Lanb  Coopn. 
ENGLISH     MERCURY.      See     Cheno- 

BNGLISH  FALB,  the  name  formerly  ap- 
plied to  extraterritorial  districts  in  Ireland 
Scotland  and  France,  staked  off  by  pales  or 
poles  from  the  surrounding  country,  marking 
definite  boundaries,  these  districts  being  gov- 
erned by  special  laws.  The  pale  in  Ireland  was 
establishecf  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II ;  its  ex- 
tent varied  under  dinerent  kings;  from  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII  until  the  subjugation  by 
Cromwell,  it  comprised  most  of  the  modern 
counties  of  Dublin,  Louth,  Meatk  and  Ki!- 
dare.  In  1558  the  "English'  or  "Calais  Pale" 
in  France  extended  from  Gravelines  to  Wissanl. 
An  English  Pale  also  existed  in  Scotland- 
for  a  short  period  under  the  Tudors.    See  Pale. 

ENGLISH  POETRY,  Spasmodic  School 


poets  of  the  middle  19th  century.  The  school 
was  said  to  include  Philip  James  Bail^  Syd- 
ney Thompson  Dobell,  Alexander  Smith, 
George  Gilnllan,  John  Slanyan  Bigg,  and  ac- 
cording to  some  critics,  Gerald  Massey  and  even 
Swinburne.  The  Byronic  'weltschroerz,"  world- 
pain  or  cosmic  agony,  spasmodic  strivings  after 
unattainable  ideals,  discontent  with  life  and  its 
mysteries,  sceptical  disquietude,  vain  effort  and 
resentment  against  unrewarded  labors,  charac- 
terized their  writings,  which,  however,  were 
frequently  marked  by  passages  of  considerable 
ment,  and  were  a  faithful  reflection  of  a  strug- 
gling phase  of  contemporary  thought.  In  'Fir- 
milian:  A  Spasmodic  Tragedy,'  Professor  Ajf- 
toun  in  1854  attadted  and  parodied  the  writ- 
ings of  the  school  with  considerable  success, 
ridiculing    Iheir    subjects    and    imitating    their 

Knderous  siyle,  especially  the  works  of  Bailey, 
ibell  and  Alexander  Smith,  See  biographical 
articles  of  the  writers  mentioned  and  consult 
Martin,  (Sir)  T.,  'Memoir  of  W.  E.  Aytoun> 
(London  1867). 

ENGLISH  SNIPE,  a  name  frequently 
used  for  the  common  American  snipe  or  Wil- 
son's Snipe  (Gailinago  Dtiicata).  There  is, 
however,  an  English  snipe  proper  {Gailinaga 
Gallinago),  which  is  almost  indistinguishable 
from  the  former  and  has  its  habitat  in  the  north 
of  Europe,    See  Snipe.  - 

ENGLISH  SPARROW.  See  Hwjse 
Spaksow. 

ENGLISH  TAPESTRIES.     See  Tapes- 

BNGLISH  VERSIONS.    Sec  BiBLe. 

ENGLISHRY,  or  ENGLESCHERIE,  an 
old  Norman  law  tettu,  which  originated. after 
the  invasion  of  England  by  William  the  Con- 

;ueror  to  designate  the  identity  of  a  person 
oond  slain,  as  a  native.  If  the  body  was  un- 
identified,  the  law  presumed   that  uie  person 


was  a  NiMman,  vindictively  slain,  and  where 
found,  the  community  of  100  was  hoed.  If 
the  Eingiishry  of  the  victim  wi^  estsbhshed, 
the  fine  was  remitted. 

ENGRAFTING.    See  Gbawage. 

ENGRAILED,  a  heraldic  term  used  to 
designate  a  line  made  up  of  concave  semi-cir- 
cles.   See  Hesaldby. 

ENGRAVINGS.  For  humani^'s  great 
indebtedness  to  the  art  of  pictorial  reproduc- 
tion it  would  be  di£cuh  to  claim  too  mud). 
Next  in  importance  to  the  art  of  printing,  as  an 
aid  in  the  history  of  the  advance  of  civilization, 
certainly  comes  that  of  illustrating.  "The 
growth  in  Uie  art  of  the  manifold  reproduction 
of  pictures  is  one  of  great  interest,  as  well  as 
importance,  and  many  books  have  been  dedi- 
cated to  an  exposition  of  our  best  engravers 
and  their  productions,  known  to  the  connois- 
seur as  "prints.*  And  among  connoisseurs  of 
art  their  collections  of  pritttt  hold  a  very  favoi- 
able  position. 

Ktchins* — This  process  is  carried  out  on  a 
copper  plate  having  its  u^Kr  surface  highly 
p^shetL  This  fJate  is  heated- and  then  coated 
with  an  acid- resisting  substance,  usually  a  mix- 
ture of  burgundy-pilch,  asphakum  and  beeswax. 
Cold  applications  of  certain  pastes  composed  of 
materials  dissolved  in  oil  of  lavender  or  chlo- 
roform are  sometimes  used.  The  plate  next 
receives  a  coating  of  lamp-black.  This  prepared 
plate  has  the  drawing  scratched  through  the  sur- 
face coating  by  means  of  etching-needles.  All 
work  is  drawn  In  reverse  (negative)  of  the 
actual  desired  impression.  The  back  of  the 
plate  is  next  coated  with  varnish  (the  process 
IS  termed  *stoppiiig-oul'') .  Now  the  plate  is 
immersed  in  an  acid  for  the  process  of  *b!iing 
in.*  Those  lines  which  are  to  remain  the  finest 
are  stopped  out  by  varnish  early,  then  the  plate 
is  returned  to  the  acid  bath  to  attain  'the  deep 
black  lines.  When  the  process  has  been  car- 
:^ed  OB  till  the  artist  is  satisfied  with  the  condi- 
tion, the  varnish  and  wax  are  cleaned  off  and 
the  plate  is  ready  for  the  press.  Next  the 
entire  upper  surface  of  the  plate  is  coated  with 
ink,  die  channels  made  by  the  acid  being  also 
filled;  then  the  ink  on  the  upper  surface  Is 
cleaned  and  a  copper-^ate  press  takes  an  im- 

S-ession  (called  a  "print")  on  damp  paper. 
T^point  Etching  is  done  by  engraving  the 
design  directly  into  the  metal  with  a  needle 
(using  no  acid).  This^  scratching  of  a  furrow 
leaves  a  "burr"  (or  raised  ridge  of  the  erased 
metal)  on  either  side  of  the  channel;  the  effea 
of  this  burr  on  the  imjiression  is  characteristic 
of  a  dry-point  print.  Etching,  unhke  engraving 
widi  a  "burin*  (graver)  is  done  as  rapidly  as 
the  genius  of  the  operator  permits,  and  there- 
fore is  a  process  frequently  used  by  painters. 
Among  the  early  painter-etchers  were  Albert 
Diirer,  Lucas  van  Ley  den,  Vandyck,  Rem- 
bnuidt,  Agostino,  .etc  Rembrandt  was  the 
first  exponent  of  the  art  of  etching  (17th  cen- 
tury) besides  producing  the  grandest  work 
known.  Among  other  well-known  cariy  etchers 
were  Van  Vliet,  Ostade,  Paul  Potter,  ett 
In  England  were  Bariow,  (Jaywood,  Hollar, 
Plaee;  and  in  France,  Callot,  Boase,  etc.  In 
the  18th  century  were  Hogarth,  Gaude  Gelie, 
Gddo  Reni,  Canaletto,  etc.  In  the  19(}i  cen- 
tury were  sudi  masters  as  Ingres,  Corot 
Mityon,  Jacquemart;  Sejrmour  Haiden,  McNrii 


8l^ 


BN0RAVIN08 


Whiitler,  Joseph  Penneli,    Most  noted  of  etch- 
ings ait,  probably,  those  trom  the  drawings  of 
Cuude,  reproduced  by  Richard  Earlom  in  the 
■    great  'Liber  Veritatis'   (1740-1822). 

Wood  Knciaving. —  Here  the  technique  is 
jtist  the  reverse  of  etching,  inasmuch  as  the 

Earts  to  appear  in  black  or  color  are  left  the 
eieht  of  the  surface,  while  the  background 
(white)  is  cut  away.  Our  earliest  woodcuts 
are  German  (middle  IStb  century)  and  the 
practice  grew  up  with. the  sister  art  of  printing. 
Albrecht  Drirer  and  Hans  Holbein  greatly 
aided  the  advancement  To  the  early  school 
of  wood  engravers  belong  such  names  as 
Lucas  Cranach,  the  Behams,  Lucas  van  Leyden, 
Altdorfer,  Burgkmair,  Baldung,  Ammon,  etc 
The  17th  century  witnessed  the  decadence  of 
wood  engravirK,  but  in  the  I8ih  century  it 
was  revived.  The  early  workers  had  engraved 
on  the  plank  or  with  the  grain ;  in  the  re- 
vival a  modern  method  of  engraving  across 
die  grain  on  boxwood  blocks  was  used.  The 
■white  line*  now  appears,  produced  by  means 
of  making  cuts  into  the  wood  surface.  Thomas 
Bewick  (1758-1828)  was  one  of  its  earliest  ex- 
ponents. The  prints  of  Abis  period  -show 
clearly  thf  merits-  of  the  charged  system,  allow- 
ing such  delicate  treatment!  Among  its  ex^ 
nents  are  WhyMper,  Baxtet,  Thompson,  Lin- 
ton, Harvey,  etc.,  in  England;  Vogel,  Ungel- 
mann,  Kretdmer,  Pfnorr,  Weber,  etc.,  in  Ger- 
many; the  Pannemakers,  You,  Pisan,  Colin, 
VaJlotOn,  etc.,  in  France;  Veldheer,  Nieucn- 
kampf,  etc.,  in  Holland.  But  another  process  of 
wood  engraving  was  brought  about  by  the  fact 
that  wash  drawings  on  the  block  permitted  light 
and  shade  effect  to  be  engraved  through  the 
paint)i%.  This  soon  put  the  original  work  in 
the  hands  of  draughtsmen-  to  he  engraved  by 
what  soon  became  an  artisan  engraver  class. 
Decadence  set  in  and  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
century  found  its  art  work  done  in  the  metal 
(steel).  Periodicals  (started  by  the  Illustrated 
Londof^  News,  in  1842)  brought  back  work 
again  to  the  engravers  as  wood  eng^ravers,  be- 
cause they  could  put  wooden  engravings  on  the 
press  wiui  the  type,  whereas  me  metal  ptate 
engraving  had  to  be  printed  from  separately. 
The  Victorian  School  of  wood  engravers  arose 
from  illustrated  volumes  on  India  paper  for 
which  such  artists  as  Rossetti,  Millais  Hughes, 
etc.,  did  drawings  on  the  biodc  and  ■facsimile^ 
work  was  done  by  such  geniuses  of  intenreta- 
tion  as  the  Dalziel  brothers  and  Swain.  Birket 
Foster  did  fine  drawings  as  did  also  North, 
Lawless,  Small,  Boyd,  Houghton,  Sandys-  even 
Bume-Jones  and  Whistler  did  a  few.  Noted 
19th  century  wood  engravers  were  Roberts, 
Thomas,  Babhage,  Comfort,  Cooper,  etc.  Fur- 
nishing drawings  from  artists  ouickly  led  to 
photographing  the  picture  on  tne  block  and 
reproducmg  directly  (in  positive).  But  wood 
was  not  adapted  to  stand  the  heavy  wear  in 
producing  prints  on  a  large,  popular  scale, 
hence  metal  casts  were  invented  toipreserve  the 
original  {cliehis  they  were  termed).  In  Amer- 
ica, Harper's  Magazine  and,  later,  the  Century 
helped  the  cause  of  the  wood  engraver  and  they 
did  better  justice  to  the  artists'  originals,  bring- 
ing oot  the  tones  displayed  in  chalk  or  waSi 
drawing. 

Line  EograTinE* —  Here  the  engraving  is 
done  by  a  graver  (burin)  of  prism  form  which 
•coops  out  a  strip  of  the  metai  nearly  free  from 


*burr,>  and  easily  scraped.  After  cutting  out 
all  the  lines  that  go  to  make  up  the  picture,  ink 
is  applied,  tilling  up  the  lines.  Then  the  sur- 
face  is  cleaned  and  an  impression  (called  a 
print)  is  taken  on  damp  paper  on  the  press. 
Lino  enpaving  is  a  15th  century  invention  of 
the  Itahan  goldsmiths,  who  diemselves  were 
artists,  and  did  fine  line  engravings.  In  Flor- 
ence were  Botticelli,  Baldini,  Fra  Lippi,  Ro- 
betta.  Andrea  Manlegna  worked  in  Padua; 
Marc  Antoni  in  Bologna;  Francesco  Francia 
in  Venice ;  Raimondi  in  Rome,  etc  Qever 
line  engravers  in  Germany  were  Albrecht 
Diirer,  the  van  Mechens,  Schongauer,  Alde- 
^rave,  Altdorfer,  the  Behams,  Pencz,  etc. ;  and 
in  Holland  Rubens  and  Vandyck,  widi  their 
pupils.  In  England  were  Ho  II,  Pclaram, 
Payne,  Cecil,  the  Audrans,  Nanteuil,  Roullet, 
etc.  Also  numerous  18th  and  19th  century 
engravers  did  fine  work  all  over  Europe. 

Stipple  BngTaving. — This  process  consists 
of  producing  a  series  of  dots  so  related  to  one 
another  as  to  size  and  distance  that  the  com- 


ing, to  be  further  manipulated  with  a  specially 
prepared  graver.  While  a  pure  stipple  engrav- 
ing consists  of  dots  solely,  the  line  engraver 
frequently  used  the  stippling  method  to  obtain 
softness  in  llesh  shading.  Crayon  drawings 
were  in  vogue  late  in  the  18th  century  so  that 
stipple  engraving  (best  suited)  was  quite  com- 
mon then  in  reproducing  the  crayon  cartoons 
of  Fragonard,  Watleati,  etc.  The  greatest  ex- 
ponents of  this  style  were  Francisco  Bartolozzi 
(1725-1815)  and  his  school.  Stippling  never 
found  much  favor  on  the  Continent.  Wynne 
specialised  largely  on  Angelica,  Kaufmann  on 
drawings  and  portraits ;  other  noted  names  are 
Bond,  Bromley,  Cheesman,  Blake,  Picart,  Stod- 
dart,  the  Holls,  Heath,  etc. 

Steel  Engraving. —  The  introduction  of  soft 
steel  (1822)  by  Thomas  Lupton  for  engraving 
meszotints  brought  with  it  two  changes.  Com- 
mercially the  plate  was  more  profitable,  pro- 
ducing about  three  times  as  many  impressions 
as  the  copper ;  and  the  harder  metal  permitted 
much  more  minute  and  delicate  work  to  be 
done.  To  the  imtrained  eye  the  difference  ii| 
ordinary  line  work  is  very  slight.  The  incision 
of  the  tool  is  less  deep  in  the  narder  metal  for- 
bidding the  bold  ^adations  of  line  that  copper 
?ermils.  In  etching  the  ink  does  not  produce 
rom  sleel  as  artistic  an  impression  as  from  cop- 
per and  is  easily  recoEnizable.  In  mezcotints 
the  steel  medium  produces  a  «thinness*    not 


done  by  etching  and  later  improved  by  i . . 

graver.  The  stages  ('trial  states')  throi^ 
which  a  steel  engraving  progresses  to  a  fini^ 
are  so  widely  apart  'that  the  work  was  fre- 
quently divided  among  several  engravers,  eadi 
having  his  special  part  This  commercialization 
soon  brought  decadetKe,  Ac  work  becoming  me- 
dianical.  lA'ork  of  good  merit  was  done  b_y  the 
following,  among  others,  engravers:  Fittler, 
Heath,  Smith,  Bromley,  Dan  forth,  Doo,  Good- 
all,  R^mbach,  Hall,  Le  Keux,  Finden, .  Great- 
bach,  etc  The  later  invention  of  giving  a  steel 
coating  to  a  finished  copper  plate  engraving 
made  the  old  medium  as  commercially  produc- 
tive as  the  steel,  and  soon  ended  Ae  career  of 


Google 


BNOSOSSIHG — BNHUBBR 


Tamer     Prints. —  The     great     ei^nravings 


Mallord  William  Turner  (1775-1851) 
tirely  finished  engravings  himself  but  in  most 
cases  confined  himself  to  outlines  of  the  repro- 
ductions of  his  own  drawings,  and  left  the 


range  from  1794  to  18S6  (five  years  after  his 
death.  The  most  noted  collection  is  a  series  of 
71,  eu^jraved  for  his  great  ^Liber  StntUorum.' 
Assisting  him  were  such  engravers  as  Bastre, 
Pye,  Dunkarlon,  Clint,  Lupton,  etc  Turner's 
medium  was  mezzotint.  Aiiother  noted  series 
IB  his  'Southern  Coast,*  Whitaker's  History  of 
Rjchmondshire,'  etc. 

Heuotinta.— In  this  process  ttie  plate  is 
given  an  inuneasorable  number  of  small  *barrs* 
or  sharp  projections.  This  work  is  termed 
■grounding"  and  is  done  with  a  'cradle*  or 
■rocker,"  an  instrument  consisting  of  a  curved 
blade  similar  to  a  dieese  cutter.  This  is  rocked 
from  one  side  of  the  plate  to  the  other  and  its 
teeth  create  a  jagged  line  (termed  'way'). 
Starting  at  the  top  the  "ways"  are  made  in 
parallel  till  the  last  one  reaches  the  bottom  of 
the  plate.    Next  these  rou^  lines  are  made 


away  the  burrs  for  the  lights  with  a  'scraper* ; 
the  high  lights  being  next  brought  out  by  pol- 
ishing parts  with  a  ■burnisher,*  The  mettiod 
allows  great  delicacy  in  ■tones*  dosely  similar 
to  those  of  a  painting.  The  process  was  in- 
vented t^  Ludwig  von  Siegen  (1640).  Noted 
mezzotint  engravers  were  Sherwin,  Place, 
Blooteling,  Vandervaari,  Beckett,  Faithome," 
Lutterel,  Simon,  Pelham,  Beard,  McArdell, 
Houston,  Uiller,  Spooner,  Purcell,  Frye,  Green, 
Eailom,  etc 

Aquatints.-^  In  this  process  the  surface  of 
the  plate  is  prepared  with  a  "ground'  of  resin 
of  finely  granulated  consistence.  The  drawing 
is  done  with  the  penetration  of  the  etching 
needle  exposing  the  plate  to  the  acid  The 
beatity  of  the  aquatint  depends  upon  the  various 
depths  to  which  the  acid  bites  into  the  metal. 
Certain  parts  are  'stopped  out*  with  die  resist- 
ing substance  (where  only  shallow  lines  are 
desired)  early  in  the  bath,  the  plate  being  again 
immersed  for  deeper  lines,  then  other  hnes 
'stopped  out,*  and  the  plate  returned  to  the 
acid.  This  process  is  continued  for  periiaps  a 
dozen  bitings,  each  application  creating  another 
tone.  When  finished  the  work  resembles  an 
Indian  ink  drawing.  Noted  workers  in  this 
method  were  Le  Princ^  MaJton,  Stadler, 
Lewis,  Sutherland,  Turner  (C),  Metz,  Havell, 
Prout   F.  Goya,  Delacroix,  etc. 

BibliOETftphy.— Hayden,  A„  <Chats 


igrmphy.— Hayden,  A„  <Chats  on  Old 
;New  York  1906) ;_  Hind,  A.  M.,.  'A 


(New    York    188 


lector 

'Prin.       ^        .        _   _^.     ,   ...     

Prints*  (New  York  1897)  ;  Weitenkampf,  F., 
<PrinU  and  Their  Production:  a  List  of  Works^ 
In  the  New  Yorfc  Library*  (New  York  1916). 

CLEtmn  W.  COUMBE, 

Techtical  Art  Expert. 


ENGROSSING,  in  law,  an  act  which,  on 
statute  books,  when  the  natural  laws  of  trade 
were  little  understood,  and  political  economy 
not  even  guessed  at,  was  set  down  as  a  crime. 
It  consist^  in  something  similar  to  what  now- 
adays is  known  as  'cornering  the  market*  by 
buying  up  the  crops  or  the  herds  wholesale  (Fr. 
en  gros)  before  ttey  were  fit  for  use,  in  order 
to  retail  them  at  a  great  profit  when  they  ma- 
tured and  were  available  for  consumption.  The 
oSense  was  not  only  a  statutory  offense  in  Eng- 
land, but  a  crime  in  common  law,  and  from  tne 
time  of  Edward  VI  to  that  of  Queen  Anne  laws 
were  repeatedly  passed  for  its  repression. 
Even  in  the  last  century  a  prosecution  for  en- 
grossing was  witnessed  in  an  English  law  court 
In  1844  all  English,  Irish  and  Scottish  statutes, 
in  respect  to  the  offenses  known  as  forestalling, 
engrossing  and  regrating,  or  retailing  at  a 
profit,  were  repealed.  In  more  recent  times 
there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  litigation  in  the 
United  States,  and  much  discussion  all  over  the 
civilized  world  with  regard  to  the  legality  of 
coriKirations  formed  for  the  express  purpose  of 
monopolizing  the  trade  in  certain  necessities  or 
luxuries  of  life.  (See  CoMBtNATioN;  Monop- 
OLv;  Restraint  or  Trade;  Trusts).  Consult 
Cunnin^jam,  W.,  'The  Growth  of  English  In- 
dustry and  Commerce'  (3  vols^  Cambridge 
1903-12)  ;  Girdler,  J.  S.,  'Observations  on  the 
Pernicious  Consequences  of  Forestalline,  Re- 
grating  and  Ingrossing,  etc.'  (London  18(X))  ; 
ilUngworth,  W.,  'An  Inquiry  into  the  Laws, 
Ancient  and  Modem,  Respecting  Forestalling, 
Regrating  and  Ingrossing,  etc'  (London  1800)  ; 
MarwiclT  Sir  J.  D.,  'On  Forestalling,  Regrat- 
ing and  Engrossing,  etc'  (in  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries of  Scotlani  Proceedings,  Session  1502- 
03,  Vol.  XXXVII,  pp.  145-1S9,  Edinburgh  1903). 

The  tenn  is  also  used  to  denote  the  careful 
transcription  of  a  deed.  Statute,  or  other  legal 
document  in  large  hanq;  and  is  often  applied, 
in  the  United  States,  to  the  final  and  certified' 
copy  of  a  statute,  which  is  ready  to  be  signed 
by  the  President,  or  the  governor  of  a  State. 

ENHARMONIC  (from  Gr.  h<ippm.«b<r  m 
accord).  In  modem  music  a  general  term  to 
denote  a  difference  in  d^ree  but  not  in  pitch, 
though  specifically  there  is  a  slight  variation  of 
pitch,  which  the  same  note  takes  according  to 
its  atljustment  to  a  fundamental  tonic.  Thus 
C  t  and  D  b  sre  practically  the  same  note 
on  Keyed  instruments,  yet  strictly  speaking,  the 
forfner  should  be  produced  by  15-16  of  the 
whole  string  sounded,  the  latter  by  9-10.  An 
enharmonic  change  of  key,  that  is  shifting  from 
ode  scale  to  another,  as  in  transposing  C  _# 
to  D  br  often  enables  a  composer  to  write 
rnore  easily  by  avoiding  recurrent  acddentaU. 
In  ancient  Greek  the  enharmonic  mode  was  dis- 
tinguished by  the  use  of  small  intervals  or 
fcoarter  tones,  such  as  the  tetrachord  of  whidi 
the  first  two  steps  were  quarter  steps  and  the 
third  a  major  lliird     See  Mode. 

BNHUBER,  <nhoo'b£r,  Karl  von,  German 

Sinter:  b.  Hof,  Bavaria,  16  Dec.  1811:  d 
unich,  6  July  1867.  He  studied  at  MunkUi,  at 
first  being  known  as  an  animal  painter  and 
later  applying  himself  to  romantic  and  humor- 
ous themes,  being  especially  felidtous  in  depict- 
ing the  peasantry  of  Upper  Bavaria.  Among 
his  works  are  'The  Dying  Gunner' ;  'Poachers' ; 
'Smoking  Boy* ;  'Internipted  Game  of  Cards' ; 


ENID — ENLISTHBNT 


<Uuiuc6  Burgher  Gnardsman* ;  'Grandfather's 
DeligbV ;  'Wood  Carver  in  His  Shop';  and 
'Stage  Coach  at  the  Tavern.' 

ENID,  the  wife  of  Geraint  in  TennjrsMi's 
•Idylls  of  the  King'  (q.v.).  She  is  upheld  as 
a  model  of  conjugal  fidelity. 

ENID,  Okla.,  city  and  county-seat  of  Gar- 
field Counhr,  36U  miles  north  by  east  of  King- 
fisher and  W  miles  by  rail  west  by  north  of  Okla- 
homa Cw,  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific,  the  Atchison,  Top<Jca  and  Santa  Fe, 
and  the  Saint  Louis  and  San  Francisco  rail- 
roads. It  is  a  banking  city;  owns  its  water- 
works, and  adopted  in  1%9  the  commission 
form  of  government.  It  contains  a  College  of 
Fine  Arts,  Saint  Francis  Institute,  Phillips  Uni- 
versitv,  a  business  college,  a  State  institution 
for  the  insane,  an  excellent  high  school,  a 
Carnegie  library,  courthouse,  two  hospitals. 
Federal  buildings,  opera  house  etc.  Amomj  the 
industrial  establishments  are  tile  and  iron  works, 
sash  and  door  factoiy,  electric  supplies,  nursery, 
marble  works,  washing  machine  tactoiy,  metal 
ulo  factory,  planing  and  flout  mills,  bottling 
works,  manufactories  of  binders,  candy,  bricks, 
corn-seeders,  steel  posts,  boilers  and  rugs.  The 
United  States  census  of  manufactures  for  1914 
showed  within  the  city  limits  45  industrial  es- 
tablishments of  factory  grade,  employing  3S3 
persons ;  276  being  wage-earners  receiving  an- 
nually a  total  of  5l75,lSO  in  wages.  The  capi- 
tal invested  aggregated  $1^7,000  and  Ok 
E's  output  was  valued  at  $2,611,000:  of  this, 
,000  was  the  vdlue  added  by  manufacture. 
re  are  two  parks.  Enid  is  situated  in  a  rich 
agricultural  section  and  is  one  of  the  largest 
poultry  centres  west  of  the  Mississippi,  shipping 
in  1913  more  than  $3,000,000  worth  of  poultry 
and  ^gs.  Underneath  the  city  from  35  to  45 
feet  Bows  a  subterranean  river,  with  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  pure  soft  water,  which  is 
pumped  to  the  reservoirs  at  a  cost  of  less  than 
six  cents  per  I.OOO  gallons.    Pop.  20,000. 

BNIMXgAN,  a  linguistic  stock  of  Indians 
in  South  America,  inhabiting  the  northern  half 
of  the  Gran  Chaco.  It  includes  the  An^te, 
Enim^  Guani,  Sanapana,  Sapuki,  Sujen, 
Tooste  and  other  lesser  tribes.  Consult  the 
works  of  Boggiani,  Hawtrey,  Kersten,  Schuller 
and  other  anthropologists  who  have  wKtten  on 
these  tribes. 

ENKHUIZEN  ink^oi-rin  (Lat  Enchusa), 
Holland,  town  on  a  projection  in  the  Zuyder 
Zee,  29  miles  northeast  of  Amsterdam.  Its 
most  important  public  building  is  an  elegant 
town  house  with  a  lofty  tower,  and  mural 
decorations  by  Johan  van  Neck.  In  the  17th 
century  it  haa  a  papulation  of  upward  of  40,000 
and  sent  a  fleet  ot  400  vessels  to  the  herring 
fisheries,  but  the  herring  trade  has  died  away. 
Its  chief  industries  now  are  ropemaking  and 
shipbuilding.  The  town  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
painter  Paul  Totter.    Pop.  7.748. 

ENLIGHTENMENT,  FhiloKphy  of,  the 
name  popularly  given  to  mtich  of  the  philosophi- 
cal thought  of  the  18th  century,  whicn  cut  loose 
from  superstition  and  attempted  to  establish 
reason  as  the  foundation  of  all  belief  and  of  all 
niles  of  conduct  It  included  the  empiricism 
and  deism  of  Uie  English  school,  the  sensualism 
of  the  French  as  well  as  the  ultra- nationalism 
of  Germany.    Individualism  was  a  ftrong  figure 


,. s(iiool,  if  school  it  may  be  called.  Con- 
sult Hibben,  J.  G^  'Philosophy  of  the  Elnlight- 
enment'  (New  York  1910)  and  any  stan^ird 
work  on  the  history  of  philosophy. 

ENLISTMENT,  a  contract  between  a  gov- 
ernment and  an  individual,  in  accordance  with 
which  the  latter  voluntarily  assumes  the  duties 
of  a  soldier  in  return  for  which  the  government 
assures  him  a  soldier's  rights,  pay  and  allow- 
aoces.  It  differs  from  ordinary  contract^  for 
services  in  that  it  involves  a  change  of  status, 
so  that  the  contraa  cannot  be  broken  with  im- 
punity at  the  will  of  the  enlisted  man.  Enlist- 
ment is  the  method  of  obtaiiiiiK  soldiers  to 
which  those  nations  resort  that  do  not  favor 
conscription.  Accordingly  before  the  European 
War,  it  was  best  exemplified  by  the  armies  and 
navies  of  the  English-speaking  peoples.  la  the 
United  Slates  army,  recruits  to  be  enlisted  must 
be  of  good  moral  character,  i.e.,  must  never 
have  been  convicted  of  a  felony  nor  imprisoned 
—  and  must  be  able-bodied,  and  between  the 
ages  of  18  and  35,  if  it  is  their  first  enlistment 
"niey  must  be  citizens  or  have  taken  out  their 
first  papers,  and  must  be  able  to  speak,  read  and 
the    English    language.    The     p^sical 


but  in  time  of  peace  are  very  stringent.  The 
enlistment  of  recruits  is  part  of  the  duty  of 
the  adjutant-general's  department  The  period 
of  enlistment  is  seven  years,  of  which  the  first  | 

three  or  four,  as  the  case  may  be,  arc  spent 
with  the  colors,  and  the  remainder  with  the 
Army  Reserve,  which  is  onlv  on  duty  in  time  of 
war.  Extra  pay  is  allowed  for  re-enlistments 
within  three  months. 

In  the  navy,  candidates  for  enlistment  must 
be  of  sound  pnysique,  not  subject  to  fits,  and 
able  to  read  or  write;  or  otherwise  of  satis-  I 

factory  general  intelligence.    In  general,  only  | 

citizens  of  the  United  States  and  its  possessions 
are  accepted.  They  must  be  of  good  character 
and  must  not  have  been  convicted  of  a  crime. 
Enlistments  in  the  grade  of  apprentice  seamen 
are  made  among  those  between  the  ages  of  17 
and  25.  The  term  of  enlistment  tor  those  under 
18  is  until  they  become  of  age-  for  those  over 
18,  four  vears.     For  those  under  18,  the  con-  I 

sent   of   tne   parent   or   guardian   is   necessary,  ' 

All  those  enlisted  after  they  are  of  age  serve 
for  four  years,  but  the  term  may  be  extended 
for  from  one  to  four  years  by  the  voluntary 
agreement  of  the  enlisted  man,  if  he  is  not 
undesirable.  The  upper  limit  of  age  for  enlist- 
ment is  35,  but  not  all  ratings  have  the  same 
limit  Enlistments  are  made  at  naval  rendez- 
vous, on  board  receiving  ships,  on  board  cruis> 
ing  ships  which  are  short  ot  their  complement 
at  a  port  where  there  is  no  rendezvous  or  re- 
ceiving ship,  on  board  vessels  of  the  Bureau  of 
Fisheries  and  at  naval  stations  to  fill  up  the 
complement  of  their  yard  craft    Finger-prints  , 

are  taken  at  each  enlistment    As  in  we  army,  i 

extra  pay  is  fiiven  to  those  who  re-enlist,  but  i 

tile  period  within  which  this  re-enlistment  may  { 

take  place  is  four  months. 

In  the  British  army,  since  the  law  of  1907, 
the  army  consists  of  me  regulars  and  the  tei^ 
ritorials.  The  regular  army  comprises  die  per- 
manent xrtay,  the  anny  reserve  and  the  spedal 


JE&NHA  — KNNia 


resenre.  The  puiod  of  ^cnliBtment  is  12  years, 
of  which  three,  five  or  nine  years  may  be  spent 
in  the  reserve.  The  raaxirouni  servici:  permit- 
ted to  good  service  men  is  21  years,  after  which 
they  are  pensioned.  On  the  average  those  men 
who  serve  in  the  colonies  or  in  India  serve  from 
12  to  16  years.  Enlistment  in  the  special  re- 
serve is  for  six  yean,  in  the  territorial  army 
for  four. 

In  the  active  force  of  the  British  navy,  ihe 
majority  of  the  enlistments  are  made  between 
the  ages  of  IS  and  16^i.  After  two  years  of 
preparation,  the  term  of  service  with  the  fleet 
IS  12  vears.  Re-enlistment  for  10  years  is  per- 
mittei    Sec  Ahuy  Organization. 

ENNA,  Aapist,  Danish  composer :  b.  Nak- 
skov,  Laaland,  1860.  He  was  entirely  gelf- 
taugnt  In  18S0  he  became  violinist  of  a  trav- 
elmg  troupe  and  in  1881  settled  at  Copenhaeen, 
where  he  eked  out  a  living  as  a  vioUnist  and 

Eroduced  the  operetta,  'A  Viltage  Tale,'  Later 
e  was  made  conductor  of  a  provincial  com- 
pany. Durit^  this  time  be  produced  several 
compositions  which  brought  him  to  the  notice 
of  Gsde.  Through  the  latter's  instrrnnentaUty 
Etma  was  enabled  to  spend  one  year  in  study 
<18ffl)  in  Germany.  He  produced'^'The  Witch* 
in  1892,  an  opera  which  at  once  brought  him 
success  and  fame.  Other  works  since  then  have 
been  received  more  or  less  favorably  but  none 
has  equaled  his  premier.  These  works  include 
*Oiopatra'    (1894);   'Aucassin  and  Nicolette' 


<GoIden  Slipper  of  SL  Cecilia*  (1904)  ;  'Gloria 
Arseca*  (1913)  ;  <A  Mother's  Love,*  a  legend 
for  chorus  and  orchestra. 

ENNA,  or  HENNA,  Sicily,  the  andent 
name  o{  the  town  now  known  as  Castrogio- 
vanni.  It  is  situated  at  about  the  centre  of  the 
island,  was  renowned  in  antiquity  as  one  of  the 

K'ncipal  seats  o£  the  worship  of  Demeter.    See 
STKOCIOVANNI. 

BNNEACRUN08  fGr.  •nine  q>riRgs'), 
a  famous  fountain  at  Auiens  (q.v.). 

ENNEKING,  John  JOBcph,  American 
painter:  b.  Minster,  Ohio,  4  Oct.  1841.  He 
studied  at  Munich  and  Paris  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Bonnat  and  of  Dauhtgny.  He  paints  chiefly 
landscapes  and  figure  pamtings.  He  received 
honorable  mention  at  the  Pans  Exposition  of 
190O  and  among  his  works  are  'Moonlight 
on  the  Giudecca,  Venice*  (1876);  'Freshly 
Picked':  'Drove  of  Cattle  on  a  November 
Day'  (1878);  <The  Obersee' ;  'Farmyard 
Scene  in  France';  'November  Twilight* 
(1881);  'Summer  Twilight*  (1883);  'Indian 
Surnmer'  (188S)  ;  'The  Coming  Storm*; 
'Springtime*;  and  'Autumn  in  New  England' 
(Worcester  Museum). 


stein,  Tyrol,  IS  Nov.  1787;  d.  Egem,  Bavaria, 
19  Sept.  ISS4.  He  fought  in  the  risinf^  of  the 
Tyrolese  against  the  French  in  1809,  actii^  as 
secretary  to  its  famous  leader,  Andreas  Hofer. 
Previous  to  this  he  had  begim  the  study  of 
medicine  at  the  University  of  Innsbruck  and 
.at  the  universities  of  Erlangen  and  Vienna. 
During  1813-14  he  fought  agamst  Napoleon  as 
an  officer  in  the  famous  Luetiow  Corps.  After 
tbe  Peace  of  Parii  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he 


finished  his  studies  and  in  1816  took  his  de- 
gree in  medicine.  In  1819  he  became  professor 
of  medicine  at  the  new  University  of  Bonn. 
From  1837-41  he  practised  medicine  in  Inns- 
bruck. In  1841  he  went  to  Munich,  where  he 
obtained  gieit  reputation  by  the  application  ol 
magnetism  as  a  curative  power.  He  bad  be- 
come interested  in  this  subject  while  studying 
at  Berlin  and  published  a  number  of  works  re- 
lating to  it.  The  most  important  of  these  is 
'(Seschichte  des  Thierischen  Magnetismus' 
(Leipzig  1844)j_which  has  been  translated  by 
W.  Howitt  as  <The  History  of  Magic'  (2  vols., 
London_  I8S4).  Others  of  his  writings  are 
'Hlstorisch-Psychologische  Untersuchungen 
iiber  den  Utsprung  und  das  Wesen  der  men- 
schlichen  Seele*  (Bonn  1824) ;  'Anthropolo- 
gische  Ansichten,  oder  Beitrage  lur  Besseren 
Kenntnis  des  Menschcn'  fBonn  1828) ;  'Der 
U»netismU5  im  Verhaltniss  zur  Natur  und 
Religion'  (Stuttgart  1842);  'Der  (kist  des 
Menschen  m  der  Natur'  (Stuttgart  1849) ; 
'Anleitung  znr  Mesmeriscfaen  Praxis*  (Stutt- 
gart 1852):  'Das  Horoskop  in  der  Weltge> 
schichte'   (Munich  I860). 

ENHSRY,  ia-ae-ti,  Adolpbe  Philippe  D., 
frequently  c^ed  Dennery,  French  dram- 
atist: b.  Paris,  17  June  fsil;  d.  there,  2S 
Jan.  1899.  He  began  life  as  a  clerk,  but 
later  turned  lo  the  drama:  he  studied  scenic 
effects,  the  quick  change  from  the  tragic  to 
comic,  and  the  contrast  between  the  serious  and 
lu^crous  characters.  He  subsequently  became 
the  master  of  modem  melodrama,  producing 
alone  and  in  collaboration 'some  200  plays.  Dur- 
ing the  SO  years  of  his  active  life  he  accumu-' 
lated  a  large  fortune.  In  1896  he  was  made  a 
Commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  His  most 
successful^  ^lays   inclu<3e_  'The   Grace   of  God^ 

,         ....     r^ng    c _„       ,-„-,. 

Orphans'    (1875);  'Martyrdom'   (ISSf). 


a852>j 


He  aho  wrote,  in  colfwjoration  with  other.,  .... 
librettos  for  Gounod's  'Faust'  (1856)  :  Gounod's 
'Le  Tribut  le  Zamora'  (1881)  ;  and  Massenet's- 
<Le  ad'  (1885).  During  the  latter  years  of 
his  life  he  also  wrote  a  number  of  novels,  most 
of  them  based  on  plays  of  his,  which  were 
published  serially  in  Paris  newspapers. 


some  years  prominent  in  journalism,  and  in 
18S6  was  appointed  chief  librarian  of  the 
National  Library  and  in  1890  Minister  for 
Marine  and  the  Colonies.  Hb  first  play,  'The 
Lazarists,*  had  extraordinary  success  in  Por- 
tugal and  Brazil  and  long  held  the  stage.  It 
was  followed  by  the  comedy  'Eugenia  Milton' 
(1874)  and  the  dramas  'The  Troubadours*  i 
*The  Mountebank' ;  'The  Emigration' ;  'A  Di- 
vorce.* The  last  was  translated  into  Italian  and 
French. 

ENNIS,  Ireland,  town  in  county  Gare.  on 
the  Fergus,  25  miles  northwest  of  Limerick  by 
rail.  It  contains  a  Roman  Catholic  college  and 
Ennis  College,  founded  by  Erasmus  Smith.  The 
ruins  of  a  13th  century  Franciscan  abbey  is  one 
□f  its  attractions  and  a  notable  monument  has 
been  raised  lo  Daniel  O'Connell.  A  consider- 
able trade  in  grain,  flour  and  agricultural  prod- 
uce is  carried  on  and  lanre  fairs  and  markets 
are  held    Pop.  5,472. 


lyGoot^Ie 


BHHI8  — SHOCK 


BNNIS,  Tex.,  city  of  Ellis  Cnunty,  35  miles 
south  of  Dallas,  on  the  Houston  and  Texas 
Central  and  the  Texas  Midland  railroads.  It 
has  extensive  agrlculttiral  and  stock-raising  in- 
terests and  contains  cotton  compresses,  gins, 
railroad  repair  shops,  cottonseed-oil  mill  and  a 
flour  mill,  etc.  Since  1914  it  has  been  under 
the  commission  form  of  govenunent  The 
WMerworks  are  municipal  property.    Fop.  5,669. 

ENNISCORTHY,  Ireland,  town,  in  the 
county  of  Wexford,  situated  on  the  river 
Slaney,  77  miles  south  of  Dublin.  There  is  an 
(dd  castle  erected  by  one  of  the  early  Norman 
conquerors,  and  in  tne  neighborhood  is  Vinegar 
Hill,  the  scene  of  a  skirmish  in  1798,  when  the 
town  was  stormed  by  the  rebels.  The  river 
Slanejr  is  navi^ble  and  there  is  a  cotisiderable 
trade  in  provisions.    Pop.  5,495. 

ENNISKILLEN,  Ireland,  a  borottrii  and 
market  town  of  county  Fermanagh,  3/  miles 
northeast  of  Sligo,  on  an  island  in  the  narrow- 
est ^art  of  Lough  Erne.  Suburbs  are  on  the 
adjoining  mainland.  In  its  town  hall  are  kept 
the  flags  of  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  The  bat- 
tle of  1689  between  the  forces  of  James  II  and 
William  III,  in  which  WilHam's  forces  were 
victorious,  took  place  here.  The  noted  regi- 
ment called  Enniskillen  Dragoons  was  first 
formed  from  the  defenders  of  the  town  at  this 
battle.  The  manufacture  of  cutlery,  straw  hats, 
shirts  3nd  collars  and  the  tanning  of  leather  are 
carried  on  here,  and  there  are  several  steam 
sawmills.    Pop.  4,847. 

BNNIUS,  Quintus,  Latin  poet:  b.  Rudise, 
near  Brundusium,  239  B.C.;  d  1WB.C.  When  he 
was  38  Cato  the  Censor  brought  him  to  Rome, 
vdiere  he  soon  gained  the  friendship  of  the 
most    distinguished    men    and    instructed    the 

KunE  men  of  rank  in  Greek.  With  an  extenuve 
owledge  of  the  Greek  language  and  literature 
he  united  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the 
Oscan  and  Latin  tongues  and  exerted  great  in- 
fluence on  the  last.  He  wrote  an  epic  poem  in 
hexameters,  'Annales,'  describing  the  history 
of  Rome  from  the  arrival  of  £neas  in  Italy  to 
the  poet's  own  times ;  tragedies  and  comedies, 
satires,  epigrams,  precepts,  etc.,  but  nothing 
now  remains  excejit  fr^(«ients  given  as  quota- 
lions  in  other  ancient  authors,  many  of  them 
mere  citations  by  grammarians  and  other  insig- 
nificant extracts.  A  few  larger  fragments  have 
been  preserved,  which  rive  a  favorable  Im- 
pression of  his  genius.  His  success  in  his  own 
a&7^  was  great.  His  poems  were  for  a  long 
period  read  aloud  to  admiring  multitudes,  and 
they  were  often  quoted  and  referred  to  by  the 
great  writers  of  antiquity.  Fragments  of  his 
works  have  been  edited  by  Miiller,  L.  (Saint 
Petersburg  1885);  Ribbecfc,  O..  in  'ScaeniK 
Romanorum  Poesis  Fragmenta'  (Leipzig  1897)  ; 
and  Vahlen,  J,,  (Uip«g  1854  and  1903),  Con- 
sult Duckett,  E.  S„    'Studies  in  Ennius>    (in 


lunge 


Ribbeck,  O.,  *Geschichte  der  SSmiscfaen  Dicfa- 


i'irchow,  N.  F,  Ser.  VIII,  Heft  185,  Ham- 
burg 1893) :  'Die  Ertstehung  der  Roraischen 
Kimsldichtung'  (ib,  N.  F.  Ser.  IV,  Heft  92, 
Hamburg    1889);     Postgate     J.    P.,    'Corpus  ^ 

Poetarum  l^norum'  (Vol.  VI,  London  1894)  ;      invited  specnlation. 


Akad  der  Wiss.,  SUzunosberichte  1899,  p.  266^ 
Berlin  1899);  <Uber  Ennius  und  Lucretius' 
(ib.  1896,  Part  I,  p.  717,  BerUn  1896) ;  <Obef 
die  Annalen  des  Ennius'  (in  KonigL  Prenss. 
Akad  der  Wiss.  Philos.-Hist.  Klasse,  Abhoad- 
Ivngen  1886,  Part  I,  Beriin  1886). 

ENNODIUS,  Huntu  Felix,  a  Latin  Church 
father:  b.  at  either  Aries  or  Milan  about  473; 
d  Pavia,  17  July  521.  He  early  became  an 
orphan.  When  the  Visi^ths  invaded  Italy  he 
was  sent  to  an  aunt  in  Milan  who  educated  him. 
After  her  death  he  married  a  wealthy  woman 
and  lived  in  lavish  fashion.  A  severe  illness 
made  such  a  deep  impression  upon  him  that  he 
entered  the  priesthood  and  his  wife  became  a 
nun.  In  496  he  went  to  Rome  and  soon  became 
a  noted  man.  He  was  the  first  to  ^ve  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  the  name  of  Pope.  In  511  he 
succeeded  Maximns  as  Bishop  of  Pavia.  Twice 
he  was  sent  as  a  messenger  to  the  Emperor 
Anastasius  with  theplan  of  reuniting  the  East- 
ern and  Western  Churches.  His  writings  in- 
clude a  'Life  of  Epiphanius'  and  several  tfaeo- 
It^cal  treatises.  He  is  said  to  have  written  in 
favor  of  the  freedom  of  the  will.    His  writings 


ogiae  LatinK>   (Vol.  LXIII). 

ENNS,  Ins,  river  in  Austria,  has  its  rise  in 
the  Alps  of  Saliburg,  flows  east-northeast  and 
then  takes  a  northwesterly  course,  discharging 
into  the  Danube  near  Mauthausen.  Leng^ 
about  160  miles.  Through  part  of  its  course  it 
forms  the  boundary  line  between  Upper  and 
Lower  Austria. 

ENOCH,  Hebrew  catriarch.  He  became 
the  father  of  Methuselah  at  the  age  of  65 
years;  and  we  are  told  that  he  •waited  with 
God*  and  at  the  age  of  365  years  "God  to(A 
him*.  The  words  quoted  are  generally  under- 
stood to  mean  that  Enoch  did  not  die  a  natural 
death,  but  was  removed  as  Elijah  was.  The 
book  of  Hebrews  (xi,  5)  confirms  this  view. 
Enoch  is  the  name  of  diree  other  persons  in  the 
Bible,  one  of  them  beitig  the  eldest  son  of 
Cain  (Gen.  iv,  17).  Saint^  Enoch,  associated 
with  the  city  of  (Glasgow,  is  a  corruotion  of 
Saint  Thenaw,  the  name  given  by  Saint  Serf  to 
Saint  Kentigem's  mother. 

ENOCH,  Booka  of.  According  to  Gen.  v 
21-23,  Enoch  lived  36S  years,  and  he  walked 
with  God  and  disappeared,  for  (}od  took  him. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  seventh 
of  the  10  antediluvian  kings  in  Berosus  (Eue- 
dorachus).  the  Enmeduraiild  of  K  2486,  4364. 
the  seventh  king  in  the  Sumerian  list  discovered 
by  Pcebel  (Babvlonian  Publications  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  VI,  Philadelphia  1913). 
Enmeduranki,  like  Enoch,  was  called  into  com- 
munion with  the  gods  and  initiated  into  the 
mysteries  of  heaven  and  earth.  If  the  number 
365  indicates  the  original  solar  character  of 
Enoch,  the  story  is  likely  to  have  been  derived 
from  a  Babylonian  or  Amorite  version  in  whidi 
the  regnal  years  had  not  been  brought  into  the 
chronolo^cal  system  found  in  Berosus.  The 
opportunities  of  this  world-wanderer  for  ob- 
serving celestial  phenomena,  read'ng  the  heav- 
enly tablets  and  foreseeing  the  future  naturally 
nvited  speculation.     He  became  the  inTOitor 


>y  Google 


of  writing,  mathematics  and  astronomy,  and  the 
forerunner  of  Dante  as  an  explorer  of  heaven 
and  hell.  AlexaJider  Polyhistor  in  the  time  of 
Sulla  found  him  referred  to  by  a  writer  as  hav- 
ing learned  astronomy  from  the  angels  (Euse- 
hius,  <Pr;eparatio  evangelica'  iic,  17,  8).  With 
the  growth  of  angelology  the  interest  cen- 
tred on  the  fate  of  the  «sons  of  God"  who  had 
married  the  "daughters  of  men"  (Gen.  vi,  Iff.), 
while  the  concern  about  the  future  of  sinners 
and  saints  on  earth  and  in  the  other  world  de- 
manded authoritative  revelations.  None  was 
better  fitted  to  impart  information  on  these 
dungs  than  the  translated  patriarch. 

The  writings  ascribed  to  Enoch  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  generally  accepted  as  canonical  at 
axpf  time,  either  by  Jews  or  Christians.  In  some 
circles,  however,  they  have  been  regarded  as 
authentic  and  cherished  as  sacred  hooks.  From 
references  in  the  book  of  Jubilees  and  the 
earlier  stratum  of  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs  it  may  periiaps  be  inferred  that  some 
of  them  belonged  to  the  70  hagiographa,  men- 
tioned in  4  Ezra  ;civ,  46,  which  were  not  in- 
cluded in  the  finally  adopted  Palestinian  canon. 
There  is  one  direct  quotation  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment: The  epistle  of  Tude  (vs.  14)  cites  a  pas- 
sage from  one  of  the  books  of  Enoch  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  show  that  it  was  considered  a 
gniuine  utterance  of  the  patriarch  and  an  in- 
spired prophecy.  In  the  epistle  of  Barnabas  an- 
other passage  is  quoted  as  'Scripture.*  Tertul- 
lian  defended  the  authenticity  and  sacred  char- 
acter of  the  book  known  to  him  and  maintained 
that  the  Jews  rejected  it  because  it  referred 
prophetic^ly  to  the  Lord,  having  probably  in 
mind  the  passage  cited  by  Jude.  Qement  of 
Alexandria  also  quotes  the  book  with  confi- 
dence. Origen  charges  Celsos  with  not  having 
read  the  book  of  Enoch  whence  his  statement 
concerning  the  angels  was  taken,  and  not  being 
aware  that  the  books  ascribed  to  Enoch  were 
not  universally  accepted  as  divine  in  the 
churches.    Anatolius  of  Laodicea  quoted  a  pa»- 

Sre  simply  to  show  the  character  of  the  Jewish 
endar,  but  Zosimus  of  Panopolis  refers  to  the 
books  as  "ancient  and  divine  scriptures.* 
Jerome  rejected  the  book  of  Enoch  as  apociy- 
phal ;  Augustine  took  the  same  position ;  and 
It  is  counted  among  the  Apocrypha  by  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions  (5th  century),  Psendo 
Athanasius.  Nicephonis'  'Stichometria'  (1500 
or  4800  stichi),  and  the  'Index  LX  libroruin.> 
The  prts  coined  by  George  Syncellus  (c.  790) 
may  have  been  drawn  from  Pandorus  of  Alex- 
andria; but  the  mantiscript  found  at  Panopolis 
iteems  to  have  been  written- later  than  fte  &th 
century.  Many  writers,  from  4  Ezra  and  2 
Peter  to  George  Cedrenus  in  the  11th  century, 
who  do  not  mention  the  name  of  Enoch  show 
an  acquaintance  either  with  the  book  itself  or 
with  its  characteristic  ideas,  notably  that  of  the 
fall  and  punishment  of  the  angels. 

In  At^ssinia  the  book  of  Enoch  has  main- 
tained its  position  in  the  canon  before  the  book 
of  Job  to  the  present  time,  not  only  among  the 
Christians,  but  also,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  Bruce,  among  the  Tews  whose  Ethiqpic  text, 
however,  has  not  yet  been  examined.  To  what 
extent  another  book  ascribed  to  Enoch,  pre- 
served in  the  Slavonic  Church,  was  regarded 
as  canonical  cannot  be  determined.  The  He- 
brew Enoch,  though  quoted  by  many  mediaeval 
Jewish  writers,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  con- 


sidered by  them  as  a  part  of  the  canon.  Ven- 
erable Bede  (died  735)  thought  that  the  book 
of  Enoch  merited  to  be  counted  among  the 
sacred  scriptures  because  of  its  authority,  age 
and  use,  but  especially  because  of  the  testimony 
of  Jude.  William  Whiston  defended  the  canon- 
iciry  of  the  book  known  to  him  through  Syn- 
cellus, and  William  Murray  regarded  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  Ethiopic  Enoch  as  genuine  and  in- 
spired The  Roman  Catholic  Church  reckons 
the  books  ascribed  to  Enoch  among  the  Apoc- 
rypha of  the  Old  Testament,  while  manv  Prot- 
estant scholars,  who  give  this  name  to  the  deu- 
lero-canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  des- 
ignate them  as  Pseudepigrapha,  a  term  first 
used  by  Jerome  in  regard  to  tlie  Wisdom  of 
Solomon  and  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah.  Un- 
identified quotations  indicate  that  all  the  Enoch 
literature  has  not  yet  been  discovered.  The 
three  extant  works  are  generally  called  the 
Ethiopic,  Slavonic  and  Hebrew  Enoch,  because 
of  the  languages  in  which  they  first  became 
known,  in  their  full  extent,  to  modem  scholars. 
Ethiopic  Booch.— Whether  Pico  della  Mi- 
randola  possessed  a  manuscript  of  this  book  is 
still  uncertain.  According  to  Fabricius,  it  was 
stated  by  many,  on  the  testimony  of  Reuchlin, 
that  he  nad  purchased  a  copy  of  it  for  a  larg6 
sum  of  money.  In  Reuchtin's  treatise,  'De  arte 
cabalistica*  (1517J,  Simon  does  not  question 
the  possible  survival  of  some  such  books  ia 
that  of  Enoch,  but  declares  that  he  cannot  af- 
ford, like  Mirandola,  to  bi:y  at  great  expense 
the  70  books  of  Ezra.  Mirandola  himself 
speaks  of  his  purchase  and  indefali^ble  study 
of  these  books,  both  in  his  'Apologia,'  written 
in  1489,  p.  178,  and  in  'De  hominis  dignitate,* 
p.  330.  A  description  of  his  cabalistic  codices 
was  given  by  Gaffarel  in  1651  (reprinted  in 
Wolf,  'Bibliotheca  hebraica.>  I,  1715);  in  the 
firat  manuscript,  ascribed  to  Kecanati  (13th 
century),  there  are  some  extracts  from  the  He- 
brew Enoch.  This  may  have  given  rise  to  the 
rumor.  But  Reuchlin  refers  directly  to  the 
book  of  Enoch  in  'De  verbo  mirifico,'  written 
in  1494  (Lyon  1552.  pp.  92f).  Here  Sidonius 
lashes  the  gallows-birds  who  place  splendid 
titles  in  front  of  the  volumes  they  offer,  falsely 
declaring  that  one  is  the  book  of  Enoch,  an- 
other the  book  of  Solomon.  It  would  seem, 
therefore,  that  Reuchlin  had  heard  of  a  seoa- 
rate  booK  of  Enoch  being  offered  for  sale. 
Since  Ethiopic  texts  were  published  as  'Chal- 
dsean'  by  Polken  already  in  1513  and  Reuchlin 
knew  in  1515  that  Benignus  had  studied  the 
"Chaldic"  letters  used  by  Prester  John,  it  is  not 
altogether  improbable  that  the  book  to  which 
he  referred  20  years  earlier  was  the  Ethiopic 
Enoch  and  that  such  a  work  may  have  drifted 
into  Mirandola's  library;  but  it  may  have  been 
a  Hebrew  Enoch,  There  can  be  no  question 
that  Guillatmie  Postel  before  1553  was  shown  a 
copy  of  the  Ethiopic  Enoch  at  Rome  by  an  Abys- 
sinian priest  and  bad  its  contents  explained  to 
him,  as  he  refers  to  the  Noachic  interpolations. 
Gilles  de  Loches,  a  Capuchin  missionary,  who 
spent  seven  years  in  EfOTtt,  reported  to  Pciresc 
that  he  had  seen  (c,  1630)  this  book  in  Ethiojnc 
script  and  language,  and  gave  the  title  correctly. 
Gassendi  relates  that  Pciresc  purchased  an- 
other manuscript.  This  was  afterward  found 
by  Ludolf  not  to  be  the  book  of  Enoch  and  it 
has  not  been  published  yet,  diougfa  it  contains 
the  story  of  Enoch's  birth.    James  Bruce  se- 


.gk 


cured  a  copy  of  Ethiapic  Enodi  in  Abyssiau 
in  1769  and  broi^bt  to  Europe  three  manu- 
scripts. A  brief  account  appeared  in  Michaelis 
'Onentalische  und  Exegetische  Bibliothek' 
(1774);  a  fuller  account  was  given  by  Bruce 
himself  in  1790.  The  text  has  been  edited  by 
Laurence   (1S38)    on  the  basis  of 


script;  bv  biilmann  (1851)  who  had  &ve  manu- 
scripts; by  Flemming  (1902}  who  used  15;  and 
ty  Charles  (1906)  who  had  at  his  disposal  23. 


Qiarles  consulted  29  in  his  translation  of  1912. 
None  of  these  is  earlier  than  the  16th  century ; 
even  the  oldesj  of  thera  inspire  no  very  great 
confidence,  and  all  have  manifestly  suffered 
much  in  transmission.  Of  the  Greek  text  the 
fragments  preserved  in  Syncellus,  viz.,  vi-x, 
14;  XV,  8-xvi,  1,  and  viii,  ^ix,  4  in  duplicate, 
were  first  publi^ed  by  Scaliger  (1609),  then  by 
Goar  in  me  editio  princeps  of  the  Chrono- 
graphia  (1652),  by  Fabricius  (1713),  Dindorf 
(1^)  and  recent  editors  of  Enoch.  A  frag' 
ment,  contain'ng  Ixxxix,  42-49,  was  published 
by  Mai  (1844;  and  Gildemeister  (1855).  A 
larger  part,  including  i-xxxii,  6  and  xix,  3-xxi,  9 
in  duplicate,  was  discovered  at  Panopolis  (mod- 
em Akhmim)  in  1886^7  and  published  by  Bou- 
riant  (1892-93).  Lods  (1892)  with  a  French 
translation,  Dillmann  (1892).  Charles  (1893) 
and  Radermacher  (1901).  A  fragment  of  a 
Latin  translation,  cvi.  1-18,  was  published  by 
Charles   (1893)  and  James  (1893). 

Already  Grotius,  familiar  only  with  the 
Syncellus  fragments,  expressed  the  opinion  that 
the  book  of  Enoch  originally  was  small,  but 
grew  gradually  by  expansion.  Laurence  (1821) 
pointed  out  some  of  the  more  obvious  Noachic 
sections,  and  de  Sacy  (1822)  suspected  Chrij- 
tian  interpolations.  Murray  (1836),  who  con- 
tended for  a  genuine  nucleus,  recognized 
among  the  extensive  later  additions  several  dis- 
tinct books  and  assigned  a  separate  authorship 
to  Ixxji-lxxxii.  Bruno  Bauer  (1841)  main- 
tained that  there  were  several  authors  and  es- 
pecially that  xxxvii-lxxi  formed  a  book  inserted 
m  the  larger  volume.  Dillmann  (1853)  as- 
simied  a  different  authorship  for  cvi~cvii  and 
Cviii  and  a  number  of  interpolations.  Sieffert 
(1867)  argued  a  distinct  origin  for  Ixxxiii-xc 
Through  tte  studies  of  Krieger  (1845).  Ewald 
(1854)  and  Hilgenfeld  (1857)  the  marked  dif- 
ference between  xxxviir-lxxi  and  the  rest  of 
the  work  became  generally  recognized ;  and 
through  the  analytic  work  of  O.  Holtzmann 
(1888)  and  (Zharles  (1893)  wide  currency  was 
given  to  the  view  that  the  volume  is  made  up 
of  five  distinct  books  hy  different  authors,  viz., 
1,  Mcxxvi ;  2,  xjtxvii-lxii ;  3,  Ixxii-lxxxii ; 
4i  Ixxxiii-xc;  5,  xci-cv,  and  two  shorter  a^ 
pendices.  cvi-cvit  and  cvtii.  This  division  is 
mdced  largely  suggested  by  sub-headings  in  the 
text  itself.  But  within  each  of  these  books  a 
lack  of  unity  has  also  been  felt  by  critics  and  it 
has  been  explained  either  by  accretion  or  by 
compilation.  It  is  thou^t  that  an  originsd 
work  has  been  expanded  in  the  course  of  trans- 
mission, or  a  compiler  is  supposed  to  have 
pieced  It  together  from  various  sourcra.  The 
earlier  and  more  widely  accepted  theory  is  that 
of  accretion,  but  in  recent  years  several  schol- 
ars have  favored  a  documentary  theory  similar 
to  that  now  in  vogue  in  Pentateuchal  criticism. 
It  is  therefore  proper  to  consider  the  composi- 
tion as  well  as  the  date  and  original  language 
of  eadi  book  separately. 


Book  I  unquestionably  contains  some  <Us- 
parate  elements.  It  is  likely  to  have  begun 
originally  in  vi,  1,  since  i-v  seems  to  be  a  gen- 
eral introduction  to  a  larger  volume  which, 
however,  did  not  as  yet  include  xxxvli-4xxi. 
While  xvii-xix  and  some  other  passages  appear 
to  be  interpolations,  the  attempt  to  explain  the 
seemingly  identical  roles  of  Semj'aza  and  Aza- 
zel  1^  the  compilation  of  two  documents  is  less 
convincing.  The  idea  of  a  Greek  original  has 
no  defender  to-day  in  the  case  of  this  or  any 
other  part  of  Ethiopic  Enoch.  Those  who  have 
made  a  special  study  of  the  subject  are  sub- 
stantially agreed  that  Book  I  was  written  in 
Aramaic  from  which  it  was  translated  into 
Greek.  As  the  descriptions  of  the  fall  of  the 
angels,  Enoch's  mediation  and  his  celestial 
journey  give  no  clear  indications  of  date;  the 
relation  to  Book  IV,  which  evidently  is  some- 
what younger,  must  decide.  Spme  scholars  have 
thought  of  the  period  preceding  the  Maccabean 
uprising,  the  majority,  on  what  would  seem 
more  adequate  grounds,  of  the  reign  of  John 
Hyrcanus   (135-lM  a.c). 

In  Book  II  the  outhnes  of  a  ground-plan  are 
clearly  discernible;  inserted  excerpts  from  a 
book  of  Noah  are  equally  unmistakable  in 
IJv,  7-Iv,  2 ;  I ;  and  Ixv-lxix,  25.  That  the  re- 
mainder is  not  a  Joseph's  coat  without  seams, 
as  it  was  once  called,  is  now  universally  ad- 
mitted. But  while  some  recent  critics,  like  Ap- 
pel  and  Gry,  assume  a  compilation  of  different 
documents,  one  designating  the  celestial  guide 
as  'the  angel  who  went  with  me."  another  as 
*the  angel  of  peace,*  and  a  third  being  particu- 
larly interested  in  wisdom,  most  scholars  have 
resorted  to  the  ibeory  of  more  or  less  exten- 
sive interpolations.  Some  have  been  satisfied 
with  indicatiiw  as  such  xli,  3-8 ;  xliii ;  xliv ;  lix ; 
Ix;  Ixxf  IxxT.  Others,  like  Bruno  Bauer, 
Bottcher.  Drummond,  Pflnderer,  De  Fayc  and 
Bousset,  have  looked  Upon  all  the  passages  re- 
ferring to  the  Messiah  as  Christian  interpola- 
tions. In  the  case  of  these  Schmidt  thinks  of 
successive  expansions,  first  by  Jewish,  and  then 
by  Christian  hands.  The  idea  of  a  Christian 
origin  of  the  Parables,  held  by  Hilgenfel<L 
Vemes,  Kuenen,  Tideman,  Stanton,  Konig  and 
Comill,  b  no  longer  advocated.  As  to  the 
original  language  there  is  still  a  decided  differ- 
ence of  opinion  between  the  two  scholars  who 
have  published  the  results  of  special  investiga- 
tion upon  this  point;  Charles  thinks  that  it  was 
Hebrew,  Schmidt  that  it  was  Aramaic  The 
former  assumes  that  the  Ethiopic  was  made 
from  a  Greek  version,  in  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment term  for  the  'Son  of  Han'  was  uni- 
formly used,  by  an  Aramaic-speaking  Jew  who 
rendered  it  in  three  different  ways,  correspond- 
ing to  three  Aramaic  expressions.  The  latter 
thinks  that  the  absence  of  even  the  sltf^lest 
sign  of  acquaintance  with  this  particular  book 
in  patristic  literature  throws  doubt  upon  the 
existence  of  a  Greek  version,  and  in  any  case 
deems  it  probable  that  the  translation  was  made 
by  an  Aramaic-speaking  Jewish  Christian  who 
used  two  other  terms  besides  the  one  uniformly 
employed  in  the  New  Testament,  because  he 
found  three  expressions  for  'Son  of  man'  in 
the  Aramaic  original  before  him.  In  regard  to 
the  date,  the  most  widely  accepted  view  at  the 
present  time  is  that  this  bo<^  was  written  not 
long  before  63  a.a  "The  kings  and  the  mighty.* 
who  arc  often  mentioned  as  persecutors,  afc 


.lOogle 


supposed  to  be  Alexuider  Jamunu  and  the 
Sadducees.  It  is  difEcult.  however,  to  see  how 
ttey  could  be  charKcd  with  putting  their  "faith 
in  the  gods  they  tiave  made  with  their  own 
hands'  (xlvi,  7)  ;  and  many  scholars  have  con- 
sidered it  more  natural  to  understand  the 
phrase  as  referring  to  pagan  rulers.  If  Roman 
emperors  and  governors  are  meant,  the  time  of 
Gaius  Caligula  n?-^!  A.a)  is  more  likely  than 
diat  of  Herod  ue  Great  A  Jewish  expansion 
in  the  time  of  Domitian  is  not  improbable ;  and 
it  is  sigmficant  that  those  ideas  and  expressions 
which  have  their  closest  counterparts  in  the 
Gospels  and  present  the  Messiah  in  a  more 
transcendent  character  than  is  found  aiwwhere 
in  Jewish  litentture,  fit  very  loosely  in  t£e  con- 
text and  are  connected  with  a  title  which  even  in 
the  Gospels  appears  to  be  a  translation,  not  of  a 
Greek,  but  of  a  Christian  Aramaic  origiiml, 

Book  III,  dealing  with  astronomy,  has  no 
doubt  a  few  interpolations.  The  enoeavor  to 
prove  that  it  is  a  compilation  of  four  documents 
dovetailed  into  one  another  does  not  seem  to  be 
called  for  by  the  facts.  If  Jubilees  was  written 
in  Hebrew,  as  is  probably  this  book  may  have 
been  written  in  the  same  language.  Like  Jubi- 
lees and  Slavonic  Enoch,  it  advocates  a  solar 
year  of  364  days;  it  is  quoted  in  the  former 
work  (iv,  17,  21)  and  may  be  dated  c.  110  ac 
The  author  makes  the  longest  day  of  the  year 
16  hours,  which  led  Laurence  and  Murray  to 
infer  that  his  home  was  near  the  Caspian  or  the 
Black  Sea;  and  Martin  thinks  that  it  may  in- 
dicate the  use  of  a  document  written  in  the 
latitude  of  Constantinople.  It  is  possible  that 
the  writer  reflected  upon  the  leiwth  of  the  day 
in  the  region  where  he  supposed  the  antedilu- 
vians to  have  lived.  In  Book  IV  there  are  some 
obvious  additions.  The  original  lan^iuage  is 
supposed  to  be  Aramaic  In  the  tiistonc  vision 
the  70  shepherds  are  no  longer  conceived  of  as 
dther  native  or  foreign  rulers,  but  as  angels; 
yet  it  is  admitted  that  the  four  periods  of  their 
domination  represent  the  Chaldsean,  Persian, 
Ptolemaic  and  Seleudd  kingdoms,  and  the  great 
horn  in  xc,  9,  is  assumed  to  refer  either  to 
Judas  Maccabxus  or  John  Hyrcanus.  The  lat- 
ter is  more  probable,  and  the  date  is  likely  to  be 
c.  108  ac.  Dislocations  and  Interpolations  are 
also  found  in  Book  V.  It  may  have  been  writ- 
ten in  Hebrew  in  the  1st  century  B.C.  Not  much 
later  the  two  appendices  seem  to  have  been 

Knned  in  the  same  language.  The  first  of  them 
s  been  assigned  by  some  scholars  to  the 
Noachic  stratum ;  others  have  surmised  for  it 
an  independent  Essene  origin.  Recent  critics 
have  been  inclined  to  ascribe  to  the  2d  century 
B.C.  the  book  of  Noah,  from  which  excerpts 
have  been  copied  in  the  book  of  EnoA ;  this  is 
doublftd,  and  some  of  the  appropriated  pas- 
sages may  have  been  interpolations  in  the  Noah 
apocalypse. 

The  influence  of  Babylonian,  Persian  and 
Greek  speculation,  mythical  and  scientific,  upon 
this  literature  is  unmistakable,  though  it  has 
occasionally  been  exaggerated.  It  reveals  the 
growing  conceptions  of  angels  and  demons, 
heaven  and  hell,  the  Messiah  and  his  kingdom, 
the  last  jud^ent  and  the  resurrection,  in  the 
generations  immediately  preceding  the  appear- 
ance of  Jesus.  If  the  anginal  of  the  Parables 
could  be  found,  or  the  later  accretions  removed 
with  a  high  d^rree  of  certainty,  the  actual  ap- 
proach to  the  Chrutok^iy  of  the  New  Testa- 


ment might  be  determined  with  greater  assur> 
ance  than  now  is  possible.  The  eschatological 
notions  seem  to  have  been  in  a  fiuctuaiing  state. 
There  is  nowhere  a  dear  allusion  to  a  resurrec* 
tion  of  the  body;  immediately  after  death  spirits 
pass  to  their  destiny  of  Joy  or  suSering  and 
appear  to  be  clothed  with  a  spiritual  body; 
yet  a  final  judgment  is  emphasiied,  and  at 
least  in  Book  1  a  return  to  terrestrial  life  seems 
to  be  contemplated.  The  work  as  a  whole  pre- 
sents numerous  problems  that  cannot  be  solved 
until  the  Semitic  original  is  recovered. 

Slavonic  Enoch.— This  book  was  first  pub- 
lished hy  A.  Popov  in  1880  from  a  manuscript 
written  in  1679  in  a  South  Russian  dialett  under 
the  title  'The  Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Enoch.' 
In  1886  Sokolov  found  at  Belgrade  a  Bulgarian 
manuscript  of  the  16th  century  representing  the 
same  recension.  Novakovii  published  in  1884 
a  Serbian  manuscript  of  the  16th  century,  found 
at  Belgrade,  representing  a  different  recension. 
Of  the  same  type  are  a  manuscript  in  Vienna 
of  the  16th  century,  one  of  the  17th  owned  by 
Barsov  in  Moscow,  and  a  number  of  frag- 
ments, some  as  old  as  the  14th  century,  pub- 
lished by  Tichonravov,  Pyntii,  and  Popov.  It 
has  become  customary  to  designate  the  former 
recension,  which  is  longer,  as  A,  the  latter  af 
B.  Of  A  an  English  translation  was  made  by 
MorfiU  (1896) ;  Bonwetsch  gave  a  German  ver- 
sion of  both  A  and  B  (1896)  ;  excerpts  of  A 
were  rendered  into  Latin  by  Sz^ely  (1913); 
and  both  A  and  B  were  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Forbes  (1913).  Charles,  Bonwetsch, 
Hamack,  Schvirer  and  Szfkely  have  looked 
upon  A  as  a  faithful  translation  of  the  Greek 
text  and  B  as  an  abbreviated  copy  of  the  Sla- 
vonic translation,  and  have  therefore  conduded 
that  the  author  was  an  Alexandrian  Jew  writ- 
ing his  work  in  Greek.     Charles  indeed  r 


quoted  in  the  Testaments  of  the  Twdve  Patri- 
archs, but  deems  it  impossible  to  separate  them 
from  their  context  Unfortimatdy,  none  of 
the  nine  passages  in  that  work  in  which  Enoch 
b  quoted  can  be  regarded  as  haviug  come  from 
this  book,  as  Schurer  has  shown.  But  Schmidt 
has  pointed  out  that  practically  every  passage 
dted  to  prove  either  familiarity  with  the  Greek 
version  of  the  Bible  or  acquaintance  with  Hel- 
lenistic thoutjbt  is  absent  in  B.  He  does  not 
consider  it  possible  that  a  Christian  Slav,  living 
in  the  10th  or  Ilth  ccntuVy,  could  have  pos- 
sessed such  a  marvelous  knowledge  of  the  ten- 
dencies of  thought  among  the  Alexandrian 
Jews,  or  could  have  had  any  motive  for  excr- 
dsing  his  skill  in  the  removal  of  every  touch 
of  Greek  influence.  But  if  A  represents  an 
Alexandrian  expansion  of  a  Greek  text  still 
free  from  the  peculiarities  indicating  a  local 
orimn,  the  latter  may  well  be  a  translation  of  a 
Hebrew  or  Aramaic  book  written  in  Palestine 
at  some  time  between  50  b.c  and  70  A.n.  Other 
books  of  Palestinian  origin  are  equally  silent 
concerning  the  Messiah  and  a  physical  resur- 
rection. The  interest  in  a  solar  year  of  364 
days  (xvi,  S  B)  may  point  to  a  penod  not  very 
long  after  Eth.  Enoch  Ixxii-lxxxii  and  Ju- 
bilees ;  the  later  Greek  recension  A  has  a  year 
of  36SJi  days  (xiv,  I;  xvi,  5).  A  few  Chris- 
tian interpolations  have  been  suggested,  esi>e- 


.jgic 


ENOCH  ARDBN 


ing  the  pre-eminence  of  the  eit^tfa,  i.e.,  the  first 
day  (xxxiii,  1,  2),  the  prohibition  of  oaths  in 
very  nearly  the  words  of  Jesus  (xlix,  1,  2)  and 
the  condemnation  of  sacrifices  (xlv,  3),  are  found 
in  the  longer  recension.  The  counsel  not  to 
requite  evil  (1,  4)  need  not  be  Christian.  But 
in  the  ethics  of  the  original  work  there  is  an 
unmistakable  approach  to  the  teachings  of  Jesus. 
Origen  knew  this  work  as  a  part  of  bis  Greek 
book  of  Enoch,  and  refers  to  the  descriptions 
in  xxiv,  2,  and  xlvii,  3.  It  reveals  no  acquaint- 
ance with  Eih.  Enodi  xxxvii-lxxi. 

Hebrew  Enoch. —  During  the  Middle  Ages 
a  book  of  Enoch  written  in  Hebrew  was 
quoted  by  many  Jewish  writers.  It  may  have 
been  of  this  work  that  Pico  della  Mirandola  and 
Reuchlin  had  a  vague  knowledge  through  ex- 
cerpts or  sotne  longer  manuscript.  Drusius 
called  attention  to  two  quotations  in  the  book 
of  Zrfiar  (13th  century).  A  list  of  quotations 
in  Menahem  Recanati,  Hekalolh,  Maase 
Bereshith,  Firke  de  Rabbi  Eliezer,  and  Rasiel 
has  been  given  by  Jellinek.  This  scholar  pub- 
lished in  1873  from  a  Munich  codex  the  'Sefer 
Hekaloth  or  Book  of  Enoch.'  It  was  an  in- 
complete edition,  but  could  be  supplemented 
by  the  "Sefer  Hekaloth  of  R.  Ishmael,'  pub- 
lished at  Lemberg,  in  1864.  An  unedited 
manuscript  is  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Ox- 
ford- A  critical  edition  and  a  translation  are 
needed.  Brief  descriptions  have  been  given  by 
■  ;ser  and  Charles.  The  book  fells  of 
t  of  Rabbi  Ishmael  to  heaven  where 
es  a  series  of  revelations  from  the 
angel  Metatron  (Lat.  metator *" guide),  with 
whom  Enoch  has  been  identified.  Various  parts 
of  Ethiopic  and  Slavonic  Enoch  are  used  by 
the  author,  though  there  is  no  trace  of  the 
characteristic  ideas  of  the  Parables.    An  apoca- 


(1914);  Mirandola,  Pico  della,  'Opera  Omnia' 
(Basel  1572) ;  Reuchlin,  J.,  'De  arte  ca'balistica> 
(Hagenan  1517 ;  appended  to  GaJatin,  <De 
arcanis  catliolicse  veritatis,'  Ortona  1518,  and  to 
Mirandola,  op.  cit.)  ;  Postel,  G.,  'De  originibus' 
(Basel  1553)  ■  Scaliger,  'Thesaurus  temporum' 
((Jeneva  1605)  ;  Drusius,  J.,  'De  palriarcha 
Henoch'  (Frankfort  1615);  Gassendi,  P.,  'De 
vita  Peirescii'  (Paris  1641);  Ludolf,  J.,  <His- 
toria  g;thiopica'  (Frankfort  1681);  Fabricius. 
J.  A.,  'Codex  pseudepigraphus  Veteris  Testa- 
menti»  (Hamburg  1713);  Calmet,  A.,  'Dis- 
sertation sur  le  livre  d'H*noch>  {Paris  1720); 
Whiston,  W.,  <A  Collection  of  Authentick 
Records*  (London  1727)  ;  Bruce  J.,  'Travels 
Discover  the  Source  of  the  Nile'   (London 


rtic  fragment,  preserved  in  the  'Siddur^ 
Amram  Gaon  (9th  centunO,  and  appa 
written  at  the  time  of  the  Hadrianic  pei 
tion,  seems  to  furnish  a  link  connecting  Slavonic 
Enoch  with  Hebrew  Enoch,  which  is  likely  to 
be  earlier  than  the  4th  century,  as  it  is  quoted 
in  Babylonian  Talmud,  Berakoth  7a.  What  the 
language  of  any  earlier  Enoch  book  may  have 
been  cannot  be  inferred  from  this  work;  for 
when  Aramaic  ceased  to  be  the  vernacular  many 
books  were  translated  into  Hebrew,  among 
them  even  the  Aramaic  parts  of  Daniel. 

Bibliography.— I.  Translations,  with  com- 
m«itai7,  m  Latin,  by  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  in 
Magasin  encyclopidfque  (Paris  1800,  Chaps,  i- 
xvi.  xxii,  xxxi)  ;  Gfrorer.  A.  F.,  in  'Prwpheta! 
Vetercs  Pseudepigraphi'  (Stuttgart  1840);  and 
Stephan  Sifkely,  in  'Bibliotheca  Apocrypha' 
(Freiburg  1913,  extensive  excerpts)  ;  in  Enf^ish, 
by  Richard  Laurence  (Oxford  IKl ;  later  edi- 
tions 1833,  1838.  1883)  ;  Schodde.  G.  H.  (An- 
dover  1882)  ;  Charfes,  R.  H.  (Oxford  1893 ; 
2d  ed.,  1912);  in  German,  by  Hoffmann,  A.  G. 
(Jena  1833-38) ;  Oemens,  Richard  (Stuttgart 
18S0)  ;  Dillmann,  A.  (Leipiig  1853)  ;  Beer,  G. 
(Tiibingen  1900);  Fletnming,  J.,  and  Rader- 
macher,  L.  (Leipzig  1901)  ;  in  French,  by  Bru- 
nei, G.,  in  Migne  'Dictionnaire  des  Apocryphea' 
(Paris  1856):  Lods,  A.,  of  the  Greek  text  (ib. 
1892);  and  Martin,  Francois  (ib.  1906);  in 
Russian,  by  Smimov,  A.  (Kasan  18S8)  ;  and 
in  Hebrew,  by  Goldschmidt,  L.  (Beriin  1892). 
Introductions  by  Zockler  (1891)  ;  Konig  (1893)  ; 
Comely  (1894)  :  Comill  (1896)  ;  Strack  (1898)  ; 
Bcrtholet   (1906);   Steuemagel    (1912):   Sellin 


1845)  ;  Lucke,  F.,  'Einleitung  in  die  Offenbarung 
Johannes'  {2d  ed.,  Bonn  1852) ;  Ewald,  H.. 
'Abhandlung  iiber  des  athiopiscfaen  Budies 
Henokh  Entstehung'  (Gotlingen  1855)  ;  Hilgen- 
feld.  A.,  'Die  judische  Apokalyptik'  (Jena 
1857^;  Sieftert,  F.,  'Deapocryphi  libri  Henochi 
originc  et  arguraenfo'  (Konigsberg  1867)  ; 
PhilippL  F.,  'Das  Buch  Henoch'  (Stuttgart 
1868);  Halevy,  J.,  in  foumal  Asiaiique  (Paris 
1867);  Vemes,  M.,  'Histoire  des  idies  mes- 
sianiques'  (Paris  1874)  ;  Tideman,  A.  in  Theo- 
logisch  Tijdschrift  (Leiden  1875)  ;  Drummond, 
T..  'The  Jewish  Messiah'  (London  1877); 
Deane,  W.  J.,  'The  Pseudepigrapha'  (London 
1891);  Bousscl,  W.,  'Die  Hefigion  des  Juden- 
tnrns'  (Beriin  1903);  Appel,  H.,  'Die  Kom- 
position  des  athiopischen  Henochbuches' 
(Giitersloh    1906) ;   BurUtt,  J.    C.    in    Journal 

_.      for    Theological    Studies    {(Cambridge    1907); 

id  apparently      Schmidt,   N.,    'The   Original   Language  of   the 
Parables  of  Enoch'   (Chicago  1908);  Cry.  L, 


'(Jeschichle  des  jiidisiien  Volkes'  (4th  ed., 
Leipzig  1909)  ■  Charies,  R.  H.,  in  'Old  Testa- 
ment Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha'  (Oxford 
1913).  IL  Morfill,  W.  R-,  and  Charles,  R  H., 
'The  Book  of  the  Secrets  of  Enoch'  (Oxford 
1896) ;  Bonwetsch.  N.,  'Das  slavische  Hcnoch- 
buch'  (Berlin  1896);  Schiirer,  'Geschichte  des 
judischen  Volkes*  (Leiprig  1909)  ;  Forbes.  N, 
and  Charies,  R.  H.,  m  'Old  Testament  Apocry- 
pha and  Pseudepigrapha'  (Oxford  1913): 
Szilcely,  S.,  in  'Bibliotheca  Apocrypha'  (Frd- 
burg  1913)  ;  Schmidt,  N.,  'The  Two  Recensions 
of  Slavonic  Enoch'  (in  Joumai  of  American 
Orienlal  Society,  New  Haven  1918).  III.  Td- 
linek.  A.,  'Beth  ha  Midrasdi'  (Vienna  1853- 
78)  ;  Buttcnwieser,  M.,  'Apocalyptic  Literature' 
(in  'Jewish  Encrclopedia.'  New  York  1901); 
C::haries,  R.  H..  'The  Book  of  Enoch'  (Oxford 
1912). 

Nathaniel  Schmidt, 
Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Lileraturt, 
Corni-n  Vmzieriily. 

ENOCH  ARDBN.  Tennyson's  'Enoch 
Arden,'  a  narrative  in  911  Imes  of  blank 
verse,  is  one  of  the  most  popular  poems  of 
modem  times.  Sixty  thousand  copies  of  it 
weiv  sold  soon  after  its  publication  in  1864  and 
translations  appeared  in  seven  foreign  lan- 
guages.   The  story  itaclf  was  such  as  to  mw 


Google 


KNOCK — BNSENAPA 


307 


He  ckscnbes  the  life  and  scenerj;  of  an  English 
fishinof  village  and  a'Sailor's  exile  on  a  tropic 
island  with  elaborate,  vivid  detail  and  genuine 
feeling.  He  shows  also  the  strength  and  purity 
in  humble  English  folk,  as  be  imagines  them; 
of  certain  simple,  universal,  if  restricted,  ideals 
of  family  life  as  seen  in  hjs  hero's  aspiration* 
for  his  children  and  in  his  self-sacri&ce  when, 
returning  from  long  absence  to  find  that  he  has 


The  stoiy,  as  distinct  from  the  setting,  is  pre- 
sented with  studied,  almost  prim,  simplicity,  but 
with  narrative  effectiveness,  to  be  seen,  for  iit- 
st;uKe,  in  Enoch's  silent,  self-efiacement  after 
beholding  Annie  at  the  hearth  with  Philip  and 
her  childrca.  False  sentiment  appears,  nerhaps, 
in  Enoch's  making  sure  that  his  wife  shaH 
know  of  lus  return  after  his  death  and  in  the 
author's  emphasis  upon  the  costliness  of  hi; 
hero's  funeraL  There  is  weight  too  in  Bagehot's 
criticism  that  the  poem  is  an  example  of  ornate 
rather  than  pure  art,  concealing  lack  of  truth 
to  facts  under  beautiful  but  irrelevant  details. 
Nevertheless,  <Enoch  Arden'  holds  its  place  as 
one  of  tbe  loveliest  descriptive  and  idyllic 
poems  in  English. 

WiLUAii  Hallgk. 

BNOCK,  C  RcKinald,  English  mining  ex- 
pen  and  author:  b.  23  Nov.  186S.  He  has  spent 
many  years  in  various  cotmtries  in  professional 
work  and  in  the  investigation  of  natural  re- 
sonrces,  especially  in  North  and  South  America, 
and  of  the  British  empire.  He  has  carried  out 
scientilic  work  for  the  governments  of  Peru 
and  Mexico ;  has  given  papers  and  lectures  be- 
fore the  Royal  Geograsihical  Society,  tbe  Royal 
Society  of  Arts,  etc.  He  has  taken  an  active 
interest  in  the  work  of  economic  reform.  His 
publications  include  'The  Andes  and  the  Ama- 
zon>  <4th  ed.,  1910);  'Mexico';  <An  Imperial 
Commonwealth' ;  'Life  and  Travel  in  tbe  Uni- 
ted States'  (1910)  ;  'Pioneering  aud  Map-mak- 
ing' ;  'The  Republics  of  Central  and  South 
America'  (1913) ;  'Human  Gec^rapby  snd  In- 
dustry Planning';  'The  Tropics,  meir  Re- 
sources, People  and  Future';  'The  Need  for 
a  Constructive  \^'or]d  Culture.' 

ENOHOTO,  Boio,  boo'a,  Japanese  states- 
man: b.  Tokio  1839;  d  1909.  He  was  educated 
in  Europe,  and  returning  to  Japan  in  1867  be- 


ouited  by  (he  Japanese  army  in  1869.  After 
imprisonment  for  two  years  he  was  appointed 
vice-admiral  in  the  Japanese  navy  1874.  He 
served  as  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Russia 
and  became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  State 
and  Minister  of  Education  1888,  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  1891  and  Minister  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Commerce  1892,  which  ofFice  he  held 
for  four  years. 

KNOS,  a'nos,  Turkey,  town  on  the  north 
coast  of  the  Mgi^n,  70  miles  south  by  west  of 
Adrianopk.  Its  harbor  is  commoifious,  but 
much  neglected  and  too  shallow  for  deep-sea 
vesseb.  The  trade,  formerly  of  importance, 
has  greatly  decreased,  Enos  having  been  super- 
seded as  an  export  centre  by  the  adjacent  sea- 
port of  Dedeagatch.  The  town  is  the  see  of  a 
Greek  archbishop.    Homer  attests  its  autiqui^ 


by  alluding  to  it  the  "Iliad'  {IV,  SW).  Pop. 
7,000,  principally   Greeks. 

ENRIQUEZ  GOMEZ,  en-re'kith  g6'm«tb, 
Antcnio  (properly  Enuquez  dg  Paz),  Spanish 
poet;  son  of  a  converted  baptized  Portt^piese 
J«w:  b.  Segovia  early  in  the  17th  century.  He 
entered  the  army  in  his  20th  year  and  rose 
to  the  rank  of  captain;  but  in  1636  fled  to 
Amsterdam,  and,  having  there  professed  the 
Jewish  faith,  was  in  1660  burned  in  dfigy  at  a 
Seville  auto-da-f*.  Tbe  date  of  his  death  is 
not  known.  Besides  22  comedies,  some  of 
which  passed  as  Catderon's  (q.v.),  he  wrote  a 
number  of  other  works,  both  in  prose  and 
verse:     'La   Vida   de   Don   Gregorio  Guadafia' 

!1644) ;  'La  Culpa  de  Primer  Peregrino* 
Rouen  16H);  *El  Siglo  Pitag6rico'  (Rouen 
1647);  <E1  Samson  Na^areno'  (Rouen  1647); 
'Las  Academias  Morales  de  las  Musas'  (Mad- 
rid 1660).  The  first  of  these,  his  lyric  poems, 
and  two  of  his  dramas  have  been  republished  in 
^fiiblioteca  de  Autores  EspaRoles'  (Vob. 
XXXin.  XLH,  XLVII,  Madrid  1846-80). 
CcMisult  Fitnnaurice- Kelly,  J.,  'A  History  of 
Spanish  Literature'  (London  1896);  Tidenor, 
G.,  'History  of  Spanish  Literature'  (3  vols., 
Boston  1872). 

ENBOLMENT,  an  entry  on  a  public 
register.  In  England  this  term  denotes  the 
registration  of  recoenizances,  deeds  of  sale, 
etc.,  on  the  rolls  of  chancery  or  o£  the  ordinary 
courts,  or  by  a  clerk  of  the  peace  on  the  recordi 
of  a  court  of  Quarter  Sessions.  The  term  in 
this  sense  dates  from  the  enactment  in  1536  of 
the  Statute  of  Enrolments,  designed  to  prevent 
the  practice  of  secret  conveyances  and  requir- 
ing as  a  condition  of  their  vahdity  that  they  be 
enrolled  or  recorded,  within  six  months  of  their 
date,  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  act.  See 
Conveyance;  Recistkation  or  Propebty  Titles. 

ENS.    See  Ekns. 

BNSCHBDfi,  en-ski-da',  Johannes,  Dutch 
printer:  b  Haariem  1708;  d.  1780.  He  re- 
ceived his  ediication  at  Leyden  and  in  due  lime 
became  head  of  the  printing  ^rm  which  his 
father  had  established.  He  introduced  the  type 
known  as  Hi^land  Gothic  and  did  much  to  fur- 
ther the  art  of  printing.  In  1768  his  firm  issued 
the  'Procf  van  Lettem,'  specimens  of  printing 
types.    His  firm  is  still  in  business  in  Haarkm. 

ENSCHEDB,  Holland,  tovm  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Ovetyssel,  30  miles  east-northeast  of 
Zutphen.  Rebuilt  since  its  destruction  by  fire 
in  1862,  it  has  large  yam-  and  cotton-mills,  iron 
products,  print  goods  and  electrical  machinery. 
Pop.  35,448. 

ENSEMBLE,  all  the  parts  of  a  thing  taken 
as  a  whole,  or  the  general  effect  produced  ty 
them.  Thus  the  word  is  used  to  designate  the 
general  effect  of  a  drama,  opera  or  picture. 

ENSBNADA,  en-s^-na'da  (Spanish,  a  creek, 
cove  or  bay).  (1)  Seaport  of  Argentina,  in  tbe 
province  of  Buenos  Aires  It  is  the  port  of 
La  Plata  and  is  about  40  miles  southeast  of 
Buetws  Aires.  <2)  Seaport  of  Mexico,  in  the 
northern  part  of  Lower  California,  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Todos  Ids 
Santos,  about  50  miles  south  of  the  border  and 
70  miles  southeast  of  San  Diego,  Cat.  It  has 
some  few  local  inannf actories  and  is  the  seat  of 
a  United  SUtes  Consul.     Pop.  2,170. 


.lOOgle 


ENSIGN— BfttAIL 


BNSION,  Orville  Hiram,  American  elec- 
trical and  mechanical  engineer;  b.  Ithaca,  N. 
Y.,  8  July  1863.  He  was  educated  at  Cornell 
Univenity.  From  1882  to  1890  he  served  as 
machinist  at  Ithaca.  Schenectady  and  New  York, 
after  which  he  was  engaged  as  consulting  engi- 
neer to  several  public  service  companies  in  Los 
Angeles  and  vicinity.  In  1897  he  became  super- 
intendent and  chief  engineer  of  the  Southern 
California  Power  Company,  and  in  this  capacity 
planned  and  constructed  the  first  successful 
30,000- volt  long-distance  transmission  in  the 
world,  and  when  this  company  was  merged  with 
the  Edison  Electric  Company  he  became  super- 
,intendent  and  chief  electrical  and  mechanical 
engineer  until  1904,  when  he  was  appointed 
chief  electrical  and  mechanical  engineer  of  the 
United  Stales  Reclamation  Service  and  of  the 
Los  Angeles  Aqueduct. 

ENSIGN,  the  flag  or  colors  of  a  regiment. 


the  staff.  Of  naval  ensigns  the  white  flag 
is  confined  to  the  royal  navy,  the  red  1o  the 
merchant  service,  the  blue  to  the  naval  reserves. 
In  the  American  navy  the  ensign  is  the  national 
flag,  and  it  is  also  flown  by  the  merchant  serv- 
ice. In  Enffland,  up  to  1871,  the  lowest  gradei 
of  commissioned  oSicers  in  a  regiment  of  in- 
fantry, by  the  senior  of  whom  tie  regimental 
ensigns  or  colors  were  carried.  The  corre- 
sponding rank  in  a  cavalry  regiment  was  cornet 
The  name  is  now  abolished,  the  title  of  2d 
lieutenant  being  substituted  for  it  Also  the 
title  of  the  lowest  grade  of  commissioned  oSi- 
cers  in  the  United  States  navy,  which  they 
receive  on  graduation  from  the  Naval  College. 
In  the  16th  century  ensign  was  corrupted  into 
ancient  and  is  so  used  in  Shakespeare,  and  was 
at  that  time  applied  iti  the  two  senses  of  a  flag 
and  the  bearer  of  a  flag.    See  Flag. 

ENSIGN  STAL'S  TALES  (Fanrik  Slits 
Sagner).  The  best  known  woric  of  Johan 
Ludvig  Runeberg,  the  greatest  Swedish  poet  of 
Knland ;  appeared  in  two  parts,  the  first  in 
1848  and  flie  second  in  1860.  Most  of  the 
poems  are  narratives  and  relate  incidents  from 
the  war  of  1808-09,  when  the  Finns  tried  in  vain 
to  stem  the  Russian  invasion.  The  poems  cele- 
brate the  heroes  of  this  straggle  and  present 
scenes  of  great  dramatic  power.  The  first 
poem,  entitled  *Vart  land'  (Our  Country),  is 
highly  lyrical  and  has  become  the  national  hymn 
of  Finland.  The  tales  form  a  connected  whole, 
even  if  the  person  of  the  ensign  often  steps 
behind  the  scenes.  Although  arranged  rather 
loosely  and  without  strict  chronology  they  all 
refer  to  the  war,  and  they  all  have  the  same 
general  theme.  This  theme  is  love  of  country. 
Runeberg  was  inspifed  with  a  profound  love 
for  his  native  land  and  for  its  history,  and  was 
charmed  by  its  natural  beauty.  In  his  poems 
he  lauds  the  patriotism,  the  setf-saerifice  and 
devotion  of  the  men  and  women  who  suffered 
and  died  for  Finland.  'Ensign  Stil's  Tales' 
are  imbued  with  sound  humor.  While  the 
background  throughout  is  the  deeply  tragic 
struggle  in  a  hopeless  cause,  humorous  touches, 
artistically  interwoven,  relieve  the  strain.  Con- 
sult Estlatiderg,  C.  G.,  'Runeberg's  Skaldskap' ; 
Wrange!,  Ewert,  "Om  Fanrik  StSl's  sagner' ; 
Lagus,  Ernst,  'Forklaringar  till  Fanrik  Stil's 
sapier.'  j   Alexis. 


EHSILAGB,  Cn'sl-Hi.    See  ^itACE. 

ENSTATITE,  Mg  Si  O,,  a  silicate,  chiefly 
of  magnesium,  but  also  cftntaining  more  or  less 
iron  and  aluminum.  The  tnineral  commonly  oc- 
curs in  massive  or  fibrous  forms,  but  distinct 
crystals,  prismatic  in  habit  and  belonging  to  the 
ortho  rhombic  system,  are  also  occasionally 
found.  Its  color  varies:  it  may  be  white,  green- 
ish or  brown.  Its  hardness  is  S.S,  and  its  spe- 
cific gravity  about  3.2.     Enstatite  is  a  c 


serpentines.  It  belongs  in  the  pyroxene  group, 
is  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  arid  and  before  the 
blow-pipe  it  fuses  only  along  its  thin  edges. 
The  name  (Greek,  "advereary*)  refers  to  these 
refractory  qualities.  It  is  found  in  Putnam 
County,  N.  Y^  Bavaria,  the  Harz  Mountains, 
Moravia  and  Tyrol. 

ENTABLATURE,  in  architecture,  the  hori- 
zontal, continuous  work  which  rests  upon  a  row 
of  columns  and  belongs  espedally  to  classical 
architecture.  It  consists  of  three  principal  di- 
visions, the  epistyle  or  architrave  immediately 
above  the  abacus  of  the  column,  next  the  frieze, 
and  then  the  cornice.  In  large  buildings  pro- 
jections similar  to  and  known  also  as  entabla- 
tures are  often  carried  round  the  whole  edifice 
or  along  one  front  of  it.  Consult  Boetticher, 
K.  G.  W.,  'Die  Tektonik  der  Hellenen'  (Berlin 
1874) ;  Hirt,  A.  L.,  'Die  Baukunst  nach  den 
Grundsatzen  derAlten'  (Berlin  1809);  Kohte,J., 
'E)ie  Baukunst  des  Klassischen  Alterttuns,  etc* 
<Gi 

Se,    t  . 

'The  Architectural  Forms  of  the  Classic  Agei, 
etc*   (edited  by  R.  P.  Spiers,  Berlin  1909). 

ENTADA,  a  genus  of  lej^minous  plants 
containing  about  a  dozen  species  of  climbing 
tropical  shrubs,  remarkable  for  the  great  size  of 
their  pods.  E.  teandens  has  pods  which  meas- 
ure from  six  to  ei^t  feet  in  len^.  The  seenJs 
have  a  hard,  woody  and  beautifully  polished 
shell,  and  are  often  made  into  snun-boxes, 
scent-bottles,  etc. 

ENTAIL,  the  settlement  of  an  estate  so 
that  it  shall  pass  according  to  a  certain  rule  of 
descent.  In  England  after  the  Norman  Con- 
quest estates  were  frequentW  granted  to  a  man 
and  the  heirs  of  his  body,  but  in  time  the  law 
courts  interpreted  such  grants  as  conferring  a 
fee-simple  conditional,  so  that  when  the  condi- 
tion, namely,  the  begetting  of  an  heir,  was  ful- 
filled, the  estate  became  a  fee-simple  absolute 
and  could  be  alienated  by  the  grantee.  The 
statute  "De  Donis  Conditionalibus,*  passed  in 
1285,  declared  that  this  inter]»^tation  was  con- 
trary to  the  intention  of  the  grantors,  and  en- 
acted that  in  all  future  grants  of  this  nature  the 
grantee  should  have  no  power  to  alienate  the 
estate,  and  that  on  die  failure  of  issue  the  land 
should  revert  to  the  grantor.  The  effect  of  this 
statute  was  to  prevent  the  free  convevance  of 
land,  but  gradually  the  lawyers  created  a  series 
of  proceedings  known  as  fines  and  recoveries, 
by  means  of  which  a  tenant  in  possession  could 
bar  the  entail  and  convert  his  estate-tail  into  a 
fee-simple,  that  is,  info  his  absolute  property, 
(SeeFrrV  These  remrdies  created  by  the  courts 
were  abolished  by  the  Fines  and  Recoveries  Act, 
passed  in  1833,  and  a  direct  means  of  barring 
entails  was  introduced.  This  statute  enacts  that 
every  actual  tenant- In-tail  shall  have  full  power 


ENTASIS  —  KNTER0CLY81S 


as» 


to  dispose  of,  for  an  estate  in  fee-simple  abso- 
lute, or  for  any  less  estate,  the  lands  entailed; 
bnt  a  tenant-in-tail  in  remainder,  expectaot  on 
an  estate  of  freehold,  cannot  bar  the  entail, 
though  he  may  bar  bis  own  issue,  without  the 
consent  of  the  •protector  of  the  settlement,* 
who  is  usually  the  tenant  for  life. 

ENTASIS,  en'U'gls,  in  architecture,  the 
delicate  outward  curve  of  a  column,  found  in 
perfection  in  the  Doric  column^  by  which  an  arc 
IS  described  whose  highest  point  is  about  mid- 
way between  capital  and  base.  This  swellini^  of 
the  column  is  intended  to  counteract  the  optical 
error  by  which  a  rigidly  straight  perpendicular 
Une  has  a  tendency  to  appear  concave.  The 
entaMS  is  also  calculated  to  suggest  life  and  ino- 
tion  in  the  column  under  the  superimposed 
weight  of  the  entaUature.  Consult  Goodyear, 
W.  H.,  *Greek  Refinements'  (New  Haven 
1912)  J  Penrose,  F.  C,  'An  Investigation  of  the 
Frindptes  of  Athenian  Architecture'  (London 
1851) 

ENTELECHY,  (n-td'e-kl.  a  Greek  word 
meaning  "the  bringing  to  completion.*  in  the 
peripatetic  philosophy  of  Aristotle  is  the  transi- 
tion or  connecting  action  between  what  he  calls 
iiniaiuc ,  potentially  and  ipyov,  actuality;  that 
which,  among  the  schoolmen,  is  conceived  as 
intervening  between  the  potte  and  the  esse, 
for  example,  between  the  infinite  possibilities  of 
omnipotence  in  the  Supreme  Being  and  their 
manifestation  in  creation  and  active  providence. 

ENTELLUS  MONKEY,  a  book-name  for 
the  langur  (Senmopilhec»i  entellus),  the  sacred 
monkey  of  Hindustan,  representative  of  the  god 
Hanaman,    See  Langur. 

ENTBLODONTS,  a  groun  of  split-hoofed. 
switic-Hke  animals  of  early  Tertiary  time,  the 
giant  pigs,  represented  in  both  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds.  In  North  America  their  fossil  remains 
are  found  in  rocks  from  Eocene  to  Lower  Mio- 
cene age  from  New  Jersey  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. The  head  was  very  long,  the  neck  short, 
the  body  compact,  the  long  spines  of  the  dorsat 
vertebra  forming  a  decided  hump  on  the  shoul- 
ders, and  in  some  the  legs  were  very  long  and 
slender,  giving  a  stilted  appearance  to  the  ani- 
mal. The  teeth  were  large  and  strong,  espe- 
cially the  incisors  and  premolars  (sharp  cutting- 
teeth)  and  the  canines  were  large  but  not  de- 
veloped in  formidable  exterior  tusks  as  in  mod- 
em wild  boars.  The  brain-case  was  'absurdly 
small,'  says  Scott ;  and  'evidently  these  great 
pigs  were  profoundly  stupid.'  Beneath  each 
Qfe  was  a  long,  descending,  bony  process,  and 
the  lower  jaw  had  in  its  under  side  two  pairs 
of  bony  protuberances,  which  Osbom  Irelieves 
were  for  the  attachments  of  the  great  muscles 
needed  in  tesring  up  roots,  which  there  is  reason 
to  believe  formed  their  principal  food  (Brack- 
ett).  The  genus  Dtnohyiu,  of  the  Upper  Oligo- 
cene  of  Nebraska,  contained  species  six  feet  or 
more  in  height,  and  others  were  scarcely  less. 
Consult  Scott.  'Land  Mammals  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere'  (New  York  1913). 

ENTENTE  CORDIALE  (Fr.,  cordial 
tmderstandingj,  a  term  commonly  applied  to 
the  reconciliation,  tn  1904,  between  France  and 
Great  Britain  after  many  years  of  enmity.  In 
diplomatic  language  the  phrase  signifies  a  close 
fnendshtp  between  two  or  more  nations,  though 
without  any  formal  alltanra  existing  between 


them.      See     Alliances;     Tbiple    Alliance; 
Tuple  Entente. 

ENTBRALGIA,  en-te-ril'ji-a.    See  Emss- 

ITIS. 

ENTERIC  FEVER.    See  Typhoid  Fever. 

ENTERITIS,  an  inflammation  of  the  small 
intestine,  the  most  important  symptom  of  which 
is  diarrhcea.  Different  varieties  of  enteritis  are 
described  as  catarrhal  enteritis,  the  acute  entero- 
colitis of  children,  or  cholera  infantum,  croup- 
ous enteritis,  and  enteritis  due  to  tuberculosis, 
carcinoma,  and  other  malignant  diseases.  In 
primary  enteritis  the  symptoms  may  be  acute  or 
chronic,  the  most  important  single  symptom 
being  diarrhoea.  The  stools  are  thin  and  watery, 
and  particles  of  undigested  food  may  be  found 
in  them.  There  is  usually  colicky  pain  with  gas, 
and  occasional  vomiting.  Loss  of  appetite, 
thirst  and  dry  tongue  are  usually  present,  but 
fever  is  not  common.  The  general  causes  of 
catarrhal  enteritis  are  improper  food,  particu- 
larly in  children,  unripe  fruit,  toxic  substances, 
changes  in  the  weather,  and  nervous  influences 
bringing  about  changes- in  the  character  of  the 
secretions  and  in  the  muscular  activities  of  the 
waits  of  the  intestines,'  Infectious  diseases  may 
also  be  the  cause  of  acute  enteritis.  Rest  in  bed, 
following  a  mild  laxative  such  as  calomel  or 
castor  oil,  together  with  milk  diet,  will  usually 
be  sufiicient  treatment  for  the  simple  cases. 

Acute  enteritis  of  infants,  known  as  cholera 
infantum  (q.v.),  is  a  much  more  serious  disease. 
This  is  a  form  of  dysentery,  in  which  not  only 
the  small  intentine  but  the  large  intestine  also  is 
involved,  and  the  most  active  cause  of  this  dis- 
ease is  a  speci6c  micro-organism  called  the  bacil- 
lus of  Shiga,  Treatment  of  acute  enteritis  of 
infants  requires  trained  medical  advice.  The 
most  important  feature,  however,  in  infants  is 
to  cut  down  the  feeding,  giving  practically 
nothing  but  water  for  at  least  24  to  36  hours. 
Horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  too,  are  subject  to 
enteritis,  and,  unless  properly  and  promptly 
treated,  are  apt  to  succumb  to  it.  See  Cholera 
Infantum;  Coijtis;  Dysentery;  Intestines  — 
Diseases  of. 

ENTBROCLYSI8,  a  form  of  intestinal 
hydrotherapy  of  much  importance.  It  consists 
in  lavage  of  the  intestines.  The  ordinary  hot- 
water  enema  is  the  simplest  form  of  entcrocly- 
sis,  but  true  enteroclysis  consists  in  continuous 
irrigation  with  large  quantities  of  solution, 
either  with  a  single  or  a  double  tube.  The  effect 
of  the  introduction  of  large  amounts  of  hot 
salt  solution  (a  dram  of  common  table-salt  to  a 
pint  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  from  110" 
to  118"  F.)  is  very  marked.  There  is  much 
increase  in  the  tension  of  the  pulse,  and  pro- 
nounced stimulation  of  the  heart-action,  both 
of  prime  importance  in  the  treatment  of  hemor- 
rhage, shock,  asphyxiation  from  drowning  or 
from  coal-gas  poisoning,  and  of  many  forms 
of  drug  and  industrial  poisoning,  Enteroclysis 
has  also  a  marked  effect  in  augmenting  the  se- 
cretion of  the  kidney,  and  proves  of  immense 
importance  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  urxmic 
poisoning,  such  as  is  seen  in  Brighfs  disease, 
and  also  in  the  treatment  of  diabetic  coma.  It 
is  likewise  of  importance  in  bladder  troubles, 
in  colitis,  in  peritonitis,  septic  cndocar(Mtis.  and 
in  ulcerative  conditions  of  the  large  intestine, 
such  as  are  found  in  dysentery  and  in  cholera. 


.lOogle 


400 


ENTERPRISE—  ENTOMOLOGICAL  SOCIETIES 


Enteroclysis 
iag  collapse 

ENTERPRISE,  The,  the  name  of  a  number 
of  American  and  English  boats,  the  most 
famous  of  which  was  an  American  12-gun 
schooner  with  such  a  brilliant  career  that  she 
be»ame  known  as  the  "Lucky  Little  Enterprise." 
Built  1799  to  deal  with  the  French  privateers 
in  the  West  Indies,  she  had  an  extraordinary 
cruise  in  1800  under  the  command  of  Lieut. 
John  Shaw ;  in  a  six  months'  run  she  took 
eight  privateers,  some  of  them  much  heavier 
than  herself,  and  ^gregating  47  guns,  and  also 
recaptured  four  American  merchantmen.  In 
1801  she  was  sent  under  Lieut.  Andrew  Sterett 
with  Captain  Dale's  squadron  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean against  the  Barbary  pirates,  captured  a 
14-gun  Tripolitan  after  a  fierce  engagement,  and 
later  was  at  the  bombardment  of  Tripoli.  In 
December  1801  she  returned  to  the  United 
States,  but  went  back  to  the  Mediterranean  in 
18(H  under  Lieut.  Isaac  Hull.  In  1803  she  was 
under  the  command  of  Lieut.  Stephen  Decatur 
(q.v.),  who  in  December  of  that  year  captured 
with  her  the  Tripolitan  Mastico  which  later  be- 
came famous  in  connection  with  Decatur's  re- 
capture of  the  Philadetpkia.  Between  180S  and 
1809  the  Enterprise  was  in  home  waters.  From 
1809-11  she  was  once  more  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, this  time  under  Lieutenant  Trippe.  Her 
most  memorable  battle  was  during  the  War  of 
1812  and  was  fought  with  the  English  brig 
Boxtr,  Captain  Blythe,  on  5  Sept.  1813,  off  the 
Maine  coast,  toward  Monhcgan  Island.  By 
that  time  she  had  been  converted  into  a  brig, 
carried  16  guns  and  was  under  Lieut.  William 
Burrows ;  the  Boxer  had  14  guns.  The  crews 
were  about  100  each.  The  fight  began  at  3 :20 
P.M.,  and  was  ended  at  4  by  the  surrender  of 
the  Boxer,  literally  cut  to  pieces  in  hull,  masts, 
rigging  and  spars,  several  of  her  guns  dis- 
mounted, boats  and  quarters  shattered ;  the 
Enterprise  was  almost  uninjured,  with  but  one 
shot  in  the  hull  and  one  in  the  main-mast. 
Both  commanders  were  killed  and  were  later 
buried  side  by  side  at  Charleston.  Burrows 
who  had  received  his  mortal  wound  during  the 
progress  of  the  fight  was  succeeded  by  Lieuten- 
ant McCall.  After  this  heroic  battle  the  Enter- 
prise, together  ^with  some  other  boats,  cruised 
for  some  time  in  southern  waters  under  Lieut- 

fames  Renshaw  and  there,  even  though  she 
ad  lost  much  of  her  former  speed  by  the 
structural  changes  made  upon  her,  escaped  at 
a  number  of  occasions  from  English  boats 
which  were  attempting  to  capture  her.  She 
then  served  until  the  end  of  the  war  as  harbor 
guard  at  Charleston.  From  1816-19  she  was 
again  attached  to  the  Mediterranean  squadron, 
diis  time  under  Lieut.  Laurence  Kearney.  In 
1821  she  cruised  in  the  West  Indies  and  suc- 
cessfully broke  up  the  pirates  then  swarming 
in  those  waters.  In  1823  she  was  wrecked  on 
Curagoa,  but  all  hands  were  saved.  A  famous 
English  boat  bearing  the  name  Enterprise  was 
one  of  three  masts  which,  under  the  command 


_  arches  for  Sir  John  Franklin's  ships  in 
the  Arctic.  Consult  Collinson,  Sir  R.,  'Journal 
of  H.  M.  S.  Enterprise^  {London  1889)  :  Hill. 
F.  S.,  'Twenty-Six  Historic  Ships'  (New  York 
1903) ;  'The  Romance  of  the  Amencan  Navy> 


(New  Yorft  1910)  ;  'The  "Lucky  Little  Enter- 

Sise»;  etc'  (Boston  1900);  Maclay,  E.  S.,  'A 
istory  of  American  Privateers'  (New  York 
1899)  ;  'A  History  of  the  United  States  Navy* 
(3  vols..  New  York  1902)  ;  Morris.  C,  'Heroes 


vols.,  New  York  1897)  ;  'A  Charmed  American 
Warship'  (in  Harper's  Magazine,  Vol.  CIV,  pp. 
927-936,  New  York  1902). 

ENTFUHRUNG  AUS  DEM  8ERAIL, 
ent-fiir'oong  ous  dam  si-rll'.  Die  (II  Seraglio). 
An  opera  by  Mozart,  which  was  produced  for 
the  first  time  at  Vienna  on  13  July  1782  and  at 
New  York  in  October  1862. 

'BHTHYHEME,  in  logic,  the  technical 
name  for  a  syllogism  of  whidi  either  one  prem- 
ise or  the  conclusion  is  not  expressed.  For 
example,  "The  Lusitania  must  have  been  steam- 
ing under  20  knots  for  it  was  torpedoed* — 
the  unexpressed  premise  being  "A  steamship 
steaming  over  20  knots  cannot  be  torpedoed.* 
See  Logic 

ENTOMBMENT,  The,  a  favorite  subject 
of  the  painters  of  all  the  centuries  has  been 
this  representation  of  the  placing  of  (Christ's 
body  in  the  sepulchre.  Of  all  perhaps  the  most 
famed  is  that  by  Raphael  (1507).  now  in  the 
Palazzo  Borghese,  Rome.  The  finest  is  that  in 
the  Louvre  by  Titian  (1523).  'The  Madrid  Gallery 
has  another  Titian  but  it  is  inferior  in  concep- 
tion to  that  of  the  Louvre.  Other  representa- 
tions of  this  subiect  are  those  by  Caravaggio, 
Tintoretto,  Ferrari  (Turin),  Carracci  (LouYre), 
Donatello  (a  sculpture  group  in  the  South  Kens- 
ington Museum,  London),  and  Van  Dyck  (in 
Antwerp), 

BNTOMIS,  a  genus  of  fossil  ostrscods, 
having    a    vertical    furrow    alon^    their    shell 


valves.  It  is  found  in  the  Ordovician  and  Car- 
boniferous and  all  intermediate  strata,  espe- 
cially the  Devonian.    See  Ostsacoda. 

ENTOMOLOGICAL  SOCIETIES.  Half 
a  century  ago  a  single  entom<)logical  society 
was  all  that  had  been  organized  in  the  United 
States,  but  at  present  there  are  probably  up- 
ward of  a  score  of  organizations  devoted  to 
this  science.  The  first  entomological  society  of 
which  we  have  record  was  formed  in  1842. 
This  was  The  Entomological  Society  of  Penn- 
sylvania, which  has  long  Deen  out  of  existence. 
The  American  Entomological  Society  of  Phila- 
delphia, founded  in  1859  under  the  name  of 
liie  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia, 
and  incorporated  in  1862,  published  'Proceed- 
ings' until  1868.  when  the  society  name  was 
changed  and  the  publications  became  known  as 
'Transactions.'  This,  as  well  as  some  of  the 
other  societies  that  will  be  mentioned,  is  sup- 
ported by  a  permanent  endowment  fund,  owns 
very  extensive  and  valuable  collections  and  a 
library,  which  are  deposited  with  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  of  which  insti- 
tution its  members  are  associate  members  of  the 
entomoloBical  section.    Under  the  combined  ans- 

fiices  of  these  or^nizations  there  is  now  pub- 
ished  Entomological  News.  The  EntomoWi- 
cal  Society  of  Ontario  publishes  the  Canadian 
Entomologist  which' began  publication  in  1868, 
thoi^h  the  society  had  a  previous  existence 
under  the  name  of  The  Entomological  Society 
of    Canada.     It    is    supported    by    an    annual 


lyGobt^Ie 


SNTOMOLOOT 


401 


^venuncnt  grant  and  the  lile  of  its  oub- 
tications.  The  Brooklyn  Entomological  Soci- 
ety was  orgaiiixed  in  t872  and  in  1888,  whik 
retainiiw  a  corporate  existeuce,  became  mcTKed 
in  the  Brooklyn  Institute,  forming  ibc  depart- 
ment of  entomology  of  that  institution.  It  pub- 
hsfaed  seven  volumes  of  a  'Bulletin'  and  »x 
volumes  of  ' Entomolc^ca  Americana,'  The 
Cambridge  Entomological  Oub,  founded  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1874,  publishes  Ftyche, 
a  quarterly  ori^nally  devoted  largely  to  biblio- 
graphical and  biological  entomology.  The  same 
year  The  Entomological  Oub  of  the  Americwi 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
was  fortned.  Jn  1884  The  Eatomological  Soci- 
ety of  Washington  was  organiied,  pubUshing 
'Proceedings.*  The  Association  of  Economic 
EntODiologisis,  as  hai  previoiuly  been  men- 
tioned, wafi  established  in  1889.  Its  'Proceed- 
ings' are  published  in  the  general  series  of 
bu'letins  of  the  Division  of  Entomoksy  of  the 
United  Slates  Department  of  Agriculture.  In 
1881  The  New  York  Entomological  Oub  began 
the  publication  of  'Papilio,'  but  at  the  end  of 
its  4th  vc^nme  its  members  joined  the  Bro<dc- 
lyn  Entomological  Socie^.  In  1892,  however, 
another  society  was  oi^niied  in  New  York  as 
The  New  York  Entomological  Society.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1899. 

In  addition  to  these  principal  publidung  en- 
tomoloeicol  associations  there  are  several-  other 
entomological  sections  of  lareer  scientific  soci- 
eties in  Canada  and  in  the  United  States.  There 
are  also  local  clubs  or  societies  in  various  sec- 
tions, for  example,  in  Newark,  N.  J.;  at  Wil- 
liamsburg, N.  Y.  i  at  Chic^o,  Ptttshnrgh  and  in 
San  Francisco,  the  home  of  the  California  £o- 
tomological   Society. 


_r  more,  usaally  holding  titles  sign 
entire  nation,  for  eximpt^  there 
logical  societies  of  Belgium,  Franco,  Switzer- 
land, Russia,  Italy  and  Germany,  and  others 
representing  the  cities  of  London,  Berlin,  Vi- 
enna and  Stockholm.  Sec  also  AuEaiCAN  Eir- 
vouoLOGiCAL  Socmv  and  consult  Sldsner,  H. 
<ed.),  'Entom^gists'  EMrectory,  twntaining  the 
names,  addresses,  special  departments  <xE  study, 
etc,  of  those  interested  in  the  study  of  insect 
life  in  the  United  SUtes  and  Canaibi*  (Phila- 
delphia 1904). 

BNTOMOLOOY,  the  science  which  deals 
with  insects.    See  Insects. 

BNTOUOLOCY.  Economic.  Attacks  bv 
insects  upon  useful  plants  doubtless  began  with 
the  first  cultivation  of  fixM ;  but  it  was  net 
tintil  the  end  of  the  18th  century  that  any 
means  for  mitigating  their  ravaRCS  were  em- 
ployed beyond  hand  methods  and  other  purely 
mechanical  measures.  A  fev  crude  efforts 
were  made  amon^  the  ancient  farmers  and 
fruit-raisers  on  the  shores  of  the  Uediterranean 
toward  the  mippresskm  of  iiucct  pests  afld  Fliny 
even  advised  Uie  use  of  ndiite  hellebore,  one 
of  die  modem  insecticides;  but  it  was  at  about 
the  middle  of  the  J9th  century  that  insecticides 
(q.v.)  or  insect  pcnsons  began  to  be  tfenerally 
aaopte4  and  the  migraHop  of  the  Colorado  po- 
tato beetle  from  its  native  home  in  the  Rorfcy 
Mountain  refnon  to  the  potato  fields  of  the 
East  was  the  indirect  means  of  the  employment 
o£  arsenical  preparations  as  a  means  of  dcttioy- 
vet-  10—  M 


ing  insects :  so  that  this  insect,  while  an  appar- 
ent curse,  has  proved,  indirectly,  of  the  Kreat- 
est  value  to  the  agricultural  community  at  large. 
Prior  to  the  use  of  Paris  green,  wbidi  appears 
to  have  first  been  appHed  to  this  potato  pest 
in  Michigan  in  1867,  knocking  the  beetles  from 
the  infested  plants  into  a  pan  of  water  was  the 
only  method  of  treatment  and  was  used  for 
many  other  insects  as  well.  The  discovery  of 
die  value  of  this  poison  as  a  remedy  for  the 
codling  moth  was  made  in  1873,  by  Prof.  A.  J. 
Cook,  who  used  Paris  sreen  as  a  remedy  for 
canker-worms  and  found  that  the  trees  treated 
with  it  were  free  from  codling  moth.  To  Pro- 
fessor Cook  also  is  probably  due  die  first  use 
of  kerosene  mixed  with  soap,  although  ihe 
kerosene  emulsion,  which  is  now  a  standard 
remedy  for  all  sucking  insects,  was  the  joint 
product  of'  Messrs.  Barnard,  Hubbard  and 
Riley,  and  first  used  in  1877.  White  arsenic 
was  employed  as  an  insectictde  as  early  as  1871 
and  London  purple  was  put  to  practical  use  in 
the  dt^struction  of  the  cotton  worm  in  1876, 
London  purple  lus  since  been  displaced  by  va- 
rious other  insecticides,  as  it  has  proved  in- 
ferior to  Paris  green,  which,  in  turn,  has  been 
replaced  by  arsenate  of  lead,  because  the  latter, 
while  poisoning  the  insects,  docs  not  scald  or 
otherwise  injure  the  plants.  In  the  same  man- 
ner the  discovery  of  Paris  green  as  a  remedy 
for  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  was  made 
throu^  the  migrations  of  this  insect  the  rav- 

Ses  of  the  cotton  cushion  scale  (/frrya  pur~ 
ori)  of  the  orange  orchards  of  California 
led  to  experiments  conducted  I^  Mr.  D.  W.  Co- 
Quiilett,  of  the  United  Stales  Department  of 
Agriculture,  in  1886,  to  the  finding  of  fa/drocy- 
amc-acid  gas  as  the  best  medium  for  extirpation 
of  scale  insects  (q.v.),  and  to  its  general  use  in 
fumigation  for  all  insects  which  can  be  treated 
with  it  In  1895  Messrs.  A.  F.  Woods  and 
F.  H.  Dorsett,  also  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, began  experiments  which  led  to  the 
adoption  of  a  perfected  system  of  fumigation 
with  the  same  gas  of  plants  grown  under  glass 
and  injured  1^  scale  and  other  insects. 

Our  best  reraed^ea  for  insects,  then,  arseni- 
cal mixlures  and  kerosctte  emnbion  and  other 
preparations,  and  hydrocytUHc-kdd  gas,  are  tbc 
product  of  American  researdt  The  bisulphide 
of  carbon  as  an  insecticide,  however,  thongh  the 
discovery  of  a  foreigner,  has  doubtless  received 
greater    atteiuion    in    our    country    than    else- 


stoied  grain,  which  is  still  its  principal  i 
but  its  cost  when  first  emploved  was  so  exces- 
sive as  to  preclude  its  general  employment  on  a 
lai^  sole.  Subsequently  a  hi^  grade  of  tlus 
chemical,  known  as  *fama- bisulphide,*  was  made 
for  sale  at  10  cents  a  pound.  It  snpjikments 
the  use  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  in  that  the 
former  is  used  for  the  fumigation  of  plants 
above  ground,  while  the  latter  destroys  insects 
affecting  the  root-system.  Both  gases  are  usod 
for  (he  treatment  of  indoor  insects  in  granaries 
and  mills  and  in  dwellings  and  warehouses. 
Although  these  ere  the  main  insecticides,  there 
are  others,  nearly  all  of  which  6we  their  dis- 
covery and  perfection  to  economic  woiters  in 
America.  They  include  pyrethram,  better 
known  as  Bohach,  Persian- and  Dalmatian  in- 
sect iKiwders.  the  extensive  use  of  which  has 
resulted  in  the  eitaUishment  of  a  oAnsidenibk 


8l^ 


BHTOMOLOGT 


indostiy  in  the  Krowtng  of  ihejuindpal  plants 
whidi  produce  tnese  powders  (PyrrlhrHm  cine- 
rariafolium  and  P^yretkrum  roseum) ;  and 
wbale-oD  and  fish-D)l  soaps,  orisinally  used 
against  the  hop  aphis  in  1886,  and  later  i^ainst 
scales. 

In  more  recent  years  litne-sulphur  combina- 
tions  have  been  used  as  washes  and  sprays 
against  scales  and  other  sucking  insects  with 
good  results.  Still  more  recently  nicotine  sul- 
phate standardized  at  40  per  cent  ^rity  has 
come  into  general  use  as  a  contact  insecticide 
for  the  same  class  of  insects,  and  is  now  a 
standard  remedy  in  combination  with  soap  for 
the  control  of  aphides  or  plant-lice,  the  onon 
and  pear  thnpa  and  related  species,  leafhoppers, 
plant-bngs  and  many  others.  Prior  to  this  time 
tobacco  preparations  were  used  but  with  in- 
different success  eiccpt  on  a  restricted  number 
of  insect  pests. 

Quassiin  is  the  subject  ol  investi^tion  as  a 
contact  insecticide.  Of  arsenical  poisons  arse- 
nite  of  zinc  and  arsenate  of  calcium  are  effec- 
tive but  not  superior  to  arsenate  of  lead.  Ad- 
hesives,  such  as  whale-oil  (fish-oil)  and  other 
soaps,  are  also  in  general  use  under  the  name 
of  "stickers.*  Repellents,  to  prevent  such  in- 
sects as  the  parent  flies  of  root-maggots  from 
depositing  their  e^s,  are  being  successfully  em- 
ployed and  in  some  cases  odorous  substances 
are  being  used  to  attract  insects  from  their  nat- 
ural foods  where  they  can  be  destroyed. 

As  fumigants,  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  gener- 
ated from  sodium  cyanid  is  in  gene^  use  tor 
the  destruction  of  mill  and  granary  insects, 
greenhouse  and  household  pests.  Carbon  te- 
trachloride and  para-dichloro benzene  are  excel- 
lent fiunigants,  but  too  costly  for  general  use. 
Insects  aRccting  stored  products  and  pests  in 
households  may  also  be  controlled  by  heat  — 
an  old  remedy  which  is  now  employed  in  many 
mills  and  warehouses  where  steam-heating 
plants  are  installed. 

During  the  early  yean  of  work  in  spraying 
for  various  insects  the  principal  dependence  was 
placed  in  American  insecticide  machinery,  but 
after  the  invention  of  different  forms  of  noizles 
by  M.  Vermorel,  of  France,  various  other  noi- 
«les,  pumps  and  other  machinery  were  invented 
in  America  and  have  gone  into  general  use. 

An  almost  incredible  number  of  spraying 
machines  and  appliances  are  being  manufactured 
and  constant  improvements  are  being  mnde 
adapted  to  special  ptirposes. 

Prevention  of  Insect  Injiiries  by  Parming 
Methods. —  It  would  be  difficult  to  detail 
step  by  step  the  wonderful  progress  that  has 
been  made  in  means  of  subduing  insects  by 
Mmple  farming  methods  which,  as  a  rule,  neces- 
sitate little  or  no  extra  labor  or  monetarj-  ««- 
lay.  Some  of  our  principal  pests,  vrith  which 
we  cannot  cope  successfully  oy  means  of  in- 
secticides or  by  mechanical  methods,  may  be 
controlled  by  the  judicious  use  of  ordinary 
methods  of  tillage.  The  seed,  nursery  or  other 
stock  for  planting  should  be  selected  with  a 
special  view  to  securing  immunity  from  attack 
W  the  insect  most  feared  or  most  prevalent  in 
the  region  where  the  crop  is  to  be  planted.  By 
plaiiting  different  immune  varieties  of  wheat  the 
ravages  of  the  Hessian  fly  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  Certain  forms  of  trees  may  be 
selected  for  planting  for  shade  in  some  regions 
-without  danger  of  injury,  because  the  insects 


which  elsewhere  do  greatest  damage  to  them 
are  not  present  Tne  selection  of  a  suitable 
location  on  the  farm  for  a  crop  should  be  made 
with  the  same  end  in  view.  Where  injury  is 
feared  by  an  insect  which  does  not  travel  freely, 
immuni^  can  be  secured  by  planting  in  that  part 
of  the  farm  where  the  insect  is  known  not  to 
exist  The  prompt  destmction  of  crop  rem- 
nants and  the  pulling  up  and  burning  over  of 
weeds  and  other  rubbi^  is  a  preventive  ap- 
plicable to  all  crops.  Another  measure  is  the 
use  of  'trap  crops.*  Thus  part  of  an  old  cTop 
may  be  left  to  attract  insects  which  usirally 
remain  in  the  field  after  the  crop  is  made; 
similar  or  more  attractive  plants  may  be  grown 
for  the  protection  of  the  main  crop;  or  of 
early  vanetie*  of  the  same  plants,  as  lures  for 
the  insects  until  the  main  crop  can  obtain  a 
good  start  On  the  lure  plants  die  congregated 
insects  must  be  destroyed  by  poisons  or  by  fire. 
Trap  crops  are  of  considerable  value  in  the 
treatment  of  several  of  the  worst  enemies  of 
cucumbers,  melons,  squashes  and  similar  vines.  . 
The  stimulation  of  a  plant  by  means  of  fertili- 
ners  and  the  maintenance  of  healthy,  vigorous 
growth  hy  cultivation,  the  suppression  of  dis- 
eases ana  the  prevention  of  injury  by  insect 
pests  other  than  those  which  it  is  specially 
designed  to  circumvent,  are  helpful  aids.  Crop 
rotation  or  the  planting  of  alternate  crops  wbich 
are  not  injured  by  those  insects  which  ravage 
the  staples  assists  in  the  warfare;  as  also 
do  fall  and  spring  plowing,  which,  in  proper 
comUnaticm,  result  in  the  destruction  of  neariy 
all  forms  of  the  many  insects  which  pass  one 
or  more  stages  in  the  earth  in  hibernation.  The 
use  of  water  by  irrigation  or  submersion,  if 
practised  at  the  right  time,  will  result  in  the 
temporary  extirpation  of  nearly  all  insects  in  the 
fielai  thus  treated,  particularly  in  cranberry 
bof^.  The  reclamation  by  drainage  of  land 
subject  to  more  or  less  complete  submersion, 
such  as  swampy  tracts,  river  bottoms  and  the ' 
like,  and  the  destruction  of  the  weeds  and  other 
plants  and  the  insect  life  which  remain  by 
burning  over,  are  of  great  value  in  suppressing 
many  pests.  If,  to  the  methods  above  onl- 
linea,  we  add  the  strict  observatice  of  timely 
harvestine'  of  crops  with  a  view  to  the  preven- 
tion of  further  attack  and  (he  destruction  of 
insects  which  might  reproduce  the  following 
year;  the  utilization  of  natunl  enemies,  such 
as  parasitic  and  predaceous  insects,  ponltrT  and 
live  stock,  to  destroy  the  insects  in  the  field 
after  the  crop  is  off;  the  systematic  inspection 
of  the  farm  for  Ae  first  appearance  of  insect 
attack,  and,  finally,  the  co-operation  of  neigh- 
boring farmers  having  a  community  of  inter- 
ests in  growing  the  same  crc^s,  there  is  com- 
paratively little  use  for  insecticides  save  in  the 
case  of  insects  such  as  grasshoppers  and  the 
caterpillars  of  tnoths  and  batterflies,  which  are 
strong  fliers  and  cannot  be  successfully  con- 
trolled by  mechanical  methods. 

Econom'c  Bntomologists.—  Dr.  T.  W.  Har- 
ris is  cre<Gted  with  having  been  the  first  eco- 
nomic entomologist  of  America,  but  in  reality  , 
the  honor  is  due  to  W.  D.  Peck,  who  beoan 
writing  on  iniurious  injects  late  in  the  18th 
century  (1795-1819).  His  writings,  however, 
are  few,  in  comnarison  to  those  of  Harris, 
whose  labors  began  in  18.11  and  whose  greatest 
woric  appeared  in  184-1,  his  classic  treatise  on 
*In»eets  Injurious  to  Vegetation.*     In  the  year 


.yGooi^le 


Pic.  I  Borm(-b«tlc  ( Plilinu!)  1. 1  Borinc-bectle   ( Pli'nui   ud  Utni)  «,  S  Tnwbrie  and  Um   (ra«lwaTin1  C  >J| 

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.yGooi^lc 


BNT01S0PUTH0RAUC8'  BHTRB  KIOS 


1^  the  New  York  State  IsgialDture  appmpri- 
ated  f  1,000  for  the  study  of  economic  entomol- 
(^  and  Dr.  Asa  Fitch  waa  appointed  to  pei^ 
form  the  work  specified.  Fildi's  work  con- 
tinued until  1S71  or  187%  when  his  Hth  and 
last  report  was  published  Afterward  different 
States,  Illinois  in  1866-67,  and  Missouri  about 
a  year  later,  apiraintcd  State  entomologists  the 
latter  State  obtaining  the  services  of  Dr.  C.  V. 
Riley,  who  wrote  a  series  of  nine  reports  which. 
for  originality,  scientific  accuracy  and  practical 
value,  have  received  recognition  the  world  over. 
When  Dr.  Riley  assumed  the  duties  of  ento- 
mologist of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  economic  entomology  received  a 
new  impetus,  his  work  and  that  of  his  assist- 
ants marking  a  new  era  in  practical  entomologi- 
cal work.  U^n  his  death  in  1894.  he  was 
succeeded  by  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard,  under  whose 
direction  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  continues 
to  issue  reports,  bulletins  and  circulars  of  the 
highest    practical    and    scientific    value.      See 

AOSICUITUSE,   DePASTMENT  OP. 

Prior  to  1888  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Illi- 
nois and  Missouri  were  the  only  States  which 
maintained  officially  appointed  economic  ento- 
mologist. During  that  ^ear  the  State  agri- 
cultural experiment  stationi  (q,v,)  were  or- 
ganized under  the  Hatch  Act  and  several 
official  entomologists  were  appointed  in  connec- 
tion with  them.  In  1889  was  formed  an  As- 
sociation of  Economic  Entooiolo^sts  which 
held  annual  meetings  in  various  cities  subse- 
quently and  had  In  1916  a  total  membership  of 
about  470, 

Bibliogrsfdiir.— Harris,  'Insects  ln}nrious 
to  Vegetarion'  (Flint  ed.,  1852);  Treat,  'Inju- 
rious Insects  of  the  Farm  and  Garden'  (1882)  ; 
Saunders,  'Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits*  (1883); 
Cooke;  'Injurious  Insects  of  the  Orchari^  Vine- 
yard, etc.'  (Sacramento  1883) ;  Smith,  'Eco- 
nomic Entomology'  (1896) ;  Weed,  'Insects  and 
Insecticides'  (Hanover,  N.  H.,  1891);  Sander- 
son, 'Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Croos'  (1902); 
Chittenden,  'Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetables' 
(New  York  ,  and  Lmidon  1907) ;  Sanderson, 
'Insect  Pests  of  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard' 
(New  York  and  London  1912);  Slingerland 
&  Crosby,  'Manual  of  Fntit  Insects'  (New 
York  1914)  ;  Essig,  'Injurious  and  Benefiual 
Insects  of  California'  (2d  ed.,  Saeramento 
1915).  Also  the  serial  publications  of  the 
United  States  Dejiartment  of  Agriculture  and 
oE  the  entomologists  of  the  State  agricultural 
experiment  stations  and  of  State  entomologists, 
including  Fitch,  Riley,  Forbes,  Lintner,  Felt, 
J.  B.  Smith,  Webster  and  others. 

F.  H.  CHmBNDEN, 
Enlontotogist,  in  Bvrean  of  Entomology,  United 
States  DepartiHtnt  of  Agriculture,  Walking- 
ion,  D.  C. 
ENTOMOPHTHORALES,     en-to-mof- 
iho-rales,   group   of   parasitic   fungj,   which   is 
highly  destructive  of  insects.     In  germination 
the  spore  emits  a  tube  which  penetrates  the  in- 
sect's body,  which  is  thereupon  filled  with  the 
mycelium  of  the  fui^us. 

BNTOUOSTRACA,  one  of  the  two  great 
sulx^lasses  of  Crustacea  (the  other  is  Malacos- 
tracai,  including  minute  foirns;  the  "waler- 
ileas,"  having  a  homy  shell  of  many  pieces,  a 
well-developed  cephalo- thorax,  mandible  and 
three  pairs  of  maxillx,  hve  pairs  of  thoracic 


feet  but  no  abdominal  feet  and  no  gills,  breath- 
ing instead  ^  specialized  organs.  They  have 
a  great  varietv  of  shapes  and  of  means  of 
locomotion.  Toe  young  is  a  nauplius  and  de- 
veloped by  niuaeratis  molts.  The  group  in- 
.  eludes  many  thousands  of  species,  divided  into 
four  orders, —  Phyllopoda,  Ostracoda,  Opepoda 
and  Cirripedia  (barnacles).  They  abound  in 
.♦ayniiM  fresh  wftters  4iid  also  in  the  sea,  and 
fumiih  an  immense  quantity  of  subsistence  for 
fishes  that  are  used  for  human  food.  They 
exist  and  increase  in  innumerable  millions.  The 
descendant*  of  a  single,  cydops  may  in  one  year 
ntUBber  over  4000,000.000.  At  one  lime  they 
render  the  surface  of  the  sea-water  phosphoi^ 
escent  hy  th«r  vast  luminous  coofcregations.  At 
another  time  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  colored  red 
over  a  space  of  hundreds  of  square  miles  by 
the  uaembly  of  these  minute  creatures,  attract- 
ing multitudes  of  fishes,  even  of  whales,  which 
feed  upon  them.  On  the  other  han4,  some 
forma  are  equally  injurioos  as  parasites.  Those 
belong  chiefly  to  the  copepod  group  —  siphon- 
ostoraata,  having  mouths  fitted  for  suction. 
Sonft  arc  commensal,  entering  the  gfW-sac  or 
digestive  cavity  and  feeding  upon  the  food, 
not  upon  the  tissue  of  the  host  Some  attadi 
themselves  long  enough  to  suck  the  blood  of 
their  victim  and  then  pass  on,  while  Others  enter 
the  body  as  permanent  residents  and  embed 
themselves  in  the  tissue.  Thus  thqr  are  the  pests 
of  starfish,  jellyfish,  worms,  ascidians,  fishes 
and  whales.  See  Barnacle;  Copepoda;  Ous- 
taC£a;  Fish-Lice;  Ostbacoda;  Phyixofoda. 

SNTOZOA,  formerly  employed  as  the 
name  of  a  suboivision  of  radiate  animals,  baa 
passed  out  of  use  as  a  term  of  systematic  classi- 
fication, because  it  fails  to  indicate  or  signify 
anr  ideas  of  structure  and  only  hints  at  the 
haitttat  and  occupation  of  great  nmnbers  of  liv- 
ing creatures.  Following  the  strict  meaning  of 
the  word  entotoa,  denoting  'animals  within* 
(i.e.,  internal  parasites)  other  animals,  not  only 
brings  together  many  genera  that  belong  with 
the  different  snbdivisions  of  the  same  general 
division,  but  also  imports  those  which  are  in- 
cluded under  classes  morphologically  distinct 
Even  this  use  of  the  word  is  obsolescent.  See 
Bot  Fly;  Distoma;  Elephantiasis;  Filaw- 
A9I3;  Guinea- Wobm;  Hook- Worm;  Oibot; 
Parasitism  ;  Platyheluinthes  ;  Rodns- 
WoRjtS;  Tapeworms;  Trematoda. 

ENTRK-DOURO-e-MINHO  (»,<.,  be- 
tween the  Douro  and  Uinho),  Sn'tri  dfi'roo  S 
mfn'yoo,  a  province  of  Portugal,  more  gen- 
erally known  by  the  shorter  appellation  of 
Minho.  The  surface  is  broken  and  partially 
occupied  by  high  mountains,  but  the  soil  in  the 
valleys  is  well  cultivated  and  the  province  the 
most  densely  populated  in  the  country.  Area 
2,808  square  miles.    Pop.  1,289,066- 

SNTRB  MINHO  e  DOURO,  name  fre- 
quently employed  by  the '  Portuguese  for  the 
province  Entre  Douro  e  Minho  or  Minbo 
(qq.v.). 

ENTRE  RIOS,  cn'tra  re'os,  Argentine  Re- 

Sblic,  a  province  bounded  on  -  the  north  by 
rrientes,  on  the  east  by  the  republic  of  Uru- 
guay, on  the  south  and  west  by  the  provinces 
of  Buenos  Aires  and  Santa  Fe.  As  its  name 
indicates  its  territory  lies  "between  the  rivers* 
—  Rio  Parani  and  Rio  Uruguay.    Area  29,241 


.ogle 


BNTRECASTBAUX  —  BNVBLOPE 


square  mites.  Agriculture  and  unmigratioii 
were  encouraged  by  the  provincial  government, 
which  sold  land  to  settlers  in  portions  of  82H 
acres,  to  be  paid  for  in  three  years,  at  prices 
ranging  from  $600  to  $2,000,  according  to  loca- 
tion. A  considerable  amount  of  land  has  been 
taken  up  by  the  Jewish  Colonization  Association, 
Until  the  building  of  the  Entre  Rios  Railway  this 
province  was  the  'poor  sister"  of  the  republic; 
but  since  then  it  lus  made  very  rapid  strides. 
It  is  second  in  the  production  of  oats  and 
grows  large  quantities  of  wheat  of  excellent 
quality,  other  products  being  maize,  lucerne, 
barley,  flax,  grapes,  tobacco,  fruit  and  (on  a 
very  large  scale)  cattle,  sbeep  and  horses.  Its 
capital,  the  city  of  Parani  (pop.  65,000), 
was  the  capital  of  the  republic  from  ISS2  to 


park,  tramway  service,  and  is  an  important  port 
for  the  traffic  on  the  Parani  River,  Pop.  of  the 
province  estimated  423,100. 

ENTRECASTHAUX,  d6fltr-kas-t6,  Joseph 
Antoine  Bruni  d',  French  navigator:  b,  Aix 
1739;  d.  at  sea,  near  the  island  of  Java,  20 
July  1793.  He  entered  the  French  naval  serv- 
ice in  1754,  gradually  rose  to  the  position  of 
commandant  of  the  French  fleet  in  the  East 
Indies  (1786),  and  in  1787  became  governor  of 
Mauritius  and  the  Isle  of  Bourbon.  In  the 
same  year  he  made  a  voyage  to  China.  In 
1791  he  was  sent  by  the  French  government  in 
search  of  La  Pirouse  (q.v.),  who  had  not  been 
heard  from  since  February  1788.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  was  given  the  command  of  two  ships, 
the  Recherche  and  L'Etpfrance.  He  failed  in 
detecting  any  trace  of  the  lost  navigator,  but 
ascertained  with  great  exactness  the  outlines  of 
New  Caledonia,  the  west  and  southwest  coast  of 
NewHolland,  Tasmania  and  various  other  coasts. 
The  D'Entrecasteaux  Archipelago  was  named 
in  his  honor.  Other  reminders  of  his  visit  to 
Tasmania  are  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel,  Bruni 
Island,  Recherche  Bay,  Port  Espirance,  all 
names  ^ven  by  him  to  these  various  localities 
and  stiR  in  use  to-day.  The  journal  of  this 
voyage  has  been  edited  bydc  Rossel,  'Voyage  de 
Dentrecasteaux'  (2  vols.,  Paris  1808).  His 
maps   and   other   topographical    drawings   have 


dier,  H.,  'La  Mission  dc  M.  !e  Chevalier 
d'Entretasteaux  i  Canton  en  1787'  (Paris 
1911)  ;  Goepp,  E.,  and  Cordier,  E  L„  'Les 
Grands  Kommes  dc  la  France;  Navigateurs* 
(Paris  1873)  ;  Labillardiire,  J.  J.  H.  de,  'Rela- 
tion du  Voyage  k  la  Recherche  de  la  Pirouse' 
(2  vols.,  Paris  1800).  and  its  translation  into 
English,  'Vtqrage  in  Search  of  la  Perouse'  (2 
vols.,  London  1800);  Marriott,  I.  L.,  'Commo- 
dore Sir  John  Hayes,  His  Voyage  and  Life' 
(London  1912). 

ENTREHOHT,  don-ti^moA',  Comto  d'. 
See  L'HopiTAi, 

ENTRENCHED  MEANDERS.  See 
Meanders. 

ENTRESOL,  3ft  tr-s61  or  Sn'iersfil  (Fr. 
■between  the  floors"),  a  low  story  between  two 
of  greater  height,  generally  the  ground  and  the 
first  stories.  It  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
modem  French  architecture,  especially  in  dty 
houses.    It  is  called  also  the  Mezzanine. 


ENTROPION,  or  BNTROPIUH,  inver- 
sion or  tuniiiv  in  of  the  edge  of  the  eyelids,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  lashes  rub  on  the  eye- 
ball, causing  annoyance  and  pain. 

ENTRY,  Right  of.  in  the  common  law,  the 
ri^t  of  taking  possessioTl  of  lands  or  property 
by  entering  or  setting  foot  on  the  same.  This 
may  be  done  either  by  the  claimant  personally, 
or  through  his  agent  or  attorney. 

ENTRY,  Writ  of,  a  formal  declaration 
made  b^  one  exercising  the  right  of  entry  in 
recovering  properly  of  which  he  has  been  dis- 
seized that  Re  claims  full  possession  of  the  said 
property.  The  common-law  action  of  Writ  of 
Entry  has  for  some  time  been  obsolete  in  Great 
Britain,  but  is  still  in  use  in  a  modified  statutory 
form  and  generally  for  special  purposes  in  a 
hw  jurisdictions  in  the  United  States. 


1910.  He  entered  the  engineering  service. 
United  States  navy  1861,  became  commander  in 
1888,  and  in  1899  was  made  captain  and  rear- 
admiral  and  placed  upon  the  retired  list  He 
first  served  on  the  Aroostook  imder  Farragut 
in  the  Western  Gulf  squadron,  and  on  21  other 
vessels ;  was  inspector  of  machineiy  at  the 
Bath  (Me.)  Iron  Works  1890-95  while  the 
ram  Kalakdm  and  the  gun-boats  Maehias  and 
Castine  were  in  process  of  construction,  and 
assistant  to  the  general  inspector  at  Mare 
Island  Navy  Yard  in  1895.  He  joined  the 
Asiatic  squadron  at  Yokahoma  during  that  year, 
being  appointed  fleet  engineer  1897  and  assigned 
to  the  Olymfia.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Manila  Bay,  I  May  189^  being  advanced  in 
numbers    for   meritorious   aervicea    upon    that 


BNTWISTLE,  Joaeph,  English  dei«rman: 
b.  Manchester,  England,  IS  April  1767;  d!  Tad- 
caster,  6  Nov.  1841.  In  1787  he  was  called  into 
the  Weslcyan  ministry  b_y  John  Wesley  and 
spent  54  years  of  his  life  m  preaching  the  Gos- 
pel. He .  was  twice  president  of  the  Britidi 
Conference  and  was  connected  with  the  Theo- 
logical Institution  at  Hoxton  1833-38.  His  last 
years  were  spent  al  TadcBster.  Consult  'Memoir 
of  Rev.  Joseph  Entwistle'  by  his  son  (1st  ed, 
1845,  Sth  ed.  1861). 

ENURESIS.    See  Usine.  Imoomtinehce  or. 

ENVELOPE,  a  paper  case,  sealable  hf 
means  of  an  adhesive  flap  or  other  means,  and 
used  for  enclosing  letters  or  other  matter.  It 
has  not  been  established  definitely  bv  whopi 
and  where  envelopes  were  invented,  Dul  they 
seem  to  have  been  used  first  in  France,  possib^' 
as  eariy  as  the  middle  of  the  17th  centui?. 
though  in  very  limited  quantities.  Thcj;  were 
not  in  general  use  in  any  country  prior  to 
1839^,  when,  after  the  passage  of  the  penny 
postage  bill,  triey  became  common  in  England 
Until  about  1845  nearly  all  letters  in  this  coun- 
try were  folded  so  that  an  unwritten  portion 
came  on  the  outside,  and  the  address  was  placed 
there,  though  even  then  there  was  a  certam  de- 
mana  for  envelopes,  all  of  which,  however, 
were  made  entirely  by  hand,  (gradually  the 
use  of  envelopes  spread  end  by  1850  practjcally 
all  letters  were  enclosed  in  them.  The  first 
maker  of  envelopes  in  New  York  is  believed 
to  have  been  a  Mr.  Pierson  who^  as  eariy  as 
1843,  made  envelopes  by  hand  in  hit  store  on 


BHVXK  PAAHA 


Falton  street.  In  1846  be  sold  hta  business  to 
an  Englishman  nuned  Dangeriietd  who  was 
soon  mcceeded,  first  by  Jacob  Berlin,  and  then 
by  W.  G.  West.  At  that  time  only  2,000  or  3,000 
could  be  made  in  a  day,  as  machineiy  vras  not 
yet  used.  The  blanks  were  cut  out  by  means 
of  a  sheet  of  metal,  placed  on  top  of  a  pile  of 
paifier,  around  the  edges  of  which  a  sharp 
knife  was  run.  They  were  then  folded  and 
pasted  by  hand.  Machines  were  invented  in 
England,  probably  as  early  as  1S40^  though  they 
were  not  patented  until  1849,  by  Warren  de  la 
Rue  and  Edwin  Hill,  the  latter  a  brother  of 
Sir  Rowland  Hill  <q.v.),  the  father  of  the 
penny  post.  These  machines  were  one  of  th6 
chief  attractions  of  the  H^de  Park  Exposition, 
held  in  London  in  1851.  The  first  machme  used 
in  this  country  was  a  .French  model.  It  had 
been  purchas*^  in  1847  for  $600  by  H.  C  Ber- 
lin, son  of  Jacob  Berlin,  who  had  gone  into 
the  envelope  business  with  his  father's  suc- 
cessor, W.  G.  West.  This  machine,  however, 
was  not  very  successful.  The  first  patent  for 
an  envelope- folding  machine  was  issued  in  the 
United  States  23  fan.  1849  to  J.  K.  Park  and 
C.  S.  Watson  of  New  York  the  second  on  26 
April  18S3  to  E  Coleman,  Philadelphia.  Neither 
of  these  was  accompanied  by  commercial  suc- 
cess. The  third  patent  was  issued  to  Dr.  Russel 
L.  Hawes,  a  physician  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  in 
1853.  This  machine  was  quite  successful,  but 
was  used  exclusively  by  the  concern  founded  by 
its  inventor,  which,  after  many  changes  in 
ownership,  is  still  in  existence  as  the  W.  H.  Hill 
Envelope  Company,  Division  of  the  United 
States  Envelope  Company.  Not  until  just  be- 
fore the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  was  a  ma- 
rline patented  and  placed  on  flie  open  market. 
The  inventor  was  George  H.  Reay,  and  his 
machine  was  for  many  years  one  of  the  most 
successful.  It  gave  a  tremendous  impetus  to 
the  envelope  industry.  At  this  period  many 
others  invented  envelope  machines  or  attach- 
ments to  them  none  of  which,  however,  could 
be  purchased  in  the  open  market  From  then 
on  the  development  of  envelope  machinery  made 
ra^d  strides.       Improvements  gradual^  pro- 


conntiog,  etc.  The  men  chiefly  responsible  for 
these  improvemenis  were  J.  M.  D.  Keating, 
T.  V.  Wavmouth,  H.  D.  and  D.  W.  Swift,  J.  G. 
Arnold,  D.  Whitcomb,  and  others.  Many  of 
these  early  inventors  went  into  business  for 
themselves  and  quite  a  number  of  these  com- 
paratively <^d  concerns  were  included  in  the 
consolidatian  of  the  10  leading  envelope  com- 
panies accomplished  in  August  1698,  and  there- 
after known  as  the  United  States  Envelope 
Company,  Inc.  Modern  machines  have  been 
improved  to  a  point  where  it  is  possible  for 
one  machine  to  turn  out  as  many  as  55,000  en- 
velopes a  day.  The  variety  of  envelopes,  too, 
has  rapidly  increased.  They  are  used  now  not 
only   to   enclose    letters,   hut    a   great   deal   of 

g'inted  matter  and  for  many  other  purposes, 
ecenl  innovations  are  especially  the  so-called 
window-envelope,  with  a  transparent  front 
through  which  the  address  at  the  head  of  a 
letter  can  be  read,  saving  thereby  the  separate 
addressing  of  the  envelope;  envelopes  with 
special  sealing:  devices,  such  as  metal  hooks 
and  ej^es.  threads,  etc.;  and  the  envelope  with 
a  wire  or  thread  attached  to  its  inner  edge, 


fadJitatinK  its  opening.  Since  1853  Ae  povcrn- 
ment  supitlies  stamped  envelopes,  which  are 
purchased  in  ever  increasing  quantities,  the  total 
issue  to  postmasters  in  1916  amounting  to  1,853,- 
791,461  of  a  gross  selling  value  of  ^,875,445. 
About  two- thirds  of  these  are  issued  with 
printed  return  cards  in  the  upper  left  hand 
comer.  Practically  every  government,  having  a 
postal  service,  issues  stamped  envelopes.  The 
remarkable  growth  of  the  envelope  industry  can 
be  seen  from  the  following  figures,  basM  oa 
(The  United  States  Census  of  Manufactures  of 
1914'  (Washington  1917)  :  In  1849,  the  first 
year  for  which  figures  are  available,  the  total 
value  of  products  in  the  envelope  industry  was 
?45.00a  In  1914  there  were  90  esUblishments 
with  6,Q70  operatives,  capitalized  at  $15,830,000 
and  producing  goods  valued  at  $18,481,000.  These 
figures  indicate  increases  during  the  1 0-year 
period,  1904-14,  of  25  per  cent,  (2  per  cent,  110 
per  cent  and  77  per  cent,  respectively.  Envelope 
factories  were  located  in  1914  in  15  States  of 


MissonrL  Consult  Lomn,  J.,  *The  Storv  of  the 
Envelope*  (in  The  Red  Envelope,  Hartford 
1915-17) ;  House  of  Representatives,  Committee 
on  United  States  Post  Office  and  Post  Roads, 
'Stamped  Envelopes'  (Hearings  during  April 
1910.  Washington  1910). 

BNVER  PASHA,  Turidsh  soldier  and  war 
minister:  b.  Constantinople  about  1880.  Of 
aristocratic  descent,  be  was  educated  for  the 
army  and  saw  his  first  active  service  in  Mace- 
donia against  the  Serb  and  Bulgar  komitadjis. 
He  was  one  of  the  prime  movers  in  the  Young 
Turk  revolution  of  1906.  Stationed  at  the  time 
in  Salonica,  his  activities  were  known  at  Con- 
stantinople. In  a  friendly  letter  he  was  invited 
to  return  to  the  capital  and  promised  promo- 
tion. But  Enver  Bey  —  as  he  then  was  ^  knew 
better  than  to  accent  the  invitation.  He  dis- 
guised himself  as  a  peasant  and  fled  to  the 
mountains,  traveling  rabidly  from  place  to 
place,  spreading  the  doctrine  of  revolt  and  mit< 
ting  the  final  touches  to  the  preparations.  The 
speedy  success  of  the  revolution,  the  revival 
of  the  dormant  constitution  of  1876,  and  the 
subsequent  fall  of  Abdul  Hamid,  raised  Enver 
to  the  height  of  a  popular  national  hero.  He 
was  'lionized*  in  Paris  and  London ;  at  the 
latter  place  he  was  introduced  to  both  houses 
of  Parliament.  Under  the  new  regime  he  was 
sent  as  military  attach^  to  Berlin,  where  he 
learnt  German,  studied  the  Prussian  military 
orgraniiation,  and  became  a  close  friend  of  the 
Kaiser,  According  to  competent  observers,  the 
mightj^  emperor  and  the  humble  attach^  had 
Inuch  in  common,  especially  dreams  of  bound- 
less ambition.  Fired  with  admiration  for  all 
things  German,  Enver  returned  to  Constanti- 
nople an  ardent  apostle  of  Teutonism  and 
heartily  threw  himself  into  the  work  of  assist- 
ing the  (German  Generals  von  der  Goltx  and 
Liman  von  Sanders  to  build  Up  the  Turkish 
army.     That  army,  however,  failed  of  its  pur- 

Kse  in  the  Tnpolitain  and  Balkan  wars,  in 
th  of  which  Enver  played  a  prominent  part. 
Of  youthful,  almost  boyish,  appearance,  poetical 
imagination  and  undoubted  courage,  though  en- 
tirely unscrupulous^  he  became  the  most  pic- 
turesque figure  in  Turkish  politics.  Those  who 
stood  in  his  way  he  simply  shot  dowit    In  Jan- 


.ogle 


BHVIRONMSNT — BNZYME 


118  ry  1913  he  shot  Uie  Commander-in-Chief, 
Hussein  Naiim  Pash,  and  two  aides-de-camp 
who  attempled  to  stop  him  from  entering  the 
council  chamber.  (Prince  Yussuf-ed-din,  the 
heir  lo  the  throne,  was  murdered  in  February 
1916  by  order  of  Enver  Pasha).  In  January 
1914  Enver  was  appointed  Minister  for  War 
and  created  a  pasha.  At  the  beginninK  of  the 
Etiropean  War  six  months  later,  Turkey  de- 
dareo  her  neutrality.  Although, '  apparenlly, 
most  of  the  ministers  opposed  entering  the  War, 
they  were  overborne  by  Enver  Pasha,  who  not 
only  had  the  whole  Turkish  army  at  his  back, 
but  had  also  adopted  the  German  view  that 
Turkey's  salvation  was  bound  up  with  the  suc- 
cess of  German  arms.  Consult  Buxton,  C.  R., 
'Turkey  in  Revolution'  (London  1909) ;  "Enver 
Pasha's  Reign  of  Terror  at  Constantinople' 
(Current  Opinion,  September  1915);  'Enver 
Pasha"  (Current  Opinion.  April  1916)  ■  Free- 
man, L.  R.,  'Enver  Pasha:  Turkish  Patriot' 
(Harper's  Weekly  August  191S)  ;  'The  Calvary 
of  a  Nation,'  (Atlantic  Monthly,  November 
1916)  ;  'Why  Turkey  Went  In>  (Harper't 
Weekly,  10  April  1915)  ;  'The  Turkish  Atroci- 
ties in  Armenia'  (Outlook,  29  Sept.  1915).  See 
Turkey;  War,  European:  Turkish  Campaign. 
ENVIRONMENT,  a  modem  scientific  term 
applied  to  the  modifying  influences  of  an  organ- 
ism or  surroundings.  Neither  plant  nor  ani- 
mal can  be  understood  as  a  rounded-off  unity; 
the  whole  life  or  function  is  made  up  of  action 
and  reaction  between  the  organism  and  its  en- 
vironment. Streams  of  matter  and  energy  from 
without  preserve  the  relative  constancy  of  the 
organism,  as  of  a  special  wave-crest  in  the  sea; 
while  changes  in  the  streams  have  their  corre- 
sponding changes  within  the  organism.  The 
plant  or  animal  has  obviously  a  strong  unity 
of  its  own,  but  even  that  is  in  part  due  to  an- 
cestral welding  under  the  hammers  of  the  en- 
vironment. It  may  seem,  too,  to  vary  of  itself 
like  a  fountain  in  the  air,  but  throughout  all  its 
rises  and   falls  there  blows  the  wind  of  the 


The  influence  of  outside  conditions  has  been 
recognized  by  most  naturalists  from  the  time  of 
Hippocrates,  and  is  taken  for  granted  in  onr 
everyday  speech  and  action.  Tnere  is  consid- 
erable cuflerence  of  opinion,  however,  as  to  the 
importance  and  degree  of  this  influence.  Thus 
Buffon,  Treviranus  and  Geoflroy  Saint  Hilaire 
regarded  the  surroundings  as  directly  hammer- 
ing changes  on  the  organism ;  while  to  Erasmus 
Darwin  and  Lamarck  internal  changes  arose  as 
indirect  functional  results  of  new  environment. 
Charles  Darwin  allowed  a  measure  of  truth  in 
both  these  positions,  but  emphasized  the  inde- 
pendent action  of  the  organism  itself  in  the 
direction  of  natural  selection.  These  three  posi- 
tions are  stil!  held,  some  emphasiiing  one,  others 
another,  the  majority  combining  the  three.  See 
Dabwinian  Theohv;  Evolwtiom;  HEHEDrrv. 

ENVOI,  6A-vw3',  the  last  stanza  of  a  ballad 
(q.y.). 

ENVOY,  originally  envoyi,  the  French 
translation  of  the  I-atin  word  ■ablcgalus,'  a 
person  deputed  by  a  sovereign  or  government 
to  negotiate  a  treaty,  or  transact  other  bu!imess 
of  a  diplomatic  nature  with  a  foreign  ruler  or 

Sivemment,    In  its  general  use  we  usually  apply 
e  word  to  a  public  minister  sent  on  a  special 
^r  for  one  particular  purpose;  nence 


an  envoy  is  diitingoiriied  from  an  ambassador. 
Envoy  extraordinary  and  minister  plenipoten- 
tiary is  a  permanent  resident  abroad,  usually 
in  one  of  the  less  important  countries  officially 
representing  his  government,  but  of  inferior 
rank  to  an  ambassador.  Hb  ranking,  next  to 
ambassadors,  dates  back  to  the  be^ning  of 
the  18th  century,  though  the  term  was  in  use 
as  early  as  the  l?th  century  at  which  time 
envoys  belonged  to  the  second  class  of  diplo- 
matic agents  together  with  agents,  residents  and 
ablee^ti.  Consult  Foster,  J.  W.,  'TTie  Practice 
of  Diplomacy  as  Illustrated  in  the  Foreign  Re- 
lations of  the  United  States'  (Boston  1906); 
Garcia  dc  la  Vega,  D.,  'Oildc  Pratique  des 
Agents  Poliiiques,  etc.'  (Bnixelles  1873); 
tCrauske,  O.,  'Entwickelung  der  Standigen 
Diplomatic,  etc'  (Leipzig  1885) ;  Satow,  Sir  E., 
'A  Guide  to  Diplomatic  Practice'  (2  vols.,  Lon- 
don 1917). 

ENZINA,  Jium  de  U.  See  EuanA,  Juan 
Del. 

BNZINAS,  in-the'n^  Frandico  de  (also 
known  as  Dryander),  Spanish  translator  of 
the  New  Testament:  b.  Burgos  1520;  d.  1553. 
He  was  educated  at  Louvain  and  at  Wittenberg. 
During  his  stay  in  the  latter  place  be  resided 
at  the  house  of  Melanchthon.  He  translated 
the  New  Testament  from  the  Greek  in  1S43  and 
presented  a  copy  to  Charles  V.  His  heretical 
views  caused  his  imprisonment  at  Brussels;  he 
escaped  after  a  year's  confinement  and  made 
his  way  to  Wittenberg.  Cramner  made  Enz'nas 
professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in  1548. 
Thereafter  his  life  is  obscure  and  according  to 
some  accounts  he  died  at  Strassburg  in  1553  of 
the  pestilence,  according  to  others  ne  was  last 
heard  of  at  Geneva  in  1570.  He  wrote  'History 
of  the  State  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  the 
Religion  of  Spain'  (1558,  republished  as  'Mi- 
moires  de  Francisco  de  Enzinas^  (3  vols.,  Brus- 
sels 1863).  Consult  Menendez  y  Pelayo,  <His- 
toria  de  los  Heterodoxos  espaSoIes.' 

ENZIO,  king  of  Sarxlinia :  b.  about  1220: 
d.  14  Mardi  1272.  He  was  a  natural  son  of 
Frederick  II,  the  German  Einperor,  with  whom 
he  fought  at  Cortenuova  against  the  Lombards 
in  1237.  In  1238  he  married  Adelasia,  and  was 
made  King  of  Torres  and  Gallura  and  later 
King  of  Sardinia.  In  1241  whili  in  command 
of  the  fleet  Enzio  inflicted  a  great  defeat  on  the 
Genoese.  In  the  years  following  he  added 
renown  to  his  name  by  his  exploits  in  Lombardy. 
He  laid  siejtc  to  Parma  in  1248  but  was  com- 
pelled to  withdraw;  he  next  besieged  Colonna. 
look  the  castle  of  Arola  in  1248,  but  on  26  May 
of  that  year  he  was  made  prisoner  at  Fossalta 
by  troops  of  Bologna  ana  sentenced  to  life 
imprisonment.  Consult  Blasins,  'Konig  Eniio' 
(Breslau  18S4)  and  Jordan,  'Les  origincs  de 
la  domination  angevine  en  Italie'  (Pans  1909). 

ENZOOTIC,  (n-zfi-otTk,  a  disease  which 
appears  to  have  secured  a  permanent  lodgement 
in  the  animals  of  a  region.  It  is  used  of  ani- 
mals as  the  term  endemic  is  u-jed  of  diseases 
which  affect  man  in  certain  localities. 

ENZYME  (Gr.  leavened'V  any  of  the 
imorganiicd  ferments,  such  as  diastase,  cytase, 
trypsin,  etc.,  which  induce  fermentive  changes 
in  organic  substances.  It  was  formerly  thought 
that  these  'unorganized*  ferments  might  be 
essentially  different  in  their  action  from  the  so- 


BOBAiro 8 '- BOCXHB 


407. 


called  ■ornmiei]*  ferments,  such  as  the  ytaats, 
molds  and  bacteria ;  but  it  is  now  known  that 
the  fermentive  action  of  the  *orB:aniied*  class 
is  due  cbief^,  and  jierhaps  wnolly,  to  the 
eneymes  that  they  secrete.  The  chemistry  of 
the  ensymes  is  very  imperfectly  understood. 
According  to  some  atithorities  they  act  merely 
by  catalysis,  being  capable  of  efTeetins  the  fer- 
mentive change  of  indefinite  quantities  of  the 
■dbstances  upon  which  they  act,  without  being 
themselves  used  up,  dot  exhausted  in  any  way. 
According  to  other  aotborrties,  they  are  gradu- 
ally destroyed  by  their  own  activity,  to  that  a 
definite  mass  of  any  given  enzyme  can  produce 
only  a  definite  (though  suipri singly  large) 
amount    of     fermentive    tnms  formation.    See 

FnUENTATIOH. 

Chemical  ferments,  elaborated  in  the  cells 
of  plants  and  animals  and  capable  of  bring- 
ing about  a  peculiar  series  of  biochemical 
reactions,  which  are  produced  without  the  inter- 
vention of  physical  factors  or  mineral  sub- 
Stances.  Under  some  conditions  they  have  the 
properties  of  facilitating  chemical  interchanges 
between  certain  bodies  without  entering  into  the 
composition  of  the  different  products  that  reiiult. 
Iliese  cniymes,  or  ferments,  lymases,  or  dias- 
tases, as  they  are  frequently  called,  play  an  im- 
portant role  in  Che  digestive  processes,  as  well  as 
being  of  vital  importance  in  ^e  general  life- 
history  of  nearly  all  plants.  A  knowledge  of 
enzymes  dates  bade  to  very  remote  periods.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  16ch  century  otiservations 
on  the  phenomena  of  digestion  called  attention 
to  this  class  of  bodies;  but  it  remained  for  Du- 
brunfaul  and  Pasteur  to  place  the  science  of 
fermentation  on  a  stable  basis,  Eneymes  are  for 
the  most  part  soluble  in  water,  being  thrown  out 
of  solution  by  a  large  number  of  chemical  sub- 
stances, such  as  alcohol,  tannic  acid,  etc.    They 


peroxide  and  they  act  largely  in  proportion  to 
their  quantity.  With  reference  to  their  chemical 
composition,  it  would  appear  that  they  belong 
to  the  proteid  class.  There  is  usually  a  large 
proportion  of  inorganic  salts,  particularly  cal- 
ctum  phosphate,  in  their  compositiotL  A  few, 
however,  do  not  contain  nitrogen.  Although 
closely  related  to  proteids,  they  do  not  give  pro- 
teid color- reactions.  As  to  their  formation,  it 
is  considered  by  some  that  they  are  oxidation 
M'oducls  of  albuminoid  substances,  or  zymogens. 
The  transition  of  the  zymogen  into  the  ferment 
is  termed  lymogenesis.  Destruction  of  eniymes 
is  termed  zymolysis.  As  to  the  manner  of  action 
of  this  interesting  class  of  bodies,  a  vast  variety 
of  phenomena  may  be  observed.  They  may 
bring  about  molecular  changes  either  by  hydra- 
tion or  by  oxidation.  They  appear  to  occupy  the 
position  of  intermediaries,  as  it  were.  Many 
theories  are  put  forward  in  attempting  to  ex- 
plain the  action  of  enzymes;  but  as  Ihey  pre- 
sent many  analogies  to  living  protoplasm, 
explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  their  activities 
is  almost  as  difficult  as  to  explain  the  phenomena 
of  life.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  classify 
the  various  enzymes,  but  any  classification  must 
be  of  a  transitory  character,  since  knowledge 
concerning  this  group  of  bodies  is  increasing 
daily.  The  classification  of  the  soluble  ferments 
suggested  by  Effront  is  shown  below. 

Those  etnytnes  secreted  by  plants  and  ani- 
mals in  the  course  of  their  digestive  processes, 


;rt!n,  which  breaks  up  cane-sngar 
imo  a  mixture  of  glucose  and  fructose,  diastase, 
which  has  an  analogous  action  on  starch,  ptyalin, 
found  in  the  saliva,  which  also  acts  on  starch, 
pepsin  and  trypsin,  which  decompose  proteids 
in  the  acid  medium  of  the  stomach  and  the 
alkaline  medium  of  the  intestines,  respectively, 
are  not  difficult  of  isolation,  while  almost  none 
of  the  intracellular  enzymes,  which  perform  a 
far  more  important  function  in  the  life  of  the 
animal  or  plant,  have  yet  been  isolated. 

The  enzymes  have  many  applications  in  the 

f 1.    Effront,    'Enzymes    — -*    ''^-'- 

rNew  York  19^)  ;  G 


arts.      Consult    Effront,    'En^mes^  and    Their 

Applicat) 

ubie  Per 


SOBANUS,  HeUui  or  Heutts  (Eoban 
Koch),  German  philosopher:  b.  pKibably  at 
Halgehausen  1488;  d.  1540.  He  wandered  about 
to  different  places  in  which  he  taught  and  lec- 
tured like  so  mai^  teachers  of  the  period.  He 
espoused  the  Reformation,  participated  in  the 
'Epistolsc  Obscuromm  Vironun  '  and  trans- 
lated Ecclesiastes  and  the  Psalms.  Consult  the  life 
by  Krause  (Gotha  1879). 

EOBA5ILEUS,  the  latest-known  spedes  of 
the  Uintathere  (q.v.)  fossil  in  the  Bridger  Stage 
of  the  Middle  Eocene  in  the  western  United 
States.  It  was  an  immense,  rhinoceros- like 
animal  with  a  remarkably  long  and  narrow 
head,  with  very  large,  shovel-shaped  nasal  pro- 
tuberances from  the  skull  and  long,  backward- 
curved  tusks  in  the  male. 

EOCENS,  £'6-5fn,  a  subdivision  of  geo- 
logical time.  LyeiJ  in  1833  first  used  the  term 
Eocene  (dawn  of  the  recent)  for  the  earliest 
of  his  three  subdivisions  of  the  Tertiarv.  The 
term  found  favor  quickly  since  early  Tertiary 
life  differed  greatly  from  late  Cretaceous.  To- 
ward the  close  of  Cretaceous  time,  the  sea  re- 
ceded from  a  large  part  of  North  America  and 
by  the  end  of  Eocene  time  the  continent  had 
nearly  its  present  form.  The  climate  continued 
warm,  Greenland  and  Alaska  being  temperate. 
Of  Cretaceous  animals  the  reptiles  suffered 
most,  the  ichthyosaurs,  dinosaurs  and  plesio- 
saurs  passing  away  as  well  as  many  peculiar 
mollusks.  Eocene  fishes  were  mostly  of  mod- 
ern character  (teleosts),  birds  were  more 
numerous  and  hi^v  developed  than  in  ihe 
Cretaceous  A^ ;  while  mammals  developed 
wonderfully.  True  carnivorous  mammals  ap- 
peared, as  also  the  ancestor?  of  the  horse, 
rhinoceros,  tapir,  pig  and  the  ruminants,  be- 
sides bats,  primitive  camels  and  monkeys.  A 
study  of  organic  types  indicates  that  Asia, 
North  America  and  Europe  were  connected  in 
Eocene  time;  and,  by  the  Antarctic  continent. 
South  America  and  Australia;  while  South 
America  was  separated  from  North  America, 
and  Africa  and  southern  Asia  from  Europe  and 
northern  Asia. 

The  Eocene  rocks  of  the  Altantic  border 
are  nearly  all  loose  sands  and  clays  of  ma- 
rine origin  and  contain  in  New  Jersey  beds  of 
greensand  once  of  some  economic  importance  as 
a  source  of  phosphate  of  lime  for  agricultural 
use.  TTie  rocks  of  the  Gulf  border  w^re  partly 
laid  down  in  fresh  or  brackish  water  and  partly 
in  salt  water.  They  comprise  shales,  sandstones 
and  limestones.  In  Florida  are  valuable  de- 
posits of  phosphate  rock,  and  in  Texas  are  ex- 
tensive beds  of  li^ite,  of  worlobic  site,  but 
poor  quality.    The  interior  province  for— -•;— - 


81^ 


406: 


EOHIFPUS— EOSmOPHILBS 


mostly  clays  and  sands,  were  laid  down  as 
alluvial  fans  and  cones  (q.v.),  in  bruldsh  or 
fresh  water  lakes  which  stretched,  thougji  not 
contemporaneously,  from  Mexico  to  Alaska. 
The  largest  of  these  lakes  covered  eastern  Utah 
and  western  Colorado,  and  must  have  been  450 
miles  long  and  250  miles  wide.  In  Utah  are 
lignite  deposits  of  some  importance.  In  the 
Pacific  border  province  the  Lower  Eocene 
stages  are  wanting'  and  the  epoch  is  represented 
by  a  single  series,  the  Tejon  shales  and  sand- 
stones, partly  marine  and  partly  terrestrial, 
with  workable  dcjwsits  of  lignite  ui  California 
and  Oregon.  See  Cemozoic  Esa;  Geology; 
Tertiary  System. 

EOHIPPUS,  the  earliest  known  proRenitor 
of  the  horses,  found  fossil  in  the  Lower  Eocene 
(Uinta)  formations  of  the  West,  tour-toed  and 
about  the  size  of  a  house~cat.     See  Horse. 

EOLIAN  DEPOSITS,  accumutaHons  of 
wind-blown  material.  In  some  regions,  par- 
ticularly in  deserts,  such  deposits  may  be  of 
considerable  importance.  Most  conspicuous  are 
sand  dimes,  which  occupy  large  areas  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  Sand  dunes  sometimes  be- 
come buried  and  consolidated  to  form  sand- 
Stones,  often  strongly  cross-bedded.  Loess, 
fine  wind-blown  dust,  accumulates  to  great 
thickness  in  some  regions.  Important  deposits 
are  known  along  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri 
rivers  in  the  United  States,  but  the  most  ex- 
,    tensive  loess  beds  known  are  in  China.     Buri«d 


Bermuda,  where  great  dunes  have  accumulated, 
composed  of  the  ground-up  fragments  of  shells 
from  the  beaches.  These  dunes  are  consolidated 
in  places  to  form-  limestones.  See  Dune; 
Loess  ;  Rocks, 

EOLITH,  one  of  the  rudely  chipped  pebbles, 
regarded  as  a  relic  of  the  earliest  dawn  of 
human  industry.  The  adjective  "Eolithic*  is 
sometimes  used  to  desi^iate  the  period  of 
human  histoiv  preceding  the  paleolithic  stage 
of  culture.     See  Stone  Ace. 

EOLITHIC.    Sec  Pai^lithic  Period. 

EON,  a'oh'.  or  BUDO  DE  STELLA,  also 
EON  DE  L'KTOILE,  a  religious  fanatic  of 
the  12ih  century,  born  in  Brittany.  He  clamed 
to  be  the  final  judge  of  mankind  and  derives 
his  name  from  the  pronoun  eum,  in  the  for- 
mula 'per  eum  qui  vcnturus  est  judicare  vivos 
et  mortuos.*  He  was  opposed  to  the  hierarchy 
and  sent  forth  his  followsrs  to  plunder  ecclesi- 
astical property.  He  showed  the  inconsistency 
of  his  opt>osition  to  a  hierarchy  by  putting  him- 
self at  the  head  of  a  church  and  ordaining 
bishops  and  priests.  The  Legate  Alberic  ana 
Hugh,  archbishop  of  Rouen,  were  h-s  prin- 
cipal opponents.  He  was  captured  in  IFS,  was 
tried  at  Rhcims  and,  being  considered  insane, 
escaped  execution.  However,  he  was  kept  in 
prison  for  the  remainder  of  his  lite;  numbers 
of  his  followers  perished  at  the  stake  and  his 
sect  soon  disappeared.  Consult  Doll  Inge  r, 
<Beitrai?e  lur  Scktcngeschichle  des  Mittelalters' 
(Vol.  I.  Munich  1890),  and  Lea,  H.  C,  'His- 
tory of  the  Inquisition  of  the  Middle  Ages' 
(New  York  1888,  and  subsequent  editions). 

EON  DE  BEAUMONT,  i-6A  de  bA-moA. 
Charles  Qeneviive  Lou' a  Aainute  Andri 
Timotbfod'  (calledtill  1777,  Cbevauhd'Eok), 


French  writer,  militai;  ofiioer,  diplomatist  and 
puUicist:  h.  lonnerre,  5  Oct.  1728;  d.  London. 
21  May  1810.  His  brilliant  qualities  enabled  htm 
to  act  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  world,  but  he 
gained  a  greater  notoriety  by  the  mystery  long 
kept  up  in  regard  to  his  sex.  In  1755,  by  sotne 
other  accounts  in  1757,  he  was  sent  as  envoy  on 
a  difficult  mission,  to  the  Russian  court.  Here 
he  gained  the  favor  of  the  Empress  Elicabeth, 
and  for  about  five  years  was  the  medium  of  a 
secret  correspondence  between  her  and  the  King 
of  France.  In  1762  he  went  to  London  as  sec- 
retaiy  of  a  special  legation,  under  the  Duke  de 
Nivcmais,  sent  there  for  the  puipose  of  arrang- 
ing peace  between  France  and  En^nd.  In 
April  1763  he  was  made  French  Resident 
l^mister  and  charged  d'affaires.  From  then  on, 
though  soon  ofiicially  superseded  in  his  diplo- 
matic office,  he  lived  for  years  in  London  as  a 
kind  of  informal  representative  of  his  sovereign. 
In  1777  he  returned  to  France,  but  Louis  XVI, 
for  what  reason  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
explained,  imposed  on  him  the  obligation  of 
assuming  female  attire  «od  he  now  styled  him- 
self La  Chevali^re  d'Eon.  Even  before  this, 
however,  doubts  and  discussions  as  to  his  real 
sex  had  arisen.  He  returned  to  England  in  1785. 
After  the  French  Revolution  broke  out,  he 
styled  himself  Citoyenne  Genevieve  Dion.  He 
now  attempted  to  support  himself  by  giving 
lessons  in  fencing  (still  dressed  as  a  woman), 
but  was  not  very  successful  and  deixnded  for 
subsistence  mainly  on  bis  friends.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer  and  his  works  appeared  in 
1775  under  the  title  'Loisirs  du  Chevalier 
D'Eon*  (13  vols.,  London).  He  also  wrote  the 
memoirs   of   his   life,  covering  cspeciatlv   the 

¥nrs  of  his  residence  in  ^giand,  1762-77. 
hey  have  never  been  published;  the  manu- 
script is  in  the  archives  of  the  French  Ministry 
of  Foreign  Affairs  in  Versailles.  Consult, 
Broglie,  }.  V.  A.  de,  <Le  Secret  du  Roi*  (2 
vols.,  Paris  1878;  translated  into  En^h  as 
'The  King's  Secret*  London  1879)  ;  Christie, 
R.  C,  'Selected  Essays  and  Papers'  (London 
1902);  (^aillardet,  F.,  'Memoires  sur  la 
Chevaliere  d'Eon'  (Paris  1866) ;  Ross,  O.  C.  D.. 
'The  Chevalier  d'Eon  and  Peter  the  Great's 
Will'  (in  Gentleman't  MaaasUu,  n.  s..  Vol. 
XVIII,  p.  159,  London  1877)  ;  Telfer  J.  B, 
'The  Strange  Career  of  the  Chevalier  d&m  de 
Beaumont'  (London  1885);  Vandal.  A.,  'Lnuis 
XVI  et  Elizabeth  de  Rossie'  (Paris  1882); 
Vizetelly,  E.  A.,  'The  True  Story  o£  the 
Chevalier  D'Eon,  etc>  (London  1S95), 
BOS,  c'Os.  See  AmtORA. 
EOSCORPIUS,  a  fossil  scorpion,  known  by 
its  slender  form,  hand  and  pincers.  It  in- 
cluded about  four  separate  species  and  abounded 
in  the  Carboniferous  period.  Many  fine 
specimens  have  been  uncovered  at  Mazon 
Creek,  III.    See  Scorpion. 

EOSIN.  See  Coal-Tab  Products. 
BOSINOPHILB5,  e-O-sin'o-fils,  one  of 
the  hfws  of  leucocytes  or  white  blood-ccUs 
found  in  the  circulalint;  blood  and  charactei^ 
iied  b^  its  specific  reactions  to  add  stains,  such 
as  eosme,  whence  its  name — *a  lover  of  eodne.* 
Eosinonhiles  are  present  in  the  proportion  of 
one-half  to  2  per  cent  of  the  vrfiite  b'ood- 
cellfi.  Their  increase  above  2  per  cent  it 
termed  rosmoph-lia,  and  it  has  an  important 
relationship  to  some  forms  of  parKsititm. 


BOSINOPHILIA — E0TV08 


KOSIHOPHILIA,  a  condition  in  n^iich 
theie  is  an  excess  of  eosinophile  white  blood- 
cells  in  tile  circulating  blood.  The  exact  causes 
of  eosinophiiia  are  not  thorouc^y  understood. 
But  is  seems  to  be  an  almost  constant  accom- 
ttaniment  oi  certain  diseases,  notably  o(  infec- 
tion hy  intestinal  parasites.  So  it  is  in  trichini- 
a$is,  in  anchylostomiasis  and  in  infection  by 
the  ordinary  tapeworm.  Consult  Ewing,  'Pa- 
tholouy  o'  Blood>  (1902). 

EOSTHA,  the  Teutonic  goddess  of  springt 
The  festival  ui  her  honor  is  believed  to  have 
given  its  name  to  our  Easter. 

BOTHEN,  Alexander  William  Kinglake, 
later  known  as  the  historian  of  the  Crimean 
War,  made  about  1835,  three  years  after  his 

faduation  from  Cambridge,  a  tour  through 
urkey,  Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land.  In  1844 
after  he  had  twice  rewritten  his  manuscript 
he  published  a  narrative  of  his  Eastern  experi- 
ence under  the  title  <Eathen,>  a  Greek  word 
s^ifying  ''from  the  early  dawn''  or  "from  the 
East."  In  an  interesting  preface  he  explains 
that  he  has  deliberately  avoided  the  virtues  of 
the  ordinary  book  of  travel.  What  he  has 
sought  to  impart  is  not  statistical  and  geo- 
paphical  information  but  (he  tang  and  color 
and  thrill  of  his  own  personal  impressions  amid 
those  alien  scenes  and  peoples  which  he  dis- 
covered when  he  slipped  out  at  the  back  door 
of  Euro|>e.  As  Kinglake's  impressions  were 
extraordinarily  fresh,  vivid  and  intense,  and 
as  his  style  corresponded  to  his  impressions, 
he  added  to  the  golden  treasury  of  travel  liter- 
ature an  enchanting  little  volume  which  takes 
its  place  with  'Child  Harold's  Pilgrimage,' 
'The  Bible  in  Spain,>  and  'Travels  with  a 
Donkey,'  la  reading  books  of  this  sort  one's 
interest  passes  back  and  forth  between  the 
traveler  and  the  lands  through  which  he  travels. 
Kinglake  as  he  presents  himself  is  the  typical, 
self-contained,  independent,  resolute  young 
English  gentleman,  concealing  his  occasional 
moments  of  poetical  rapture  beneath  an  im- 
perturbable exterior  and  smiling  inwardly  to 
perceive  how  his  mere  presence  and  .bearing 
extort  from  Turk  and  Bedouin  the  deference 
dae  to  a  natural  lord  of  creation  —  a  modest 
incarnation,  in  short,  of  that  spirit  which  has 
made  it  impossible  for  the  sun  to  set  on  British 
soil.  The  most  amusing  illustration  of  this 
English  spirit  is  to  be  found  in  the  29th  chap- 
ter, in  wh'ch  Kinglake  relates  how  he  and  a 
Russian  officer  forced  a  landing  at  Satalieh  in 
de&ance  of  the  quarantine  omcers,  marched 
throuf^  the  '  streets  to  the  residence  of  the 
Pasha,  entered  his  audience  chamber,  seated 
themselves  rn  the  divan  at  his  side  ana  bullied 
him  through  an  interpreter  into  open-armed 
hospitality.  Another  wonderful  chapter, 
•Cairo  and  the  Plague,*  depends  partly  for  its 
efiect  upon  the  stunning  contrast  between  the 
'wailing  pestilence- stricken  c^ty  and  the  non- 
chalant Englishman  going  about  his  business 
and  his  pleasure  unoelerred  by  the  universal 
terror  of  contagion.  Superb,  too,  as  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  traditional  _  English  reserve, 
is  his  account  of  his  meeting  in  the  desert  with 
another  solitary  Englishman  traveling  west- 
wrard  from  India,  whom  he  would  have  passed 
-with  a  silpnt  nod  but  for  the  friendly  interposi- 
tion of  their  respective  camels.  The  passages 
in  'Eothen,'  however,  which  are  unforgettable 


and  which  raise  the  terse,  brilliant,  narrative 
almost  to  the  level  of  poetry,  are  those  com- 
memorating the  not  infrequent  occasions  when 
the  magic  of  the  East  broke  througli  the  trav- 
eler's guard  and  laid  its  spell  upon  him  in  some 
lonely  bivouac  by  the  Dead  Sea,  or  in  the 
Sanctuary  of  Nazareth,  or  on  a  dromedary's 
back  in  some  sun- smitten  wilderness  of  sand, 
or  in  a  curious  throng  of  dark-eyed  Jewish 
girls,  or  when  the  sharp  vision  of  an  abandoned 
English  garden  flashed  into  memory  and  ming- 
led with  (he  splash  of  fountains  and  the  fra- 
grance of  Eastern  roses  in  some  old  garden  of 
Damascus.  Consult  Tuckweil,  'A.  W.  King- 
lake'  (1902). 

Stuakt  p.  Sherman. 
EdTVtiS,  ct'vish,  Joseph,  Baron  mv, 
Hungarian  statesman  and  antnor :  b.  Ofen,  13 
Sept.  1813;  d.  Pesth,  3  Feb.  1871.  He  was  edu- 
cated by  private  tutors,  especially  the  well- 
known  Hungarian  patriot  and  liberal  Pruzsinsky, 
who  gaineo  a  powerful  mental  influence  over 
him  and  was  primarily  responsible  for  the  lib- 
eral ideas  and  ideals  which  Eotvos  displayed 
later  in  life.  He  completed  his  studies  in  phi- 
losophy and  law  at  the  Univesity  of  Pesth  in 
1831.  Even  before  leaving  the  university  he 
prodticed  three  plays —  'Kritikusok,'  'Hiia- 
sulok'  and  'Boszu' — the  last  a  tragedy,  all  of 
which  were  well  received.  From  1832-37  he 
traveled  extensively  in  Europe  and  occupied  a 
number  of  minor  governmental  ofKces.  After 
1838  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  literature 
and  politics,  joining  the  Young' Hungarian  Re- 
form party.  In  the  same  year  he  published  an 
important  work  on  the  reform  of  prisons  (Pesth 
1838)  ;  he  became  a  friend  of  Kossuth  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  journalist  and  as  a 
speaker  in  the  Diet.  A  collection  of  his  early 
political  writings  was  published  in  Leipzig  in 
1846.  His  literary  work  of  this  period  resulted 
in  a  succession  of  novels  giving  vivid  pictures 
of  Hungarian  life  during  his  own  times  and  in 
more  remote  epochs:  "tlie  Carthusian'  (Pesth 
1838-41) ;  <A  Falu  Jegyzoie'  (Pesth  1844-J6; 
translated  into  English  as  'The  Village  Notary> 
by  O.  Wenckstem,  New  York  1850)  ;  'Hungary 
in  1S14'  (3  vols.,  Pesth  1847-48).  After  the 
March  revolution  of  1848  he  became  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction  under  Batthany,  but  the 
September  revolution  of  the  same  year  made 
him  lose  hope  in  the  cause  of  liberalism  in  his 
country  and  he  retired  to  Munich,  remaining 
in  voluntary  exile  for  three  years.  During  this 
period  he  published  several  works,  among  which 
was  'The  Influence  of  the  Ruling  Ideas  of  the 
19th  Century  on  the  Stale'  (2  vols.,  Pesth  1851- 
54),  wh^ch  is  considered  his  most  important 
work.  About  the  middle  of  1851  he  again  re- 
turned to  Hungary  and  was  made  vice-president 
of  the  Hungarian  Academy  in  1856  and  presi- 
dent in  1866.  After  his  return  he  was  a  staundi 
supporter  of  Deak  (q.v.)  and  of  h-s  efforts  to 
arrange  the  famous  A ustro- Hungarian  Compo- 
sition (Ausgleich)  of  1867.  In  that  year  he 
again  became  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in 
the  Andrassy  cabinet  From  then  on  until  his 
death  all  his  energies  were  devoted  with  con- 
siderable success  to  the  improvement  and  lib- 
era l-z^'t' on  of  the  Hungarian  school  system. 
In  1879  a  bronze  statue  by  Huszir  was  erected 
in  his  memory  at  Pesth.  A  collection  of  his 
writings  was  published  in  Pesth  in  14  volumes 


■8l^ 


(1870),  and  still  another  in  17  volumes  (1891). 
His  political  speeches  were  collected  in  two 
volumes  in  1875  and  1886.  Consult  Berzevicty, 
A.  v.,  'Baron  Josef  EStvos  als  Kulturpolitiker' 
(in  UngaHiche  Kundn:hai;  Vol.  Ill,  p.  78, 
Munich  1914) ;  Feienczi,  Z.,  'Baron  Josef 
Edtvos'  (Budapest  1903);  Ringwdd,  W., 
'Beitraee  zu  einer  Kritischen  Wiirdigung  der 
Staatslehre  des  Barons  Josef  von  Eotvos' 
(Zurich  1908). 

SflTVfiS,  Roland,  Hungarian  scientist  and 
statesman :  b.  Budapest,  27  July  1848.  He  is  a 
son  of  Joseph  Eotvos  CQv.).  He  studied  at 
Kiinigsbei^  and  Heidelberg,  receivinR  an  ap- 
pointment as  lecturer  at  Budapest  1871  and  as 

'  isor  o£  experimental  physics  there  187S, 
made  a  member  of  the  Hungarian  Acad- 


B(}TVOS  —  BPJUdlHOHDAS 


profi 
bein{ 


fary  attraction.     He  was  'made 

of  the  Hiu^arian  House  of  Magnates  and  was 

Minster    of    Public    Worship    and    Education 

1894-95. 

EOZOIC  (e-A-z&^)  BRA  (dawn  of  life), 
one  of  the  early  names  applied  to  the  Geolo^c 
Pre- Cambrian  or  Algonkian  period,  during 
which  life  first  appeared  on  the  earth.  The 
eozoic  rocks,  though  often  showing  traces  of 
or^nic  origin,  have  in  general  been  greatly 
metamorphosea  and  contain  few,  if  any,  fossils. 
Stratigraphically  they  are  separated  from  the 
Arclueau  (or  Aioic)  rocks  below  and  the  Cam- 
brian (or  earliest  Palxoioic)  rocks  above  by 
unconformities.  See  Alconkian  System;  Ge- 
ology ;  HuBONiAN  Sebies  ;  Keweenawan  SEHiaa. 

BOZOON,  e-6-i6'Sn.  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson 
(q.v.)  in  1864  described  certain  curious  aggre- 
f^tes  of  calcite  and  serpentine  in  the  Lauren- 
tian  limestone  of  the  lower  Saint  Lawrence 
Valley  as  the  remains  of  a  foraminiferan  which 
he  called  Eozoori  Canadense.  The  so-called 
fossil  was  thought  to  represent  the  earliest 
known  form  of  life  on  the  globe.  The  evi- 
dence of  organic  origin  is,  however,  not  con- 
clusive. Similar  forms  have  been  found  in 
Bavaria.  Moebius,  who  investigated  Eozoon 
thorou^ly,  concluded  that  the  serpentine  in 
the  calcite  had  infiltrated  along  a  very  regular 
system  of  fine  fissure  and  most  geolo^sts  now 
believe  that  Eozoon  is  of  inorganic  origin.  An 
extensive  literature  has  sprung  up  as  a  result 
of  this  discussion.  A  list  of  most  of  the  im- 
portant papers,  almost  all  published  in  scienti- 
fic journals  of  Europe  and  this  country  may  be 
found  in  the  biblic^raphy  of  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson, 
attached  to  a  memoir  of  his  life  by  F.  D. 
Adams  and  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Geoloftical  Society  of  America  (Vol.  II,  New 
York  1899).  Consult  Dawson,  Sir  J.  W.,  »The 
Dawn  of  Life'  (London  1875)  ;  <Review  of  the 
Evidence  for  the  Animal  Nature  of  Eozoon 
Canadense*  (i"  McGill  University  Paper,  De- 
partment of  Geology,  Nos.  1-2,  Montreal  1896) ; 
Hauer,  M.,  <Das  Eozoon  Canadense*  (2  vols., 
Leipzig  1885). 

EPACRIDACEJB,  (p-a-krT-di's?-?,  a  small 
order  of  heath-like  shrubs  or  small  trees,  usu- 
ally reckoned  as  the  Australian  sub-order  of 
Ericacea,  from  which  they  are  chiefly  distin- 
guished by  the  epiretalous  stamens  destitute  of 
the  peculiar  specializations  of  anther  dehiscence 
or  appendages.    The  flowers  are  red,  white  or 


pur^e,  ^oierally  in  leafy  spikes.  Uany  species 
are  cultivated  in  greeimouses  along  with  the 
heaths  proper.  Among  the  most  attractive  of 
these  is    £.    grandifiora,   which   has    blossoms 


A  few  species  produce  edible  berries  resembling 
the  American  huckleberry,  and  which  are  known 
as  Australian  cranberries. 

BPACTS  (Gr.  'additions'),  in  ecclesiastical 
chronology,  a  set  of  19  numbers  used  for  fixing 
the  date  of  Easter  and  other  Church  festivals, 
by  indicating  the  age  of  the  moon  at  die  be- 
ginning of  each  cfvit  year  in  the  lunar  cycle 
At  the  reformation  of  the  calendar  in  1582 
it  was  found  that  the  (Golden  Numbers  could 
no  longer  by  themselves  serve  the  purpose  of 
adjusting  the  double  reckoning  by  lunations 
and  by  the  trop'tal  or  true  year;  and  thus, 
instead  of  adopting  the  more  rational  com- 
putation, the  Roman  Church  devised  the  arti- 
ficial and  involved  method  of  epacts.  The  main 
point  to  determine  is  the  age  of  the  moon  (in 
entire  days)  at  the  beginning  of  each  civil  year, 
or  the  number  of  days  between  the  end  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  in  December  and  the  first 
January  succeeding.  Thus,  subtracting  354  days 
(12  lunations)  from  365,  we  should  have  II  days 
for  the  first  annual  epact,  then  22  for  the  year 
following,  then  3,  14,  25,  6.  17,  28.  9.  20,  1,  12, 
23,  4,  15,  26,  7,  18  and  29;  the  series  of  19 
numbers  being  obtained  in  succession  by  add- 
ing 11,  and  when  the  ^um  exceeds  30,  subtract' 
ing  that  number.  This  illustration,  however,  is 
simpler  than  any  actual  case,  by  reason  of  the 
leap-years,  which  require  12  to  be  added  for  tbc 
following  epact,  and  of  the  fact  that  no  lunation 
is  exactly  30  days  long.  When  the  lunar  ^de 
of  19  years  is  completed,  the  epacts  recur  a^in 
in  the  same  order.  In  the  Anglican  reckoning, 
as  distinguished  from  the  Roman,  it  is  note- 
worthy that  the  Gregorian  epact  for  any  year 
is  the  same  as  the  Julian  epact  for  the  year 
preceding,  owing  to  the  coincidence  diat  11, 
the  number  of  days  lost  on  the  Julian  account 
before  the  English  Parliament  adapted  the  re- 
formed calendar  (q.v.).  Is  also  the  number  of 
days  between  tbe  lunar  and  the  solar  years. 
The  epact  determines  by  subtraction  the  date  of 
the  first  new  moon  in  January;  then  by  adding 
29  and  30  alternately  tfie  successive  new  moons 
throughout  the  year  are  assi^ed  to  their  re- 
spective dates.  Consult  Clavius,  C,  'Romani 
(^lendarii  a  Gregorio  XIII  P.  M.  Restituti  £x- 
plicatio  etc,>  (Rome  1603)  ;  Butcher,  J.  G,  and 
Butcher,  S.  H.,  editors,  'The  Ecclesiastical 
C^Lendar:  Its  Theory  and  Construction*  (Dub- 
lin 1877) ;  Dc  Moigar,  A.,  'The  Book  of 
Almanacs'  (London  1871);  Seabur^,  S.,  'The 
Theory  and  Use  of  the  Church  Calendar  in 
the  Measurement  and  Distribution  of  Time* 
(New  York  1872) ;  Kennedy,  Thomas,  <Epacts' 
(in  'Catholic  Encyclopedia,*  Vol.  V,  p.  480, 
New  York  1909). 

EPAHINONDAS,  e-p^nn-Sn'dSs.  The- 
ban  general  and  statesman :  b,  about  418  B.C. : 
d.  Mantineia,  Arcadia,  Greece,  362  B.C  He 
was  distinguished  for  the  friendship  existing 
'•-' ^■~  and  Pclopidas,  whose  life  he  had 


1  385  : 


He  > 


Sparta  371  B.C.  to  represent  Thebes  in  negotiat- 
ini;;  a  peace  with  the  Athenian  envoys.  As  die 
Spartans  refused  to  recognize  Thebes  as  tlie 


SFAPH08  — BRBISOQBNIC  UOVBHSNTS 


411 


representative  of  BiBOtia,  the  Tfaebans  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  ]>cace.  Cleombrottu  was  sent 
\fy  the  Spartans  to  invade  Boeotia,  but  was  de- 
feated at  Leuctra  (371  B.C.).  chiefly  through  the 
tactics  of  Epaminondas.  Two  years  after 
Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  were  made 
Bceotarchs.  They  detached  several  nations 
from  the  alliance  of  Lacedxmon,  and  delivered 
the  Messetiians,  whose  capital  they  rebuilt. 
Epaminondas  then  marched  wi&  his  army  to 
Sparta:  but  this  city 'was  so  bravely  and  sldl- 
fully  defended  by  Agesilaus  that  the  Theban 
hero  retreaWd.  An  accusation  was  brought 
agiainst  him  on  his  arrival  in  Thebes,  because 
he  and  Pelopidas  had  kept  the  Bceotarchate  be- 
yond the  legal  time;  the  accusation  was  literally 
true,  but  the  infringement  of  the  law  was  justi- 
fied by  his  services,  and  after  having  pleaded 
his  own  cause,  he  was  acquitted.  In  368  he  com- 

C:lled  Sicypn  and  Pellene  to  relinqtuA  the 
Bcedaemonian  alliance,  and  in  the  same  year 
served  in  a  Theban  army  sent  into  Thessaly  to 
rescue  Peloptdas,  who  was  kept  a  prisoner  at 
Pberx.  In  the  following  year  he  commanded 
an  expedition  with  the  same  object  which  was 
successful.  In  362  he  was  compelled  to  make 
bead  against  a  formidable  coalition  of  states,  in- 
cluding Athens  and  Sparta.  His  tactics  were 
never  more  brilliant  and  successful  than  in  this 
campaign,  but  in  the  battle  of  Mantineia  he  was 
killed  at  the  moment  of  victory.  Consult  Col- 
croft.  J.  W.,  'Epaminondas  of  Thebes>  (in 
Dublin  University  Magatine,  Vol.  XL,  p.  34, 
Dublin  1852)  ;  Cornelius  Nepos,  'Vita  Epami- 
nondac'i  Pomtow,  L.,  'Das  Leben  des  Epami- 
nondas>  (Berlin  1870)  ;  North,  Sir  T.,  ed.  and 
trans.,  'The  Lives  of  Epaminondas^  Philip  of 
Macedonia,  etc'  (in  'Plutarch's  Lives  of  the 
Noble  .Grecians  and  Romans,'  London  1656)  ; 
Yonge,  C  M.,  <A  Book  of  Worthies'  (New 
York  1882). 

EFAPHOS,  die  son  of  Zeus  and  lo,  who, 
according  to  Ovid,  caused  Phaeton's  destruction 
by  denying  his  divine  descent  Epaphos,  ac- 
cording to  Greek  mythology,  became  me  ances- 
tor of  the  Egyptian  race  and  the  first  lord  of 
iheir  country  whither  bis  mother  had  fled  be- 
fore the  jealous  wrath  of  Hera  and  where  he 
had  been  born.  There  are  comparatively  few 
references  to  him  in  the  Greek  writers;  only 
Pindar,  JEschylus,  Euripides,  Herodotus,  Ovid 
and  a  few  less  important  writers  of  later  date 
mention  him.  Herodotus  claims  that  his  name 
was  the  Greek  equivalent  to  the  Egyptian  deity 
Apis.  Consult  Berens,  E.  M.,  *A  Handbook  of 
M^Uiology'  (New  York,  n.  d.)  ;  Gruppe,  O., 
'Griechische  Mythologie  una  Religionsge- 
schichte>  (in  'Handbuoi  der  Klassischen  AU 
tertums  wissenschaften,  etc.,'  Vol.  VH,  Munich 
1897-1903)  ;  Linforth,  I.  M.,  'Epaphos  and  the 
Egyptian  Apis'  (in  University  of  Cal'fornia 
Publications  in  Classical  Philology,  Vol.  II, 
No.  5,  Berkeley  1910). 

EPARCHY  (  firop^/o  ),  originally  the 
nanie  of  one  of  Oic  divisions  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  being  a  subdivision  of  a  diocese. 
Bom  of  these  terms  were  adopted  by  the 
Church.  Ecclesiastical  eparchies  were  under  a 
metropolitan  to  whom  the  first  Council  of  Nicaea 
(325)  gave  the  power  to  appoint  the  other 
bishops  in  his  eparchy.  Later  this  term  was 
applied  to  mean  the  diocese  of  any  bishop.  It 
is  now  in  common  use  only  in  the  Russian 


(Church,  where  it  still  applies  to  all  subdivisions 
of  the  Church  corresponding  to  the  western  dio- 
cese. There  were,  before  the  Russian  Revo- 
lution of  1917,  86  eparchies  of  which  three  were 
administered  W  metropolitans  (Kiev,  Moscow 
and  Petrograd),  14  by  archbishops  and  the  rest 
by  bishops. 

BPAULEMENT.  e-pal'ment,  in  fortifica- 
tion, a  term  originally  employed  to  denote  a 
mound  of  earth,  raised  to  protect  a  body  ot 
troops  at  the  extremity  of  their  line ;  or  a  screen 
or  rampart  erected,  as  a  sort  of  shoulder,  to 
defend  the  flank  of  a  battery  from  enfilading 
fire,  which  would  dismount  its  guns.  In  mod- 
em artillery,  the  word  is  applied  to  the  whole 
mass  of  earth,  stone  or  fascines  raised  to  pro- 
tect a  battery  both  in  front  and  at  the  flanks. 
It  is  also  used  of  the  breastwork  set  up  to  shel- 
ter reserve  artillery.    See  Foktifications. 

EPAULET,  l^'a-IEt,  an  ornamental  badge 
consisting  of  a  fringe  hanging  over  the  shotS- 
der,  worn  in  the  English  army  up  to  18SS,  and 
stilt  worn  in  the  En^ish  navy  by  all  ranks 
above  lieutenant  Epaulets  were  not  partialhr 
discarded  by  the  United  States  army  until  1872, 
vdien  none  but  general  officers  continued  to 
wear  them.  In  the  United  States  navy  the 
epaulet  is  worn  by  all  officers  above  the  rank  of 
ensign.  The  French  private  soldiers  wear  epau- 
lets oE  worsted. 

EP£S,  t-pa',  Charles  Michel,  Abb£  de  1', 
French  instructor  of  the  deaf  and  dumb :  b.  Ver- 
sailles, France,  2S  Nov.  I7l2;  d.  Paris.  23  Dec 
1789.  Taking  orders,  he  became  a  pt^acher  and 
canon  at  Troyes,  but  later  lived  in  retirement  in 
Paris.  In  1765  be  first  began  to  occuw  him- 
self with  the  education  of  two  deaf  ana  dumb 
sisters;  and,  as  he  asserted,  without  any  previ- 
ous knowledge  of  Pereira's  efforts  in  the  cause, 
invented  a  language  of  signs,  by  which  persons 
thus  afflicted  mignt  be  enabled  to  hold  inter- 
course with  their  fellow-creatures.  He  deter- 
mined to  devote  his  life  to  the  subject.  At  his 
own  expense  be  foimded  an  institution  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  which  was  first  publicly  ex-  ' 
amined  in  1771  and  from  1778  reoeived  an  an- 
nual subsi^.  It  was  not,  however,  convened 
into  a  public  institution  till  two  years  after  his 
death.  He  published  'Institution  des  Sourds 
et  Muets,  etc.*  (Paris  1774);  'Instruction  des 
Sourds  et  Muets  par  la  Voie  des  Signes  Meth- 
odiques'  (Paris  1776)  ;  'La  Veritable  Maniire 
d'instruire  les  Sourds  et  Muets'  (Paris  1784). 
Consult  Arnold,  Thomas,  'Aures  Surdis,  TTie 
Education  of  die  Deaf  and  Dumb'  (London 
1872);  Arrowsmith,  J.  P.,  'The  Art  of  In- 
structing the  Infant  Deaf  and  Dumb,  etc.' 
(London  1819);  Berthier,  F.,  'L'Abb^  de  I'Epte, 
sa  Vic,  etc'  (Paris  1852)  ;  Bouilly,  J.  N..  'The 
Deaf  and  Dumb;  or,  the  Abbe  de  I'Ep^.  An 
Historical  Play  in  Five  Acts'  (Paris  1800: 
London  1801). 

BPEIRA,  (-pi'ra,  a  genus  of  spiders,  typical 
of  the  family  of  Efeiriaie,  compnsing  some  of 
the  laigest  and  best-known  spiders,  those  build- 
ing orb-webs.  They  occur  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  are  usually  handsomely  niailced. 
Sec  ()rb-weaver;  Spider. 

EPEIROGENIC  MOVEMENTS.  These 
are  such  geological  movements  as  have  to  do 
with  the  uplift  and  depression  of  continents 
and  oceanic  basins,  as  dasttnguisbed  from  oro- 


■gk 


41B 


BPBHCEPH  ALON  —  BPHBHBias 


i,  wfaidi  form  mountain  ranges. 
fiiciT  caosea  are  only  imperfectly  understood 
Among  the  factors  which  are  thought  to  have 
played  a  part  in  inducing  them  arc  the  expan- 
sion of  strata  in  which  the  escape  of  heat  has 
been  blanketed  liy  superincumbent  deposits,  the 
weight  of  these  superincumbent  deposits,  the 
wrinkling  of  the  earth's  crust  due  to  cooling 
and  the  tidal  e&ect  of  ihe  moon  on  the  earth's 
lithosphere.  Epeirogenic  movements  are  usu- 
ally measured  from  sea-level,  but  it  is  highly 
probable  that  they  are  all  in  the  strictest  sense 
movements  of  depression,  as  there  is  strong  evi- 
dence that  ihe  radins  of  the  earth's  crust  is 
steadily  diminishing.    See  Eakih  ;  Geology. 

BPBNCEPHALON,  a  term  used  to  desig- 
nate that  part  of  the  embrionic  brain  from 
which  the  cerebellum  and  pons  Varolii  are 
formed.  In  the  fully  developed  brain  the  term 
is  used  for  that  part  containing  the  cerebellimi. 

Ems  Varolii  and  the  medulla  oblongata.    See 
RAIFT. 

BPERlBS,  ft-par'ySs  (Slovak  Pressova'), 
Htmgaiy,  an  old  town  on  the  Tanaa,  190  miles 
northeast  of  Budapest  by  rail  The  city  was 
destroyed  by  tire  in  1887.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Greek  Catholic  bishop,  and  has  a  Lutheran  col- 
lege. It  manufactures  earthen-ware,  linens  and 
woolens,  and  has  some  trade  in  com  and  Tciay 
w*ne;  in  the  vicinity  are  the  Sovar  saltworks. 
The  Refonned  Qjurch  made  great  headway 
here  and  the  city  played  a  considerable  part  in 
the  religious  wars  of  the  16tb  and  17th  century. 
It  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  "butijien'  of 
Eneries,'  when  the  Austrian  general  Carafre  in 
1687  instituted  a  series  of  Protestant  persecu- 
tions and  martyrdoms.     Pop.  1^323. 

EPERNAY,  5-pf  r-n4,  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Mame.  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  vine- 
growing  district,  19  miles  northwest  of  Chalons, 
The  earthen-ware  called  terre  de  Champagne  is 
made  in  fipemay.  It  is  an  entrepot  for  Cham- 
pagne wines,  which  arc  lopt  in  vaults  in  the 
chalk  rock  on  which  the  town  is  built.  There 
■  are  large  railway  workshops.    Fop.  21311- 

tfPESNON,  da-p3r-n6ft',  j[ean  Loids  de 
Nogaret,  Dtic  d',  French  courtier:  b.  1554;  A. 
1642.  About  1573  he  became  a  partisan  of 
Henry  III,  whose  fortunes  he  foltoTved  and 
whose  chief  favorite  he  became.  In  return  the 
king  enriched  h'm,  made  him  Duke  of  Epemon 
in  1581,  and  admiral  of  France.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Normandy  in  1587,  but 
through  (he  influence  of  the  Catholic  League 
he  was  exiled  to  Loches  in  1S88.  Henry  IV 
made  him  governor  of  Limousin  in  1596  and  he 
was  transferred  to  Guienne  in  1622.  In  the 
early  period  of  hs  ascendancy  Epernon  was  a 
defender  of  absolute  monarchy,  but  later  he 
urged  the  independence  of  the  nobility.  His 
opposition  to  the  policies  of  Cardinal  Richelieu 
caused  the  latter  to  banish  him  to  Loches  in 
1641.  Consult  the  life  by  Montbrison  (Paris 
1874). 

BPBSVIER,  The.  See  Peacock  and 
Bfervier,  Battle  of. 

BPHAH,  e'fa,  a  dry  measure  of  capaciQr 
among  Ihe  ancient  Hebrews,  corresponding  with 
the  liquid  measure  bath.  The  cphah  contained 
about  37  litres,  equal  to  about  10  gallons  of 
Ihe  United  States  or  8  gallons  Britidi.  There 
were,  however,  two  tneasures  called  ephah,  of 


which  the  above  estimate  applies  to  tile  smtlter, 
and  this  contained  about  one-tenth  less  than  the 
other.  The  ephah  had  18  cabs  or  72  logs.  Con- 
sult Nicholson,  £.,  'Men  and  Measures'  (Lon- 
don 1912). 

BPHARHONT.    See  EcoLOCv. 

EPHEDRA,  If'i-dra,  a  ^enus  of  shrubs 
used  for  decorative  purposes  m  landscape  gar- 
dening. In  general  appearance  they  resemble 
the  horsetails.  The  flowers  are  small  and  incon- 
spicuous. The  species  occur  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  but  are  not  hardy  and  need  protection 
from  frosts.  They  flourish  best  in  dry  or  rocky 
soils  and  are  easily  propagated.  Their  fruit  u 
said  to  be  mucilaginous,  eatable,  sub-acid  and 
slightly  pungent.  The  branches  and  flowers  of 
the  Asiatic  species  were  formerly  sold  as 
styptics. 

EPHBHERAj  e-fem'e-ra,  the  tvpical  genus 
of  the  insect  family  Ephemerida  (q.v.). 

BFHBMERID.S,  if-e-mer^de,  a  family 
of  neuropterOTis  insects  characteriied  by  the 
slendemess  of  their  bodies ;  the  delicacy  of  their 
wings,  which  are  erect  and  unequal,  the  anterior 
being  much  the  larger;  the  rudimentary  condi- 
tion of  the  mouth,  and  the  termination  of  the 
lO-jointed  abdomen  in  3-jointed  filiform  ap- 
pendages. The  adult  May-flies,  or  day-flies,  as 
they  are  called,  emerge  from  the  chrysaJis  cm 
the  banks  of  the  running  streams  in  which  the 
eggs  are  hatched,  and,  appearing  usually  toward 
sunset,  when  they  throng  about  street-lamps, 
lighthouses  (where  sometimes  they  obscure  the 
light)  and  the  screens  of  lighted  windows,  are 
no  less  remarkable  for  their  great  activity  than 
for  their  enormous  numbers,  and  the  brief 
period  of  their  existence.  The  eggs,  which  are 
shed  in  a  mass,  drop  into  the  water.  The 
larvas  have  elongated  depressed  bodies;  setose 
antenns,  and  long  caudal  filaments;  and  lamellar 
or  tufted  gills,  symmetrically  disused  on  either 
side  of  the  abdomen.  They  remain  in  the  water 
for  a  year  or  two  before  undergoing  further 
change,  lying  beneath  stones,  and  leadinf;  a  pre-  . 
daceous  life,  for  which  their  strong  laws  fit 
them.  The  rudiments  of  wings  mark  tne  com- 
mencement of  the  nymph  stage,  at  the  close  of 
which  they  crawl  out  of  the  water  and  cast  the 
nymph  integument.  Their  sexual  immaturity 
prior  to  the  second  molt  has  led  to  their  being 
named,  at  this  stage,  subimagos  or  pseudimagos. 
The  larvat,  which  are  very  similar  throughout 
the  family,  are  largely  used  as  bait  There  are 
many  species  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
divided  into  various  genera-  Epkemtra  and 
Canis  have  three  caudal  filaments;  Palingenia 
and  Clot  only  two,  but  the  larvx  have  three. 
The  posterior  wings  are  absent  in  Clot  and 
Cants.    Consult  books  mentioned  under  Insects. 

EPHBHERIS,  an  astronomical  ahnanac 
The  plural  Ephemerides  is  appUed  to  tables 
showing  the  places  where  the  planets  and  heav- 
enly bodies  are  found  at  noon  of  every  day.  It 
is  from  these  tables  that  eclipses,  conjunctions, 
etc.,  of  the  planets  arc  determined.  An  espe- 
cially exhaustive  and  very  carefully  compiled 
bibliograohy,  covering  some  280  columns,  is  to 
be  founa  under  the  heading  'Ephemerides'  in 
the  'Catalogue  of  Printed  Books,'  published 
by  the  British  Museum  (London  1SB7.  1902, 
etc.).  Consult  Newcomb.  S..  'Sideligbu  on 
Astronomy'  (New  York  1906).    See  Almanac 


BPHB8IACA  —  BPH^IANS 


413 


BPRSSIACA,  or  SPHBSIAN  TALES, 

a  romance  in  Greek  from  the  pen  of  Xenophon 
of  EphcsuG.  It  is  occupied  with  the  loves  of 
Abrocomas  and  Anthia,  and  is  the  primary 
source  of  the  story  of  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

BPHESIAMS,  Epistle  to  the.  Addressed 
to  "the  saints  that  are  at  [Ephesus]"  by  Paul 
the  Apostle  when  a  Roman  prisoner  (i,  I ;  iti, 
1;  iv.  1;  vi,  20),  linked  in  time  and  place  of 
composition  wilh  "Colossians'  and  *Philpmon° 
by  the  mention  of  the  same  bearers,  Tychicus 
"of  Asia"  (Acts  xjc,  '4;  Eph.  vi.  20;  Col.  iv,  7) 
and  Onesinius  of  Colossi  (Col.  iv,  9:  Philem. 
V,  12)  and  the  same  five  persons  sending  salu- 
tations <Col.  iv,  10-14;  Philem.  23-24).  As  the 
words  "at  Ephesus"  are  wanting  in  oar  oldest 
MSS-  (Sinaiticus  and  Vaticanus),  a  fact  known 
to  Origen  (AD.  186-2S4),  Basil  of  Cisarea  (329- 
379),  and  probably  to  Marcion  (ISO?)  who 
named  the  epistle  assent  to  another  city  of  Asia, 
Laodicea,  the  oci^nal  may  have  borne  the  ad- 
dress: "to  the  saints  that  are  in  Asia"  (1  Cor. 
xvi,  19;  Actixix,  10),  like  "the  saints  that  are  in 
the  whole  of  Achaia»  {2  Cor.  i  1)  so  as  to  in- 
clude the  province  as  well  as  the  capita!.  That 
■the  epistle"  which  Paul  in  Col.  iv,  16  asks  to  have 
brought  "from  Laodicea'  for  public  reading 
was  our  "Ephesians*  is  a  common  and  plausible 
conjecture.  Its  suitability  in  form  and  contents 
to  serve  thus  as  a  circular  letter  has  been  recog- 
nized since  the  lime  of  Beia  (1589)  and  Arch- 
bishop Ussher  (1673),  Personal  greetings  and 
messages,  like  those  in  Col.  iv,  10-17  (to  be 
given  orally,  Eph,  vi,  21-22),  and  controversial 
matter  like  Col.  ii,  8-23,  would  necessarily  be 
omitted.  There  would  remain,  however,  a  large 
residue  of  apostolic  teachings,  havins  vital  and 
common   significance  to  all   "the  churches   of 

Origin  and  Content.— Answering  to  their 
simultaneous  origin,  the  phenomenal  paral- 
lelism between  Colossians  and  Ephesians  in 
thought  and  diction  presents  a  psychological  and 
literary  problem  of  exceptional  interest,  as  no 
fewer  than  78  of  Ihe  155  verses  of  the  latter 
epistle  contain  phraseology  which  occurs  in  the 
former.  The  prevailing  penchant  of  the  19th 
century  for  literary  dissection,  however,  has 
failed  to  produce,  even  with  the  critical  acumen 
of  a  Holtzmann,  anything  better  than  a  com- 
plicated and  preposterously  artificial  theory  of 
secondary  imitation  and  compilation.  Here  is 
no  patched  garment^,  but  a  seamless  cobe.  In 
its  profundity,  sublmiity,  spiritual  and  ethical 
intuition  and  in  structural  symmetry,  Cole- 
ridge's eulogium  is  well-nigh  justified :  "the 
divlnest  composition  of  man.'  In  the  back- 
ground of  both  epistles  there  looms  the  august 
person  of  the  Cosmic  Christ  (Cot.  i,  14-16; 
Eph.  i,  2Z-23) ;  supreme  in  the  heavenly  realm 
(Col,  i,  16;  Eph.  i,  10-16);  vitally  and  cre- 
atively present  everywhere  in  his  Church  (Col. 
i,  6,  18-19,  27 ;  Eph.  I,  23-23}  ;  the  living  bond 
of  union  between  Jew  and  (jcntile  (Col,  i,  20; 
Eph.  i,  10;  ii,  15f) ;  the  perennial  source  of 
transcendent  spiritual  knowledge  (Col.  i,  9; 
Eph.  i.  17),  and  ethical  vigor  fCoI.  iii,  12-13; 
Ei^.  iv,  2,  32).  If  the  mood  of  Colossians  is 
that  'of  discussion,  that  of  Ephesians  is  medi- 
tation. Actual  residence  in  Rome  (Phil,  iv, 
22)  the  niline  capital  of  "all  the  world'  (Col. 
i,  6),  SMS  "the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  God" 
(Eph.  V,  5)   in  age-long  and  world-wide  per- 


spective. Calm  meditation  upon  the  cosmic  im- 
plications of  the  Gospel  message,  unvexed  by 
controversial  stress,  leaves  its  impress  upon  the 
vocabulary  and  style  of  one  who-  coula  speak 
of  having  been  "caught  up  into  Paradise'  (2  Cor. 
xii,  4).  Thus  in  i,  J-iii,  21  the  greater  elabora- 
tion of  the  conventional  epistolary  divisions  of 
Address,  Thanksgiving  and  Prayer,  fore- 
shadowed in  passoKes  like  Rom.  i,  1-15,  flowers 
forth  in  full  luxuriance,  and  in  like  manner 
the  effort  (manifest  in  Col.  ii,  8-23)  to  gain 
greater  fulness  of  expression  by  means  of 
lengthy  sentences  built  up  of  many  subordinate 
clauics,  and  the  employment  of  an  ampler  vo- 
cabulaiy,  has  freer  scope.  The  resulting  super- 
ficial aspect  of  aimless  discursiveness  is  ap- 
parent rather  than  real;  for  faith  and  love,  the 
dominant  elements  of  all  of  Paul's  Christo- 
logical  teaching,  form  the  obvious  warp  and 
woof  throughout. 

Theme.—  The  subject  of  the  er^stle  is :  The 
Reincarnation  of  the  Cosmic  Christ  in  bis 
Church  throu^  faith  (chs.  i-iii)  and  through 
love  {thi.  iv-vi).  Following  the  characteristic 
opening  salutation  of  "grace"  and  'peace"  from 
Ciod  and  Christ  (i,  1-2)  an  elaborate  Doxoiogy 
(in  place  of  the  usual  Thanksgiving)  develops 
God's  pre-mundane  plan:  the  gift  to  Jewish  and 
(jentile  believers  through  Christ  of  salvation, 
spiritual  wisdom,  faith  and  love  (i,  3~16a). 
The  Prayer,  which  forms  the  subject  of  the 
remainder  of  the  first  three  chapters,  is  for 
the  revelation  to  the  readers'  faith  of  God's 
redemptive  purpose  for  the  whole  human  race 
(i,  16b-iii,  21).  After  the  substance  of  the 
prayer  is  brieflv  introduced  in  i,  16-19,  three 
facts  are  developed  as  .stimulatinc;  to  faith : 
God's  power  already  exhibited  in  the  Head  of 
the  Church  by  his  resurrection  and  enthrone- 
ment and  reproduced  in  the  spiritual  life  of  the 
members  of  his  body,  the  Church  (i,  21-ii,  10)  ; 
in  the  spiritual  union  in  his  Church  of  the  two 
mutually  hostile  divisions  of  the  human  race 
(ii,  11-22),  and  in  the  revelations  of  divine 
power  and  grace  vouchsafed  to  the  apostle  in 
his  Gentile  ministry  (iii.  1-13).  The  way  is 
thus  prepared  for  the  triumphant  da  capo  repe- 
tition in  iii,  14-19,  with  full  organ  tones,  of 
the  initial  motif  of  i,  16-19.  The  exquisite 
summarizing  cadence  (iii,  20-21)  in  the  form 
of  a  doxoiogy,  like  the  opening  one  in  i,_  ^14, 
is  an  appeal  to  faith  such  as  appears  in  the 
whole  underlying  motive  of  i-iii.  The  com- 
plementary theme  of  chs,  iv-vi  is  love,  the 
organic  principle  of  the  life  of  God  and  (^rist 
in  his  (Thurch  (iv,  1-16)  and  a  regenerating 
and  unifying  force  in  all  of  the  believer's  social 
and  domestic  relations  (iv,  17-6,  9).  The  con- 
cluding section  (vi,  10--24)  strikes  once  more 
the  dominant  notes  of  "faith'  and  "love.'  The 
life  of  faith  in  Christ  and  God  is  shown  to  be 
the  Church's  sole  defense  against  superhuman 
spiritual  foes  (vi,  10-18).  The  closing  personal 
references,  after  bespeaking  such  a  loving  in- 
terest in  the  prayers  of  the  readers  as  the 
writer  has  for  them,  and  repeating  the  tnitiaj 
salutation  (i,  2)  of  "grace*  and  'peace*  from 
(Jod  and  Christ,  end  on  the  two  high  notes  of 
"faith"  and  *love,'  and  with  characteristic 
Pauline  stress  on  the  'greater*  (1  Cor,  xiii,  13) 
of  these. 

Bibliography v— Discussions  of  the  prob- 
lems of  authorship,  vocabulary,  style  and  re- 


V  Google 


BPIW8US  — B7H0D 


laUon  to  Colossians  may  be  found  in  New  Tes- 
Umeni  Introductions :  T.  ZaJjn  (Eng.  trans. 
1909) ;  J.  Moffalt  (1901) ;  B.  Weiss  (1897) ; 
H.  J.  Holtzmann  (lffl2)  ;  A,  Juelicher  (1904)  ; 
A.  S.  Peake  (1910) ;  F.  J.  A.  Hon  (1895)  and 
detailed  exegesis  in  the  commentaries  of  C.  J. 
Ellicott  (4th  ed..  1868)  ;  H.  A.  W.  Meyer  (Eng. 
trans.,  1880)  ;  J.  A.  Robinson  (1904)  ;  H.  von 
Soden  (HaodcommenUr,  2d  ed..  1893);  £. 
Haupt  (8th  ed,  1902). 

Marcus  D.  Bueu, 
Proftsior  of  New  Tettament  Greek  and  Ere- 
getit,  Boston  University  School  of  Theology. 
BPHS8US,  il't-s&s,  Asia  Minor,  a  Greek 
city  of  Lydia:  one  of  the  12  Ionian  cities;  near 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Cayatrus,  now  called 
Kutshuk  Mcndre,  Ephesus  is  now  represented 
by  the  village  of  Ayasolulc,  aboitt  36  miles  from 
Smyrna,  on  the  railroad  to  Aidin.  After  be- 
longing to  the  lonians,  it  fell  successively  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Lydian  and  Persian  kinKs. 
Its  importance  as  a  commercial  city  dates  chicRy 
from  the  lime  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  it 
was  the  starting  point  of  one  of  the  great  trade 
routes  into  Asia  Minor.  The  apostle  Paul  lived 
for  two  years  at  Ephesus  and  established  a 
Christian  Church  there,  to  which  he  addressed 
one  of  his  epistles.  Timothy  succeeded  Saint 
Paul,  and  Saint  John  is  said  to  have  had  chan^ 
of  the  Church  after  Timothy,  and  to  have  died 
at  Ephesus.  Its  bishop  was  the  first  of  the 
seven  to  whom  the  Apooilypse  was  addressed. 
It  was  long  famous  for  its  temple  of  Artemis 
(Diana),  called  Arlemision,  reckoned 


many  oillars,  each  60  feet  high,  and  with  numer- 
ous statues  and  paintings  by  the  most  celebrated 
Grecian  masters.  It  had  beoi  destroyed  seven 
or  eight  times'before  Pliny  wrote,  particularly 
bv  the  notorious  Herostratus,  356  B.c  The  tem- 
ple, however,  was  rebuilt  by  the  Ephesiaiis  with 
more  magnificence  than  ever,  wltose  women 
contributed  their  trinkets  to  the  general  fund 
raised  for  this'  purpose.  There  were  also  mmy 
other  temples  here,  a  theatre,  a  stadium  or  race- 
course, gymnasia,  odeum,  etc  The  site  of  die 
temple  had  become  lost  when  it  was  discovered 
by  Mr.  Wood  in  1867-69.  In  his  excavations 
be  found  that  the  building  measured  about  343 
feet  bjr  164,  and  stood  on  a  raised  platform 
measuring  418  feet  by  239.  Important  excava- 
tions have  since  been  carried  out  here  by  the 
Austrian  Archaeolc^cal  Institute  and  the 
theatre,  important  building  connected  with  the 
gymnasium,  and  a  splendid  semicircular  marble 
portico  round  the  east  side  of  the  harbor  have 
thus  been  disclosed.  In  the  double  church  of 
Saint  Mary  the  Vwvin  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
was  held  in  431.  The  Great  Mosque  or  Church 
of  Saint  John,  the  cave  of  the  Seven  Sleepers, 
and  other  interesting  objects  are  to  be  seen 
here.  Consult  Wood,  "Discoveries  in  Ancient 
Ephesus>    (1877). 

EPHESUS,  Council  of,  the  third  general 
council  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  held  at 
Enhesus  in  June  431.  principally  to  oppose  the 
heresv  of  Nestorius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
It  was  convoked  by  the  Emperor  Theodosius  11 
at  ihe  instance  of  Pope  Celestine  I  and  many 
Catholic  bishops.  Cyril,  bishoo  of  Alexandria, 
presided  on  behalf  of  Pope  Celestine  1.  The 
nu:qber  of  bishops  in  the  Council  was  about  200. 


Nestorius,  adopting  the  teachihg  of  Theodonu 
of  Uopsuetia.  demed  die  Churdi's  doctrine  of 
the  incaraalion,  and  held  that  instead  of  the 
Word  being  made  man,  be  (the  Word)  simjtiy 
had  his  special  abode  in  the  man  Jesus  Christ; 
and  that  hence  Mary  the  Virdn  was  not  inritio 
God-bearing,  mother  of  God,  but  only  jtptwrord- 
lof,  mother  of  the  Oirist  The  Council  de- 
clared that  Mar^  is  d'oriKot,  Deipara,  and  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  God  and  man.  (See  Comkuki- 
CATio).  Nestorius  was  deposed  and  excom- 
municated. It  was  not,*  however,  until  some 
^ars  afterward  that  his  supporters  acquiesced 
in  this  finding,  Nestorius  himself  was  ordered 
by  the  emperor  to  retire  to  his  monastery  near 
Antioch.  Another  Council  was  held  at  Ephesus 
—  the  "robber  synod,*  as  it  is  called  —  in 
August  449  convoked  t^  the  same  emperor  to 
deal  with  questions  of  faith  connected  with  the 
teachings  of  Theodorus  and  Nestorius.  The 
presiding  bishop,  Dioscurus  of  Alexandria,  back- 
ed by  a  rabble  of  monks,  soldiers  and  servants 
overawed  the  135  bishops,  compelling  them  to 
sign  blank  papers  on  which  he  wrote  what  de- 
crees  he  ffeased.  Consult  Bright,  W.,  'The 
Canons  of  the  First  Four  General  Councils, 
etc'  (Oxford  1892) ;  Christal,  T_  'Authorita- 
tive Christianity'  (Jersey  City,  1901);  DuBose, 
W.  P.,  <The  .Ecumenical  Councils'  fin  'Ten 
Epochs  of  Church  History,'  Vol.  Ill,  New 
York  1896)  ;  Ficker,  G.,  'Eutherius  von  Tyana, 
etc*  (Leipzig  1908)  ;  Hammond,  W.  A^  'The 
Definitions  of  Faith^  and  Canons  of  Discipline 
of  the  Six  Ecumenical  Councils'  (New  York 
1844) ;  Hefela,  K,  J.  von.  'A  History  of  the 
Councils  of  the  Church'  (Vol.  Ill,  translated 
by  C.  W.  Buch,  Edinburgh  1883) ;  Nau.  F,  and 
others,  translators,  'Nestorius.  Le  Livre 
d'Heraclide  de  Damas»  (Paris  1910)  ;  Percival, 
H.  R.,  'The  Seven  Elcumenical  Councils  of  the 
Undivided  Church,  etc'  (in  'A  Sflect  Library 
it  Nicene  and  Post-Niccne  Fathers,"  2d  Ser" 


cu.,        .kilt     ocvuJJU     jyiiuM      ui       ^^||C3U3,      tiv." 

(Dartford  1881);  Rivington,  L.,  'The  Council 
of  Ephesus  and  Anglican  Writers'  (in  Dublin 
Review,  Vols.  CX-CXI,  London  1892);  'Papal 


Supremacy  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus*  (Ibid., 
Vol.  CXVI,  London  1895). 

EPHIALTB5.  (1)  The  Malian  who  con- 
ducted the  Persians  over  a  mountain  path  and 
enabled  them  to  surprise  Leonidas  and  his 
Spartans  at  Thermopyke  with  a  rear  attack. 
(?)  The  son  of  Poseidon  and  Iphimedia. 

EPHOD,  commonly  believed  to  have  beoi 
a  species  of  vestment  woven  of  gold,  blue,  pur- 

fle,  scarlet,  and  fine  twined  linen,  worn  by  the 
ewish  high-pries  I.  According  to  Exodus 
xxviti.  6  it.  and  xxxix,  2  ff.  it  consisted  of 
two  main  pieces,  one  covering  the  back,  the 
other  the  breast  and  upper  part  of  the  body, 
fastened  together  on  the  shoulders  by  shoulder 
straps.  On  each  shoulder  was  an  ofryx  stone 
set  m  gold,  on  which  were  engraved  the  names 
of  six  tribes  according  to  their  order.  A  girdle 
or  band,  of  one  piece  with  the  ephod,  fastened  it 
to  the  body.  Just  above  the  girdle,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  ephod,  and  joined  to  it  ny  little  gokl 
chains,  rested  the  square  breastplate  or  pouch 
with  the  Urim  and  Thummim.  The  eidiod 
was  originally  intended  to  be  worn  by  the  h  gh- 
priest  exclusively,  but  a  similar  vestment  made 
of  linen  was  worn  in  later  timet  by  priests  of 


.Google 


BPHOBS— SPHHABU  3YSITS 


US 


lower  ranlt  In  more  recent  times  considerable 
discussion  has  been  earned  on  in  regiu'd  to  the 
true  nature  and  appearance  oi  the  epnod.  Some 
investigators  dtiim  that  it  was  a  shrine,  some 
that  it  was  just  a  pouch  somewhat  ou  the  order 
of  a  loin  cloth,  and  stilt  others  that  it  was  an 
instrument  of  divination.  However,  hiasmucfa 
as  all  the  evidence  on  which  these  investigations 
are  based  is  more  or  less  circumstantial  and 
indefinite  the  question  is  still  unanswered  and 
is  likely  to  remain  so.  Consult  Elborst,  H.  J., 
<Das  Ephod'  (in  Zeitschrift  fur  die  alt-teiia- 
mintliehe  mtsenschaft,  Vol.  XXX,  P-  2S9, 
Giessen  1910);  Foote,  T.  C,  'The  Ephod' 
(in  Jountat  of  Biblical  Literature,  Vol.  XXI, 
p.  1,  Boston  1S02)  i  Macklenbui^  A.,  'Ober  den 
Ephod  in  Israel*  (in  ZeiUchrffI  fUr  H'mjoiJ- 
schafthche  TheolagU,  Vol.  XLIX,  n.  F.  VoL 
XIV,  p.  433,  Leipzig  1906). 

EPHORS,  ii'oTs,  or  SPHOROI,  magis- 
trates common  to  many  ancient  Greek  com- 
munities. The  most  celebrated  were  the 
Ephoroi  of  Sparta.  The  origin  of  the  office  is 
uncertain  and  it  is  very  doubtful  that  they  were 
instituted  by  Lycurgus.  They  were  five  in  num- 
ber, and  in  historical  times  were  elected  b^  the 
people  annually,  their  authority  being  designed 
as  a  counterpoise  to  that  of  the  king  and  coun- 
cil. They  superintended  the  morals  and  domes- 
tic economy  of  the  community;  scrutiniied  the 
conduct  of  all  oIRcials,  and  even  summoned  the 
kings  before  their  tribunal.  The  judicial  au- 
thority and  executive  power  eventually  "fell 
almost  entirely  into  their  hands ;  they  became 
autocratic,  opposed  the  extension  of  popular 
privileges,  and  arousing  the  antagotiism  of  the 
kings  and  people,  were  suppressed  by  Cleomenes 
III,  the  latter  murdering  the  Ephors  225  ajc. 
After  his  fall  in  221  B.C.  the  office  was  revived, 
but  never  regained  its  influence.  There  b  a 
very  extensive  literature  on  the  subject,  almost 
entirely  in  German.  Besides  articles  in  the  vari- 
ous 'Histories  of  Greece*  (q.v.)_,  there  is  a  very 
exhaustive,    but    rather    techmcal    article    by 


V,  Stuttgart  1907).  Consult  Dum,  G.,  'Die. 
Entstehung  imd  Entwickclung  des  Spartan- 
ischen  Ephorats'  (Innsbruck  1878);  Kuchtner, 
K.,  'Entstehung  und  Ursprungliche  Bedeutung 
des  Spartanischen  Ephorates'  (Munich  1897); 
Stein,  H.  K.,  'Das  Spartanische  Ephorat  bis 
auf  (!heilDn>  (Paderborn  1S70)  ;  Stem,  E.  von, 
^  'Zur  Entstehung  and  Urspriingiischen  Bedeu- 
^  tting  des  Ephorats  in  Sparta*  (Berlin  1894). 
BPHORUS,  Greek  historian,  flourishing  in 
the  4th  century  B.C.,  from  about  400  to  330  B.C. ; 
was  born  at  Cyme,  in  Aeblis,  Asia  Minor.  Little 
is  known  conteming  his  life,  but  it  is  related 
that  he  studied  under  Isocrates  and  that  the 
latter,  after  training  him  in  rhetoric,  persuaded 
him  to  abandon  oratory  for  history,  and  that 
it  was  npon  his  suggestion  that  he  prepared  his 
universal  history,  iTiie  work  lamplai,  in  30 
volumes,  was  the  firsl  history  ever  written 
in  (^eece  and  was  remarkable  for  its  wealth 
of  material  and  also  for  the  fact  that  each  book, 
containing  a  compact  portion  of  the  histo^ 
wth  an  introduction,  was  complete  in  itself. 
The  history  deals  with  the  Greeks  (outside  of 
the  mythical  ase)  from  the  return  of  the  Hera- 
clddz  to  the  siege  of  Perinthus  (340  b.c),  cot- 
wing  a  period  o?  over  700  years.    His  style  of 


writing  was  loose  and  feeble,  well  meriting  the 
alleged  remark  of  Isocrates,  that  he  needefl  the 
spur,  as  Theopompus  the  bit.  The  history  was 
used  and  praised,  however,  by  Polybius,  Dio- 
dorus  and  Strabo.  The  main  portions  of  the 
manuscripts  have  perished,  only  a  few  frag- 
ments remaining,  which  were  published  in 
'Fragmenta     Historicorum     Grtecoriun'      (C 


Cunwei  Fragmenta,'  (Karlsruhe'  1815)  was 
edited  by  M.  Marx.  Consult  Bury,  J.  B.,  'The 
Ancient  Greek  Historians'  (New  York  1909) ; 
Schwartz,  E,  'Ephorus'  (m  Pauly-Wissowa 
'Real  Elntyktopadie  der  Klassischen  Altertums- 
wissenschaft,'  Vol.  VI,  p.  1,  Stuttgart  1907) ; 
id.,  'Die  Zeit  des  Ephoros'  (in  Hermes,  Vol, 
XUV,  p.  481,  Berlin  1909). 

EPHRAEM  SYRUS,  e'fra-em  sfriis, 
SAINT  BPHRBH,  or  BPHRAM  (the 
Syrian),  Syrian  theologian:  b,  Nisibis,  Uesopo- 
tamia,  abont  306;  d.  Edessa,  Mesopotamia,  373. 
He  lived  in  Nisibis  till  363  and  i^yed  an  im- 
portant part  in  defending  his  native  city  against 
the  various  sieges  to  which  the  Persians  sub- 
mitted it  When  the  Emperor  Jovian  gave  up 
the  town  to  the  Persians  in  363,  he,  ti^etbcr 
.with  its  other  Christian  inhabitants,  left.  He 
finally  settled  in  Edessa  where  he  continued  to 
reside  till  he  died,  except  for  intervals  which  he 
spent  in  prayer  and  meditation  in  the  desert 
and  except  for  a  journey  to  Egypt  and  a  visit 
to  Saint  Basil,  Archbishop  of  Casarea  in  C!ap- 
padocia.  He  held  hiunble  rank  in  the  hicrarcl^, 
that  of  deacon,  but  as  a  preacher  attained  hi^ 
celebrity.  He  refused  to  be  ordained  a  priest 
because  he  thought  himself  unworthy.  His 
writings  were  very  numerous,  and  many  are  ex- 
tant. He  used  a  poetic  form  in  his  homilies 
and  harai^ues;  and  Saint  Jerome  tells  us  that 
his  homilies  (translated  into  Greek,  for  he 
wrote  in  Syriac)  were  wont  to  be  reaa  in  many 
of  the  churches  of  Greece  immediately  after  the 
Scripture  lesson.  He  was  a  vahant  defender  of 
CathoKc  orthodoxy  against  the  heretics  of  his 
time — Bardesanes.  the  Gnostic,  the  Arians,  and 
the  Sabellians,  the  Manichieans  and  the  Nova- 
tions. Some  ai  his  lyrics  are  remarkable  for 
their  simplicity  and  genuine  poetic  spirit.  Even 
his  homilies  are  of  a  poetic  cast  and  form.  His 
works  have  been  collected  and  translated  into 
Latin,  Greel^  German  and  En^ish.  There  are 
also  Armenian.  Arabic,  Coptic  and  Ediiopic 
versions  of  the  original  Syriac  The  most  im- 
portant translations  and  collections,  many  of 
whidi  are  preceded  by  aecouitts  of  his  life,  arc: 
'Omnia  Opera  S.  Ewirxmi  Syri*  (G.  Vossius, 
ed.,  3  vols.,  Rwne  lSW-98)  ;  'GreA  Text  of  156 
Writings  of  Saint  Ephrem'  (El  Thwaits,  ed. 
Oxford  1709)  ;  'S.  P.  M.  Ephrwn  Syri  Opera 
Omnia  Qme  Extan  Graece,  Syriace,  et  Latine' 
(J.  S.  Assemanus  and  S.  E.  Assemanus,  ed.,  6 
vols.,  Rome  1732-46)  ;  <Ausgewahlte  Schriften 
des  Heiligen  Kirchenvaters  Ephram*  (F.  Zin- 
gerle,  ed,  6  vols.,  Inncbruck  1831-46);  'Saint 
Ephrem's  Commentaries  on  the  Epistles  of 
Saint  Paul'  (Latin  text,  Aucher,  ed.,  4  vols., 
Venice  1836)  ;  'Select  Works  of  Saint  Erfirem 
the  Syrian'  (J.  B.  Morris,  trans!.,  Oxford 
1847);  'Repentance  of  Nineveh*  (H.  Burgess, 
transl.,  London  1853) :  'Select  Metrical  Hymns 
and  Homilies,  etc,*  (H.  Burgess,  transl.,  Lon- 
don  1853) :    <S.  Ephraemi  Syri,  Rabuhe  Epis- 


Ef  aSAIH  —  BBICHARMUS 


copi    Edessent,   Bataei,    Aliorumque   Opera    Se- 


ance of  the  Gospels'  (Latin  text,  Moesinger, 
ed,  Venice  1878)  ;  'S.  Ephram  Syri  Hymnj  et 
Sermones'  (Synac  and  Latin  texts,  T.  J.  Lamy, 
ed,  Malines  1882);  <S.  Ephrsem  Syri  Com- 
mentarii  in  Epistolas  D.  Pauli,  etc'  (Venice 
1893) ;     'Fragments    of     the    Commenlary    of 


lated  into  English  from  the  Hymns  and  Homi- 
lies of  Ephraim  the  Syrian'  (J.  Gwynn,  ed.  and 
transl.,  in  'A  Select  Library  of  Nicene  and 
Posl-Nicene  Fathers.'  2d  ser.,  Vol.  XIll.  pi.  2, 
p.  112,  New  York  1898).  Consult  Alsleben, 
<Das  Leben  dcs  H.  Ephrem'  (Berlin  1853); 
Ferty,  S.,  'Saint  Ephrem,  Poete'  (Paris  1877)  ; 
Lamy,  T.  J.,  'Saint  Ephrem  Syrus'  (in  Dublin 
Re^w.  3d  ser.,  VoL  XIV,  p.  20,  London  188S). 

EPHRAIM,  e'fr4-Im,  accordinji  to  Geo. 
xli,  5<>'52,  the  younger  son  of  Joseph  and  of 
Asenath  and  the  founder  of  one  of  the  12  tribes 
of  Israel.  The  tribe  occupied  one  of  the  finest 
and  most  fruitful  territories  of  Palestine;  in 
the  very  centre  of  the  land,  and  included  the 
most  of  what  was  afterward  called  Samaria. 
Its  approximate  boundaries  were:  on  the  east 
the  river  Jordan,  on  the  west  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  the  tribe  of  Dan,  on  the  south  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin,  and  on  the  north  that  of  Manas- 
seh.  The  Ephraimites,  when  they  left  Egypt, 
sre  said  to  have  numbered  40,500,  and,  being 
numerous  and  influential,  often  appear  as  the 
representatives  of  the  10  tribes,  both  in  histor- 
ical and  prophetical  passages  of  the  scriptures. 
For  a  long  time  the  ark  and  the  tabernacle  were 
situated  at  Shiloh  in  the  heart  of  Ephraim.  The 
tribe  was  the  most  wariike  of  all  the  Israelites 
as  attested  by  their  protests  against  Gideon 
(Judges  viii,  1)  and  against  Jephthah  (Judges 
xii,  1-7)  because  they  did  not  ask  their  aid  in 
war.  Joshua,  -who  conquered  the  Holy  Land, 
and  Samuel,  the  prophet,  were  members  of  die 
tribe.  Upon  the  death  of  Saul,  the  Ephraimites, 
in  conjunction  with  all  the  other  tribes  except 
Judah,  took  part  in  the  revolt  of  Saul's  son 
Eshbaal  (Ishbosheth),  and  recognized  him  as 
legitimate  king  in  opposition  to  David  (2  Sam. 
ii,  8-9),  but  upon  his  murder,  submitted  to  the 
hegemony  of  Judah  under  David  Later,  about 
975  B.C.,  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  the  tribe 
revolted  under  Jeroboam  against  Rehoboam,  the 
3DD  of  Solomon  (I  Kings  xii,  1-^),  and  with 
all  the  tribes  except  Judah,  Simeon,  part  of 
Benjamin,  and  die  Levitcs,  merged  into  the 
northern  kingdom  of  which  they  constituted  the 
most  important  part.  There  are,  of  course,  nu- 
merous references  to  Ephraim  in  many  parts  of 
the  Old  Testament  A  list  of  these  may  be 
found  in  the  article  by  H.  W.  Hogg  in  Vol.  II 
of  Encydopadia  BihUca  (London  1901).  Con- 
sult also  English  (^ommeDtaries  on  Bible,  Old 
Testament,  Exodus. 

BPHRAIM,  town  of  Palestine,  mentioned 
in  John.xi,  54,  as  a  place  where  Jesus  took 
temporary  refuge.  A  town  of  this  name  is 
mentioned  twice  in  the  Old  Testament  and  by 
Josephus,  and  is  probably  the  same  place. 
Nothing  is  known  of  its  history.  Modem  at- 
tempts to  identify  it  with   Et-Taiyibeh,    four 


miles  northeast  of  Belting  the  ancient  Bethel,  do 
not  rest  on  any  secure  foundation  beyond  the 
fact  that  it  best  corresponds  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament description  as  "near  the  wilderness.* 

EPHRAIM  CODEX.     See  Bible. 

EPHRATA,  Pa.,  township  and  borough  in 
Lancaster  County;  on  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  Railroatl,  about  SO  miles  northwest  of 
Philadelphia.  It  is  an  agricultural  and  minmg 
region  with  forests  nearb;/.  Il  is  a  health  re- 
sort and  has  manufactories  of  cigars,  silk, 
underwear  and  hosiery.  The  borough  owns  its 
waterworks  and  electric- light  plant.  Ei^rata 
was  founded  by  Johann  Conrad  Beissel  (q.V.) 
and  bis  followers  in  1735.  The  community  es- 
tablished by  Beissel  was  called  "Order  of  the 
Solitaiv,*  and  it  resembled  somewhat  the 
Seventh- Day  Adventists.  Ephrata  contains 
several    very    ancient    and    singular    buildings, 

Earticularly  the  brother  and  sister  house.  These 
ouses  are  large  four-story  structures,  each  con- 
tains a  chapel,  and  is  divided  into  small  anart- 
ments,  so  that  six  dormitories,  barely  large 
enough  to  contain  a  cot,  a  closet,  and  hour  glass, 
surround  a  common  room  in  which  each  mess 
have  their  meals.  The  dress  of  the  brethren 
and  sisters  was  that  of  the  Franciscans  or  White 
Friars.  They  were  remarkable  for  their  rigid 
adherence  to  the  precepts  and  ordinances  of 
the  New  Testament ;  mcy  insisted  upon  the 
washing  of  the  feet  before  administering  the 
saf rament ;  and  were  very  observant  of  the 
Sabbath.  Thev  were  peaceful  and  temperate 
and  distinguished  for  their  music,  which  was 
composed  and  arranged  by  themselves.  Prior 
to  the  Revolution  they  seemed  to  flourish,  but 
now  only  a  few  of  the  order  remain.  Many  of 
the  members  were  well  educated;  Peter  Miller, 
second  prior  of  the  monastery,  translated  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  mlo  seven  lan- 
guages, at  the  request  of  Congress.  A  printing 
press  was  set  up,  and  a  number  of  works,  in 
both  English  and  German,  some  of  them  very 
beautifully  made  and  now  hi^ly  priicd,  were 
published.  Pop.  of  townships,  2,553 ;  bor- 
ou^,  3,192.  Consult  Gibbons,  'Pennsylvania 
Dutch  and  Other  Essays'  (1872);  Kuhns,  'Ger- 
man and  Swiss  Settlements  of  Colonial  Pennsj'l- 
vania' ;  Sachse,  'The  German  Sectarians  of 
Pennsylvania'   (2  vols.,  1900). 

EPHYDRA,  a  genus  of  flies,  of  the  Ephy- 
dridx,  the  e^gs  and  larve  of  which  were  con- 
sidered a  dainty  by  the  aborif^nes  of  America.  ^ 
Sec  Fly.  # 

EPIBLAST,  one  of  the  layers  in  the  de- 
veloping embryo  from  which  the  structures 
making  up  the  skin  and  its  appendages  are  de- 
veloped;    also     called    ectoderm.      See     Eii- 

BKVOLOCy. 

EPIC.    See  Namative  Poetby. 

BPICARDIUM.    See  Heaitt. 

BPICHARMUS,  Greek  philosopher  and 
comic  poet:  b.  Cos,  about  540  B.C.;  A.  450  b.c 
He  lived  at  Syracuse,  and  there  wrote  his  cele- 
brated comedies,  now  lost.  Their  number  is 
reckoned  at  52,  and  the  titles  of  35  of  tiiem 
have  been  preserved.  Very  little  is  known  def- 
initely about  his  lite.  But  it  is  said  tliat,  be- 
fore commencing  his  career  as  a  comic  poet 
which  apparently  he  did  somewhat  late  in  life. 
he  lived  at  Megara,  engaged  in  the  Study  of 
philosoiAy,  both  physical  and  metaphysical.  The 


EPICCBNB  —  EPICUREANISM 


417 


1  of  his  writings  which  are  preserved 
abound  with  philo.iophical  maKims,  and  with 
speculative  discourses.  His  Gfcnius  was  hi^ily 
esteemed  among  the  ancients  Ity  such  judges  as 
Plato  and  Cicero.  The  Sicilian  comedy  of  Epi- 
charmus,  ^rior  to  the  Attic,  grew  out  of  the 
mirees,  which  were  peculiar  to  this  island,  mak' 
ing  a  sort  of  popular  poetry.  He  arran^d  the 
separate  unconnected  scenes,  exhibited  in  the 
mimes,  into  continued  plots,  as  m  tracedy.  His 
comedies  were  long  regarded  as  mooeU  in  this 
species  of  compoaition,  and  were  as  much  dis- 
tinguished by  their  knowledge  of  human  nature 
as  by  their  wit  and  lively  dialogue.  The  Sicil- 
ian comedy,  in  opposition  to  the  Attic-Ionic,  is 
also  desi^iated  as  the  Doric  comedy  and  is 
written  without  chorus.  As  dieir  subject  mat- 
ter Epicharmus  chose  mythological  incidents 
which  he  travestied  or  characters  from  every- 
day life.  He  wrote  in  trochaic  and  anapaestic 
tetrameter.  The  best  and  most  recent  collec- 
tion of  his  fragments  is  contained  in  'Poetanim 
Grxcorum  Fragmenta'  (G.  Kaibel,  ed.  Vol. 
VI,  Berlin  1899).  Consult  Koerte.  A.,  'Die 
Griechische  Komodie*    (Leipzig  1914). 

EPICCENE,  or  THE  SILENT  WOMAN, 
a  comedy  by  Ben  Jonson,  produced  In  1609.  An 
old  man,  named  Morose,  disliking  noise  marries 
Epiccene  because  of  her  good  reputation  as  a 
good  listener  and  also  with  the  aim  of  disin- 
heriting a  nephew.  Immediately  after  marriage 
Epicceae  displays  an  exceedingly  shrewish  dis- 
position. Morose,  in  order  to  be  rid  of  her, 
secures  the  services  of  his  nephew  by  gifts  and 
■s  of  reward.     The  neiMiew  then  discloses 


EPICONTINENTAL  SEAS,  those  shal- 
low seas  ■which  cover  the  continental  shelf 
(q.v.)  and  -which  from  time  to  time  have  cov- 
ered most  parts  of  this  and  other  continents  in 
the  geologic  past.  The  term  is  in  contrast  to 
the  deep  seas  which  have  been  more  persistent 
in  their  history. 

EPICTETUS,  Stoic  philosopher:  b.  Hiera- 
polis,  Phrygia,  about  60  a.d.  He  lived  at  Rome, 
where  be  was  the  slave  of  Epaphroditus,  a 
brutal  freedman  of  Nero,  whose  abuse  and  mal- 
treatment he  bore  with  fortitude.  He  was  later 
manumitted.  Epictelus  himself  did  not  leave 
any  written  account  of  his  doctrines,  which 
appear  to  have  l>een  of  the  most  elevated  kind. 
In  his  discourses  he  aimed  to  impress  his  hearers 
•  ivith  the  love  of  practical  goodness.  The  foun- 
dation of  philosophy  he  held  to  be  the  percep- 
tion of  one's  own  weakness  and  inability  to  do 
what  is  needful.  His  doctrines  approadi  more 
nearly  to  Christiani^  than  those  of  any  of  the 
earlier  Stoics,  and  although  there  is  no  trace  in 
what  is  recorded  of  them  of  his  having  been 
directly  acquainted  with  Christian!^,  it  is  at 
least  probable  that  the  ideas  difFused  by  Chris- 
tian teachers  may  have  indirectly  influenced 
them.  The  excellence  of  bis  system  was  uni- 
versally acknowledged.  Banished  from  Rome 
by  Domitian  who  hated  him  on  account  of  his 
principles.  Epictetus  settled  in  Epirus,  and  al- 
though he  possessed  the  favor  of  Hadrian,  there 
18  no  evidence  that  he  returned  to  Rome.  His 
PU{h1  Arrian,  the  historian  of  Alexander  the 
Gt%at,  collected  his  maxims  with  affectionate 
car^  in  the  work  entitled  'Enchiridion* 
(^Handbook')  and  in  eight  books  of  'Gwimen- 

TOl.  10—17 


taries,'  four  of  which  are  lost  These  reveal 
the  simple  and  noble  earnestness  of  the  philos- 
opher's character,  as  well  as  that  real  heart- 
felt love  of  good  and  hatred  of  evil  which  is 
often  assumed  to  be  an  exclusively  Christian 
feeling.  JSee  Discourses).  Consult  the  com-. 
plete  edition  of  his  works  by  Scbenkl  (Leips^;' 
1898),  and  the  translation  by  Carter  (London 
1758),  Higginson  (2  vols.,  Boston  1890)  and 
Long  (London  1897).  Consult  also  Arnold, 
'Roman  Stoicism'  (Cambridge  1911) ;  Melcher, 
'De  Sermone  Ernctetes'  (Halle  1906) ;  Ritter 
and  Preller,  'Historia  Philosophia;  Graecte' 
(9th  ed.,  Gotha  1913). 

EPICUREAlASM.  Epicureanism  as  a 
philosophical  doctrine  has  its  rise  in  the  teach- 
ings  of  its  founder  Epicurus,  who  was  borne  in 
Samos  in  the  year  342  or  341  B.C.  He  was  the 
son  of  Neocles  and  Cluerestrata.  His  father's 
name  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  great  states- 
man Themistocles,  su^ested  to  "  the  poet 
Uenander  a  verse  in  which  he  contrasts  the  son 
of  Neocles,  who  freed  his  country  from  slaveir, 
with  him  who  freed  it  from  foolishness.  In 
his  early  life,  Epicurus  taught  in  several  schools 
in  Asia  Minor  and  in  the  year  306  came  to 
Athens,  where  he  founded  a  school  of  his  own. 
By  the  subtle  charm  of  his  personality  he  at- 
tracted to  himself  a  group  of  admiring  friends 
and  followers  who  were  not  only  devoted  to 
the  teacher  but  were  also  fired  with  enthusiastic 
zeal    for    his    teaching.     They    were   his    com-  i, 

¥inion5  and  friends  rather  than  his  pupils, 
heir  meeting  place  was  the  famous  garaen  of^ 
the  master  which  has  become  so  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  very  name  of  the  school.  After 
the  death  of  Epicurus  in  270  his  followers  car- 
ried on  bis  work  and  maintained  the  teadiings 
and  traditions  of  their  leader  with  unabated 
earnestness  and  loyalty.  Among  the  successors 
of  Epicurus,  the  most  conspicuous  perhaps  are 
Hermarchus,  Dionysius,  A^llodorus,  Zeno  and 
Pluedrus.  But  no  one  of  his  followers  achieved 
marked  distinction  until  we  come  to  the  time 
of  T.  Lucretius  Cams,  the  interpreter  and  chief 
apostle  of  Epicureanism.  Though  a  Roman,  he 
had  caught  tnat  Greek  spirit  which  had  been  so 
brilliantly  illustrated  in  Uie  garden  of  Athens. 

Epicureanism  as  a  distinct  school  flourished 
with  varying  fortunes  until  a  period  as  late  as 
the  4th_  centjjry  a.d.  With  the  decay  and  dis- 
appearance of  the  school,  its  influences  how- 
ever did  not  cease,  but  lived  on,  and  will  live' 
for  Epicureanism  represents  an  attitude  of  mind 
which  will  ever  appeal  most  strongly  to  certain 
natures,  and  in  a  way  to  all  natures.  It  is  not 
in  a  strict  sense  of  the  phrase,  a  system  of 
philosophy.  It  is  rather  a  theory  of  life.  It  is 
essentiallypractical  in  its  purposes,  methods  and 
results.  So  far,  however,  as  Epicureanism-  may 
be  called  a  system  of  philosophy,  it  falls  into 
three  parts  —  a  system  of  canonics,  ot  nature 
and  of  morality.  By  canonics  is  meant  a  system 
which  exhibits  certain  canons  or  tests  of  truth. 
With  Epicurus  the  supreme  test  of  truth. was 
to  be  found  in  the  sensations.  It  is  the  same 
thoti^t  as  that  which  is  contained  in  the  old 
adage  —  seeing  is  believing.  He  held  that  only 
the  actual  facts  of  a  sensory  experience  can 
furnish  a  scientific  basis  upon  which  lo  con- 
struct a  body  of  knowledge.  The  notions  are 
to  be  regarded  merely  as  generalized  sensation^ 
and  all  opinions  are  inferences  which  C  "~~ 


,^le 


418  £PI( 

laut  analysis  must  rest  upon  simple  sensations. 
The  sensation  as  such,  therefor*,  is  the  court 
of  last  appeal.  Concemii^  his  philosophy  of 
nature,  Epicurus  taught  that  there  were  only 
natural  causes.  Any  belief  in  supernatural  ism 
he  regarded  as  a  superstition  whicDi  only  a  weak 
intellect  could  possibly  entertain.  As  regards 
the  constitution  of  matter,  be  followed  Democ- 
ritus  in  the  essential  features  of^  his  atomic 
theory  of  the  universe.  He  did  not  follow, 
however,  with  complete  rigor  the  logic  of  his 
materialistic  conceptions,  for  be  allowed  that 
there  must  be  a  distinction  between  the  irra- 
tional, or  more  sensory  part  of  the  soul  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other,^  the  rational  part 
which  he  regarded  as  the  superior  and  con- 
trolling power  of  man's  nature.  Moreover, 
while  aeiying  the  existence  of_  the  gods,  as  gods 
of  jjrovidence  'siisSiniiig  tlie  forces  of  nature, 
ana  ruling  the  destinies  of  man,  he  nevertheless 
believed  m  their  existence  as  beings  apart  and 
wholly  separate  from  mundane  anairs.  From 
the  standpoint  of  his  ethical  system,  the  gods 
were  of  very  necessity  beings  supremely  happy, 
and  such  they  could  not  Ve,  were  they  supposed 
to  be  in  any  way  co^izant  of  the  darker  side  of 
nature  and  the  mamfold  ills  of  human  life.  Ac- 
cordinK  to  Epicurus  the  great  end  to  be  attained 
throu^  the  study  of  nature  was  to  disabuse  the 
mind  of  any  lurking  superstition  concerning 
the  possibility  of  the  supernatural. 

It  is,  however,  die  etfaical  system  of  Epicurus 
which  is  the  heart  of  his  teaching,  and  it  is 
this  system  that  the  term  Epicureanism  usually 
suggests  to  one's  mind.  With  Epicurus  mans 
chief  end  is  the  attainment  of  pleasure,— not  in 
the  sense,  however,  that  life  is  a  heedless  .pur- 
suit of  pleasure  here,  there  and  everywhere. 
The  end  is  pleasure,  not  pleasures.  The  supreme 
pleasurei  the  constant  source  of  all  other  pleas- 
ures, is  the,  tranquil  and  happy  mind.  In  plac- 
ing the  true  source  of  pleasure  within,  Epicurus 
here  differs  from  the  earlier  C^renaic  who  re- 
garded man's  happiness  as  consisting  in  the  full 
round  of  delights,  the  sum  total  of  all  his  actual 
enjoyments.  Epicurus  taught  that  mere  bodily 
pleasures  were  not  an  end  in  themselves,  but 
only  as  they  minister  to  peace  of  mind.  Vio- 
lent excesses  disturb,  extreme  asceticism  tor- 
ments the  inner  spirit  of  man.  Therefore  be 
not  too  indulgent,  nor  too  rigorous  with  self. 
Study  to  attain  the  maximum  of  enjoyntcnt 
with  the  minimum  of  distress.  Let  a  wise 
prudence  transmute  both  the  good  and  the 
evil  of  life  into  a  tranquillity  of  soul.  In  this 
conception  of  conduct,  virtue  is  never  an  end 
in  itself.  It  is  always  a  means  to  an  end.  The 
end  is  happiness  and  so  far  as  a  life  of  virtue 
contributes  to  well-being,  so  far  only  is  it  to  be 
commended. 

We  find  in  Epicureanism  and  in  Stoicism 
alike,  the  common  endeavor  to  free  man  from 
the  dominion  of  circumstance,  and  to  establish 
an  inner  world  of  mind  wholly  independent  of 
the  outer  world  of  chance  events,  of  untoward 
influences,  of  hostile  forces  and  fleetinft  delights. 
The  Stoic,  however,  urged  the  repression  of  all 
desire;  the  Epicurean,  on  the  other  hand,  urged 
its  wise  regulation.  As  Epicurus  himself  puts 
it,  *It  is  not  an  unbroken  succession  of  drinfanc 
feasts  and  of  revelry,  not  the  pleasures  of 
sexual  love,  nor  the  enjoyment  of  the  fish  and 
Other  delicacies  of  a  si>lendid  taUe,  which  pro- 
duce a  pleasant  life,  it    is    sober    reasoning. 


searching  out  the  reasons  for  every  dxHCe  and 
avoidance,  and  banishing  those  beliefs  throudi 
which  greatest  tumults  take  possession  of  the 
soul.  Of  all  this,  the  beginning  and  the  great- 
est good  is  prudence.  Wherefore  prudence  is 
a  more  precious  thing  even  than  i^iilosophjr: 
from  it  grow  all  the  other  virtues, —  for,  it 
teaches  that  we  cannot  lead  a  life  of  pleasure 
which  is  not  also  a  life  of  prudence,  honor  and 
justice,  nor  lead  a  life  of  prudence,  honor  and 
justice  which  is  not  also  a  life  of  pleasure.  For 
the  virtues  have  grown  into  one  with  a  pleasant 
life,  and  a  pleasant  life  is  inseparable  from 
them."  In  dealing  with  the  fear  of  death 
Epicurus  proved  that  the  dissolution  of  the  body 
involves  ttiat  of  the  soul,  and  therefore  death  is 
nothing  to  us,  because  when  we  are,  death  is 
not-  and  when  death  is,  we  are  not. 

Bibliography.— Asener,  'Epicurea'  (Leip- 
lig  1887);  Cassel,  'Epikur  der  PhilOBoph> 
(Berlin  1892) ;  Geodcckemever,  'Epicurus' 
Verhaltnis  zu  Demokrit  in  der  naturphilosophie* 
(Strassburg  1897)  ;  Gizycki,  'Ueber  das  Leben 
und  die  Moralphilosophie  des  Epicurus*  (Halle 
1379) ;  Gomperzj  'Herculanische  Studien^ 
(Leipiig  1866) ;  Guyan,  <La  Monde  d'Epicure' 
C3d  edT,  Pans  Ifflb) ;  Joyau,  'Epicure'  fib. 
1910):  Kreibi&  'Epicurus'  (Vienna  1886); 
Lange,  'History  of  Materialism'  (Boston  1886); 
Pater,  W.,  'Marius  the  Epicurean'  (latest  ed., 
2  vols..  New  York  1913)  :  Santayana,  'Three 
Philosophical  Poets'  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1910); 
Taylor,  'Epicurus'  (London  1911) ;  Trczza, 
'Epicuro    e   I'Epicureismo'     (Florence    1877); 


President 

EPICURUS,  ip-I-ku'rus,  Greek  philoso- 
pher: b.  Samoa  341  b.c;  d.  Athens  270  b.c  He 
went  to  Athens  323  B.C.,  where  he  b  said  to  have 
enjoved  the  instructions  of  Xeoocrates,  then  at 
the  head  of  the  Academy,  but  this  he  himself 
does  not  admit.  Epicurus  generally  denied  his 
obligations  to  other  philosophers.  Although 
some  parts  of  his  system  are  evidently  borrowed 
from  bis  predecessors,  he  claimed  to  be  self- 
instructed,  and  treated  his  teachers  with  hos- 
tility and  contempt.  His  stay  at  Athens,  how- 
ever, was  brief;  and  on  leaving  it  he  went  to 
Colojibon,  where  his  father  was  engaged  in 
teaching,  and  began  himself  to  give  lessons  in 
grammar.  It  was  here,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts, that  his  attention  was  first  turned  to  j 
philosophy.  He  himself  says  he  began  his  philo-  * 
sophical  studies  at  the  age  of  14,  but  they  ma» 
have  subsequently  taken  a  more  distinct  devel' 
opment.  The  inability  of  the  grammarians  to 
explain  a  passage  atwut  Giaos  and  the  acd- 
dentat  possession  of  a  copy  of  the  works  of 
Demoerilus  are  variously  assigned  as  the  cause 
of  this  new  or  more  decided  direction  of  his 
mind.  From  Colophon  he  went  to  Mytilene  and 
Lampsacus,  where  he  engaged  In  teaching  phi- 
losophy. He  returned  to  Athens  in  306  and  pur- 
chased a  garden  in  a  favorable  situation,  where  he 
established  a  philosophical  school.  Here  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  except  for  short  visits 
to  Asia  Minor.  His  mode  of  life  anicars  to 
have  been  simple  and  temperate.  He  abstained, 
as  a  princi^e,  from  politics,  and  took  no  part 
in  public  affairs.  During  the  latter  part  of  bis 
life  he  was  afflicted  with  severe  physical  snficr- 
tug  which  was  borne  with  heroic  coui«ge^ 


RHCTCLB  —  BPIDKHIOLOCT 


419 


Epicanu  waa  a  very  volominoas  writer.  He, 
wrote  some  300  separate  treatises.  His  works, 
howerer,  are  represented  as  full  of  repetitions 
and  quotations.  In  ancient  times  his  i)hi1osoptiy 
appears  to  have  been  more  popular  in  Greece 
iaan  in  Rome,  althot^  his  disciples  were 
nmnerous  in  both.  This  is  easily  comprehended, 
as  it  waa  in  fact  a  system  engendered  by  the  de- 
cline of  public  virtue  in  Greece,  while  the  sever- 
est  stQfc^  philosophy  was  better  adapted  to  the 
stilTacGve  public  spirit  of  Rome.  Litlte'is  left 
of  his  numerous  writings.  Some  fragments  of 
a  'Treatise  on  Nature,'  which  is  linown  to  have 
consisted  of  37  parts,  were  found  at  Hercula- 
neum  and  publiuied  fay  J.  C.  Orellius  (Leiptig 
1818).  All  other  fragments  have  been  pub^ 
lished  by  H,  Usener  in  his  'Epicurea*  (Leipiig 
1887).  The  chief  account  of  his  philosophy  is 
contained  in  the  great  poem  of  Lucretius,  <De 
Rerum  Natura,'  one  of  the  masterineces  of 
Roman  literature.  A  good  edition  of  the  latter 
is  that  by  W.  A.  Merrill  (New  York  1907). 
There  is  also  a  translation  by  H.  A.  J. 
Munro  (London  1908).  Consult  'Epicurus  and 
His  Sa^ngs '  ( in  Quarterly  Review,  Vol. 
CLXXXV,  p.  68,  London  1897J  ;  'Epicur 
■        '  Rtt ' 


.  Vol. 


LV,  p.  ML  L 
Lucretius'  (in  WeslmimUr  Review,  n.  . 
LXI,  p.  299,  London  1SS2) ;  Du  Rondel,  J.,  'La 
Vie  d'Epicure'  (La  Haye  1686):  Gaasend,  P., 
'De  Vita  et  Moribus  Epicuri>  (1547);  Girard, 
i.j  'Etudes  sur  la  Poisie  Grecque,'  etc.  (Paris 
18B4)  ;  Gompen  T.,  'Greek  Thinkers'  (4  vols, 
London  1901-12);  Guyau,  M.,  <La  Morale 
d'Epicure'  (Paris  1881);  Hicks,  R.  D.,  'Stoic 
and  Epicurean'  (New  York  1910);  Kreibig,  \., 
'Epikur'  (Leipzig  1886) ;  Reale  Accademia 
Ercolanese    di    Arcbeologia,    'Herculanensium 


Voluminum  Qua  Siipersunt'  (11  vols.,  Naples 
1793-1857) ;  Taylor,  A.  E.,  <Epicurua>  (New 
York    1911);     Wallace.    W.,     'Epicureanism' 


(London  1880). 

EPICYCLE,  in  ancient  astronomer,  a  small 
circle  supposed  to  move  roiutd  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  larger,  a  hypothetical  mode  of  repre- 
senting the  apparent  motion  of  the  planets, 
which  were  supposed  to  have  such  a  motion 
round  the  circumference  of  a  lar^  circle,  called 
the  deferent,  having  the  earth  in  its  centre.  See 
AsTsoMouy. 

EPICYCLOID,  in  geometry,  is  a  curve 
generated  by  a  point  in  one  circle,  which  rolls 
on  the  convexity  of  the  circumference  of  an- 
, Other  circle.  If  the  rolling  circle  is  inside  the 
fixed  circle  the  curve  generated  is  a  hypocycloid. 
The  common  cycloid  is  generated  by  a  point  in 
a  cirele  that  rolls  along  a  ri^t  line.  The  latter 
has  sometimes  been  assimilated  with  the  former 
by  considering  the  right  line  as  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  infinite.  The 
invention  of  epicycloids  b  ascribed  to  Roemer, 
the  Danish  astronomer.  See  Geohetry, 
,  EPICYCLOtDAL  WHEEL,  a  wheel  or 
ring  fixed  Co  a  frameworl^  toothed  on  its  inner 
side  and  having  in  gear  with  it  another  toothed 
wheel  of  half  the  diameter  of  the  first,  fitted 
so  3S  to  revolve  about  the  centre  of  the  latter. 
As  the  inner  wheel  revolves  a  point  on  its 
periphery  will  oscillate  in  a  straight  line.  It  is 
used  for  converting  circular  into  alternate  mo- 
tion, or  alternate  into  circular. 

EPIDAHNU8.    See  Durazzo. 


pie,  pro 
by  43  f 


BPIDAURUS,  £plda'rit5,  one  of  the  most 
imf|ortant  towns  and  commercial  seaports  of 
ancioit  Greece,  situated  in  Argolis,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  Peloponnesus,  particularly  cele- 
brated for  its  magmficenl  temple  of  .£scnlapins, 
which  stood  on  an  eminence  eight  miles  west 
of  the  town.  An  inscription  over  the  entrance 
declared  it  to  be  open,  only  to  pure  souls. 
Crowds  of  invalids  resorted  to  the  place  in 
hopes  of  obtaining  a  cure  from  the  beneficent 
divinity,  in  whose  honor  festivals  were  cde- 
brated  yearly.  It  received  its  name  from  ^i- 
daums,  a  son  of  Argus  and  Evadne.  Excava- 
tions made  by  the  Greek  Arclueological  Society 
'  broiwht  to  light  ^ts  of  Tholos;  a  tem- 
robably  that  of  fsculapius,  81  feet  long 
_  ,  feet  wide;  the  theatre,  which  is  the  most 
perfect  example  of  Greek  theatre  in  eustence; 
stadia,  baths,  gymnasia  and  hospital.  Epidaurus 
is  now  called  Pidavro,  or  Edidairo,  and  is  the 
place  where  in  1821  die  first  Greek  Consresa 
assembled.  The  modem  town  contains  about 
100  inhabitants.  Consult  Caton,  'Epidaurus* 
(1900);  Diehi,  'Excursions  in  Greece'  (1893): 
Delfrasse  and  Uchat.  'Epidaure'  0695); 
Gardner,  'New  Chapter  in  Greek  History' 
(1892). 

KPIDBHIC.    See  EpimmoLocY. 

EPIDEMIC  CEREBROSPINAL  MEH- 
IHGITIS.    See  Meningitis. 

EPIDEMIOLOGY,  the  study  of  epidemics 
or  the  science  that  treats  of  those  diseases  that 
are  known  to  attack  a  number  of  persons  at 
the  same  time  ot  in  close  succession.  The  es- 
sential  feature  is  that  epidemic  diseases  belong 
to  a  group  of  infective  or  microparasitic  mala- 
dies which  have  the  common  property  of 
spreading  from  time  to  time  in  a  community.  It 
is  well  known  that  many  diseases  of  an  epidemic 
character  have  their  favorite  haunts.  In  such 
places  they  are  alwa^  present  and  there  they 
are  said  to  be  endemic.  It  is  only  when  they 
appear  in  large  numbers  of  people  in  their  fa- 
vorite habitats  thai  lhey_  assume  epidemic  pro- 
portions. Thus  there  is  little  distinction  between 
the  two  classes  of  disease,  since  the  same  dis- 
ease may  be  at  one  time  both  endemic  and  epi- 
demic. When  an  epidemic  disease,  for  instance, 
influenza,  spreads  the  entire  world  over,  the 
word  pandemic  is  applied.  The  essential  feature 
in  an  epidemic  disease  is  that  it  must  have  a 
definite  contaginm.  The  contagia  may  be  either 
of  bacterial  or  protoioan  character.  Thus 
cholera,  dysentery,  the  plague  are  caused,  as 
Li  known,  by  bacteria  which,  tieing  carried  in  the 
ordinary  paths  of  commerce,  or  Dy  bodies  of  a 
moving  population,  are  spread  about  the  world. 
Occasionally  epidemic  disease  is  due  to  an  ani- 
mal parasite.  This  is  presumed  to  be  the  case 
in  yellow  fever,  and  is  known  to  be  true  of 
malaria.  In  malaria,  as  is  now  positively  demon- 
strated^ the  agent  that  is  all-important  in  the 
Spreading  of  the  disease  is  one  genus  of  mos- 
jnito,  Anopheles.  The  parasite  lives  normally 
m  the  human  body  and  is  conveyed  by  means 
of  the  blood  into  the  mosquito,  where  it  under- 
sea a  special  cycle  of  development,  until  it  is 
inoculated  into  another  human  being,  who  de- 
velops the  disease. 

The  Importation  of  epidemic  and  parasitic 
disease  from  Africa  and  Asia  is  now  urged  as 
a  reason  for  extreme  precaution  in  the  contact 
of  whites  with  alien  races.    The  importation  of 


,^le 


490 


EPIDKNDRUH  —  BPiaSHSSIS 


such  diseases  from  Africa  is  now  considered  to 
have  contributed  materially  to  the  downfall 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  negroes,  according 
to  recent  investigation,  are  responsible  for  the 
introduction  into  the  Southern  States  of  ma- 
larial fever,  which  they  brought  in  their  blood 
from  Africa,  and  to  which,  themselves  immnne, 
the  whites  fell  victims.  Similarly  the  American 
negroes,  according  to  a  discovery  made  by  Dr. 
Stiles  in  \902,  carry  in  their  intestines  the  virus 
of  hoolcworm  with  relatively  slight  discomfort; 
but  not  so  the  white  population;   and   to  this 


Southern  whites.  Cholera,  bubonic  plaf^ie, 
^rpbus  and  smallpox  have  all  had  their  ongin 
in  Asia. 

Further,  it  may  be  said  that  the  essential 
features  for  the  development  of  epidemic  ctm- 
ditions  arc  (1)  A  virus ;  (2)  a  susceptible  popU' 
lation;  (3)  free  intercommunication  between 
the  sick  and  the  susceptible.  In  the  group  in 
which  the  animal  parasites  belong  there  must 
be  (1)  A  virus;  (2)  a  breeding-place  outside 
of  n  —  '  '  ■ 


place  and  (5) 


....  r  a  Ml 
disease  who  travels  from  place  to  pi 
a  susceptible  population.  It  is  well  known  that 
variation  in  the  susceptibility  of  populations  is 
a  very  important  element  in  the  consideration 
of  epidemics.  Thus  measles,  whooping-coueh, 
diphtheria  and  similar  affections  ravaged  Ha- 
waiian (formerly  Sandwich)  Islands  with  a 
fierceness  and  mortality  unknown  to  modem 
times.  Seasonal  movements,  sectional  fluctua- 
tions, time  fluctuations  and  oscillations  are  in- 
teresting features  in  the  stud;  of  epidemics.  By 
some  writers  the  word  epidemic  is  very  loosely 
used  to  indicate  certain  waves  of  mental  excita- 
tion which  have  caused  and  still  cause  mental 
Storms  throughout  the  community,  as  the  danc- 
ing mania  and  similar  occurrences.  These  can- 
not be  spoken  of  as  epidemics  in  the  true  sense 
unless  one  wishes  to  use  the  broad  term  of 
•emotional  contagion."  Some  of  the  most  inter- 
esting epidemics  of  modern  years  have  been  tlie 
influenza  epidemic  of  1890,  which- traveled  round 
the  world  in  from  three  to  four  years,  and  the 
plague  epidemic  that  was  raging  from  1895  to 
19(E,  slowly  traveling  over  the  habitable  globe. 
There  have  been  no  severe  extensive  epidemics 
in  the  United  States,  save  the  epidemic  of  in- 
fluenza, for  a  great  many  years,  and  in  civilized 
countries  at  the  present  time  the  chances  for  the 
spreading  of  more  severe  epidemics  are  greatly 
lessened  by  the  application  of  the  laws  of 
modem  hygiene  as  well  as  by  procedures  arising 
from  the  newly  acquired  knowledge  concerning 
immunity.  The  time  does  not  seem  far  distant 
when  immunity  from  tnany  forms  of  infectious 


^idemics  in  Great  Britain  from  664  A.D.  to  the 
£jttinction  of  the  Plague'  (2  vols.,  Cambridge 
1891-94);  Hecker,  'Epidemics  of  the  Midtfle 
Ages'  (trans,  by  Babinglon,  2  vols.,  London 
1835) ;  Hirsch,  'The  Geographical  Distribution 


American  orchids,  most  of  the  species  of  « 

are  epiphytic,  growit^  on  trees.  There  are  up- 
ward of  500  species  in  South  America  alooe^ 
The  stems  develop  meudo-bulbs,  the  leaves  are 
str^>-sha4ied  and  leathery  and  the  flowers  are 
single  or  in  spikes,  panicles  or  racemes.  The 
flowers  of  some  spedes  arc  very  handsome  and 
a  large  number  of  the  species  are  in  cultivation. 
Two  of  the  finest  cultivated  species  arc  the  Mex- 
ican plants  E.  nemorait  and  £.  vittUinmm,  the 
former  with  rose-colored  and  the  latter  with 
orangC'Calored  flowers.  The  plants  are  mudt 
used  in  hybridization,  as  they  are  hardy  and 
rigorous,  and  are  valuable  for  crossing  with  the 
less  hardy  species  of  other  genera,  the  result 
being  in  many  cases  long-stemmed  flowers  of 
fine  appearance. 


BPIDIDYHIS,  an  organ  lying  beside  the 
testicle  and  transmitting  the  semen  to  the 
vas  deferens.    See  Testicle. 

EPIDIDYMITIS,  inflammation  of  the 
epididymis,  resulting  in  pain,  redness,  heat  and 
swelling  of  the  testicle,  with  general  constitu- 
tional malaise.  Treatment  consists  in  rest  in 
bed  and  soothing  applications. 

EPIDOTE,  a  common  mineral,  usually  yel- 
lowish-green in  color,  and  crystalliring  in  pris- 
matic forms  belonging  to  the  monodinic  sys- 
tem. It  is  a  silicate  of  calcium,  iron  and  alumi- 
num, with  the  general  formula  HCai(AI,  Fe)^h 
Oh,  the  ratio  of  the  aluminum  to  the  iron  vary- 
ing, in  different  specimens,  from  6:1  to  3:2.  Its 
hardness  is  from  6  to  7  and  its  specific  gravity 
is  about  3.4.  Epidote  occurs  throughout  the 
world.  Fine  crystals  are  found  in  France,  the 
Tyrol,  Haddam,  Conn.,  Calumet,  Colo.,  and 
Alaska,  The  epidote  group  contains,  in  ad- 
dition to  epidote  proper,  the  minerals  piedmou- 
tite  and  allanite,  which  resemble  it  in  general 
nature  but  contain  manganese  and  cerium  re- 
spectively; and  also  the  calcium  epidote,  zoisite, 
which  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhorabic  system.  ■ 

EPIG.SA,  ep-i-je'a.   See  Arbutus,  TRAiuNa 

EPIGASTRIUM,  the  upper  fore  part  of 
the  abdomen,  reaching  from  the  pit  of  the  stom- 
ach to  an  imaginary  line  above  the  umbilicus 
(navel)  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  the  one 
extremity  of  the  last  false  rib,  on  one  side,  to 
the  corresponding  point  on  the  other. 

EPIGENE,  a  term  applied  to  those  geo- 
logical  agents   of   change   which   affect   chiefly* 
the  superficial  portions  of  the  earth's  crust,  as 
the  atmosphere,  water,  plants  and  animals. 

EPIGENESIS.  ep-I-jin'i^sis,  in  bioloer, 
the  develoinnent  of  the  animal  frcnn  the  stm^e 
protoplasm  of  the  egg.  This  teim  therefore 
expresses  the  theory  and  process  of  embryology 
as  now  understood,  and  is  omoied  to  the  pre- 
vailing theory,  previous  to  the  researches  of 
Harvey,  and  especially  of  Wolff  and  Von  Baer, 
whitji  was  then  known  as  the  emboitment  the- 
ory, an  account  of  which  is  given  under  Pbe- 
FOBMATioN.    See  also  Embkyology. 

In  physiology  the  supposed  production  in 
organized  beings  of  or  additional  formations  by 
means  of  new  vital  influences,  as  opposed  to  die 
idea  that  new  parts  are  simply  the  result  of  de- 
velopments or  changes  in  pre-existing  stmc- 


,,  Google 


BPIOBNBTIC  —EPIGRAM 


401 


EPIGBNBTIC.     See  STNGENBnc. 

EPIGLOTTIS,  the  cartilaKC  at  the  root  of 
the  tongue  forming  a  valve  wmch  partly  closes 
the  aperture  of  the  larynx  (q.v.)  during  the 
process  at  swallowing.  When  respiratton  takes 
place  the  epiglottis  is  vertical  but  falls  back  and 
covers  the  larynx  on  the  approach  of  food.  Any 
portion  of  food,  however  minute,  entering  the 
sensitive  larynx,  causes  distress  and  is  auto- 
matically ejected  by  a.  spasm  of  coug^ng. 

EPIGONI,  a  name  given  in  Greek  legend  to 
the  sons  of  the  seven  Greek  chiefs  who  con- 
ducted the  expedition  against  Thebes  in  the 
war  between  Eteocles  and  Polynices.  The 
name  literally  means  descendants,  successors 
or  heirs,  and  the  second  expedition  in  command 
of  the  sons  to  avenge  the  first  disastrous  defeat 
was  thus  called  the  'war  of  the  epigoni.*  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  students  who  attempt  to 
develop  the  ideas  of  the  great  masters  of  a  pre- 

BPIGRAM.  The  Gredc  nouD  from  which 
the  word  epigram  comes  was  originally  used 
to  denote  a  prose  inscription  on  a  temple,  tomh, 
statue,  votive- offering  to  a  god  or  the  like. 
Condseness  and  brevity  were,  therefore,  essen- 
tial qualities.  To  give  pleasure  lo  the  ear  and 
help  the  memory,  the  Greeks  next  chose  some 
poetic  form  for  them,  preferably  the  elegiac 
distich.  Their  use  far  practical  purposes  even- 
tually suggested  their  composition  as  a  form  of 
literature,  with  suhject  matter  sometimes  wholly 
imaginary.  These  poems  now  often  embraced 
several  oistichs,  and  appeared  in  other  metres, 
but  continued  to  be  ordinarily  of  a  simple,  ex- 
pository or  descriptive  nature.  In  the  Alexan- 
drine period^  however,  when  poets  affected  al- 
most exclusively  short  but  highly  elaborate 
poems,  epigram  lost  much  in  simplicity  while  at- 
taining its  highest  popularity  among  the  Greeks, 
lis  composition  had  become  the  pastime,  and 
even  the  serious  ambition,  of  authors  of  first 
rank,  and  its  recitation  and  improvisation  one 
of  the  favorite  entertainments  at  symposia  and 
other  social  gatherings.  Collections  of  epi- 
graphicat  epigrams  were  made.  Meleager  of 
Gaaara  followed  these  early  in  the  1st  century 
B.C.  with  his  'Garland'  of  literary  epigrams,  the 
prototype  of  our  Greek  Anthology  or  'Bouquet 
of  Flowers.*  This  numbers  about  4,500  poems 
by  over  300  writers  in  two  collections,  the  Pahi- 
tme  Anthrology  of  Constantinus  Cephalas 
(early  lOth  a.d.),  and  that  which  Ptanudes 
made  four  centuries  later,  supplying  important 
additions.  These  collections  with  countless 
poetical  inscriptions  found  in  modern  times  con- 
stitute for  us  Greek  epigrammatic  literature. 
The  Greek  Anthology  not  only  throws  valuable 
Hght  on  human  life  from  the  time  of  the  Per- 
sian wars  to  the  age  of  the  Bycantine  collectors, 
but  through  widespread  translation  and  imita- 
tion has  deeply  affected  modern  languages  and 
thought.  For  the  names  of  the  prominent  writ- 
ers and  a  characterization  of  their  work  see  the 
special  article  •Anthology.*  As  a  literary  genre 
imported  from  the  Greeks,  epigram  enters  Latiti 
literature  with  Ennius,  but  as  an  inscriptional 
poem  much  earlier.  Latin  is  peculiarly  adapted 
to  a  lapidary,  epigrammatic  style,  and  certain 
racial  characteristics,  in  particular  their  devo- 
tion to  the  practical,  made  the  Romans  natu- 


ralize Ais  spedes  of  poetry  at  once.  At  first 
they  modeled  after  the  Greeks,  and  we  have  a 
few  specimens  of  the  erotic  epigram  as  the  Alex- 
andrines wrote  it.  By  Cicero's  time  most  of 
the  literary  men  of  importance  were  writing 
epigram,  and  its  value  as  a  political  weapon  was 
fully  appreciated.  Catullus  is,  however,  the 
only  writer  from  whom  we  have  any  consider- 
able collection.  Although  we  find  in  hun  lyric 
qualities  as  fine  as  in  the  poems  of  the  Anthol- 
ogy, it  is  still  clear  that  the  national  aptitude 
for  satire  has  already  turned  epieram  strongly 
in  that  direction.  It  is  the  Latin  satiric  epi- 
gram and  not  the  more  lyrical  Greek  that  he- 
comes  the  model  for  modem  writers.  In  the 
Augustan  Age,  Domitius  Marsus  and  Pedb  Albi- 
novanus  were,  according  to  Martial,  the'  gFeat- 
est  epigrammatists,  but  we  have  not  enough  of 
th«r  work  to  judge  it  Uartial  himself 
brought  this  branch  of  poetry  to  its  acme.  None 
of  the  eminent  poets  who  followed  in  his  steps, 
Petronius,  Apuleius,  Ausonius  and  Claudiau, 
have  equalled  him  in  epigram.  In  the  6th  cen- 
tury Luxorius  maintains  the  tradition,  but  at  a 
low  level.  About  this  time  the  Salmasian  col- 
lection was  made  which  forms  the  nucleus  of 
the  modem  compilations  which  we  call  the 
Latin  Anthology.    In  the  time  of  Charlemagne 


5   of   Christianity  as  well   as   to  sing 
s  of  the  dignitaries  of  the  Oiurch.    Tl 


the 


glor 

praises  of  the  dignit; 

the  humanists,  to  whom  Latin  waa  almost  a 
second  mother  tonyue,  revived  this  form  once 
more.  But  the  Latm  scholars  who  have  written 
epigrams  are  too  numerous  to  name  here.  One, 
John  Owen  of  Oxford,  should  not  perhaps  be 
passed  by,  since  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to 
this  field  and  with  marked  success.  In  English 
literature  the  composition  of  epigram  has  long 
been  out  of  fashion,  but  for  centuries  it  was 
popular  with  literary  men.  Notable  achieve- 
ments in  this  line  are  to  be  found  in  the  works 
of  Herrick,  Johnson,  Dryden,  Swift,  Prior, 
Addison,  Jonson,  GoldsmiUi,  Congreve,  Hood, 
Hook,  Byron  and  Burns.  Pope's  poems  might 
be  reckoned  a  conglomeration  of  epigrams. 
Some  of  the  best  tn  our  language  are  by  Lan- 
der, who  cutting  loose  from  the  Latin  type,  at 
times  becomes  a  Greek  in  spirit.  Epigram  has 
enjoyed  wide  favor  in  other  modem  tongues. 
In  Italy,  it  long  played  an  important  part  in 
politics,  as  both  the  Pasquino  and  Marforio  in 
Rome  would  testify,  could  they  speak,  hut  it 
has  gradually  given  way  to  the  madrigal  and 
sonnet  In  France  from  the  time  of  Client 
Marat,  who  introduced  it  from  the  Latin,  the 
satiric  sort  has  enjoyed  a  wonderful  popularity. 
Boileau,  J.  B.  Rousseau,  Piron.  Lebrun  and 
Chteier  have  shown  its  possibilities  in  many 
lines.  The  poetic  Priamel  of  the  14tfi  century 
may  be  said  to  begin  epi^ammalic  literature  in 
Germany,  where  indeed  it  has  always  inclined 
more  to  the  moral  and  didactic  than  in  the 
Latin  countries.  Among  her  moiv  eminent  epi- 
grammatists are  Opitz,  Friedrich  von  Logau 
who  is  the  best  of  all,  Wernicke  Kastner, 
Klopstock,  Lessing,  Herder,  Schiller  and 
Goethe,  who  brought  out  their  *Xenien'  to- 
gether in  1797,  Haug,  and  in  more  recent  times 
Bodenstedt,  Vischer  and  Fulda.  We  pass  from 
the  history  to  the  theory  of  epignun.  Since  it 
is  unlimited  in  its  choice  of  stwject,  the  iorm 


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EPIOYN  Y  —  BPILBP8Y 


uid  not  the  contents  must  determine  whether  a 
poem  is  an  epigrun  or  not  Lessin^  has 
shown  much  acumen  in  tracing  the  easentia,!  ele- 
ments of  the  epigram  in  its  modern  conception 
to  the  primitive  type,  the  inscription.  Just  as  a 
momunent:  arouses  in  a  spectator  a  curiosity 
about  the  author  and  purpose  of  its  construc- 
tion, which  the  inscription  then  satisfies,  so  the 
first  part  of  a  literary  epigram,  whether  dealing 
with  some  material  abject,  or  not,  is  intended 
to  excite  an  interest  which  the  close  of  the 
poem  must  duly  satisfy.  The  suspense  may  be 
increased  by  making  the  prefatory  portion  of 
seme  length.  The  more  remotely  separated  and 
apparently  contradictory  the  ideas  that  are 
hrought  together,  and  the  briefer  and  more  un- 
expected the  commentary  or  explanation  at  the 
end,  the  more  successful  we  deem  the  poem.  This 
point  or  conclusion  becomes  in  the  satiric  epi- 
gram a  sting.  Hence  the  frequent  comparison 
of  an  epigram  to  a  bee  or  wasp.  While  the 
above  applies  to  most  epigrams  as  written  to- 
day, no  definition  is  quite  satisfactory  with  ref- 
erence to  much  that  uie  ancients  included  under 
the  term.  Consult  Adam  'Book  of  EiMgTBms> 
(London  1890) ;  Booth,  'Epigrams  Ancient  and 
Modem'  (2d  ed..  ib.  1865):  Dodd,  'Epigram- 
matists of  Mediaeval  and  Modem  'Hmes'  (2d 
ed.,  ib.  1875)  ;  Watson,  'Epigrams  of  Art,  life, 
and  Nature>  (Liverpool  1SS4>. 

Walton  Brooks  McDamiel, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Classical  Philology,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania. 

EPIGYNY,  ep-ijl-ni,  in  flowers,  the  con- 
dition arising  when  the  petals,  stamens  and 
sepals  appear  as  ccaning  from  the  top  of  the 
ovary,  the  latter  showing  just  below  the  flower. 
See  Flower. 

BPIHIPPUS,  a  diminutive  horse  of  the 
Upper  Eocene  of  Wyoming,  in  which  only  the 
last  two  premolars  had  taken  on  the  molar  pat- 
tern.   See  Horse. 

EPILEPSY.  Epilepsv  is  no  longer  used  as 
K  definite  disease  name  nut  rather  as  a  sym- 
bolic term  under  which  are  grouped  a  great 
variety  of  conditions  presenting  a  general  re- 
semblance. These  are  sudden  and  relatively 
transient  attada  accompanied  usually  b^  dis- 
tuHjances  of  consciousness  called  vanously 
■faints.*  'absences,'  "blanks'  and  amnesias  and 
convulsive  sozures  which  involve  the  voluntary 
and  involuntary  muscular  apparatus. 

The  historic  name  epilepsy,  the  'falling  sick- 
ness,* points  to  [he  most  evident  symptom,  the 
falling  due  to  this  loss  of  muscular  control. 
The  strictly  etymolo^cal  origin  of  tiie  worA 
literally  from  the  Greek  word  'to  seise  upon,* 
also  denotes  the  antiquity  of  the  recognition  of 
this  form  of  disturlrance  and  the  ancient  ani- 
mistic character  of  the  hypotheses  which  sought 
to  explain  it,  and  which  has  long  dung  about 
its  mysterious  and  often  violent  manifestations. 
It  was  recognized  in  its  pure  type  by  the  most 
ancient  observers.  Hippocrates  described  it, 
and  evidences  are  found  in  the  earliest  Indian 
writings  of  Charaka  that  the  disease  was  then 

The  most  modern  belief  concemirw^  it  is 
undergoing  a  process  of  modification.  There  is 
a  tendency  to  speak  of  'the  epilepsies*  rather 
than  to  consider  a  disease  entity,  which  fails  to 


cover  the  wide  range  of  conditions  of  which 
the  attacks  are  but  the  outward  manifestation. 
The  dynamic  concept  which  is  making  its  way 
into  medicine  draws  attention  to  the  attack  as 
the  result  of  a  faulty  distribotiou  of  energy 
which  may  be  brought  about  in  various  ways 
and  fronr  a  variety  of  far-reaching  causes  m 
the  constitution  and  experience  of  the  individual. 
The  dynamic,  energetic  concept  of  the 
nervous  and  psychic  functioning  establishes  a 
working  basis  t^  dividing  nervous  activity  into 
three  levels  of  operation  which  have  been  pro- 
gressively developed  according  lo  functional 
biological  needs.  Thus  the  nervous  apiaratus 
of  man  presents  the  capability  of  reaction  to 
environment  on  the  i^iysicochemical  or  purdy 
ve^tative  level,  the  sensori-motor  and  the  levd 
wMch  must  express  itsdf  symbolically  as  in  all 
the  higher  psychic  forms  of  reaction.  Any 
one  of  these  levels  oSers  itself  as  an  outiet  for 
the  epileptic  discharge.  The  unity  of  the 
nervous  organism  permits  the  view  of  it  as  a 
mass  of  interrelated  reflexes  redistributing  the 
energy  bound  up  with  the  individual  in  order  to 
effect  his  adaptations  and  his  reactions  toward 
his  environment,  which  may  thus  take  i^ace  at 

SI  one  of  the  three  levels.  The  epileptic  in- 
ciency  to  so  distribute  the  energy  as  to  bring 
about  a  series  of  harmoniously  adjusted  ac- 
tivities may  in  turn  emphasize  itself  in  any  one 
of  these  spheres  of  dischar^. 

This  accounts  for  the  wide  range  of  mani- 
festations in  attacks  of  the  equally  extensive 
underlying  conditions.  The  attacks  comprise 
psychic  forms,  the  so-called  functional  neuroses 
and  psychoneuroses,  the  more  pronounced 
psychoses,  also  toxemic  states,  many  organic 
brain  diseases  and  the  grosser  defects  of  de- 
velopment, even  idiocy.  The  toxic  states  may 
be  transitory  with  removable  cause  or  may  he 
due  to  defective  metabolic  functioning  which 
cannot  be  remedied  or  to  other  obscure  factors 
working  at  the 'physicocfaemical  level.  None  of 
these  causes  in  themselves  can  any  longer  be 
regarded  as  sufficient  explanation  of  the 
epileptic  form  of  reaction.  The  more  funda- 
menbl  conception  of  a  faulty  energy  distri- 
bution indicates  a  blocking  or  closing  of  maipr 
paths  of  outlet  either  structurally  or  !»_  psychic 
inhibition  and  so  accumulation  of  the  mscnarge 
within  relatively  narrow  confines.  This  view- 
point applies  thus  equally  well  to  the  psychic 
manifestations,  the  physiolowcal  and  localized 
attacks  (Jacksonian  types)  of  the  physicochem- 
ical  (tetany). 

More  accurate  and  patholwical  and  dinical 
knowledge  tends  to  separate  off  from  the  great 
epileptic  group  certain  varieties  of  conditions 
which  can  be  more  definitely  identified  with 
other  disease  groups.  There  remains,  however, 
for  general  consideiatioo  the  still  broad  and 
ill-deSned  'genuine  or  dassical  epilepsy*  in 
whidi  the  brpical  reactions  are  evident  for  de- 
scription. The  classical  major  epileptic  attadc 
(grand  mal)  is  sudden  in  onset  thou^  pre- 
c^d  often  by  a  warning  aura.  This  may  be 
sensory,  motor  or  purdy  psychic  At  the  sud- 
den onset  of  the  attack  the  patient  falls  and 
immediately  develops  a  tonic  ^lasm  with  un- 
consciousness. The  direction  of  the  oatient's 
fall  depends  upon  the  musdes  first  involved,  but 
in  a  few  moments  all  the  voluntary  muscles  are 
affected.    Cyanous  results  from  coDvnlaioa  of 


V.Google 


Ae  reniratonr  muscles  and  biting  of  the 
tongue  Irom  uiat  of  the  jaw  miudea.  As  the 
tonic  convulsion  is  sncceeoed  in  a  few  moments 
by  clonic  spasms  frothy,  bloody  saliva  issues 
from  the  month  and  the  cyanosis  gradually 
disappears  through  the  re  turn  of  resjMration. 
Urine  is  often  passed  during  the  attack  and  less 
fieqnently  fecea.  The  gradual  subsidence  of  tiie 
clonic  spasms  is  followed  by  a  short  period  of 
uitomatic  activity  after  which  the  patient  re- 
turns  gradually  to  full  consciousness  or  sinks 
at  once  into  a  deep  sleep  from  which  he 
awakens  with  lameness  and  weakness  in  the 
muscles  which  are  affected,  and  perhaps  with 
headache. 

The  minor  attacks  (i»etit  mal)  exhibit  an 
endless  procession  of  variations.  The  disturb- 
ance of  consciousness  is  shorter  in  duration  and 
less  profound  and  the  convulsive  phenomena  are 
so  mild  that  they  may  even  escape  observation. 
Occasionally  there  is  a  sl^t  convulsion,  an 
involuntary  contraction  and  extension  of  some 
of  the  muscles  without  loss  of  consciousness, 
and  the  patient  resumes  his  regular  course  of 
work  or  play.  In  cases  of  a  sligjit  loss  of  con- 
sciousness the  patient  may  suddenly  stop  in 
the  midst  of  play  or  work  or  conversation,  a 
shade  passes  over  his  face  and  in  a  moment  he 
is  himself  a^n.  Sometimes  there  is  a  momen- 
tary confusion,  faltering'  or  fumblinp;  about  the 
dothing  in  a  dazed  fashion,  which  quickly 
passes  over  and  leaves  the  patient  occupied  as 
if  nothing  had  happened.  Occasionally  he  feels 
sleepy,  lies  down  for  a  second  and  then  gets 
up  perfectly  well.  These  attacks  may  also  be 
preceded  by  an  aura. 

Psychic  disturbances  many  and  varied  may 
precede  or  follow  the  attack  or  may  even  re- 
place it.  In  manj^  subJEcts  there  is  a  marked 
disturbance  sometimes  for  several  days  pre- 
ceding the  convulsion,  which  serves  as  a  warnings 
to  those  associated  with  the  patient.  The  mani- 
festations may  be  increased  irritability,  com- 
plaining, depression  or  dullness  and  nerhaps 
also  (usturbances  of  the  sensory  functions, 
hypochondriacal  complaints  and  hallucinations, 
all  of  which  conditions  are  significantly  re- 
Ueved  by  the  convulsion.  A  condition  of  active 
excitement  may,  however,  occur  just  after  the 
attack,  sometimes  before,  which  may  reach  an 
actual  frenzy,  epiltptic  furor.     In  this  state  the 

etient  is  liable  to  any  act  of  violence  but 
rtiinately  the  attack  is  usually  brief  and 
moreover  the  patient's  cfForts  are  diffuse  and 
lack  coherence. 

The  so-called  epileptic  eqitivaleni  is  an  at- 
tack in  which  the  convulsion  is  replaced  by  a 
purely  mental  disturbance.  The  form  of  at- 
tack IS  frequently  that  of  the  epileptic  outom- 
aliirn  or  epileptic  dream  stale.  Almost  un* 
act  may  be  committed  in  these  conditions  with 
absolutely  no  recollection  on  the  part  of  the 
patient  when  he  comes  to  himself.  The  recog- 
nition of  this  condition  is  of  great  im^rtance 
from  a  medicolegal  standpoint  for  crimes  are 
sometimes  committed  ana  these,  if  crimes  of 
violence,  are  often  marked  by  their  ferocity 
and  fuiy.  Moreover,  the  seizure  associated 
with  these  acts  may  have  been  so  slight  as  not 
to  have  been  noticed.  Usually,  however,  the 
acts  are  rather  simple  and  the  attacks  of  short 
duration.  There  are  also  transitory  conditions 
of  depression,  excitement  confusion,  delirium 
and  stnpor  and  peculiarly  characteristic  one  of 


ecstasy  with  halhidnations,  particularly  of  a 
rdigious  character.  There  are  also  transitory 
states  of  ill-humor  which  may  be  psychical 
equivalents.  These  are  frequently  associated 
with  drinking. 

The  eUology  as  well  as  the  prognosis  of 
epilepsy  are  so  involved  in  the  broader  cod- 
ce^  wRich  avoids  the  limitation  of  definitions 
and  unsubstantial  formulations  that  these  are 
best  considered  also  from  the  energic  stand- 
point The  genuine  epileptic  usually  comes  from 
a  badly  tainted  ancestral  stock,  manifesting  per- 
haps not  epilepsy  in  the  ancestors  or  collaterals 
but  evidences  of  ill-defined  nervous  disorders. 
There  is  evidently  a  defect  of  the  germ  plasm 
and  hence  epilepsy  and  feebie-minaedness  are 
often  found  associated.  This  accords  with 
what  has  been  said  ^out  the  inadequate  dis- 
tribution of  energy  discharge.  There  is  actual 
dev^opmental  failure  to  lay  down  paths  for  the 
higher  avenues  of  discharge  and  constitutional 
inadequacy  to  adajit  to  the  demands  of  en- 
vironment. The  epileptic  type  of  character  is 
apt  to  be  morose,  irritable,  suspicious  and 
hypochondrical  with  resultant  unreliability  and 
shallow  aggressive  religiosity.  He  is  marked 
by  an  extreme  cgocentnci^  and  hyiiersensitive- 
ness.  TiuB,  it  tus  been  well  said,  'ii  not  to  be 
taken  in  any  narrow  or  moralistic  sense,  but 
is  to  be  considered  ...  in  a  broad  biologic 
view,  a  personality-defect  which  makes  its  pos- 
sessor incapable  of  social  adaptation  in  its  best 
setting  and  which,  if  it  remain  uncorrected, 
renders  the  individual  entirely  inadequate  to 
make  a  normal  adult  life.  The  seizure  i^enom- 
enon  is  essential  epilepsy  ._  .  .  constitutes  a 
reaction  away  from  the  difficulties  in  a  loss 
of  consciousness.* 

All  the  patient's  interests  centre  about  the 
ego.  His  interests  are  variable  but  shallow 
and  easily  fall  away  as  they  fail  to  contribute  to 
his  egotism  or  as  they  present  some  difficulhr 
which  calls  for  a  greater  eifort  without  a  suf- 
ficient egotistic  premium.  There  is  always  a 
tendency  to  turn  conversation  or  any  external 
Stimulus  to  the  e^  centre.  In  this  as  in  all 
his  reactions  the  epileptic  manifests  the  infantile 
diaracter  to  a  marked  degree.  His  sexuality 
like  his  religiosity  is  of  a  superficial,  infantile, 
expansive  ^pe.  The  impulses  are  prominent 
and  easily  roused  but  unaeveloped  and  tendii^ 
to  seek  outlet  in  a  number  of  ways  which  be- 
long to  the  infantile  polymorphus  components 
of  sexuality  not  yet  converged  into  the  adult 
sexual  aim  (Freud). 

The  epileptic  state  leads  in  a  certain  pro- 
portion ot  cases,  if  it  has  begun  in  early  life, 
to  conditions  of  feeble-mindedness,  imbecility 
and  idiocy  or  it  has  ori^nally  been  associated 
with  these  conditions.  It  produces  in  many 
cases  a  very  profound  general  mental  deteriora- 
tion. The  progress  toward  this  condition  as 
well  as  the  ultimate  clinical  picture  present  an 
accentuated  manifestation  of  the  heightened 
infantile  and  egocentric  character  of  the 
epileptic  character  and  reaction.  It  is  asso- 
ciated in  a  dose  inter-relation  with  the  snper- 
fidahty  and  ready  loss  of  interest.  As  has  been 
said:  "This  process  ,  .  .  consists  of  a  pro- 
gressive loss  of  interest  assodated  with  a  fail- 
ure of  mentation  in  respect  to  normal  stimuli 
in  which  interest  is  lost.  Both  loss  of  interest 
and  intellectual  decay  proceed  from  the  barelv 
perceptible  early  stages  to  total  loss  of  speecn 


8l^ 


EPILEPTIC    CHILDKBN  —  EPILEPTIC    COLONIES 


and  other  acquired  functions,  when  a  condi- 
tion is  reached  equivalent  to  the  lowest  grade 
of  idiocy  or  the  helplessness  of  a.  suckling  in- 
fant" The  dementia  does  not  manifest  itself 
in  a  withdrawal  into  an  hallucinatory  world  or 
in  the  further  symbolic  activities  of  other  types 
of  dementia.  It  consists  rather  in  this  gradual 
withdrawal  from  all  contact  with  environment 
until  a  stage  of  complete  infantilism  is  reached 
when  the  individual  is  merely  a  biological  ego- 
centric entity  in  the  state  of  supreme  infantile 
dependence  and  security  which  characterize  the 
earliest  post -embryonic,  almost  the  fetal  period. 
This  is  also  the  psychic  goal  attained  tem- 
porarily by  the  attacks  which  produce  pro- 
found unconsciousness.  Such  a  conception  of 
the  meaning  of  the  tendency  and  ultimate  end 
of  the  psychic  reaction  has  been  made  possible 
through  the  psychoanalytic  understanding  of 
controlling  impulses  belonging  to  the  uncon- 
adous  and  determining  such  reactions.  The  ap- 
plication of  psychoanalytic  knowledge  and 
methods  to  individual  cases  has  led  to  and  con- 
firmed these  conclusions  and  throws  a  light 
upon  the  obscure  problems  of  epilepsy  which 
have  so  far  batHed  the  neuropathologist  and 
die'  psychiatrist  of  older  schools.  This  psycho- 
logical approach  to  the  problem  does  not  ex- 
clude further  research  along  anatomical  and 
pathological  lines.  On  the  contrary  it  awaits 
accurate  and  conclusive  knowledge  which  can 
only  come  through  such  exact  research  and 
which  must  form  the  physiological  basis  for 
complete  psychological  understanding  and  en- 
large the  possibility  of  prophylactic  and  thera- 
peutic control. 

Meanwhile  a  psychic  therapy  is  proving  its 
efRcacjr  in  a  more  rational  understanding  of  the 
etiileptic  constitution  and  its  inadequacy  before 
the  demands  of  life.  This  brings  an  explana- 
tion of  its  yielding  at  points  of  particttlar  diffi- 
culty and  utilizing  the  charactenstic  modes  of 
energy  discharge.  It  thus  affords  a  prophylactic 
basis  for  education  and  early  training  to  coun- 
teract the  essential  egocentricity  and  super- 
ficiality of  interest  and  in  further  treatment, 
whether  able  to  effect  a  cure  or  merely  to  al- 
leviate existing  conditions  and  retard  or  pre- 
vent the  ultimate  dementia,  it  stimulates  to  a 
sympathetic  and  watchful  interest  in  the  patient 
in  order  to  meet  him  at  the  points  of  least 
resistance  and  rcarouse  a  flagging  interest  and 
utilize  his  very  tendencies  for  counteracting 
his  self-ccniring.  The  epileptic  colony  pro- 
vides the  ideal  environment  for  this  course  of 
treatment.  The  patients  are  there  under  the  i 


:   and   the 

patients    are    not    subjected    to    a    competition 
which  they  are  constitutionally  unable  to  with- 

The  question  of  the  use  of  drugs  is  an  im^ 
portant  one  because  of  a  widespread  belief  in 
their  efficacy.  Bromide  is  the  only  one,  how- 
ever, which  deserves  consideration,  being  in 
fact  the  basis  of  most  of  the  other  remedies 
offered  for  this  condition.  The  larger  concep- 
fion  of  the  clinical  picture  which  recof^iizea  the 
convulsion  as  not  the  disease,  nor  even  the  cause 
nor  the  first  expression  of  it,  but  only  one  form 
of  its  outward  manifestation,  an  outlet  for  the 
accumulated  and  untitilizable  energy,  serious^ 


questions  the  rationality' of  bromide  medicatiota. 
ExperieiKe  seems  to  show  that  the  convuluon  b 
only  postponed,  that'sooocr  or  later  the  energy 
discharge  will  take  place  and  the  drug  may 
indeed  in  the  end  produce  a  summation  of  at- 
tacks which  will  lead  up  to  that  final  stage  of 
which  the  eiHleptic  stands  in  danger,  the  cona- 
tion known  as  status  epilepticus,  a  terminal 
stage  which  consists  of  repeated  and  continued 
canvtilsive  attacks  associated  with  high  iever 
and  usually  ending  in  death.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  bromides  have  a  function  in 
regulating  die  convulsions  when  such  a  danger 
is  imminent  but  they  must  be  employed  with 
the  utmost  caution  and  consideration  oik  the 
part  of  the  physician.  The  general  observance 
of  h}^enic  measures  is  of  course  of  great  im- 
portance. An  outdoor  life  with  a  mild,  health- 
ful occupation,  plain,  digestible  food,  the  absence 
of  tobacco,  alc<Miol  and  other  stimulants,  a  free 
intestinal  canal  and  surroundings  in  consonance 
with  the  mental  capacity  of  the  patient  are  very 
desirable  features.  Treatment  during  a  con- 
vulsion is  merely  protection  to  prevent  injury 
to  the  patient.  Beyond  these  measures,  how- 
ever, lies  the  more  comprehensive  understand- 
ing of  the  constitutional  burden  of  the 
epileptic  and  the  very  practical  aid  which  this 
must  bring  to  him  in  directing  and  adapting 
his  capacity  to  the  demands  of  his  environ- 
ment. Consult  Jelliffe  and  White,  'Diseases  of 
the  Nervous  System*  (2d  ed.,  1W7). 

Skith  Ely  Jeluffe. 

EPILEPTIC  CHILDREN.  See  Chil- 
dren, Defective. 

EPILEPTIC  COLONIES.  The  treatment 
and  care  of  epileptics  in  special  institutions 
may  he  said  to  be  one  of  the  developments  of 
applied  philanthropy  of  distinctly  recent  origin. 
By  the  founding  of  enileptic  colonies  is  meant 
the  setting  apart  of  distinct  tracts  of  ground 
for  buildings  and  for  the  exclusive  care  and 
training  of  epileptics.  The  position  of  the 
epileptic  in  society  is  altogether  anomalous.  As 
Letcbworth  well  says:  "As  a  child  he  is  an  ob- 
ject of  solicitude  to  his  parents  and  guardians. 
The  streets  to  him  are  full  of  dangers,  and  if 
sent  to  school  he  is  apt  to  have  seizures  on 
the  way  or  in  the  class-room.  His  attacks  shock 
his  classmates  and  create  confusion.  He  can- 
not attend  church  or  public  entertainments,  nor 
participate  in  social  gatherings  with  those  of 
his  own  age  and  station.  In  consequence  of  his 
infirmity  the  epileptic  grows  up  in  idleness  and 
ignorance,  bereft  of  companionship  outside  of 
the  family,  and  friendless.  He  silently  broods 
over  his  isolated  and  helpless  condition.*  The 
recognition  of  these  truths  has  caused  philan- 
thropists to  found  such  colonies.  In  continental 
countries  more  has  been  done  for  epileptics  than 
elsewhere,  but  in  the  last  20  years  the  movement 
for  taking  care  of  this  unfortunate  class  of 
society  has  grown  to  large  proportions  and,  as 
expressed  by  Peterson  in  his  presidential  ad- 
dress to  the  National  Association  for  the  Treat- 
ment and  Care  of  Epileptics  1902,  "there  is 
hardly  a  community  in  the  civilized  world  that 
is  not  now  thorou^ly  aroused  to  the  necessity 
for  the  treatment  of  this  class  of  defectives.* 

This  awakening  took  place  about  1887,  and 
has  continued  to  the  present  time.     The  first 


,,7o=h,  Google 


EPILEPTIC    COHSTETUTIOH—  EPILEPTIC   PSYCHOSIS 


4» 


Bodeltchwiiffih.  who  founded  at  Bielefeld,  ia 
Westphalia,  Germany,  the  Bethel  Colony,  which, 
from  small  beginnings,  has  grown  Up  to  a  vil- 
lage inhabited  solely  by  epileptics.  Here  every- 
ihina  has  been  provided  to  meet  their  social 
nEe£,  to  make  up  for  their  deprivations  in  the 
outside  world.  The^  are  supplied  with  schools 
to  improve  their  muids,  industrial  teachers  to 
make  them  more  or  less  self-supporting,  and 
physicians  to  study  and  treat  their  cases.  Out- 
door occupations  are  provided,  special  diet  is  ar- 
ranged for,  recreations,  amusements,  religious 
instruction,  in  fact  all  of  the  devices  that  go  to 
make  up  a  home,  have  been  provided  under 
this  man's  guidance,  so  that  at  least  nearly 
4,000  people,  not  less  than  half  of  whom  are 
epileptics,  are  being  taken  care  of  in  Bethel. 

Tne  success  of  the  Bielefeld  Colony  prompted 
movements  elsewhere.  Other  colonies  were 
founded  in  Germany  and  other  European  coun- 
tries. Ohio  established  the  first  institution  for 
epileptics  in  the  United .  States,  although  this 
was  built  on  the  hospital  rather  than  the  colony 
plan.  New  York  has  Craig  Colony  at  Sonyea, 
one  of  the  most  elaborate  and  beautiful  institu- 
tions of  this  class,  closely  modeled  on  the  Biele- 
feld plan,  and  accommodating  a  population  of 
nearly  2,000.  Massachusetts  has  a  colony  at 
Palmer ;  Pennsylvania  a  colony  farm  at  Oak- 
bum;  and  there  is  a  New  Jersey  State  villa^ 
for  epileptics  at  Skillman,  A  colony  for  epi- 
leptics was  established  in  1902  at  Abilene,  Tex., 
and  there  are  similar  establishments  in  Connec- 
ticut, Indiana,  IlUnois,  Kansas,  North  Carolina, 
Missouri,  Minnesota  and  California,  In  Eng- 
land the  Rrst  colony  founded  was  at  Chalfont 
in  1893  and  another  at  Warfcrd  in  1900.  There 
is  also  a  colony,  the  Waghuil  Home,  near  Liv- 
erpool; another  at  Godalming;  a  large  colony 
at  CHelford,  and  finally  a  fifth  institution  was 
completed  1903-04  for  the  city  of  London,  not 
far  from  Croydon.  Other  colonies  have  been 
founded  in  Brazil,  Belgium,  Switzerland 
Sweden,  Ru^ia,  Italy,  Turkey,  India,  Japan  and 
Australia.    . 

The  Craig  Colony,  of  Sonyea,  N,_  Y.,  being 
one  of  the  most  modern  and  ideal.  Is  selected 
as  a  type  of  this  institution.  Consult  Letch- 
worth,  'Care  and  Treatment  of  Epileptics' 
.(190(». 

SPILEPTIC  CONSTITUTION.  The 
epileptic  constitution,  or  makeup,  has  long 
been  recognized  as  the  mental  stigma  of  ( 


years    before    the 

disorder  of  epilepsy,  as  such,  is  shown  in 
fits.  Indeed,  most  frequently  defects  of 
personality  may  be  detected  in  earliest  child- 
hood. The  chief  instinctive  defects  are  ego- 
centricity,  supersensitiveness  and  emotional 
poverty.  The  potential  epileptic  is  intensively 
self-centred  and  falls  to  project  his  life  inter- 
ests into  his  environment  in  a  normal  and 
healthful  manner.  Partly  because  of  this  char- 
acter-fanit,  and  still  more  because  of  his  innate 
inheritance,  he  is  or  soon  becomes  unduly  sen- 
sitized to  all  forms  of  stress  and  annoying'  de- 
mands. He  rither  extraverts  his  supersensitive- 
ness by  exhibitions  of  rage  and  tantrums  of  a 
type  more  severe  than  those  occasionally  • 


I  passionate 


childre 


■   he   introverts    this 


feeling  and  represses  his  environmental  i 


flicts,  causing 'bim  to  develop  a  very  unstable,* 
irritable  and  sullen  emotional  lif  e,  whidi  paves 
the  way  for  larger  and  more  difficult  aiupta- 
tions  which  he  cannot  meet ;  outspoken  fits  may 
then  occur.  By  possessing  an  egocentric  and 
supersensitive  makeup,  the  potential  epileptic 
'  fails  to  make  the  degree  of  enviromnental  con- 
tact which  would  lead  him  into  a  broad  and  rich 
experience  with  life,  hence  Kooner  or  later  he 
fails  to  acquire  a  well-rounded  emotional  de- 
velopment. This  deficit  may  or  may  not  limit 
the  individual's  purely  intellectual  equipment  in 
later  life.  Previously,  endowed  with  the  in- 
stinctive defects  noted,  the  demauds  of  adoles- 
cence and  adult  life  increase  the  difficulties  of 
such  individuals  until  they  reach  the  breaking 
point  in  a  fit  or  seizure.  Hand  in  hand  with 
the  handicap  of  defective  endowment  occurs  a 
disintegration  of  habits  and  character,  known 
as  deterioration,  which  often  precedes  actual 
epileptic  seizures  for  a  considerable  time.  This 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  an  essential  epileptic 
from  the  very  nature  of  his  makeup  is  usually 
doomed  to  mental  failure  in  its  broadest  sense 
if  proper  measures  to  check  or  controvert  his 
innate  faults  are  not  taken  at  the  earliest  possi- 
ble moment  Any  efiective  plan  of  treatment 
must  essentially  take  strict  and  early  account 
o£  the  makeup  of  epileptics  before  all  else. 
L.  PtEKCE  Clark,  M.D. 
EPILEPTIC  PSYCHOSIS.  In  the  older 
descriptive  neurological  concepts,  this  indicated 
a  mental  complex  accompanying  epilepsy,  it 
was  characterized  by  a  certain  degree  of  men- 
tal deterioration,  as  shown  in  tbe  impairment 
of  intellect  and  memory,  by  impulsiveness,  men- 
tal irritability,  loss  of  moral  sense  and  pariial 
or  complete  loss  of  productiveness.  It  is  also 
accompanied  by  periodic  disturbances,  transitory 
attacks  of  anger,  dream-states  or  automatic 
phenomena.  Many  patents  with  epileptic  at- 
tacks do  not  develop  such  severe  psychoses  as  to 
require  certification  and  sequestration,  but  the 
mental  deterioration  may  appear  at  almost  any 
period  following  the  onset  of  the  epilepsy.  In 
many  chronic  epileptic  states  there  is  pronounced 
weakness,  mentally,  morally  and  emotionally. 
One's  sense  of  one's  surroundings  is  usually 
preserved,  and  consciousness  may  be  clear  save 
during  the  dream-states  or  automatic  periods. 
Comprehension  is  usually  not  markedly  im- 
paired, but  the  field  of  attention  is  diminished 
and  easily  diverted.  Hallucinations  are  infre- 
quent, illusions  are  common  during  an  attadc 
or  following  a  grand  mal  seizure,  and  delusions 
are  transitory,  being_  found  usually  only  in  the 
dream-states.  Morbid  and  sudden  impulses  are 
quite  frequent,  sometimes  approaching  distinct 
nerve-storms,  during  which  suicidal  and  homi- 
cidal attacks  may  occur.  The  conduct  other- 
is  usually  orderly,  and  the  ordinary  rules 


.  .  .   deserving  wide  recognition  as 

there  are  unquestionably  a  number  of  phenom- 
ena termed  "psychical*  epilepsy  that  need  recog- 
nition b^  specialists.  In  some  of  these  attacks 
the  patients  are  confused.  They  move  in  a 
mechanical  or  automatic  manner.  They  wan- 
der aimlessly^  about,  recognizing  no  one,  al- 
though sometimes  answering  incoherently  when 
addressed    Occasionally  they  exhibit  sympttnns 


.lOogle 


EPILOBIUH — BPWAT 


of  exdtanent,  at  other  times  depression,  and 
not  infrequently  they  may  set  fire  to  their  beds 
or  furniture,  conunit  theft,  assaults,  homicides, 
expose  their  persons  and  otherwise  conduct 
themselves  in  an  irrelevant  and  insane  manner. 
Treatment  is  extremely  difGcult  in  advanced 
stages.  While  younger  psychoanalysis  and 
careful  endocrinopathic  study  o9er  the  best 
chances  for  modifying  the  conditions  which 
tend  to  bring  about  the  epileptic  deterioration. 
The  patient  should  be  kept  in  a  sanatorium  or 
asylum.     See  EpiLEFsy. 

EPILOBIUH,  ep'T'lo'bi-am,  the  willow- 
herbs,  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  belonging 
to  the  evening  primrose  family  (Onagracea) . 
The  species  are  herbs  or  under-shrubs  with  pink 
or  purple,  rarely  yellow,  flowers,  single  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves,  or  having  terminal  leafy 
spikes.  The  seeds  are  tipped  with  a  pencil  of 
silky  hairs,  and  are  contained  in  a  long  four- 
celled  capsule.  There  are  about  65  species  scat- 
tered over  the  Arctic  and  temperate  regions  of 
the  world,  40  of  them  being  found  in  the  western 
and  northwestern  portions  of  North  America. 
E.  hirtvluni,  or  codlins-and-creams,  a  great 
hairy  willow-herb,  is  a  common  and  conspicuous 
plant  of  waste  places  in  New  England  and 
northern  New  York.  Its  flowers  are  pink  and 
rather  large,  and  the  whole  plant  is  very  downy. 
Some  species  are  cultivated  in  America,  but 
these  plants  are  more  common  in  English  cot- 
tage gardens  than  in  America. 

RPILOGUE    (from  the  Greek  epi,  upon, 


and  logos,  word,  speech),  the  closing  address 
to  the  autUence  at  the  end  of  a  play.  The  ec- 
logue is  the  opposite  of  the  prolt^^ue,  or  open- 


itig  address.  Many  of  Shakespeare's  plays 
have  an  eiulogue  a.s  well  as  prologue,  in  which 
the  poet  sometimes  craves  the  indulgence  of  the 
spectators  for  the  faults  of  his  piece  and  the 

Grformance,  and  sometimes  intimates  in  what 
„ht  his  work  is  to  be  considered.  The  epi- 
logue is  sometimes  a  necessary  appendage,  to 
tell  us  something  of  a  composition,  which  can- 
not be  gathered  from  the  composition  itself. 
In  rhetoric  an  epilogue,  when  fully  developed, 
repeats  the  principal  points  already  presented  in 
the  composition,  and  offers  an  appeal  to  the 
feelings  of  the  reader  or  the  au£ence. 

BPIMENIDES,  ip-I-nien^dez,  Cretan  phi- 
losopher and  poet:  b.  Crete,  in  the  7th  century 
B.C.  By  some  he  is  reckoned  among  the  seven 
wise  men,  instead  of  Periander.  vVhen  the 
Athenians  were  visited  with  war  and  pestilence, 
and  the  oracle  declared  that  they  bad  drawn 
on  themselves  the  divine  anger  by  the  profana- 
tion of  the  temple,  in  which  the  followers  of 
C^lon  had  been  put  to  death,  and  must  ex- 
piate their  offense,  they  sent  for  Eoimenides, 
who  was  renowned  for  his  wisdom  and  piety, 
from  Crete,  to  purify  the  temple.  On  his  de- 
parture he  refused  to  accept  any  presents,  and 
only  asked  the  friendship  of  the  Athenians  on 
behalf  of  Cnossus,  his  home.  There  is  a  legend 
of  his  having,  when  a  boy,  slept  in  a  cavern  for 
57  years.  On  awakening,  he  found,  lo  his  as- 
tonishmenL  everything  changed  in  his  native 
town.  This  story  is  the  ground-work  of 
Goethe's  poem,  the  'Waking  of  Epimenides,> 
for  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Leipiig,  Ac- 
cording to  some  accounts  he  is  said  lu  have  lived 
for  upward  of  150,  according  to  others  for 
nearly  300,  years.     He  is  supposed  to  be  Ae 


pr<^et  quoted  by  S«hit  PanI  in  'ntns  i,  12  u 
saying-  .*The  Cretan*  are  always  liars,  evil 
beasts,  slow  bellies.* 

EPIHETHBUS,  «p-I-me'difls,  in  Gredc 
mythology,  a  son  of  lapetus  and  Clymene  and 
the  brother  of  Prometheus.  Against  the  tatter's 
advice  he  married  Pandora,  who  opened  the 
box  in  which  the  foresight  of  Prometheus  had 
hid  all  the  ills  by  which  mortals  were  liable  to 
be  afflicted.  AH  Idnds  of  diseases  and  torments 
issued  ont  of  the  box  and  hope  alone  remained 
behind.  According  to  other  accounts  it  was 
Epimetheus  himself  who  opened  the  box.  (See 
Pandc«a).  It  is  to  be  remarked  that,  in  the 
Greek  tradition,  curiosity  and  disobedience  are 
made  the  origin  of  evil,  as  in  the  Mosaic  account 
of  the  fall. 

EPINAL,  fi-p€-nal',  France,  town,  capital 
of  the  department  of  the  Vosges,  in  a  narrow 
valley  on  the  Moselle  1,070  feet  above  sea-level, 
190  miles  (264  by  rail)  east-southeast  of  Paris, 
It  has  a  communal  college,  a  public  library  of 
30,000  volumes,  a  museum  of  antiquities  and 
hospital  and  is  surmounted  by  the  ruins  of  an 
old  castle.  The  manufactures  consist  of  arti- 
cles in  iron  and  brB.ss,  leather,  embroidery 
frint  and  cotton  goods,  hats,  paper  and  potteiy; 
reestone  and  marble  are  quarried  in  the 
vicinity.  The  town  was  founded  in  tlje  lOlh 
century.  With  fielfort,  Dijon  and  Bescan^on 
it  forms  one  of  the  line  of  forts  along  the 
Moselle.    Pop.  of  commune,  3C^042. 

EPIKAL  GLOSSARY,  a  glossary  of  Old 
Saxon  and  Anglo-Saxon,  said  to  date  from  the 
7tb  century  and  preserved  at  Epinal,  France. 
Consult  the  facsimile  published  by  Sweet 
(London  1883). 

EPINASTY,  in  botany,  the  rapid  growth 
of  a  dorsiveniral  organ  on  its  upper  sidb  which 
causes  it  to  bend  downward  to  the  earth.  See 
Gbowth. 

EPINAY,  a-pe-ni',  Hidame  de  U  Live  d' 
(Louise  Flokence  PiTBONiu.E  tardieU'  d'Es- 
CLAvnXES),  French  writer:  b,  Valenciennes 
11  March  1726:  A  Paris,  17  April  1783.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  M.  Tardieu  Desclavelles, 
an  ofhcer  of  high  rank,  governor  of  Valen- 
ciennes and  married  her  cousin  d'Epinay.  But 
his  extravagance  soon  compelled  her  to  separate 
from  him.  During  the  earlier  part  of  her  life 
she  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Roiuseau, 
who,  quick  and  susceptible  in  all  his  feelings, 
devoted  himself  to  the  fascinating  and  accom- 
plished woman  with  an  ardor,  the  depth  and 
strength  of  which  he  describes  himself  in  his 
'Confessions,*  She  was  not  insensible  to  the 
homage  of  her  'bear.*  as  she  used  to  call  him, 
on  account  of  his  eccentricities,  and  did  all  that 
was  in  her  power  to  place  hiin  in  a  situation 
corresponding  to  his  wishes.  Sh6  gave  him  a 
cottage  (the  Hermitage,  since  so  famous)  in 
her  park  of  Chevrette,  in  the  vale  of  Hont- 
moren<y.  Here  the  author  of  the  'Nouvelle 
H6loi    ■  ■  ■  .... 

his  re 

until  he  became  jealous  of  Baron  Grinun,  whom 
he  had  himself  introduced  to  her;  and  in  con- 
sequence of  this  feeling,  which  he  took  no  pauu 
to  conceal,  a  coolness  and  finally  an  aversion 
took  place  between  him  and  thie  lady,  which  is 


d'Epinay  toward  Rousseau  may  be   fotind  iit 


BPIORWS  —  EPIPHANY 


Grimm's  'Correspondence,'  where  an  account 
is  also  given  of  some  works  written  by  her,  of 
which  the  most  celebrated  is  'Les  ConversatitHis 
d'&nilie.'  In  this  the  authoress,  in  a  rather 
cold  but  neat  style,  sets  forth  the  principles  of 
moral  instruction  for  children,  with  equal 
clesance  and  depth  of  thou^t.  It  obtained,  in 
1783,  the  prize  offered  by  Moothion  (the  chan- 
cellor to  the  Giunt  d'Artois)  for  useful  works 
of  this  Idnd,  in  preference  to  the  'Adile  et 
Thfodore'  of  Madame  de  Genlis.  She  also 
wrote  *Lettres  k  mon  fils,'  and  'Ues  moments 
h«treux.>  An  abridgment  of  her  memoirs  and 
correspondence,  showing  her  relations  with 
Duclos,  Rousseau,  Grimiti,  Hoi  bach,  Lambert, 
etc.,  appeared  in  1818.  They  give  a  true  picture 
of  the  refined  but  corrupt  maimers  which  pre- 
vailed aiDORg  the  higher  classes  in  France  dur- 
ing the  government  of  Louis  XV. 

BiblioKraphT. —  Beaune,  H.,  'Seines  de  la 
vie  pnvee  au  XVIII  e  Siecle>  (1903);  Cam- 
pardon.  R,  <Les  Prodigalitis  d'  un  fermier 
eiaiTBl>  (1882) ;  FaUue.  L..  'La  Marquise 
d'Epiaay  et  ses  relations  dans  la  valine  de 
Uontmorency  avec  la  sociiti  philosoi^que' 
(1766);  Galiani,  L'abbi,  'Correspondance' 
(1881) ;  Musset-Pathay,  'Anecdotes  inedil^ 
poor  faire  suite  aux  m^moires  de  Mde. 
d'Epinay'  (1818) ;  Percy,  L.,  and  Maugras,  G., 
^La  Jeunesse   de   Madatne  d'Epinay*    (I8B3) ; 


la  litt^rature  conteoiporaine';  Streckeisen- 
Uoulton,  J.  J,,  ^RouMcau,  ses  aoiis  et  ses 
eimemis>  (16u). 

EPIORNIS,  or  AlPYORNIS,  an  extinct 


s  appear  to  have  formed  the  basis  for 

the  Arabic  taie  of  the  gigantic  roc.  It  was 
much  like  an  ostrich  in  size  and  structure, 
except  for  the  massiveness  of  its  limbs  and  the 
extraordinary  sitt  of  its  eggs.  These  have  been 
found  in  considerable  numbers  in  muck-swamps, 
or  sometimes  floating  in  the  river-mouths,  often 
in  perfect  condition,  and  are  the  largest  and 
strongest  eggs  known,  measuring  about  13 
inches  by  9J^.  These  dimMisions  are  twice 
those  of  an  ostrich's  egg,  and  an  egg  of  the 
epiomts  would  hold  the  contents  of  sue  ostrich 
«gs,  yet  the  epiomis  was  little  if  any  larger. 
'Pirti  made  known  to  science  about  1850,  so 
many  remains  have  since  been  found  that  about 
12  species  have  been  indicated,  and  a  second 
genus  (Mulltromis),  which  has  been  joined 
with  Mpyomis  into  the  family  /Epyornithida. 
Tradition  and  the  evidences  of  some  bones  in- 
dicate that  these  birds  were  exterminated  since 
human  occupation  of  Madagascar  began.     See 

MOA. 

BPIPHANIUS,  «p-T-(a'ni-IJs.  Stint,  Greek 
father  of  the  CThurch:  b.  of  Jewish  parents 
near  Eleutheropolis,  Palestine,  about  315 ;  d.  at 
sea  near  Cyprus  403.  In  his  youth  he  went  to 
Egypt  where  at  first  he  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  teachers  of  Gnosticism;  but  after- 
ward he  embraced  monasticism,  and  returning 
to  his  own  country  there  became  head  of  a 
community  of  monies.  In  Palestine  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  two  western  churchmen, 
Jerome  and  his  associate,  Rufinus;  the  friend- 
ship of  the  three  men  was  cordial  and  intimate 
till  Ri^us'  defense  of  the  teachings  of  Origen 


Origen.  He  was  made  bishop  of  Constantia 
(the  older  name  Salamis),  in  Cyprus  367,  and 
held  that  see  till  his  death.  On  one  occasion, 
3P4,  he  visited  Jerusalem  to  denounce  Origen- 
ism.  He  must  have  been  more  than  80  years  old, 
perhaps  near  90,  when  he  went  to  Constanti- 
nople to  charge  the  patriarch  of  that  see,  Saint 
John  ChrysoGtom,  with  the  sin  of  favoring  the 
Origenists,  but  a  few  words  from  Chrysostom 
opened  his  eyes.  His  numerous  writings  are 
now  of  little  account,  his  theological  polemics 
being  distinguished  by  fervor  rather  than  Iq- 
penetration. 


dTic,  Anglican  and  Eastern  churches  held  o 

January  to  commemorate  the  manifestations  of 
Jesus  Christ  as  son  of  Ckid;  (1)  lo  the  Wise 
men  of  the  East  (Magi)  at  Bethlehem:  (2)  at 
his  baptism  by  John  m  the  Jordan,  when  the 
voice  from  heaven  proclaimed,  'Thou  art  my 
beloved  son  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased* ;  (3) 
at  the  marriage  feast  at  Cana  in  Galilee,  where 
Jesus  wrought  his  first  miracle.  The  observance 
of  this  festival  can  be  traced  to  an  earlier  pe- 
riod in  the  Eastern  Church  than  in  the  Western. 
In  the  Greek  Church  it  was  observed  as  early 
as  the  2d  century,  but  the  event  commemorated 
by  the  Greeks  was  not  the  visit  of  the  Magi  to 
Nazareth  but  the  manifestation  of  Jesus  at  the 
Jordan  as  the  Messiah.  Not  till  the  4th  cen- 
tury does  the  Epiphanv  amear  to  have  been  ob- 
served in  the  Latm  C^urco.  In  the  Greek  and 
Oriental  churches  it  is  customary  to  administer 
baptism  on  the  eve  of  this  festival,  with  un- 
wonted solemnity.  This  is  said  to  be  because 
of  the  relation  of  the  festival  to  the  baptism 
of  Jesus  by  Saint  John.  In  those  cliurches, 
too,  the  Epi^^any  (E^phaneia,  Theophaneia) 
was  the  festival  commemorative  of  the  birth  of 
Jesus;  for  it  was  believed  that  the  baptism  in 
the  Jordan  took  place  precisely  on  die  30tb 
anniversary  of  the  birth.  A  popular  name  for 
this  festival  in  English  is  "Twelfth  Day,"  that 
is,  twelfth  day  from  Christmas.  It  is  also 
called  "Little  Christmas."  In  various  other 
languages  it  is  known  as 'Three  Kings' I^y,°  or 
"Day  of  the  Kings.*  In  the  Western  Church 
special  attention  was  paid  to  the  celebration  of 
the  adoration  of  the  Magi.  This  was  followed 
by  the  celebration  of  baptism  and  the  miracle 
of  Cana,  the  latter  being  held  on  the  succeeding 
Sunday.  In  England  special  holiday  celebra- 
tions were  held  on  the  I2th  day  and  the  12th 
ni^t  when  the  Christmas  festivities  closed. 
FollowinR  the  provisions  of  the  Council  of 
Nicaea,  the  date  of  Easter  has  long  been  an- 
nounced with  great  solemnity  on  the  12th  ni|:[ht. 
Connected  with  the  celebration  of  Epiphany,  it 
was  the  custom  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  even 
later,  to  have  sorts  of  miracle  plays  in  the 
churches  in  order  thus  to  visualize  to  the  people 
the  events  commemorated  on  the  occasion. 
These  were  frequently  given  during  the  mass. 
Similar  dramatic  representatkms  of  a  still  more 
popular  character  were  given  In"  the  people 
themselves  in  their  ovim  homes.  Performances 
of  diis  nature,  though  now  generated  into 
popular  entertainment,  are  still  to  be  met  with 
in  parts  of  (jermany,  Tirol,  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts of  Austria  and  occa»onally  among  the 


8l^ 


2PIPH  YLLUM  —  BPIPHYTB 


Christianized  Indians  and  mestizos  of  Latin 
America.  This  dramatic  representation  gen- 
eiatly  presented  the  oblatinn  of  the  wise  men, 
and  fitted  it  in  so  that  il  appeared  to  form  a 
natural  part  of  the  mass.  In  the  traditions  of 
the  church  the  wise  men  were  venerated  as  the 
'Three  Holy  Kings'*  after  which  the  festival 
was  itself  frequently  called,  being  variously 
designated  as  feslum  Irium  re  gum,  feitum 
magorvm,  feitum  stellae.  It  has  long  been  the 
custom  in  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  at 
Rome  for  young  men  belonging  to  various 
foreign  nations  to  represent,  by  speeches  in 
their  Jiative  languages,  the  appearance  of  Jesus 
the  Christ  unto  all  nations. 

There  was  a  tendency  in  the  early  days  of 
the  Epiphany  to  connect  it  with  the  heathen 
spring  festival,  and  more  especially  with  the 
sacrifices  and  olTerincs  made  to  the  gods  ot  the 
running  waters,  in  the  rivers,  the  streams  and 
die  clouds.  Some  Christian  communities  even 
followed  this  old  pagan  custom  and  blessed  the 
water,  the  rivers  and  lakes.  This  same  pagan 
custom  is  noticeable  in  the  attempts  of  certain 
sections  of  the  Christian  Church  to  make  of  the 
Epiphanv  a  special  day  of  baptism,  or  as  it 
was  called  dies  luminum.  The  Franks,  who 
before  their  conversion  to  Christianity,  had 
held  special  spring  ceremonies  in  honor  of  the 
Kods  of  growth  and  fertility,  seem  to  have 
been  strong  supporters  of  the  custom  of 
Epiphany  Baptisms.  This  custom  probably 
corresponded  to  a  spring  purification  ceremony 
(by  water)  common  among  the  Franks  and 
Germanic  races  in  general.  The  custom  of 
making  Epiphany  a  day  of  baptism  was  also 
Strongly  clung  to  in  the  African  Christian 
Church.  The  consecrating  of  the  water  sur- 
vived the  baptismal  and  other  semi-papan  rites 
in  the  Greek  Church  and  is  still  observed  in 
Russia.  The  Church  connected  this  baptismal 
custom  with  that  of  the  baptism  of  Christ  by 
John;  but  it  seems  not  to  have  become  cus- 
tomary until  the  spread  of  Christianity  into  the 
Frank)  sh  and  Sclave  countries  where  the 
sacrifices  and  other  ceremonies  connected  with 
the  deities  of  growth  and  fertility  were  also 
offered  to  the  gods  of  water.  In  explaining 
this  cusious  blending  of  pagan  religious  cere- 
monies' and  celebrations  with  Christian  tradi- 
tionaiy  history.  Christian  writers  have  asserted 
that  the  first  baptism  of  Christ  was,  in  a  sense, 
his  real  birth,  since  it  was  his  first  manifesta- 
tion to  man.  So  it  was  common,  in  early  Chris- 
tian centuries,  to  include  the  ceremony  of  the 
commemoration  of  the  birth  of  Christ  in  that 
of  Epiphany;  and  it  was  only  considerably  later 
that  the  Chnstian  celebration  came  into  vogue. 
Thus  the  ancient  pagan  celebration  of  the  ''ap- 
pearance of  the  new  birth  of  spring,*  the 
Eurification  by  water  and  the  celebrations  in 
onor  of  the  occasion,  split  into  separate  parts, 
became  two  of  the  greatest  festivals  in  the 
Christian  Church,  and  have  continued  to  main- 
tain their  position  as  such  to  the  present  day. 

It  is  probable  that  the  custom  of  presents 
from  the  wise  men  to  the  infant  Jesus  arose  out 
of  the  practice  of  presenting  offering  to  the 
gods  of  nature  and  growth  at  the  spring  festi- 
val, and  also  of  a  similar  custom  in  vogue 
among  the  Roman  people  who  made  presents 
to  one  another  on  this  occasion.  The  fact 
that  Epiphany  is  one  of  the  oldest  ceremonies 
in  the  Christian  Church,  having  already  been 


established  by  the  time  of  Gement  of  Alexan- 
dria, who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  2d 
and  the  early  part  of  the  3d  centuries,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  the  survival  of 
earlier  customs  and  ceremonies;  since,  even  at 
this  early  date,  there  was  some  considerable 
speculation  as  to  its  origin.     See  Magi. 

Bibliography. —  Binghatn,  R.,  'Antiquities* 
(London  1834) ;  Blumenbach,  H.,  'Antiquitates 
Epepharaorum'  (Leiprig  1773)  ;  Chambers, 
•Book  of  Dates'  (London  1864)  ;  Heriog,  'Real- 
Encyklopiidie' ;  Jacoby,  A.,  'Bericht  ueber 
die  Taufe  Jesus'  (Strassburg  1902) ;  Kellner, 
K.  A.  H.,  'Heoriologie'  (Freiburg  1906); 
Naxianz,  G.,  'Tessurus*  (Antwerp  1869) ; 
Schutie,  J.  L.  D.,  <De  festo  Sanctorum  Lumi- 
num>  (LeipHg  1841). 

John  Hubebt  Coinyh, 
Editorial  Staff  af  The  Amtricana. 

BPIPHYLLUM,  6p-I-firiim,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Cactactte.  The  few 
species  seem  to  be  confined  to  Brazil,  where  they 
are  epiphytic  upon  trees.  They  have  flat-jointea 
stems  with  blunt  ends,  from  which  the  new 
branches  and  flowers  are  produced.  These  are 
home  in  great  abundance,  on  which  account,  and 
betlause  of  their  brilliant  red  tints,  this  group  of 
cacti  is  exceptionally  popular  in  greenhouses, 
being  probably  the  most  useful  of  all  cactL 
They  are  easily  propagated  by  means  of  cuttings 
or  by  grafting,  particularly  upon  erect-growing 
species  of  other  genera,  and  are  generally  used 
as  hanging- basket  plants,  for  which  purpose 
their  drooping  habit  specially  recommends  them. 
They  need  a  porous,  poor,  fibrous  soil  and  little 
water.  The  species  most  widely  grown  are 
E.  truncalnm,  the  crab  or  Christmas  cactus, 
with  numerous  horticultural  hybrids  between  it 
and  related  species,  and  C.  Gartneri,  the  Easter 

EPIPHYSIS.    Sec  Bone. 

BPIPHYTB,  ipl-flt,  or  AIR.PLANT,  a 

plant  attached  to  a  tree  or  other  support,  or- 
ganic or  inorganic,  living  or  dead,  hut  from 
which  it  obtains  no  nutriment.  The  term  air- 
plant  has  been  popularly  applied  because  these 
plants  are  t^^'pically  neither  parasitic,  saprophytic 
nor  terrestrial,  but  depend  upon  the  dust  which 
lodges  around  them  and  upon  the  water  of  dew 
ancT  rain.  Strictly  speaking,  they  are  not  air- 
plants,  because  this  term  implies  no  other  source 
of  life  than  air.  Besides  the  typical  epiphytes, 
whidi  have  representatives  in  many  plant  fami- 
lies, particularly  the  tropical  orchids,  bromelias 
and  terns,  there  are  many  forms  which  are  on^ 
partially  epiphytic.  In  structure  many  of  them 
exhibit  adaptations  for  checking  transpiration 
and  for  securing  even  minute  quantities  of  water 
from  the  air  or  from  objects  to  which  they  are 
attached.  (See  PrrCHEB-PLANTS).  Others  (cer- 
tain orchids)  have  storage  organs  which  are 
usually  specialized  stems.  Some  have  roots 
which  serve  only  to  anchor  the  plants  to  their 
support.  In  these,  which  are  the  most  typical, 
the  absorption  of  food  takes  place  in  the  leaves 
and  other  green  parts.  Others  are  only  epiphytic 
at  first,  since  they  later  develop  true  roots  which 
obtain  food  from  the  soil.  The  home  of  the 
largest  number  of  epiphytes  is  in  the  moist  re- 
gion covered  by  tropical  forests,  the  trees  of 
which  are  often  so  covered  with  these  plants 
that  their  branches  are  wholly  concealed  by  a 
veiY  miscellaneous  growth.     In  the  temperate 


Google 


BPIRUS— EPISCOPAL   THEOLOGICAL   SCHOOL 


4M 


and  colder  climates  the  epiphjtal  fonns  are  con- 
lined  almost  wholly  to  lower  orders  of  plant  life 
such  as  liverworts,  mosses,  alrae  ana  lidiens. 
These  are  also  represented  in  the  tropics,  some 
of  them  even  becoming  attached  to  leaves  of 
higher  plants.  Many  oi  the  flowering  epiphytes 
are  cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  .ornament. 
Among  the  favorites  are  various  secies  of 
Nepenthes  (q.v.),  orchids  and  bromelias.  One 
of  the  best-known  American  species,  common  in 
the  southern  United  Sutes,  is  the  so-called 
Florida  or  Spanish  moss  (Tillandsia  tuneoides) 
of  the  natur^  order  Brometiacea. 

EPIRUS,  (-prrris  (meaning  the  mainland 
in  Greek),  an  ancient  part  of  northern  Greece 
which  stretched  from  the  Ionian  Sea  to  the 
Ambracian  Gulf  and  was  bounded  by  lUyria, 
Macedonia  and  Thessaly.  Epirus  is  very  moim- 
tainous,  especially  so  in  the  east,  and  this  tact 
andoubledly  helped  to  shape  the  character  of 
the  inhabitants,  who  were  of  a  bold  and  hari^ 
nature  and  great  lovers  of  their  country,  whiui 
was  divided  into  numerous  independent  tribes, 
the  principal  of  which  were  the  Chaones,  Mo- 
lossi  and  Thesproti.  The  Greeks  began  early 
to  settle  along  the  coast  of  Epirus,  and  later,  at 
some  interior  points.  This  led  the  way  to  Greek 
domination  of  the  country  at  a  later  date.  The 
chiefs  of  the  Molossians,  the  most  powerful 
of  the  tribes  of  Epirus,  who  claimed  to  be  the 
direct  descendants  of  Pyrrhus,  the  son  of  Achil- 
les, whom  legend  credited  with  settling  the 
country  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  and  who  con- 
sequently prided  themselves  on  a  long  line  of 
princely  ancestors,  jealously  maintained  their 
ascendency  and  gradually  increased  thrir  power 
over  the  whole  cotmlry.  Aiyrabas  I  oi  this 
line,  who  was  educated  in  Athens,  introduced 
Greek  culture  among  his  people  during  the 
second  quarter  of  the  Sth  century  i.e. ;  Arym- 
bas,  a  centurv  and  a  half  later,  followed  in  the 
footsteps  of  his  famous  ancestor  and  namesake, 
and  sedulously  encouraged  art  and  literature. 
One  of  his  nieces,  educated  carefully  by  him 
and  married  to  Philip  II  of  Macedonia,  was  the 
mother  of  Alexander  the  Great,  A  period  of 
wars  followed  the  death  of  Arjrobas  II,  in- 
terrupted from  time  to  time.  Pyrrhus,  who 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  295  b.c  carried  the 
war  to  the  Romans  in  Sicily  and  Italy  for  six 
years,  and  brought  the  name  of  Epirus  promi- 
nently to  the  attention  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
world    Finally  Epirus  became  a  sort  of  republic 

Kveroed  by  a  magistrate  elected  annually  by 
;  vote  of  the  assembled  people.  The  country 
imwisely  sided  with  Perseus  in  his  war  against 
the  Romans  (168  B.C.).  The  latter  exacted  a 
terrible  retribution,  making  slaves  of  150,000 
inhabitants  of  Epirus  after  having  destroyed  70 
towns  and  villages;  and  22  years  later  the  whole 
country  became  a  political  part  of  Macedonia 
under  the  title  of  Epirus  Velus.  On  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  (1204)  it  was  seiied  by  Michel 
Angelus  Comnenus.  Later,  after  passing  throut^ 
several  hands,  it  became  the  property  of  the 
Turks  (1430)  ;  and  it  later  formed  part  of  the 
Turkish  Vilayet  of  Janina.  Greece  obtained 
the  part  east  of  the  river  Arta  in  1881. 

At  the  close  of  the  Balkan  War  (1912-13) 
Greece  added  a  new  province  to  her  territory 
on  her  northwest,  and  to  this  she  gave  the 
name  of  Epirus.  This  province  is  bordered  on 
the  north  by  Albania,  on  the  east  by  the  provinces 


of  Macedonia  and  Thessaly,  and  on  the  south 
and  west  by  the  Golf  of  Arta  and  the  Ionian 
Sea.  The  jpopulation  of  this  newly-acquired 
territory  is  between  600,000  and  ?00,000  and  its 
capital  is  Janina,  a  city  of  25,000.  It  is  largely 
an  agricultural  country  and  amon^  its  cnicf 
products  are  wheal  and  other  grains,  olives, 
fruits,  vegetables  and  tobacco. 

Bibliography,— Bowen,  'Mount  Athos. 
Thessaly  and  Epirus'  (London  1852):  Dumont, 
'Souvenirs  de  I'Adriatique  et  de  rEpire'  (in 
Revue  del  dens  Mondes;  Paris  1872)  ;  Hob- 
house,  'A  Journey  throu^  Albania,  etc.*  (Lon- 
don 1813)  -  Karapanos,  <Dodone  et  ses  Ruines> 
(Paris  1878) ;  Leake,  'Travels  in  Norlhem 
Greece'  (London  1835)  ;  Merleker,  'Darslellung 
des  Landes  und  dcr  Bcwohner  von  Epeiros' 
(Konigsberp  1841)  ;  Skene,  'Remarkable  Lo- 
calities on  the  Coast  of  Epirus'  (in  Journal 
Royal  Geographical  Society  1848) ;  Stuart, 
'Physical  Geography  and  Natural  Resources  of 
Epirus'  (18W) ;  Von  Hahn,  'Albanesische 
Studien'  (Fcna  1854)  ;  Wolfe,  'Observations  on 
the  Gulf  of  Arta'  (in  Journal  Royal  Geographi- 
cal Society  1834) ;  Zompolides,  'Das  Land  und 
die  Bewohner  von  Epinis'  (Berlin  1880). 

EPISCOPACY,  that  form  of  C3iurch  gov-  ■ 
emment  in  which  one  order  of  the  clergy  is 
superior  to  another ;  as  bishops  to  priests  and 
deacons.  Much  discussion  has  taken  place  on 
the  subject  of  episcopacy.  Nothing  conclusive 
can  be  gathered  concerning  it  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment; but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  existed 
universally  in  the  Church  from  the  earliest  hb- 
toric  a^es  down  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
and  it  is  inferred,  as  no  change  can  be  shown 
to  have  taken  place,  that  the  same  constitution 
existed  from  the  lime  of  the  apostles.  Presby- 
terians and  others  argue,  on  the  other  hand, 
that,  as  there  is  nothing  de&nite  concerning  it  in 
Scripture.  Christians  are  left  a  discretionary 
power  of  modeling  the  government  of  their 
Church  in  such  a  manner  as  may  seem  to  them 
most  meet;  and  that  every  Christian  society  has 
a  right  lo  make  laws  for  itself,  prodded  these 
laws  are  consistent  with  charity  and  ^eace  and 
with  the  fundamental  doctrines  and  princii>les  of 
Christianity.  The  power  vested  in  the  bishops 
or  higher  clergy  differs  very  much  among  the 
different  episcopal  bodies.  The  Roman  Catholic 
and  the  Greek  Churches,  as  also  the  Church  of 
England  and  sections  of  the  Methodist  Church,. 
are  episcopalian.  Sec  Biwiop  ;  Great  Bhitain  — 
Thz  Church  of  England;  Greek  Church; 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  Cathouc 
Church.  Rohan. 

^EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.  See  Great 
Britain— The  Church  of  England:  Met ho- 
DisT Episcopal  Church;  Protestant  Efiscoeal 
Church  ;  Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  R«formed.  See 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 

EPISCOPAL  RING,  The.    See  Costume, 

ECCUSIASTICAI. 

EPISCOPAL  THEOLOGICAL 
SCHOOL,  an  institution  situated  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.  It  was  established  in  1867  by  Benjamin 
Tyler  Reed,  as  a  college  tor  candidates  studying 
for  the  ministry  for  the  Episcopal  Church. 
Students  holding  badielors'  degrees  may  obtain 
the  degree  of  B,D.,  but  those  not  holding  such 
a  degree  receive  only  certificates.   The  principal 


>y  Google 


EPISCOPIUS — EPIBTBUOLOGY 

choruses,   and 


Amsterdam,  1  Jan.  1583;  d.  there,  4  April  1643. 
The  religious  movement  known  as  Arminianism 
was  fostered  by  him,  and  he  was  its  leader  after 
the  death  of  Arminius  (Q.v.).  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Leyden,  where  in  1606  he  received  his 
degree  of  li.A.  In  1610  he  was  ordained  pastor 
at  the  village  of  Bleyswyck  near  Rotterdam.  In 
1611  the  States-General,  with  the  intention  of 
pulling  an  end  lo  the  agitations  created  by  the 
controversies  between  the  Gomarists  or  Calvin- 
istic  party  and  the  Arminians  or  Remonstrants, 
ordered  a  conference  to  be  held  in  their  presence 
at  The  Hague  between  six  ministers  of  each 
party.  Episcopius  was  one  of  the  six  charged 
with  the  advocacy  of  Arminianism,  and  hif^hly 
distinguished  himself  tw  good  temper,  ability 
and  learning.  In  1612  the  curators  of  the  Uu- 
Tersity  of  Leyden  appointed  him  professor  of 
theology  in  ^lace  of  Gomar,  who  oad  gone  to 
Seelan^  This  enraged  the  leaders  of  the  ortho- 
dox party,  who  accused  Episcopius  of  Socinian- 
ism  and  of  having  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
the  Roman  Catholics  for  the  destruction  of 
Protestantism.  By  this  the  fanaticism  of  the 
populace  was  roused ;  he  was  insulted  and 
abused  in  the  street,  and  on  one  occasion  nar- 
rowly escaped  being  stoned  to  death.  The  house 
of  his  brodier  in  Amsterdam  was  sacked,  under 
the  pretext  that  it  was  a  rendezvous  of  the 
Remonstrants.  In  1618  occurred  the  famous 
Synod  of  Dort.  Episcopius  was  present,  with 
several  other  Arminians.  The  Calvinists,  who 
were  in  an  overwhelming  majority^  would  not 
allow  him  to  spealc;  they  told  him  that  the 


synod  was  met  not  to  discuss,  but  to  judge;  and 
all  the  proceedings  exhibited  much  bigotry  and 
tyranny.     Expelled  from  the  Church  and  ban- 


ished from  the  country,  Episcopius  betook  him- 
self first  to  Antwerp,  afterward  to  Rouen  and 
Paris,  but  1626  returned  to  Rotterdam,  where 
the  odium  tkeologicum  against  his  party  had 
become  less  virulent.  Here  he  married  in  1630, 
and  four  years  later  was  made  primarius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  the  newly  established  col- 
lege of  the  Remonstrants.  Episcopius  held 
enlightened  principles  in  rezard  lo  religious 
toleration.  Not  placing  a  high  value  on  merely 
doctrinal  views,  but  trusting  rather  to  the 
efficacy  of   the   Christian  spirit  to  elevale  and 


conflicting  opinions  (when  not  inflamed  with 
controversial  hales),  he  was  desirous  of  a 
broader  and  more  catholic  bond  of  unity  among 
Christians  than  the  opinionative  creeds  of  his 
day  permitted.  He  wrote  'Institutes  of  Theol- 
ogy';  "Apology';  'Confession.'  (See  Gou- 
Aiius;  Abminius).  Consult  Calder,  'Memoirs 
of  Simon  Episcopius'  (London  1838). 

EPISODE  (Lat.  episodmm,  from  the  Gr. 
tirtioMiav,  efeisodioH,  something  adventitious). 
a  separate  mcident,  story  or  action  introduce  a 
into  the  general  narrative,  to  j^ve  variety  or 
digression,  but  so  arranged  as  to  appear  a  part 
of  the  whole.  This  term  is  employed  by  Aris- 
totle in  two  stgnificatiDns.  Sometimes  it  denotes 
those  parts  of  a  play  which  are  between  the 


incidental  narra- 
1  a  poem,  which  the  poet  has 
connected  with  the  main  plot,  but  whidi  is  tiot 
essential  to  it.  In  modem  times  it  has  been 
used  in  the  latter  sense  only.  With  the  best 
poets  the  episode  is  not  an  unnecessary  append- 
age, serving  merely  lo  swell  the  size  of  the 
work,  but  is  closely  connected  with  the  subject, 
points  out  important  consequences  or  devdops 
hidden  causes.  Of  this  kind  is  the  narrative  of 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  in  Virgil's  .Sncid 
This  was  the  cause  of  the  hero's  leaving  his 
country;  but  the  poet  does  nol  commence  with 
it  because  he  wishes  to  bring  the  plot  into  a 
narrower  space.  He  therefore  inserts  it  in  the 
course  of  the  story,  but  so  skilfully  that  we  ex- 
pect it  in  this  very  place;  and  it  not  only  serves 
as  a  key  to  what  has  gone  before,  but  prepares 
us  for  what  is  to  come,  namely,  me  passion  of 
Dido.  In  this  way  the  episode  becomes  an 
essential  j^rt  of  the  whole,  as  it  must  neces- 
sarily be,  if  it  is  of  any  importance  to  preserve 
the  unitv  of  the  poem.  So  with  the  tale  in 
Wielands  'Oberon' ;  it  appears  incidenUl,  but 
explains  to  us  the  reason  of  Oberon's  singular 
interest  in  the  fate  of  Huoo.  In  epic  poetry 
there  is  much  more  room  for  the  episode  than 
in  dramatic,  where  the  poem  is  confined  to  & 
present  action.  An  excellent  instance  of  the 
skilful  use  of  the  episode  in  the  modem  novel 
is  given  in  Manzoni  s  'I  promessi  sposi,'  in  ihe 
tale  of  the  'Nun  of  Monia.'  The  term  episode 
has  also  been  transferred  to  painting,  especially 
historic  painting;  in  a  sense  analogous  to  that 
which  it  has  in  poetry.  The  term  episode  it 
also  employed  in  music  to  designate  an  inter- 
mediate section  of  a  com^sition.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  a  digressive  section,  especially 
in  conlrapuntal  work,  like  a  fugue. 

EPISTATBS,  in  ancient  Greece,  the  name 
generallv  applied  to  an  ofiicer  in  charge  of 
certain  functions  and  specifically  to  the  presiding 
officers  of  the  Ekklesia  and  the  Boule  or  Senates 

EPISTAXIS.    See  NosESLxea 

EPISTEMOLOGY  {i^urr^i^,  knowledge 
or  science,  and  yijos  theory  or  discourse), 
or  theory  of  knowledge,  is  an  account  of  the 
nature  of  knowledge,  treating  of  its  origin 
and  laws  of  development,  its  validity  and 
relation  to  human  experience  as  a  whole.  In- 
vestigations of  this  character  fall  within  the 
field  of  general  philosophy  and  have  usually 
been    included    under    the    heading    of    meta- 

Sfaysics.  The  word  "Episiemolog^  is  said  to 
ave  been  first  used  by  J.  F.  Ferrier  in  his 
'Institutes  of  UeUphysics>  (1854).  Since  its 
general  adoption   it  has  sometimes  been  taken 

'       ■         " ■■  vith. 

It 

the  nature  of  loiowledge  distinct  : 
problems  regarding  the  nature  of  being,  and 
to  call  the  former  epistemology,  and  the  latter 
metaphysics.  The  best  usage  of  the  present 
lime,  however,  seems  to  retain  the  historical 
sense  of  the  term  metaphydcs  as  the  name  for 
the  more  general  field  of  philosophical  inquiry 
which  embraces  both  epistemology  and  ontol- 
ogy. (See  also  articles  on  Phiix»ophy  and 
Metaphysics).  Moreover,  a  logical  justi- 
fication for  this  usage  is  furnished  by  the  fact 
that  it  is  imposstUe  to  carry  on  the  two 
branches  of  inquiry  in  isolation.      It  most  tin- 


EPI8TBHOLO0Y 


doubtedly  be  granted  that  for  aa  ultimate- 
ontology,  or  final  view  of  the  world,  it  is 
necessary  to  go  beyond  the  merely  cc^nitional 
aspect  of  experience  and  include  in  our  syn- 
thesis judgments  based  on  other  orders  of 
vslue  uian  the  merely  logicsL  But  it  is  at 
once  obvious  that  we  cannot  talce  one  signifi- 
cant step  in  investigating  the  nature  of  reaiilr 
viriAoiit  some  criterion  of  knowledge,  i.e., 
some  theory  of  the  conditions  under  which 
reality  is  Known,  and  of  what  constitutes 
truth.  It  is  perhaps  not  so  evident  that  the 
nature  of  knowledge  cannot  be  made  the  sub- 
ject of  inquiry  witliout  any  reference  to  meta- 
physical theory.  Indeed,  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  speak  of  epistemolc^y,  as  Locke  does,  as 
*a  preliminary  clearing  of  the  ground*  which 
is  to  be  completed  before  any  more  ultimate 
metaphirsical  mquiries  are  to  be  undertaken, — 
if,  indeed,  these  are  to  be  undertaken  at  all. 
But  this  way  of  conceiving  the  matter  is  quite 
misleading.  The  figures  whidi  compare  the 
knowing  faculty  to  an  instrument  whose  nature 
must  first  be  understood,  are  here  quite  inap- 
plicable. For  knowledge  has  no  existence  by 
Itself,  or  apart  from  ana  external  to  its  objects. 
What  we  want,  as  Hegel  has  observed,  *is  to 
combine  in  our  process  of  inquiry  the  action 
of  the  forms  of^  thought  with  a  criticism  of 
them.  The  forms  of  thoudit  must  be  studied 
in  their  essential  nature  and  complete  develop- 
ment; they  are  at  once  the  object  of  research 
and  the  action  of  that  object  Hence  they  ex- 
amine thernselves;  in  tndr  own  action  they 
must  determine  their  Mmits  and  point  out  their 
defects.*  In  other  words,  knowledge  is  never 
a  mere  series  of  ideas  or  mental  representa' 
lions  that  can  be  investigated  apart  from  its 
relation  to  objects.  In  so  far  as  it  is  knowledge 
it  refers  to  and  implies  reality.  To  investigate 
its  nature,  then,  is  at  the  same  time  to  test  its 
conclusions  regarding  the  nature  of  the  ob- 
jects with  whicn  it  deals.  But  even  if  one  re- 
fuses to  take  this  standpoint,  one  must  still 
admit  the  close  connection  of  epistemology 
and  metaphysics.  For  all  theories  of  the  nature 
of  knowledge  are  based  implicitly  or  explicitly 
on  certain  metaphysical  assumptions  regarding 
both  the  mind  which  knows  and  its  relation 
to  the  objects  known.  Epistemology,  then, 
cannot  take  one  step  without  involving  the 
ontological  problems  which  some  of  its  repre- 
sentatives seek  to  avoid. 

It  is  likewise  impossible  to  distinguish 
sharply  the  discussion  of  epistemotogical  prob- 
lems from  logic  If  a  division  can  be  made  at 
the  present  time  it  is  only  in  (legree  of  ulti- 
mateness.  It  is  possible,  thoueh  perhaps  not 
advisable,  to  limit  the  terra  'logic*  to  the 
somewhat  narrow  and  abstract  treatment 
Khich  takes  as  its  object  the  discovery  of  cer- 
tain correct  forms  of  thinking,  or  certain  rules 
which  are  of  practical  value  in  testing  ai^cu- 
ments.  When,  however,  lojrfc  breaks  away 
from  this  narrow  program,  as  has  been 
done  by  the  more  important  recent  writers. 
~~'  '  s  inquiries  in  a  philosophical 


spirit,  it  becomes  identical  with  epistemology. 
Cpistemologv,  logic,  and  metaphysics  may  thus 
be  said  to  denote  certain  main  points  of  view, 
differing  somewhat  in  the  treatment  of  various 
writers  in  emphasis  and  inclusiveness,  rather 
than  three  initependent  and  isolated  sciences. 
Psychology,  as  a  natural  science,  however. 


occupies  a  difFercDt  field,  and  has  quite  a  dif- 
ferent problem  from  epistemology.  It  is  true 
that  attempts  have  frequently  been  made  to 
explain  knowledge  by  beginning  with  cogni- 
tive menial  states  viewed  as  psychological  proc- 
esses. But  the  characteristics  of  the  mental 
states  and  functions  with  which  psycfaolosy 
deals  have  no  immediate  bearing  on  the  prob- 
lem of  knowledge.  For  psycholo^  is  con- 
cerned only  with  the  mode  in  which  ioeas  exist ; 
it  Investigates  their  quality,  duration,  intently, 
etc.,  as  well  as  their  various  modes  of  com- 
bination, viewing  them  as  particular  forms  of 
Ssychical  reality.  Epistemology,  on  the  other 
and^  is  interested  not  in  the  existential  aspect 
of  ideas,  but  in  their  sigrnificance,  in  the  uni- 
versal and  <^jective  validity  of  experience  as 
a  body  of  truth.  It  thus  seeks  to  bring  to 
light  the  forms  and  functions  of  intellt^nce, 
noting  the  conditions  and  nresuppositions 
under  which  it  worics,  and  the  Taws  by  which 
knowledge  develops  from  its  simpler  and  more 
fragmentary  stages  to  the  more  complicate 
and  coherent   structure  of  science.       It   is  i 


_   individual  stales  of  t_  

Reflection  on  the  nature  of  knowledge  does 
not  arise  untU  a  somewhat  late  stage  in  the 
development  of  the  thought  of  the  individual 
and  the  race.  Thou^t  first  announces  its 
conclusions  confidently  and  fearlessly.  It  is 
not  until  this  naive  confidence  fails  and  scep- 
ticism arises  that  it  is  forced  to  reflect  upon 
the  nature  of  knowledge  and  its  grounds    ~ '' 


The  early  Greek  philosopher^  as  Hegel  re- 
marked, uought  away  fearlessly  regarding  the 
of  reality.      It  was  the  collapse  of  those 


up  the  episiemological  problem.  In  the  same 
way  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean  discussions  re- 
garding the  canon  of  truth  arose  in  response 
to  the  more  outspoken  and  thorough-going 
scepticism  of  later  times.  In  modem  times 
the  epistemolosical  interest  did  not  cotne  into 
the  foregrotma  until  Locke's  'Essay,'  Locke's 
account  of  the  orij^n  of  this  work  brings  out 
very  clearly  the  way  in  which  problems  of  this 
character  naturally  arise:  'Five  or  six  friends 
meeting  at  my  chamber,  and  discoursing  on  a 
subject  very  remote  from  this,  found  them- 
selves quicUy  at  a  stand  by  the  difficulties  that 
rose  on  every  side.  After  we  had  awhile  puz- 
zled ourselves,  without  coming  any  nearer  a 
resolution  of  those  doubts  which  perplexed 
us,  it  came  into  my  thoughts  that  we  took  a 
wrong  course,  and  that  before  we  set  our- 
selves upon  inquiries  of  that  nature,  it  was 
necessary  to  examine  our  own  abilities  and  see 
what  objects  our  understandings  were,  or  were 
not  fitted  to  deal  with  ....  Some  hasty 
and  undigested  thoughts  on  a  subject  I  had 
never  before  considered,  which  I  set  down 
against  our  next  meeting,  gave  the  first  en- 
trance into  this  discourse;  ....  and  at 
last  it  was  brought  into  that  order  thou  now 


)  bis  undertaking  were  veiy  similar 


EPISTEMOLOGY 


to  those  which  influenced  Locke.  The  scep- 
ticism of  his  time,  he  says,  "is  cleatly  the 
result,  not  of  the  caielessness,  but  of  the  ma- 
tured judgment  of  an  age,  which  will  no 
longer  rest  saiisfied  with  the  mere  appear- 
ance of  knowledge.  It  is,  at  the  same  time, 
a  powerful  appeal  to  reason  to  undertake 
anew  the  most  difhcult  of  its  duties,  namely, 
self-knowledge,  and  to  institute  a.  court  of  ap- 
peal which  should  protect  the  just  rights  of 
reason,  but  dismiss  all  groundless  claims,  and 
should  do  this  not  by  means  of  irresponsible 
decrees,  but  according  to  the  eternal  and  un- 
alterable laws  of  reason,'  Kant  has  a  poor 
opinion  of  Locke's  account  of  knowledge,  and 
characterizes  it  as  "a  certain  ph^sioloey  of 
the  human  understanding."  He  himself  pro- 
posed to  inaugurate  a  method  of  Criticism 
which  should  give  a  new  direction  to  philo- 
sophical inquicT,  and  at  the  same  time  furnish 
to  it  a  sure  foundation  for  further  advance. 
Since  Kant^s  time  epistemolo^cal  problems 
have  largely  dominated  modem  ohilosophy; 
and  indeed,  it  has  been  maintained  by  many 
thinkers  that  the  criticism  of  knowledge  is  the 
sole  function  which  philosophy  is  able  to  per- 
.  form,  and  that  ontological  speculation  is  vain 
and  fruitless. 

In  the  Pre- Kantian  philosophy  Rationalism 
(q.v.)  and  Empiricism  (q.v.)  were  the  main 
h^es  of  epistemological  theory.  The  basis  of 
tne  former  was  laid  by  Descartes  Cq.v.),  who 
sought  to  universalize  the  method  of  mathe- 
matics, and  by  this  means  to  secure  the  cer- 
tainty of  absolute  demonstration  in  all  fields. 
As  mathematics  start  from  axioms  and  prin- 
ciples which  are  intuitively  certain,  and  pro- 
ceeds by  means  of  reasoning  to  deduce  all  its 
other  propositions  from  these  as  necessary 
consequences,  so  all  science  must  derive  its 
conclusions  from  fundamental  and  indemon- 
strable principles.  These  principles  exist  in 
the  mind  as  a  priori  truths,  and  are  imiversal 
and  necessary  in  character.  All  science  is 
thus  built  up  by  reasoning  from  general  prin- 
ciples. Sense- perception  and  observation  of 
E articular  facts  were  neglected,  since  it  was 
eld  to  he  impossible  to  arrive  in  this  way  at 
the  universal  and  necessary  form  of  truth 
which  science  demands.  It  is  evident  that  this 
theory  of  knowledge  could  more  readily  be 
applied  to  the  general  features  of  reality  than 
to  a  determination  of  its  particular  details. 
As  in  the  hands  of  Wolff  (q.v.)  and  other 
continental  rationalists  it  was  occupied  mainly 
in  furnishing  formal  proofs  of  the  existence 
of  God,  the  nature  of  the  soul,  and  the  external 
features  of  the  physical  universe.  Empiricism 
(q.v.),  on  the  other  hand,  emphasizes  sense- 
perception  as  the  basis  of  all  knowledge.  Ex- 
perience is  described  as  a  series  of  particular 
sensations  and  ideas  in  consciousness  which 
are  given  to  the  mind  from  some  external 
source.  The  mind  itself  is  regarded  as  merely 
receptive,  without  any  store  of  innate  ideas, 
or  of  organizing  principles.  It  was  not 
strange,  then,  that  in  the  hands  of  a  genius 
like  David  Hume  (q.v.),  who  carried  this  point 
of  view  to  its  logical  outcome,  empiricism 
should  issue  in  scepticism.  For  if  experience 
is  nothing  but  a  scries  of  conscious  states. 
each  of  which  is  loose  and  separate*  from  all 
the  others,  it  is  impossible  to  know  anything 
except   these   particular   states   in   their   isola- 


tion; impossible,  therefore,  to  reach  any  uni- 
versal propositions  such  as  science  demands. 
Again,  if  knowledge  is  limited  to  states  of 
consciousness,  it  follows  at  once  that  there 
can  be  nothing  known  either  of  the  nature  of 
objects   or  of   the  subject   or  soul. 


adequate  account  of  the  nature  of  knowledge. 
For,  while  he  insists  that  knowledge  must 
begin  with  experience,  he  points  out  that  ex- 
perience itself  is  a  compound,  implying  both 
a  given  sense  material  and  forms  ano  prin- 
ciples of  organization  on  the  part  of  the  mind- 
By  his  doctrine  that  "thoughts  without  per- 
ceptions arc  empty,  while  perceptions  without 
thoughts  are  blind,'  he  passed  beyond  the  one- 
sided views  of  both  Rationalism  and  Empiri- 
cism. By  his  transcendental  method  of  inquiry 
he  seeks  to  show  what  are  the  fundamental 
forms  and  categories  which  the  mind  employs 
in  building  up  a  coherent  and  universally 
valid  system  of  experience.  But,  iu  spite  of  the 
great  reform  which  he  effected,  he  did  not 
wholly  succeed  in  reaching  an  organic  view  of 
experience.  This  was  partly  the  result  of  pre- 
supposition which  he  inherited  from  the  past, 
and  partly  due  to  his  own  tendency  to  make 
hard  and  fast  divisions  and  distinctions.  There 
alwa^'S  remained  for  him  an  unresolved  dualism 
within  experience  between  the  datum  of  sense 
and  the  forms  of  thought.  Again,  thought,  as 
he  conceives  it,  does  not  pass  beyond  subjec- 
tivity and  include  in  itself  the  nature  of  its 
object,  but  is  occupied  with  bringing  order 
and  unity  into  sensations  and  mental  repre- 
sentations. Although  these  states  of  con- 
sciousness, when  thus  acted  upon  by  thought 
become  objective  in  the  sense  that  they  are 
parts  of  a  universal  and  necessary  system, 
nevcrlheless  they  are  still  only  'phenomena,* 
objects  in  the  mind,  while  the  world  of  real 
being  (the  things  in  themselves)  remain  in- 
accessible to  knowledge.  The  spirit  of  Kant's 
philosophy  undoubtedly  leads  beyond  any  such 
absolute  dualism.  But  from  Kant's  day  to  the 
present  time  this  distinction  has  appeared  the 
final  word  of  philosophy  to  many  thinkers  who 
continue  to  accept  the  presuppositions  and  cate- 
gories of  the  past  century,  and  who  fail  to  apply 
to  this  problem  the  organic  and  evolutionary 
conceptions  which  are  now  within  their  reach. 

Modern  epistemological  investigation  may 
be  described  as  seeking  to  exhibit  the  organic 
unity  of  experience.  To  reach  this  result,  new 
theories  regarding;  the  nature  of  the  mind  and 
its  relation  to  objects  are  necessary.  In  the 
first  place,  the  conception  of  the  mind  as  made 
up  of  a  number  of  distinct  faculties  must  give 
place  to  the  idea  of  the  mind  as  a  unitary  sys- 
tem of  functions  which  mutually  co-operate 
and  determine  each  other  in  the  progressive 
development  of  experience.  Setondly,  the 
mind  can  no  longer  be  regarded  as  a  system 
of  merely  subjective  functions  related  only  in 
an  external  and  accidental  way  to  the  real  world 
of  objects.  The  course  of  philosophical  dis- 
cussion has  rendered  it  evident  that  if  we  begin 
bv  defining  experience  in  terms  of  mental  proc- 
esses there  is  no  way  of  deriving  from  these 
the  world  of  objects.  If  our  epistemological 
theory  is  to  be  adequate  to  experience  as  we 
know  it,  objectivity  must  be  included  withm 
it.      Thought,  that  is,  is  real  only  as  a  relation 


.lOOglc 


BPISTBHOI.OOY 


to  objects;  br  itself,  and  apart  iiota  the  worM 
□f  real  objects,  it  has  no  reality.  It  is  only  by 
thus  reco^ixinK  from  the  beginning  the  essen- 
tial relation  of  subject  and  object  that  it  is 
possible  to  exhibit  die  real  organic  unity  of 
experience  as  a  system  of  knowledge.  It  was 
Kant's  successors  in  Gennatn*,  and  pre- 
eminently Me^l  (q.v. ) ,  who  nrit  developed 
this  oiganic  view  of  experience.  But  partly 
on  account  of  the  form  in  which  these  systems 
were  expressed,  and  psnl]r  as  a  result  of  the 
decline  of  philosophical  interest,  their  most 
valuable  and  characteristic  ideas  failed  for  a 
long  time  to  b«  appreciated.  The  credit  of 
freeing  these  fruitful  ideas  from  the  somewhat 
obscure  and  uninviting  form  in  which  they 
were  presented  in  the  German  systems  of  a 
century  ago,  belongs  in  the  main  to  the  Engli^ 
neo-Hegelians  and  their  co-laborers  in  Amer- 
ica, among  the  latter  of  whom  a  place  of  honor 
must  be  given  to  Dr.  William  T.  Harris,  the 
late  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 
The  fundamental  doctrine  of  these  writers 
is  that  what  is  real  is  rational,  i.e.,  knowable 
in  terms  of  reason,  and  therefore  that  all  forms 
of  cognitive  experience  can  be  exhibited  as 
organically  interconnected  as  a  system  of  ra- 
tional ideas  or  meanings.  Conscious  experi- 
ence is  from  the  first  regarded,  not  as  a  series 
of  psychological  states,  but  as  taking  the  form 
of  a  judging  activity  whose  function  is  to  in- 
terpret and  reveal  tne  nature  of  the  objective 
world.  Moreover,  knowledge  proceeds  in  its 
development  through  differentiation  and  inte- 
gration in  accordance  with  the  fundamental 
laws  of  It^cal  evolution.  Its  later  and  more 
highly  developed  forms  arc  then  to  be  under- 
stood as  the  ditTerentiation  and  systematization 
of  its  more  elementary  forms  and  fnnctions. 
The  final  truth  regarding  the  nature  of  the 
real  world  must  accordii^ly  correspond  with 
the  ideal  of  completely  developed  and  per- 
fectly rationalized  experience.  As  representa- 
tives of  this  ^neral  type  of  objective  Idealism 
we  may  mention  the  late  T.  H.  Green,  Edward 
Caird,  the  late  D.  G.  Ritchie,  A.  S.  Pringle- 
Fattison,  B.  Bosanquet,  W.  T.  Harris,  John 
Watson  and  Josiah  Royce. 

There  are,  however,  prominent  philosophical 
writers  of  the  present  day  tibo  employ  to 
some  extent  Hegelian  methods  and  principles 
in  dealing  with  experience,  but  who  yet  main- 
tain that  the  account  of  knowledge  in  terms 
of  reason  requires  to  be  modified  and  supple- 
mented in  various  ways.  Two  main  points  of 
view  may  be  here  mentioned,  which  have  mudi 
in  common,  and  which  are  both  often  empha- 
sized by  the  same  writers.  On  the  one  hand, 
it  is  claimed  (hat  logical  thinking  operates 
with  universal  concepts,  and  can  therefore 
never  do  justice  to  the  individual  aspects  o£ 
real  objects.  Thought,  in  other  words,  is  con- 
cerned only  with  imiversal  relations,  and  is 
unable  to  apprehend  the  uniqueness  and  par- 
ticularity of  real  existence;  it  gives  us  only 
descriptions  of  things  in  general  terms,  and 
has  to  receive  as  a  datum  from  another  form 
of  knowing  the  particular  facts  which  form 
its  subject-matter.  This  latter  asnect  of  real- 
ity, it  is  maintained,  can  he  apprehended  only 
in  some  form  of  imttied'ate  exoerimce.  In 
fact,  it  is  oUiTi  maintaini-d  that  logical  ex- 
perience must  both  start  from  and  nass  into. 
direct  intuition  or  feeling.       In  its  beginning. 


logical  thinking  presupposes  the  awareneM  of 
objects  in  sense-perception;  for  it  is  claimed 
it  IS  only  in  this  way  that  thought  comes  into 
contact  with  individual  things  and  gets  a  foot- 
hold in  reality.  Again,  since  the  total  system 
of  things  must  exist  in  individual  form,  the 
final  synthesis  of  knowledge  must  transcend 
logical  relations  and  be  realiied,  if  it  can  be 
attained  at  all,  in  immediate  intuition  —  a  mode 
of  cognition  that  may  perhaps  be  described  as 
analogous  to  esthetic  contemplation.  Although 
the  neo-Hegettan  writers  have  not  been  badt- 
ward  in  meeting  these  arguments,  and  have 
soccessfnlly  diown  the  difRculties  involved  in 
titeir  opponents'  antithesis  of  universal  and  In- 
dividual, of  thou^t  and  immediate  knowing,  yet 
the  discussion  cannot  be  regarded  as  closed  at 
the  present  time. 

In  a  similar  spirit  the  function  of  will  and 
pnrpose  aa  a  fundamental  element  in  experi- 
ence is  at  present  emphasized  in  many  quarters. 
The  intellectual  or  rationalistic  account  of 
cognitive  experi«ice  is  maintained  to  be.  in- 
adequate, since  it  abstracts  from  the  volitional 
element  which  alone  gives  to  knowledge  its 
function  and  signiticance.  Concrete  experience 
is  the  process  of  living,  and  living  consists 
in  the  realisation  of  purposes.  So  much  may, 
I  think,  be  granted:  experience  is  essentially 
a  teleological  process  and  must  be  interpreted 
in  terms  of  purpose.  But  purposes  are  only 
defined  and  realized  through  thought  PraA- 
matiBm  <q.v.)  (as  the  popular  theory  of  the 
^^scnt  day  is  called)  ^es  further,  and  inter- 
prets knowledge  scdely  m  its  relation  to  action. 
Knowledge  is  the  instrument  which  the  will 
employs  to  discover  the  means  vbetAy  prac- 
tical purposes  may  be  realized.  It  is  dins 
never  an  end  in  itself,  nor  does  its  function 
consist  in  revealing  the  nature  of  a  reality 
beyond  experience.  The  function  of  thought 
is  to  effect  the  practical  control  of  experience, 
and  the  only  realities  which  it  can  define  are 
terms  within  experience  itself.  Its  problems 
are  set  by  the  particular  situations  and  con- 
crete demands  which  the  developing  process 
of  experience  presents.  There  is  no  intellt- 
^ble  problem  r^arding  the  nature  of  reality 
m  tceneral,  or  reality  that  does  not  exist  as  a 
particnlar  functional  element  in  concrete  ex- 
perience. Against  this  position  varioui  ob- 
jections have  been  urged  by  many  writers; 
the  chief  of  which  are  (I)  that  it  does  not 
reach  a  real  organic  unity  of  experience ;  (2) 
that  it  overlooks  the  fact  that  knowlet^  is 
an  end  in  itself;  (3)  that  it  Is  subjective,  and 
fails  to  recognize  the  objective  and  rational 
ends   without   which   no    real   experience    can 

At  the  present  time  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant function  of  EpLstemology  consists  in 
a  criddsm  and  evaluation  of  the  fundamental 
conceptions  and  principles  which  underlie  the 
procedure  of  the  special  sciences.  These 
sciences  set  out  from  certain  definite  assump- 
tions regarding  the  nature  of  the  phenomena 
which  they  investigate,  and  with  certain  de- 
mands which  their  method  of  investigation  has 
to  fulfill.  It  is  the  function  of  Epistemology 
10  make  explicit  the  nature  of  these  initial 
assumptions,  and  to  show  that  the  accounts 
given  by  these  sciences  are  essentially  deter- 
mined 1^  the  character  of  these  assumptions. 
Instead  of  assmning  that  the  results  of  the 


.lOogle 


BPISTLB   TO   AfiBUTHHOT— SPISTLB   TO   AUGUSTUS 


qiecutl  sciences  are  to  be  accepted  at  their 
face  value  as  direct  statements  abont  the 
nature  of  reality,  both  iihilosophical  epistemoU 
ogists  and  workers  in  these  sciences  who  have 
reflected  on  the  problems  of  method  (as  e.g., 
E.  Mach  and  Karl  Pearson)  now  agree  tlut 
the  view  of  the  world  given  by  natural  science 
—  and  especially  the  mechanical  theory —  is 
itself  a  logical  construction,  based  on  certain 
assumptions  which  are  necessary  to  carry  out 
the  purpose  of  the  scientific  co-ordination  and 
explanation  of  facts.      This  construction  roust 


ency  is  to  emphasize  the  merely  methodologi- 
cal character  of  scientific  results  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  make  them  appear  almost  arbi- 
traiy  and  devoid  of  any  ontological  signifi- 
cance. This  is  undoubtedly  an  extreme  posi- 
tion. It  must,  of  course,  be  admitted  that  the 
results  of  the  special  sciences  are  largely 
hypothetical  and  possess  only  relative  trutii. 
But  they  are  never  mere  logical  constructions 
in  the  sense  that  they  are  entirely  divorced 
from  reality.  The  ultimate  pun>ose  of  science, 
as  of  all  thinking,  is  to  exhibit  the  structure 
of  the  real  world,  and  the  assumptions  and 
hypotheses  of  -  the  special  sciences  derive 
their  significance  and  justification  solely  from 
their  employment  as  means  for  the  accompHsh- 
ment  of  that  end.  In  its  task  of  criticizing 
the  assumptions  of  the  special  sciences,  then 
Epistemology  cannot  escape  the  consideiatkm 
01  metaphysical  problems  reading  the  nature 


of  the  external  world  and  i 


.  relation  t 


Bibliognphy.— The  bibliography  of  this 
subject  is  coextensive  with  that  of  goieral 
philosophy.  A  few  works  may  be  mentioned 
which  deal  with  the  more  recent  development 
of  the  subject:  Albee,  'The  Significance  of 
Methodological  Principles'  (in  Philosopkieal 
Review.    Vol.    XV.    1906) ;    Bergson.    Henri, 


Truth*  (in  Philosophical  Review,  Vol.  X, 
1901);  Dewey.  'Studies  in  Logical  Theory' 
(Chicago  1902);  id.,  'The  Influence  of  Darwin 
on  Philosophy'  (New  York  1910) ;  lahieB, 
tPragmatism*  (ib.  1907);  id,  'The  Meaning 
of  Truth*  {ib.  1909)  ;  id.,  'Essays  in  Radical 
Empiricism'  (ib.  1912)  ;  'The  Will  to  Believe' 
(ib.  1909)  ;  Ladd,  'Philosophy  of  Knowl- 
e(^e' ;  Marvin,  'The  New  Realism*  (New 
York  1912) ;  Munsterberg,  'Psychology  and 
Life' ;  id.,  'Gmndiuge  der  Psychologic* ; 
Ormond,  'Foundations  of  Knowledge'  (1894)  ; 
Rickert,  'Die  Grenien  der  Naturwissenschaft- 
lichen  Begriffsbildung*  (1902);  Seth,  'Episte- 
mology  and  Metaphysics'  ;  id.,  'Problem  of 
Epistemology*  (in  Philosophical  Review,  Vol.  I, 
IKG);  Ward,  'Naturalism  and  Agnosticism.' 
James  E.  Cbeighton, 
Professor  of  Logic  and  Metaphysics,  Cornell 
University. 

BPISTLE  TO  ARBUTHNOT.  Pope's 
'Epistle  to  Arbuthnot'  (1734-3S),  known  also 
as  'The  Prologue  to  the  Satires,'  is  quite  the 
best  thing  of  its  kind  in  English.  Characteristic 
of  the  writer  in  its  invective,  its  brilliant  wit, 
its  epigrams  and  apothegms,  and  its  incisive  and 
compressed  style,  it  is  far  more  than  any  other 
of  his  satires  a  key  to  the  character  of  the  man 


the 


himself.  Indeed,  it  presents  an  entire  auM- 
biography  in  little  more  than  400  lines.  It  is 
Pope's  apologia,  in  w)iit:h  he  disproves  the  state- 
ment that  he  was  of  lowly  birth,  tells  how  and 
when  he  entered  upon  his  profession  as  poet 
relates  his  persecution  by  literary  pretenders  and 
bores;  dwells  especially  upon  the  slanderous 
attacks  by  his  enemies;  and  draws  portraits  of 
his  enemies  and  his  friends.  The  whole  b  a 
melange  of  personal  confessicai  and  of  satire 
to  which  unity  b  given  only  by  the  personality 
of  the  poet  and  by  his  interest  in  himself.  So 
highly  autobiographical  and  allusive  is  the 
'Elristle*  that  a  commentator  is  needed  to  point 
out  its  full  significance.  Quite  apart  from  any 
autobiographic  element,  however,  it  is  intrin- 
sically great  among  its  kind,  and  even  to  the 
reader  who  knows  Tittle  of  Pope's  character  and 
diwegards  the  contemporary  allusions,  is  still 
inunensely  entertaining.  As  Sir  Leslie  Stephen 
has  remarked.  Pope  is  at  his  best  when  he 
expresses  personal  antipathies  and  attachments, 
when  he  is  autobiographic,  and  when  he  points 
his  morality  by  personal  and  concrete  instances. 
He  was  a  curious  mixture  of  hones^  and  hypoc- 
risy, though  often  honestly  self -deceived,  and 
certain  passages  of  the  'Epistle'  must  "be  read 
by  the  rule  of  contraries.'  Yet  there  is  no  more 
reason  to  doubt  the  sincerity  of  his  tender 
tributes  to  his  mother  and  to  his  friend 
Arbuthnot  than  his  vitriolic  lines  on  Lord  Her- 
vey  (Sporus^.  Thou^  of  ^  " 
'Epistle'  is  m  the  main  bittei 


___  cause  for  the  composition  of  the  ^Epistle,' 
however,  was  the  publication  in  1733  of  'Verses 
to  the  Imitator  of  Horace,'  which  attacked  the 
family,  the  person,  the  manners  and  the  morals 
of  the  poet,  and  in  which  Lady  Mary  Wortlev 
Montague  and  Lord  Hervey  were  implicated. 
Characteristically.  Pope  pretended  to  be  indiffer- 
ent to  the  attack,  and  in  his  'advertisement* 
asserts  that  the  'Epistle'  was  composed  l<Mig 
before  the  appearance  of  the  Montague-Hervey 
volume.  The  statement  is  disingenuous,  since 
only  96  lines  (151-214.  on  Addison;  238-241,  on 
Bnfo;  406-419,  on  Arbuthnot)  were  old  matter. 
These  disconnected  passages  were  pieced  to- 
gether and  over  300  lines  added  to  form  the 
brilliant  and  scathing  rejoinder  to  *Verses  to 
the  Imitator  of  Horace.' 

Dr.  Johnson  traces  the  idea  of  the  'Epistle' 
to  Boileau's  address  'A  son  esprit,*  but,  tfaoogli 
Boileau's  poem  is  admirable.  Pope  far  excels  it. 
*The  sustained  dramatic  power,  the  variety  of 
the  detail,  the  richness  of  the  imagery,  the  ele- 
vation of  the  sentiment,  the  force  of  the  invec- 
tive, contrasting  so  exquisitely  with  the  pathetic 
repose  of  the  conclusion,  combine  to  place  the 
'Epistle'  beyond  reach  of  rivalry  in  this  kind 
of  writing*  (Elwin  and  Courthope).  For  a  full 
discussion  of  the  date  of  composition,  consult 
Pope's  'Works,'  (Vol.  HI  (Poetry),  ed.  Elwin 
and  Courthope,  1881).  Sir  Leslie  Stephen  in  his 
life  of  Pope  in  the  'English  Men  of  Letters* 
series  makes  interesting  comments  on  the  satires. 
Marion  Tuckei. 

EPISTLE  TO  AUGUSTUS.  Pope's 
'Epistle  to  Augustus'  (1737)  is  a  literary  satire 
in  imitation  of  the  epistle  which  Horace  ad- 
dressed to  the  £mi»eror  Augustas   (Bode  II, 


>y  Google 


BPISTLS  SIOB   OP  THB  ALTAR—  BPITAPH 


4M 


Ep.  I),  In  his  dioice  of  topics  and  their  order 
Pope  follows  his  orieinal  rather  closely,  except 
of  course  that  he  substitutes  EnftUsh  literature 
for  Labn,  London  for  Rome,  and  Geonte  It  for 
Augustus.  There  is  aJso  a  change  ot  tone,  in 
that  Horsu-'s  eulogy  of  Augustus  becomes  bit- 
terly ironical  when  applied  to  George  II.  Pope 
discusses  the  relative  merits  of  iuicient  and  mod- 
eni  English  writers,  the  theatre,  the  London 
judgment  of  poets  and  poetry,  the  progress  of 
poetic  art  and  the  poet's  power  to  confer  dis- 
tinctiwi  upon  his  patrons.  In  effect,  the  whole 
is  a  satire  upon  George  11,  upon  unworthy 
writers,  and  upon  poor  literary  taste.  Here  and 
there  occur  passages  full  of  sound  sense  and 
excellent  literary  criticism,  expressed  with 
Pope's  chaiactrnstic  terseness  and  point  (for 
example,  lines  213-20,  on  Dryden  and  Addison}. 
The  most  celebrated  passage  in  the  'Epistle*  is 
perhaps  the  one  on  the  progress  of  English 
poetic  art  (II.  %7~S1),  which  states  that 


"  Dryden  tAuaht  to  jom 

;  venB,  tin  [uO-naOBDiliaE  lin 

TIm  tana,  mtijwtic  marcb.  and  aaaray  3ivii 


lines  which  l^ve  passed  into  the 

such  as  'The  last  and  greatest  an — tne  art 

to  bloL" 

Mabkm  Tucker. 

EPISTLE  SIDE  OP  THB  ALTAK,  the 
ri^t  side  of  the  altar,  looking  toward  it,  so 
named  because  the  episUe  of  the  day  is  read  at 
that  side.  It  is  secondary  to  the  gospel  or  left 
side,  and  on  fete  days  is  occupied  by  the  lesser 
ecclesiastical,  dignitarie*. 

EPISTLES,  Sporioos.    See  Apocsypha. 

EPISTLES  OP  HORACE.    See  Horace. 

EPISTOLJE  OBSCURORUH  VIRO- 
RUM,  e-pis't6-le  6b-ska-r6'riim  vi-ro'rum  (Lat. 
'Letters  of  obscure  men*),  a  collection  of 
satirical  letters  which  appeared  in  Haeenau, 
Germany^  in  1515-19,  and  professed  to  be  the 
composition  of  certain  ecclesiastics  and  pro- 
fessors in  Cologne  and  other  German  towns. 
They  were  addressed  to  Ortunius  Gatius  at 
Deventer,  who  had  gained  the  ill  will  of  the 
liberals  on  account  ol  his  open  hostility  to  them. 
They  are  considered  one  of  the  most  masterly 
sarcasms  in  the  history  of  literature,  and  thdr 
importance  is  enhancecf  by  the  effect  they  had  in 
promoting  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  through 
their  attacks  upon  scholastics  and  monks,  llie 
first  issue  consisted  of  41  letters ;  but  others 
were  subsequently  added.  The  authorship  of  this 
satire  has  been  a  fertile  subject  of  controversy, 
but  the  major  portion  has  been  attributed  to 
Reuchlin,  Ulrich  von  Hut  ten  and  Erasmus,  and 
also  to  Crotius  Rubianus,  the  great  humanist, 
who  is  said  to  have  originated  the  idea  of  the 
letters  and  the  title.  Tne  best  edition  is  that 
of  Bocking,  supplementing  his  edition  of  the 
works  of  von  Hutten  (Leipiig  1864-70). 

BPISTOLBR.  or  EPISTLER,  the  clergy- 
man in  the  English  Church  who  assists  the 
celebrant  in  administering  Holy  Communion,  and 
who  reads  the  epistle.  The  office  corresponds 
to  that  of  subdeaoon  in  the  Calhdic  Church. 

BPISTULS  EX  PONTO,  four  books  of 
letters,  written  by  Ovid  during  his  exile.  They 
are  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  appeals  to 


his  friends  at  Rome  for  intercession  with  the 
emperor.    They  are  in  elegiac  metre. 

EPISTYLIUM,  or  EPISTYLE,  a  beam 
of  stone  or  wood,  used  to  span  the  space  between 
columns  or  pillars.  It  b  synonymous  with  the 
term  architrave. 

EPITAPH  (Gr.  iir<rdf«t,  epilaphios, 
funeral,  from  hr\,  epi,  upon,  and  f^^,  laphot, 
tomb),  an  inscription  upon  a  tomb.  The  earliest 
known  are  those  upon  Egyptian  sarcophagi. 
Epitaphs  are  common  among  many  people,  and 
arose,  in  all  probability,  out  of  the  desire  to 
commemorate  the  dead.  They  were  in  use 
among  both  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Many  of 
the  later  Greek  epitaphs  were  of  considerable 
lengtlL  while  those  of  the  Romans  commonly 
recorded  only  brief  particulars  regarding  the 
deceased.  The  tombs  of  the  Romans  were 
placed  near  the  highways,  and  their  epitaphs 
generally  commenced  with  Sta  viator!  (Stop, 
tTavelerl).  On  Christian  tombstones  epitaphs 
frequently  express  the  pious  hopes  of  survivors 
in  reference  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
faith.  In  the  catacombs  of  Rome,  which  were 
made  a  place  of  refuge  by  the  persecuted  Chris- 
bans  under  the  pagan  emperors,  are  many  re- 
markable epitaphs  of  this  description.  Among 
memorable  epitaphs,  one  of  the  happiest,  is  that 
(ti  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  in  Saint  Pauls,  Lon- 
don, of  which  he  was  the  architect ; 


The  foUowit^  is  the  epitaph  of  a  Roman 

Domum  iirvatit, 

Lanam  facit. 

"  She  kept  tlw  bcnH  and  ipsa  Uw  wool." 

Sla,  liatat:  kerotm  caUat,— 

"  Tnnlcr.  paiiM:  tbou  tiadnt  apon  a  fano," 

has  been  ascribed  both  to  Montecuculi  and  to 
Gen.  Merci. 

SuSiiU  kuic  lumHlui,  tni  nan  tufiaral  orbii. — 


was  the  epitaph  of  Alexander  the  Great 

Count  Tessin,  a  governor  under  Gustavus 
III  of  SNvedcn,  ordered  the  words 

TandtrnfiHi. 
"  H»ppy  «t  lut  " 

to  be  inscribed  on  his  tomb.    The  following  is 
Sir  Isaac  Newton's  epitaph: 

lamaimm    NtmbM, 

Qmm   iMmanaUm 

rauntar     Timpia.  Nalva.    Calum. 

UehaUm  hoc  Uarmor, 

"  This    marblt  ackoovledga    Iia«c    Newton    mortal,    to 
irhMB  immortality  time,  nature,  aad  heaven 

Saint  Anne's  Church,  at  Cracow,  has  the  fol- 
lowing suK^stive  epitaph,  dedicated  by  Count 
SierakowsKL  to  Copernicus : 


Many  so-called  epitaphs  are  merely  eingTanu, 
never  intoided  for  senous  use  as  monumental 
inscriptions.  Amoi^  such  may  be  cited  that  of 
Piron,  on  Marshal  de  Belle- isle,  who  was 
buried  next  to  Tnrenne: 


■8l^ 


BPITHAJLAHIUU — EPITHEUUU 


Mraphic  Elemetits  in  Latin  Intcriptions'  (New 
^rk  1910)  ;  Blommaert,  elc,  'Inscriptions 
funiraires  et  monumentales  de  la  prov,  de 
Flandre  Orient'  (Ghent  1857-60)  ;  Brown,  J., 
'Epitaphs'  (Edinburgh  1867) ;  Bucheler  and 
Riese,  'Antologia  Latina'  (Yol-  H,  Leipzig 
1869)  ;  ChwoJson,  'Achtzehn  hebraische  Grab- 
gchriflen  aus  der  Krim'  (18S0) ;  Haeket,  'Select 
and  Remarkable  Epitaphs'  (1757);  Kaibel. 
< Epigram mata  GrBca  ex  Lapidibus  Collecta' 
(Berlin  1878)  ;  Kippax,  'Churdiyard  Literature' 
(Chicago  1876) ;  Labbe,  'Tesaurus  Epitaphi- 
orum'  (Paris  1666) ;  Le  Blaat,  'Inscriptions 
chretiennes,  etc.*  (1856-65);  Lewysohn,  'Sech- 
rig  Epitaphien  von  Grabsteinen'  (1855)  ;  Loar- 
Ing,  'Quaint,  Elegant  and  Curious  Epitaphs' 
(1872);  Pettigrew,  'Chronicles  of  the  Tombs' 
(1857)  ;  Preger,  'Inscripliones  Grseca!  Mctricse 
ex  ScriptoriDuj  prseter  Antologiam  Collectae' 
(Leipzig  1891)  ;  PuUeyn,  'Churchyard  Glean- 
ings' (1830);  Beinach,  'Trait6  d'Apigraphie 
Recque'  (Paris  1885);  Robinson,  'Epitaphs 
am  Cemeteries'  (1859)  ;  Thompson,  'Txdium 
vitx  in  Roman  Sepulchral  Inscnptions'  (Saint 
Louis  1911) ;  Tolmar,  'A  Study  o£  the  Sepul- 
chral Inscriptions  in  Biicheler's  Carmina  Epi- 
graptiica  Latina'  (Chicago  1910) ;  Weever, 
'Andcni  Funeral  Montmients'  (1631);  Words- 
worth, 'Essay  on  Epitaphs.' 

EPITHALAMIUM,  fpl-tha-li'ml-am 
(Lat.  epilhntamioit,  from  the  Gr.  iriSa?AftiiK, 
efiiiuilamios,  nuptial,  from  "rl,  efi,  upon,  and 
flij.a/iof,  thaiamot,  a  chamber),  a  nuptial  song, 
a  poem  in  honor  of  a  newly  married  couple  or 
one  of  the  pair.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans it  was  sung  by  younz  men  and  maids  at 
Ac  door  of  the  bridal  chamber  of  &  newly-mar- 
ried couple.  It  consisted  of  praises  of  the  bride- 
groom and  bride,  with  wishes  for  their  happi- 
ness. Examples  may  be  seen  in  Theocritus' 
epithalamium  of  Helen,  and  the  three  epithala- 
mia  of  Calulius,  in  wnich  the  Greek  form  is 
much  modified.  Some  Roman  epithalamia  were 
collected  by  Wemsdorf  in  Vol.  IV  of  bis 
'Poets  Latina;  Minores'  (Hdmstcdt  1789). 

BPITHBLIOUA,  a  species  of  cancer  in 
which  the  disease  attacks  the  surfaces  covered 
with  epithelium  or  epidermis.    See  Cancek. 

EPITHELIUM,  ep-I-thcni-iim,  one  of  the 
simplest  forms  of  tissue  derived  chiefly  but  not 
alone  from  the  outer  embryonic  layers  and 
characterized  by  its  non- vascularity.  It  con- 
sists of  flattened  or  columnar  cells  united  into 
continuous  membranes  by  an  intercellular  ce- 
ment substance.  Epithelium  serves  for  the 
most  part  to  protect  exposed  surfaces  of  the 
body,  and  performs  the  functions  of  absorp- 
tion, secretion  and  excretion.  The  epithelial 
tissues  are  developed  from  all  three  layers  of 
the  developing  embryo.  They  themselves 
secrete  their  own  cement  substance.  This 
lakes  on  the  form  of  thin  plates  between  the 
cells,  gluing  them  together.  Occasionally  the 
epithelial  cells  develop  short  lateral  projections 
(prickles),  forming  with  similar  structures  of 
neighboring  cells  intercellular  bridges,  between 
which  are  intercellular  spaces  filled  with  lymph 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  cells.  Inasmuch 
as  practically  all  epithelial  cells  have  one  ex- 
posed surface  and  one  surface  tying  in  contact 
with  tissues  underneath,  the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  show  certain  variations  of  structure. 


localities.  The  outer  surface  of  the  celL  be- 
ing exposed,  develops  more  truly  animal  func- 
tions, the  inner  more  vegetative.  filood  ves- 
sels and  lymph  vessel*  do  not  penetrate,  as 
a  rule,  into  epithelial  tissues,  but  tfa^  are  richly 
supplied  with  nerve-end  organs. 

According  to  their  shape  and  relation,  the 
epithelial  cells  are  divided  into  these  varieties: 
(t)  Simple  epithelial  cells,  with  or  without 
alia,  comprising  (a)  squamous  epithelium;  (b) 
cubical  epithelium;  (c^  columnar  epithelium; 
(d)  pseudostratified  coliunnar  epithelium.  (2) 
Stratified  epithelium,  comprising  (a)  stratified 
columnar  epithelium,  with  superficial  flattened 
cells  without  cilia;  (b)  transitional  epithelium; 

icl  stratified  columnar  epithelium.  (3)  Glan- 
ular  epithelium.     (4)    Neuro-epithelium. 

1.  Sample  Epithellom,-^  This  is  that  type  in 
which  the  cells  lie  in  a  single  continuous  layer. 
This  form  is  fotmd  lining  almost  the  entire 
alimentary  tract,  the  smaller  air-passages,  the 
majority  of  the  gland-ducts,  the  ovarian  ducts, 
the  uterus,  the  central  canal,  the  spinal  cord 
and  the  ventricles  of  the  brain.  In  (a)  simple 
squamous  epithelium  the  cells  are  flattened, 
forming  a  mosaic  with  the  nuclei  lying  in  the 
middle  of  the  cell.  It  is  found  in  the  alveoli 
of  the  lungs.  In  (b)  simple  cubical  epithelium 
the  appearance  is  that  of  short  polygonal 
prisms.  !t  occurs  in  the  smaller  bronchioles 
of  the  lung,  in  certain  portions  of  the  urinifer- 
ous  tubules,  the  liver,  pancreas,  salivary  and 
mucous  glands.  In  (c)  simple  columnar  epi- 
thelium the  cells  are  pyramidal  or  prismatic 
This  type  is  found  in  the  intestinal  tract  from 
the  cardiac  end  of  the  stomach  to  the  anus,  and 
in  certain  portions  of  the  kidney.  Ciliated 
columnar  is  found  in  the  ovarian  duct  and 
uterus,  in  the  central  canal  of  the  spinal  cord 
and  in  some  of  the  smaller  bronchi,     (d). 

2.  Stratified  Ep:the!iBm,^When  the  cells  of 
simple  epithelium  increase  to  such  an  extent 
that  layer  upon  layer  is  developed,  the  epithe- 
lium no  longer  remains  simple,  out  becomes 
stratified.  The  lower  layers  are  richly  sup- 
plied with  blood  vessels,  and  multiply  very 
rapidly,  pushing  out  the  upper  layers  that  are 
constantly  dying  and  being  cast  ofl.  The 
various  forms  are:  (a)  Stratified  columnar 
epithelium,  with  superficial  flattened  cells, 
forming  the  outer  covering  of  the  body,  the 
epidermis  and  its  continuations  inside  of  the 
body,  as,  for  instance,  the  walls  of  the  cesopha- 
gus,  the  epithelium  of  the  conjunctiva,  the  ex- 
ternal auditory  canal,  the  sheath  of  the  hair- 
follicles,  the  watb  of  the  rectum,  the  anus  and 
the  vapna.  The  deeper  cells  are  usually  cu- 
bie-cyhndrical,  and  are  followed,  as  a  r^ile, 
by  one  or  more  layers  of  slightly  flattened 
cells,  until  finally  the  outmost  layers  become 
very  much  flattered  and  homy,  or  they  may  be 
developed  into  distinct  horn-like  substances 
such  as  that  found  in  the  nails.       (b)  Transi- 


bladder.  It  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  stratified 
columnar  epithelium,  but  does  not  show  the 
characteristic  deep  papillse  in  the  basal  mem- 
brane, so  charactenstic  of  the  former.  (c) 
Stratified  columnar  epithelium,  consisting  of  a 
superficial  layer  of  columnar  cells  and  de^er 


.lOOg  Ic 


BPITHBH -EPOCH 


4004    B.C.      (2)    The    Era    of    Constantinople 

(adopted  by  Russia),  SS08  B.C.     The  civil  year 


brane  ot  the  nose,  portions  of  the  male  urethra 
and  in  parts  of  the  larynx.  Many  of  this  type 
ot  cells  have  cilia,  particularly  those  found  in 
the  bade  of  the  nose,  larynx,  respiratory  tract, 
larger  bronchi.  Eustachian  tube,  epididymis 
ana  portions  of  the  vas  deferens. 

3.  Glandular  EpithcVum,— This  is  a  type  of 
epithelium  occasionally  found  scattered  among 
other  epithelial  cells,  and  which  shovs  the  char- 
acteristic of  gland- structures.    See  Glands. 

4.  Neuro-ep;thclinm.—  Neuro-epithelial  cells 


i   membranes.     Consult   Bailey,    'Histol- 
ogy.- 

EPITHEM,  in  botany,  a  gland  which  ex- 
cretes water,  or,  the  internal  tissue  cf  a  hyda- 
thode  (q.v.). 


a  book.  Sudi  digests  or  abstracts 
in  the  Middle  Ages  and  have  not  been  un- 
common even  in  modern  times,  for  instance,  the 
abridgment    of   the   French    encyclopedia   La- 

EPIZOA,  in  a  general  sens«,  external 
parasites,  as  contrasted  with  Entozoa,  or  in* 
temal  parasites.  These  are  not  exact  terms  in 
scientific   classificalion.      Among   them   are   the 


In  3 


5  the  I 


i  ap- 


plied to  the  degraded,  distorted  copepod 
taceans  parasitic  u|>on  the  sldn,  f^Ils  and  other 
parts  of  marine  animals,  espeaally  fishes.     See 

FlSK-UCE. 

EPOCH,  or  ERA  (Gr.  i^ojrt,  efoclu. 
epoch,  pause).  In  history,  a  fixed  point  ol  time, 
commonly  selected  on  account  of  some  remark- 
able event  by  which  it  has  been  distinguished, 
and  which  is  made  the  beginning  or  determining 
point  of  a  particular  year  from  which  al!  other 
years,  whether  preceding  or  ensuing,  are  com- 
puted. Some  writers  distinguish  between  the 
tenns  epoch  and  era.  According  to  them,  both 
mark  important  events,  but  an  era  is  an  epoch 
which  is  chronol (Really  dated  from;  an  epoch 
is  not  marked  in  this  way.  The  tnrth  of  Christ 
was  thus  hoth  an  epoch  and  an  era  from  this 
point  of  view. 

The  more  important  historical  epochs  are 
here  enumerated.  For  further  details  on  the 
mode  of  reckoning  see  Cai^nIiail 

The  Creation.— The  biblical  record  of  the 
creation  has  fonned  the  foundation  of  numer^ 
ous  chronologies.  Of  course  the  authorities 
(Jewish  and  ChristiBn)  on  these  various  modes 
of  redconing  do  not  agree  as  to  the  time  signi- 
fied by  the  common  audiority  for  the  event 
dated  from.  The  more  important  of  these 
epochs,  of  which  there  are  about  140  different 
varieties,  are  (1)  The  epoch  adopted  by 
Bossuet.  Us  she  r  and  other  Cadi0lic_  and 
Protestant  divines,  which  places  the  creati<M)  in 


Era  of  Alexandria,  which  made  the  creation 
5492  B.C.  This  is  also  the  Abyssinian  Era,  (S) 
Jewish   Era.     The  common  era  of   the  Jews 

e laces  the  creation  in  3760  b.c  Their  year  Is 
mar- solar,  that  is,  lunar  with  intercalary 
months,  forming  a  cycle  of  19  years,  of  which 
12  have  12  months  and  seven  13  months.  The 
year  thus  varies  from  353  to  385  days.  The 
dvil  year  begins  with  the  new  moon  following 
the  autumn  equinox.  The  eras  dating  from  the 
creation  are  distinguished  by  the  initials  A.  M. 
Const.,  Abyss.,  etc,  are  sometimes  added  to  dis- 
tinguish the  particular  epochs. 

Julian  Perioti— This  begins  4713  b.c.  It  is 
an  arbitrary  epoch,  fixed  tor  the  purpose  of 
computing  all  dates  forward,  as  in  the  ease  of 
the  creation  epochs. 

The    OlrmiriadB.— The    Greeks    computed 


Olympi; 


ilary  months.  The  first  Olympiad,  being  the 
year  in  which  Conebus  was  victor  in  the  (5lyra- 
pic  games,  was  in  the  year  776  B.C.  The  period 
of  tne  commencement  of  the  year,  which  was 
variable,  was  about  July,  The  contraction  used 
for  the  Olympic  epoch  is  Olymph. 

The  Roman  Era  (Ab  Urhe  Condlta).— The 
Romans  dated  frtim  the  supposed  era  of  the 
foundation  of  their  dty^  21  April,  in  the  third 
year  of  the  sixth  Olympiad,  or  753  8.C  (accord- 
ing to  sorne  authorities  752  b.c).  This  epoch  is 
designated  by  the  initials  A.  U.  C  The  Roman 
mode  of  computation  was  the  foundation  of 
our  modem  chront^ogy. 

Era  of  the  Seleucldefl.—  Begins  1  Oct.  312 
B.C.,  the  eooch  when  Seleucus  I  (Nicator)  took 
possession  of  Babylon.  The  year  consisted  of 
365  days,  with  a  leap  year  every  fourth  year. 
This  era  is  used  in  the  book  of  Maccabees. 

Spanish  Era.— This  dates  from  1  Jan,  38 
B.c  The  mondis  and  days  were  the  same  as 
those  of  the  Julian  calendar.  It  was  disused  in 
Aragon  in  13S0;  in  Valencia,  1358;  in  Castile, 
1383;  in  Portugal,  about  1415. 

Christian  Era. —  Our  mode  of  computing 
from  supposed  data  of  the  birth  of  Christ  was 
first  introduced  in  the  6th  century,  and  had  not 
been  generally  adopted  until  the  year  1000. 
Since  the  first  year  of  the  1st  century  was 
I  A.D.,  the  last  year  of  the  same  century  was 


good  in  reckoning  backward.  For  particulars 
of  the  mode  of  reckoning  the  years  ot  the 
Ciliristian  era  and  the  changes  which  it  has 
imdergone,  see  Calbnbar. 

Armenian  Bra.— This  began  7  July  S52,  and 
was  superseded  by  the  Julian  era  about  1330. 
The  year  consisted  of  only  365  days. 

Hohammeclao  Era,  or  Heginu — This  l>e- 
gins  on  16  July  622.  The  conversion  of  the  . 
Mohammedan  into  Christian  chronoloicy  causes 
more  difficulty  and  confusion  than  arises  with 
any  of  the  other  modes  of  reckoning.  The  Mo- 
hammedan year  is  purely  lunar.  It  consists  of  12 
months,  and  each  month  commences  with  the 
appearance  of    the  new  moon.     Hence   their 


488 


EPODE  —  BPONYMU8 


years  have  no  correspondence  with  the  recur- 
rence of  the  seasons,  and  to  know  ihe  period 
when  a  Mofaammedan  ^ear  begins  it  must  be 
reckoned  from  the  beginning  of  the  era.  In 
chronology,  history,  etc.,  they  use  months  of  29 
and  30  days  alternately,  making  the  year  consist 
of  354  days.  Eleven  times  in  30  years  one  day 
is  added  to  the  last  month,  making  355  days  in 
the  year.  The  mean  length  of  the  year  is  thus 
354  11/30  days,  of  the  month  29  191/360,  differ- 
ing from  the  true  lunation  by  little  more  than 
three  seconds,  or  less  than  a  day  in  2,260  years. 
As  33  Mohammedan  years  amount  to  only  six 
days  (including  intercalary  days  and  leap  years) 
more  than  32  of  our  years,  by  deducting  one 
year  from  each  33  Mohammedan  years,  and  add- 
ing 621^  years,  the  year  of  the  Cluristian  era  will 
approximately  be  found.  The  Hegira  is  distin- 
gmshed  by  the  initials  A.  H. 

Persian  Era.— The  era  of  Yeidegird  III 
began  16  July  632.  The  year  consisted  of  365 
days.  It  was  reformed  in  107S  by  the  addition 
of  a  day  whenever  it  was  necessary  to  make  the 
commencement  of  the  year  occur  on  the  day  of 
the  sun's  passing  the  same  degree  of  the  ecliptic 
The  months  have  each  30  days,  with  five  or  six 
days  inlercaJaKd.  This  era  is  still  used  by  the 
Farsees  in  India. 

Indian  Chronology. —  The  best-known  eras 
computed  by  solar  time  are  the  Kaliyuga,  which 
dates  from  3,101  years  before  Christ  and  the 
Salivahana  from  77  a.d.  Both  are  computed 
astronomicall};,  losing  one  day  in  60  years  by 
our  computation.  The  era  of  Vikramaditya, 
beginning  57  years  B.C.,  is  computed  by  lunar 
months,  with  intercalations  made  according  to 
astronomical  observation,  and  bringing  the  year 
up  to  365  or  366  days.  The  Bengali  year  was 
fonneriy  identified  with  the  Hegira,  but  is  now 
reckoned  by  solar  computation. 

Chinese  Chronology^— The  Chinese,  like  all 
the  nations  of  northeast  Asia,  reckon  their  time 
by  cycles  of  60  years.  Instead  of  numbering 
tneni  as  we  do,  mey  give  a  different  name  to 
every  year  in  the  cycle.  The  Chinese  months 
are  lunar,  of  29  and  30  days  each.  Their  years 
have  ordinarily  12  months,  but  a  13th  is  added 
whenever  there  are  two  new  moons  while  the 
sun  is  in  one  of  the  zodiac.  This  will  occur 
seven  times  In  19  years.  The  boasted  knowledge 
of  the  Chinese  in  astronomy  has  not  been  suffi- 
cient to  enable  them  to  compute  their  time  cor- 
rectly. The  first  cycle,  according  to  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries^  began  February  2397  B.C. 
To  find  out  the  Chinese  time  multiply  the 
elapsed  cycle  by  60  and  nrld  the  odd  years ;  then 
if  the  time  be  before  Christ  subtract  (he  sum 
from  2,398:  but  if  after  Christ,  subtract  2,397 
from  it;  tne  remainder  will  be  the  year  re- 
Primitive  American  Chronologr. —  The  na- 
tives of  America,  previous  to  its  discovery  by 
Europeans,  particularly  the  Peruvians  and 
Mexicans,  appear  to  have  had  a  considerable 
acquaintance  with  astronomy  and  to  have  reck- 
oned their  time  with  great  care.  The  Mexican 
year  consisted  of  365  days,  composed  of  18 
■  months  of  20  days  and  five  added  days.  At  the 
end  of  a  cycle  of  52  years  12  and  13  days  were 
added  alternately,  making  the  mean  year  very 
near  the  truth. 

Jn  geology,  according  to  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  usage,  a  subdivision  of  a  period 
of  geologic  time,  the  period  in  turn  being  a 


subdivision  of  an  enu  the  largest  time  unit  in 
use.  The  rocks  laid  down  during  a.-i  epoch  are 
usually  known  as  a  series,  this  term  bein^  used 
as  a  subdivision  of  a  system,  the  latter  being  the 
rocks  laid  down  during  a  period.  The  Cambrian 
(q.v.)  period  is  usually  divided  into  three 
epochs,  Georgian,  Acadian  and  Saratogan,  and 
the  Cambrian  system  into  three  corresponding 
series  of  rocks  known  by  the  same  names. 
Other  periods  are  also  diviaed  into  epochs.  The 
Elocene,  Oligocene,  Miocene  and  Pliocene  are 
sometimes  given  the  rank  of  periods  but  are 
now  generally  considered  to  be  epochs  of  the 
Tertiary  period.  While  periods  are  divisions  the 
nomenclature  of  which  is  fairly  well  standard- 
ized the  world  over,  epochs  are  not  so  constant, 
and  go  by  various  names  in  various  lands.  See 
Caubkian:  Obdovician;  Eocene,  etc 

In  astronomy,  epcM:h  is  the  longitude  whidi 
a  planet  has  at  any  given  moment  of  time.  To 
predict  this  for  any  future  period  the  longitude 
at  a  certain  instant  in  the  past  must  be  known; 
that  instant  is  termed  the  epoch  of  the  planet 

EPODB  (Lat  epodus,  Gr.  epddus,  an  after 
song  or  epode).  In  Greek  choral  poetry  the 
term  is  used  of  an  ode  succeeding  a  strophe 
and  antistroiihe.  or  a  series  of  strophes  and  anti- 
strophes.  The  name  was  also  given  by  gram- 
manans  to  any  poem  the  material  unit  of  which 
is  a  distich  consisting  of  a  long,  followed  by  a 
short  verse.  In  this  sense  it  was  especially  used 
by  the  iambic  trimeter  followed  by  the  iambic 
dimeter,  as  in  Epodes  1-10  of  Horace.  In 
music  the  term  epode  is  used  to  signify  a  bur- 
den or  refrain. 

EPOMBO,  a-pe'ma-a,  a  volcano,  on  the 
island  of  Ischia,  Italy,  IS  miles  south  by  west  of 
Naples,  It  has  an  elevation  of  2.58S  feet  and 
commands  a  fine  panoramic  view  of  the  coast 
with  the  famous  bay  of  Naples.  Terrific  erup- 
tions have  marked  its  history;  one  in  474  B.C. 
caused  most  of  the  inhabitants  to  flee  from  the 
island.  In  1302  occurred  the  last  great  up- 
heaval. The  mountain  is  sometimes  known  as 
Mount  San  Nicola,  from  the  San  Nicola  Her- 
mitage near  the  summit  The  mount  is  men- 
tioned in  Virgil's  <yeneid,>  IX,  716. 

BPONA,  the  goddess  of  stables,  asses,  mules 
and  horses.  She  was  at  first  exclusively  wor- 
shipped in  Gaul  but  the  cult  spread  to  Rome 
in  tne  1st  century  of  our  era.  Inscriptions  to 
her  have  been  uncovered  in  France,  Germany, 
the  Dobrudja  and  Italy.  Consult  Wissow^  'Re- 
ligion und  Kultus  der  Romer'  (2d  ed.,  Munich 
1912). 


created __.      ._  __  ,   _ 

pie;  thus  Tros  is  the  eponymous  hero  of  Troy; 
Italus  was  assumed  as  ancestor  of  the  Italians; 
Romulus  of  the  Romans.  It  is  also  more 
generally  used  in  the  sense  of  names  of  people, 
places  and  periods  derived  from  those  of  per- 
sons. Thus  Bolivia  is  derived  from  Bolivar. 
Heam,  in  his  ^Aryan  Household,'  declares  that 
*  wherever  there  was  a  clan  there  was  an 
eponym  or  founder,  whether  real  or  legendary, 
of  that  dan.'  By  extension  the  tenn  is  also 
applied  to  the  name  of  something,  as  a  part  or 
organ  of  the  body  derived  from  a  person,  ai  the 
lissure  of  Sylvius. 

EPONYMUS,  an  adiectivc  of  Greek  origin 
and  meaning  usually  tihe  ^ving  of  a  name  to 


BPOKBDIA— BPWORTH   LBAGUB 


some  person  or  thing.  In  ancient  Greece  it 
was  especially  applied  to  the  ephor,  irom  wfaom 
the  year  wai  named.  Tribes  and  cities  usually 
tnKed  their  ori^  to  some  eponymus  ancesKir, 
generally  a  national  hero.  Thus  Tros  h  the 
eponymous  hero  of  Troy,  Italus  of  tbe  Italians, 

SPORBDIA.    SeelvRBA. 

EPOS.    See  Narrative  Poetry. 

EFPES,  John  Waylea,  American  states- 
man: b.  Virginia  1773;  d.  near  Richmond,  Va., 
20  Sept.  1823.  He  received  an  academic  educa- 
tion, and  after  studying  law  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  and  began  practice  in  Richmond.  In 
1303  he  was  elected  as  a  Democrat  to  the 
House  of  Representatives  at  Washington,  and 
with  successive  re-elections  served  continuously 
from  17  Oct  1803  to  3  March  1811.  Later  he 
was  elected  to  the  13th  Congress  and  served 
from  24  May  1813  to  3  Mardi  181S.  He  was 
chosen  United  States  Senator  in  1817,  but  re- 
igned the  office  two  years  afterward  on  ac- 
count of  failic^  health  and  retired  to  his  es- 
tates in  Chesterfield  County.  He  married 
Uaria,  the  daughter  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  who 
died  at  Monticello  in  April  1804. 

EPPING,  England,  market  town,  in  Essex, 
17  miles  from  London  and  in  the  midst  of  the 
forest  to  which  it  gives  name.  This  ancient 
royal  forest,  once  a  part  of  Waltbam  forest, 
and  all  much  larger  than  at  present,  has  an 
area  of  6,000  acres  and  presents  some  fine  wood- 
land scenery.  It  was  secured  to  the  nation  by 
legislative  enactment  and  was  opened  by  Queen 
Victoria  in  1882  as  a  public  recreation  groimd. 
The  town  consists  of  a  sin^e  broad  Street  on 
a  ridge  of  hUls.    Pop.  4,253. 

EPPING  FOREST.    See  Epfing. 

EPSOM,  England,  market  town  in  the 
county  of  Surrey,  14  miles  southwest  of  the 
heart  of  London.  Epsom  was  formerly  cele- 
brated for  a  mineral  spring,  from  the  water  of 
which  the  well-known  Epsom  salts  were  mann- 
faetured.  A  number  of  the  sons  of  medical 
men  are  educated  at  the  Royal  Medical  Col- 
lege, and  adjoining  the  school  is  a  home  for 
aged  physicians  or  their  widows.  The  prin- 
cipal attraction  Epsom  can  now  boast  of  is  the 
^nd  race-meeting  held  on  the  Downs,  which 
IS  attended  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  per- 
sona. The  races  begin  on  Tuesday  and  continue 
to  the  end  of  the  week  preceding  Whitsuntide; 
the  Derby  stakes  are  run  for  on  Wednesday, 
which  is  the  prindpal  day,  and  the  Oaks  on 
Friday.  There  is  also  racing  on  two  days 
earlier  in  the  season;  the  town  being  otherwise 
characterized  as  *a  dull  little  place  for  50 
weeks  in  the  year."  Epsom  gives  name  to  one 
of  the  parliamentary  divisions  of  the  county. 
Pop.  19,156. 

BPSOM  SALT,  a  hydrous  snlphate  of  mag- 
nesium, having  the  formula  MgSO,  -I-  7HiO. 
It  occurs  abundantly  in  nature  and  takes  its 
name  from  its  occurrence,  in  dissolved  form, 
in  a  mineral  spring  at  Epsom,  England.  It  may 
be  prepared  also  from  dolomite,  t^  decomposing 
the  mmeral  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Epsom  salt,  proper,  is  known  to  the  mineralo- 
gist as  epsomite,  and  more  popularly  as  hatr- 
sal^  from  the  delicate  fibrous  efHorescenf  de- 
posits in  which  it  often  occurs  on  the  waTIs  of 
nunes,  quarries  and  caves.     E^omtte  crystal- 


lizes in  the  orthorfiombk  system,  and  large 
quantities  of  it  are  found  in  toe  limestone  caves 
of  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Indiana,  mingled 
with  earthy  matter.  In  the  Mammoth  Cave  it 
occurs  in  loose  masses  suggestive  of  snowballs, 
adhering  to  the  roof  and  walls.  An  allied  min- 
eral known  as  kieserite,  which  has  the  composi- 
tion MgSO.-4-H.O,  and  occurs  abundantly  at 
Stassfurt,  is  largely  asei  as  a  source  of  epsom 
salt  Magnesium  sulphate  is  used  as  a  fertilizer, 
as  a  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
sulphates  of  sodium  and  potassium  and  in  siz- 
ing and  dyeing  cotton  goods.  The  epsom  salt 
is  also  extensively  used  as  a  putative,  in  medi- 


EPSOMITE,  natural  magnesium  sulphate 
of  the  same  composition  as  Epsom  salt 
{MgSO.+7H.O).  It  has  a  bitter  saUne  taste 
and  is  found  in  fibrous  crusts  in  white  botiy- 
oidal  lumps. 

BPSTBIN.Jacsb,  English  sculptor:  b.  New 
York,  1880.  He  is  of  Polish-Prussian  descent, 
made  his  studies  under  Rodin  at  Paris  and  set- 
tled in  London.  He  was  commissioned  to  exe- 
cute IS  figures  to  decorate  the  new  bailditig  of 
the  British  Medical  Association  in  1907-08.  The 
work  when  finished  was  attacked  by  new^apers 
and  various  religious  bodies,  but  .was  4eien«ted 
bjF  the  Times,  Herbert  Gladstone. ,' Sir  Martin 
Conway  and  others.  Epstein  was  also  com- 
missioned to  execute  the  tomb  of  Oscar  Wilde 
in  P^re  Lachaise  Cemetery,  Paris,  which  he 
completed  in  1909,  He  also  decorated  Church 
Square,  facing  the  government  buildings, 
Pretoria,  Transvaal.  His  art  is  intensely  real- 
istic and  is  a  protest  against  the  conventkinal 
imitation  of  the  Greek. 

BPULIS.    See  Mouth. 


KPWORTH  LEAGUB,  a  societv  of  yoimg 
people  of  the  Mediodist  Episcopal  Church; 
formed  IS  May  1889  in  Clevefand,  Ohio,  1^  tl 


fiigent  and  loyal  piety  in  the  young 
members  and  friends  of  the  Church;  to  aid 
them  in  the  attainment  of  purity  of  heart  and 
constant  growth  in  grace,  and  to  train  them  in 
works  of  mercy  and  help."  The  fallowing 
pledge  is  reqnired  of  its  members:  'I  will 
eamestk-  seek  for  myself,  and  do  what  I  can  to 
help  others  to  attain,  the  highest  New  Testa- 
ment standard  of  experience  and  life.  I  will 
abstain  from  all  forms  of  worldly  amusement 
forbidden  by  the  discipline  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  and  I  wilt  attend,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  religions  meetings  of  the  chapter 
and  ttie  Chnrch,  and  take  some  active  part  in 
them.'  The  league  exists  in  both  the  Northern 
and  Southern  branches  of  the  Meriiodist  Enis- 
copal  denomination  and  also  in  the  Methodist 
Church  of  Canada.  The  league  is  governed 
by  a  board  of  control,  partly  appointed  by  the 
bishops  and  partly  elected  by  the  General  Con- 
ference districts,  one  memb«-  for  each  district; 
represented  by  an  executive  cabitiet,  consisting 
of  a  president,  four  vice-presidents,  gener^ 
secretary,  general  treasurer  and  an  assist- 
ant treasurer.  The  league  has  grown  rap- 
idly, extendine  to  torBRn  lands,  and  there  are 
chapters  in  India.  Mexico,  Soudi  America,  Italy, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Finland,  China, 
Japftn  and  Hawaii.     There  are  m  the  league 


EQUAL  SIGHTS  PAST Y  —  BQUATIOM 


about  30,000  chapters  and  over  3,000,000  tnem- 

bers.  Its  ofEcial  organ  is  the  Epvjorih  Herald, 
published  in  Chicago,  which  has  a  circulation 
ot  over  100.000.  Consult  Bacon  and  Northrop, 
<Yoimp  People's  Societies'  (New  York  1900)  ; 
*Thc  Methodist  Year  Book';  Brummett,  <Ep- 
worlh  League  Methods'  (Nt-w  York  1906). 
EQUAL  RIGHTS  PARTY,  in  183S.    See 

LOCOFOCOS, 

EQUAL  RIGHTS  PARTY,  in  1884.  Belva 
Lockwood  nominated  herself  for  the  presidency, 
on  a  platform  of  Woman  Suffrage;  and  g>ve 
her  voters  this  title. 

EQUALITY  BEFORE  THE  LAW,  a 
fundamental  of  civil  liberty,  in  which  the  equal- 
ity of  all  men  to  receive  the  protection  afforded 
by  law  is  assumed.    The  guaranty  of  liberty  and 

aual  privilege  to  all  freemen  was  embodied  in 
agna  Charta  (q.v.)  in  121.i.  and  in  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence  the  equality  of  all  men 
with  unalienable  rights  was  emphasized.  The 
equal  protection  of  the  laws  excludes  any  dis- 
tinction between  individuals,  invidious  dis- 
crimination, and  class  legislation  not  founded 
on  legal  or  reasonable  distinctive  grounds.  See 
Due  Process  of  Law;  G)uuok  Law. 

EQUATION,  a  term  based  on  the  idea  of 
equality,  in  general  use  throughout  the  various 
branches  of  calculus.  (1^  In  mathematics  it  is 
the  statement  in  algebraic  expressions  of  the 
identity  of  two  or  other  mathematical  expres- 
sions. The  assertion  of  equality  is  made  by 
writing  the  sign  =(read  "is  equal  to'  or 
■equals")  between  the  expressions.  Thus; 
Sr  +  7 *" 32,  and  a^  +  bx  -r  c^Q,  are  equa- 
tions, each  of  which  indicates  the  equality  of 
the  quantity  written  on  the  left  of  the  sign  (^") 
to  that  written  on  the  right  of  the  sign.  Usu- 
ally the  object  of  writing  down  an  algebraic 
e<iuation  is  to  express  in  symbols  known  rela- 
tions between  given  and  unknown  quantities,  so 
that  by  algebraic  processes  the  latter  may  be 
determined  in  terms  of  the  former.  Such  equa- 
tions are  designated  condilional,  while  equa- 
tions which  are  true  for  all  values  of  the  vari- 
ables they  involve  or  which  involve  no  variables, 
are  called  idftttilii-s.  (See  Aiccbra,  Defini- 
tions   AND    FUNBAMENTAL    CoNCEPTS).       (2)     Itt 

astronomy,  is  the  correction  by  addition  to  or 
subtraction  from  the  mean  motion  of  any 
heavenly  body  in  order  to  determine  its  true 
place  at  any  given  time.  The  angular  motion  of 
a  planet  around  the  sun  will  not  be  uniform  if 
its  orbit  is  not  circular,  regardless  of  any  per- 
turbations. Furthermore,  the  mutual  attraction 
among  the  planets  renders  each  one  capable  of 
producing  a  perturbation  in  the_  orbits  of  all 
the  others.  An  equation  is  required  for  every 
such  perturbiiion  oefore  it  is  possible  to  calcu- 
late accurately  the  course  of  the  planet    Thus 


^ 


we  have  the  equation  of  the  centre,  a  quantity 
to  be  added  to  or  subtracted  from  the  anomaly, 
tn  order  to  determine  the  true  position  of  a 
heavenly  body.  For  instance,  fct  the  curve 
E  c  F  represent  the  eanh's  orbit  (which  is  an 


ellipse),  e  F  die  line  Of  the  alptdes.  and  a  die 
position  of  the  son.  When  the  earth  is  in  any 
position  as  c,  the  line  a  c  drawn  from  the  sun 
to  the  planet  ii  the  radius  vector,  then  will  the 
angle  c  A  F  be  the  anomaly,  or  the  angular 
distance  from  the  perihelion.  Were  the  earth's 
angular  motion  uniform  the  increase  or  de- 
crease of  this  angle  would  be  equal  in  eqoal 
times,  and  the  mean  anomaly  would  be  the  true 
anomaly;  but  the  earth's  motion  is  retarded  a> 
it  advances  from  f  to  g,  is  slowest  at  E,  and  is 
accelerated  from  that  point,  the  aphelion, 
through  the  other  half  of  its  orbit  till  it  arrives 
at  F  the  perihelion.  The  quantity  to  be  added 
to  the  mean  angular  motion,  during  one  por- 
tion of  the  orbit,  or  subtracted  from  it  in  the 
other,  in  order  to  find  that  true  anomaly,  is 
called  the  equation  of  the  centre.  (3)  /" 
chemistry,  is  a  collection  of  symbols  to  denole 
that  two  or  more  definite  bodies  —  simple  or 
compound  —  have  been  brought  within  the 
sphere  of  chemical  action,  that  a  reaction  has 
taken  place,  and  that  new  bodies  are  produced. 
It  is  called  an  equation  because  the  total  weight 
of  the  substances  concerned  remains  the  same. 
Equations  may  also  involve  the  energy  con- 
sumed or  given  off  in  a  reaction.  See  Cheu- 
ISTKY. 

EQUATION,  Personal,  an  important  cor- 
rection  that  must  be  considered  in  connection 
with  refined  measurements  in  astronomy  and 
physics,  and  which  originates  in  the  fact  that 
no  two  observers  agree  precisely  as  to  the  in- 
stant at  which  a  phenomenon  occurs,  nor  as  to 
the  setting  of  a  micrometer- wire  so  as  to  bisect 
a  dixision  mark  on  a  scale.  Differences  of  this 
sort  are  exceedingly  irregular  among  inexperi- 
enced observers,  but  among  the  more  experi- 
enced ones  the  regularity,  while  not  absolute, 
is  strongly  marked.  In  some  kinds  of  work 
the  personal  equation  of  the  observer  can  be 
eliminated  by  the  iheihod  in  which  the  observa- 
tions are  made.  Thus  in  the  determination 
of  differences  of  longitude  by  telegraphic  meth- 
ods, it  is  usual  to  eliminate  the  effect  of  per- 
sonal error  from  the  final  result  by  having  the 
observers  change  places  when  the  work  is  half 
done ;  so  that  if  the  difference  of  longitude  as 
determined  by  the  first  half  of  the  work  was 
too  large,  that  determined  during  the  second 
half  will  be  too  small  by  an  equal  amount,  and 
the  effect  of  personal  equation  will  disappear 
from  the  final  mean.  In  other  cases  it  is  im' 
possible  to  eliminate  the  effects  of  personal 
error  in  any  such  way,  and  in  these  cases  the 
attempt  is  often  made  to  determine  the  magni- 
tude of  the  personal  equation,  and  apply  die 
proper  correction  to  the  results  as  directly  ob- 
served. Thus  Otto  Stnive,  in  connection  with 
his  measurements  on  double  stars,  had  artificial 
double  stars  constructed,  upon  which  he  made 
regular  observations  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing his  personal  equation  in  such  work,  and  he 
apiilied  to  his  results  for  the  genuine  slar^  a 
series  of  corrections  deduced  in  this  way. 
When  die  thing  to  be  measured  is  an  interval 
of  some  kind,  the  personal  equation  can  usually 
be  neglected,  provided  the  same  observer  maka 
all  the  measures.  For  example,  in  determining 
the  length  of  s  bar,  the  reading  of  the  mi- 
crometers  will  be  in  error  (so  far  as  the  per- 
sonal equation  is  concerned)  by  the  same 
amount  at  both  ends  of  the  bar,  and  hence  the 


BQUATIONS,  DIFFSRENTIAL 


(UffercDce  of  these  readings ;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  observed  length  of  the  bar  will  be  independ- 
ent of  the  observer's  personal  equation. 

EQUATIONS.  Differential.  1.  Introduc- 
tion. —  The  invention  of  the  calculus,  made 
necessary  by  the  demands  of  natural  science, 
was  followed  immediately  by  the  most  brilliant 
applications.  The  names  of  Newton,  Leibnitz, 
Euler,  Lagrange  and  Laplace  are  attached  to 
the  principal  discoveries  of  this  period,  whose 
importance  from  a  sdentiSc  and  philosophical 
point  of  view  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
A  simple  example  will  sufScc  to  explain  the 
ruling  idea  of  this  epoch.  From  die  observ- 
ations of  Tycho  Brane,  Kepler  had  obtained 
the  laws  of  planetary  motion  still  known  by 
his  name.  Newton  had  shown  that  KeplerS 
laws  were  but  a  consequence  of  the  laws  of 
universal  gravitation,  which  assumes  Chat  every 
particle  in  the  universe  acts  upon  every  other 
according  to  a  definite  law.  The  ettect  of 
Newton's  law  upon  a  S3^tem  of  moving  bodies 
can  be  formulated  in  mathematical  symbols 
without  any  diiSculty.  This  formulation  gives 
rise  to  a  system  of  equations  involving  the  co- 
ordinates of  the  moving  bodies  and  their 
accelerations,  i.e.,  the  second  derivatives  of 
these  co-ordinates  with  respect  to  the  time. 
The  problem  of  expressing  the  co-ordinates  as 
functions  of  the  time,  i.e.,  the  problem  of 
integrating  thi«  system  of  dinerential  equations, 
was  solved  by  Newton  for  the  case  of  two 
mutually  attracting  bodies,  and  its  solution  is 
given  precisely  by  Kepler's  laws.  Newton  him- 
self and  his  successors,  especiallj  Laplace  and 
Lagrange,  studied  the  further  consequences  of 
the  law  of  gravitation  as  applied  to  the  solar 
system.  The  accord  between  the  theory  and  ob- 
servation became  closer  and  closer,  so  that  it 
was  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  true  law  of 
nature  had  been  found.  Gradual^  other 
branches  of  physical  science  were  treated  in  a 
similar  way.  In  all  cases,  the  fundamental 
laws  being  assumed,  the  mathematical  formula- 
tion of  the  problems  led  to  the  question  of 
integrating  differential  equations.  It  should  be 
noted  that,  although  in  some  cases  this  method 
of  arriving  at  the  formulation  of  the  physical 
problems  oas  now  been  abandoned,  differential 
equations  are  now,  more  than  ever,  used  as 
the  expressions  for  the  fundamental  phenom- 
ena in  physical  science.  For  the  applications 
of  mathematics  there  is  no  field  so  important 
as  the  theory  of  differential  equations.  That 
the  whole  world  is  a  mathematical  problem 
was  the  point  of  view  gained  by  Laplace,  an 
insight  gained  in  a  different  way  also  by  Leib- 
nitz and  Spinoza.  But  the  mathematician  is 
more  specinc ;  wre  learn  from  him  that  this 
world-problem  belongs  to  the  domain  of  the 
ibeoH'  of  differential  equations.  Even  if  the 
details  of  the  picture  have  changed,  the  formu- 
lation of  this  general  idea  is  one  of  the  posi- 
tive achievements  of  the  philosophical  thought 
of  the   18th  century. 

Ordinary  Differential  Eqnationa;  Blemen- 
taiy  Theory.— Let  y  be  determined  as  a 
function  of  x  by  means  of  an  equation. 


(1) 


^(i, 


-o)=0, 


which  involves  an  arbitrary  constant  a.  If  x 
and  y  be  intenreted  as  the  co-ordinates  of  a 
point  in  the  plane,  equation  (1)  represents  a 
family  of  curves,  one  curve  for  each  value  of  a. 


/(..,.|)=o, 


By  differentiation  we  find,  from  (1), 

^^'  a*  +  aydx~"- 

Between  these  two  equations  a  may  be  elimi- 
nated; the  result  will  be  an  equation  of  the 

(3) 

free  from  a.  Eijuation  (3)  is  a  differential 
equa({on._  Since  it  does  not  contain  the  con- 
stant a  it  gives  the  expression  of  a  property 
which  is  common  to  all  of  the  curves  ot  the 
family  (1).  The  main  object  of  the  theory 
of  differential  equations  is  to  invert  the  proc- 
ess which  we  have  just  carried  out,  i.e.,  the 
equation  (3)  being  given,  the  equation  (l) 
involving  an  arbitrary  constant,  from  which 
(3)  may  be  derived  hy  differentiation,  is  to  be 
found.  This  process  is  known  as  the  integra- 
tion  of   the   differential  equolion. 

In  general  let  there  be  given  an  equation  of 
the  form 

between  x,  the  function  y  of  *  and  its  deriva- 
tives up  to  the  flth  order;  it  is  called  an  ordi- 
nary  differentia!  equation  of  the  nth  order.  The 
adjective  ordinary  implies  that  y  is  considered  as 
a  function  of  only  one  independent  variable  *. 
Under  certain  restrictions  as  to  the  continuity 
of  the  function  /  (a  question  to  which  we  shall 
recur  later),  it  may  be  shown  that  there  exists 
a  function  y  of  .r  and  of  n  arbitrary  constants 
which  satisfies  the  differential  equation ;  it  is 
known  as  the  general  integral  of  the  differential 
equation;  the  determination  of  this  function  is 
the  object  of  the  theory  of  differential  equations. 
The  equation  is  then  said  to  have  been  inte- 

The  simplest  case  of  such  a  differential  equa- 
tion presented  itself  in  the  problem  of  finding 
the  area  included  between  a  curve  y^(x),  the 
.r-axis,  and  two  ordinates  erected  for  x'~a  and 
x^"x.  The  differential  equation  satisfied  by 
the  area  «  considered  as  function  of  x  is 

and  the  area  itself  1 


•= J   nx)dx. 

This  simple  case  served  as  a  model  for  the 
earlier  investigators  in  this  field.  Confining 
ourselves  for  the  moment  to  eqnati<ms  of  the 
first  order,  it,  may  be  possible  to  reduce  snch 
an  equation  to  the  form 

Ji.  +Jy-^o 


Til  -1-  r  •*> 

J  R{x)  "^j  W. 


where  e  is  an  arbitrary  constant  Owing  to 
the  fact,  which  has  just  been  mentioned,  that 
the  problem  of  areas  is  solved  by  the  com- 
putation of  an  integral  of  the  form  J    Six)dx, 


h,  Google 


4W 


EQUATIONS,  DIFFBKKHTIAL 


such  an  integration  is  known  as  a  quadrature. 
If  the  variables  can  be  separated,  the  diflier- 
entjal  equation  may,  thereiore,  be  integrated 
by  quadratures. 

The  earlier  analysts  believed  that  any  differ- 
ential equation  could  be  integra.ted  by  the 
elementary  functions  then  in  use,  and  by  quad- 
ratures. This  we  now  know  not  to  be  tKe  case, 
just  as  we  know,  since  Che  days  of  Abel,  that 
^1  algebraic  equations  cannot  be  solved  by  the 
mere  extraction  of  roots.  ( See  Algebra  ; 
Theoby  of  Equations;  Galois'  Theory). 
Moreover,  even  it  the  reduction  to  quadratures 
can  be  effected,  such  a  reduction  is,  properly 
speaking,  the  beginning  and  not  the  end  of  the 
investigation.  For  it  does  not  suffice  to  give 
a  formal  indication  of  the  relation  between  x 
and  y;  this  relation  must  be  thoroughly  under- 
stood in  its  essential  properties  before  the  in- 
tegration can  be  said  to  have  been  accomplished. 
Nevertheless  the  consideration  of  the  simpler 
cases,  in  which  inteRration  by  means  of  elemen- 
tary functions  or  hy  quadratures  .is  possible, 
constitutes  a  first  important  chapter  of  the 
theory  of  differential  equations.  We  may  char- 
actenie  this  chapter  as  the  elementary  theory 
of   differential   equations. 

Elemenl^ry  Theory  of  Differential  Bquii- 
tions. — We  have  already  referred  to  the  case  in 
which  the  variables  are  separated.  In  many  cases 
a  simple  transformation  will  accomplish  the 
separation.    Consider,  for  example,  the  equation 

(4)  g  +Fy=(i, 

where  P  is  a  function  of  x  only.    We  may  write 

whence 

\ogy+\  Pdx=\a^c, 

Z  ,_„-/"*■• 

This  example  will  be  useful  in  enabling  us  to 
treat,  at  once,  a  more  general  equation ;  we 
shall  do  so,  moreover,  by  making  use  of  a 
method  frequently  employed,  and  especially 
important  in  the  applications  to  theoretical 
astronomy,  the  method  of  variation  of  conslaitls. 
We  consider  the  equation 

(«  %+'''-"■ 

where  P  and  Q  are  functions  of  x  only.  This 
equation  is  the  most  general  linear  differential 
equation  of  the  first  order,  a  linear  e<iuation 
being  one  which  contains  y  and  its  derivatives 
in  no  hi^er  than  the  first  power.  Equation 
(6)  differs  from  (4)  only  in  having  Q  in  the 
ri^t  member  in  place  of  rero.  The  expres- 
sion _(S)  will  certainly  not  satisfy  (6)  since 
it  satisfies  (4).  Gearly,  however,  it  must  be 
possible  to  satisfy  (6)  by  an  expression  of  the 
form  analogous  to  (5),  viz 


which  gives,  on  substitution  into  (6) 

so  that  we  shall  have 

(8)  3r=«~i"''^[c  ^joJ^d^- 

as  the  general  integral  of  (6).  This  formula 
was  found  by  Jacob  Bernoulli,  who  also  showed 
that  the  equation 

:ed  to  (6)  Iv 
eneoiti  equatio 

where  f  t -I   depends    only    upon    the    ratio   of 

y  to  X,  may  be  solved  by  quadratures.  In  fact, 
if  we  put  y'^'vx,  the  equation  becomes 


-(P, 


where  m  is  a  properly  chosen  function  of  x 
instead  of  being  a  constant.  Moreover,  as  we 
shall  see,  we  can  actually  determine  the  func- 
tion u  by  quadratures.  In  fact,  we  find  from  (7) 


(H) 


log«-(- 


/.-=^= 


Euler's  method  of  the  integrating  factor  is 
sometimes  useful.  It  rests  upon  the  following 
considerations.  Let  *  (*,  y)*^onst  be  the 
equation  of  any  integral  curve  of  the  equation 
(12)  Fix,  y)dx  +  Q{x,  y)dy=0. 

We  shall  have,  by  differendation  from 
f  (x,  y)  =3  const., 

an  equation  which  must  have  the  same  signifi- 
cance as  (12).    We  must,  therefore,  have 


(13) 


^P{«,y)  =  ^.    W3(*.y)  = 


dy' 


if  ^  is  a  propeily  chosen  function  of  x 
If  ;i  is  known,  the  determination  of  f  bv  auad- 
ratnres  can  be  immediately  accomplished  on 
account  of  the  two  equations  (13).  For  this 
reason  f  is  called  an  int^rating  factor.  Equa- 
tions (13)  show  that  /I  must  satisfy  the  partial 
differential  equation 

dy  dx 

In  general,  the  determination  of  an  integrating 
factor  is  just  as  diilicult  as  the  integration  of 
the  equation.  But  Euler  succeeded  in  finding 
a  number  of  equations  with  known  integrating 
factors.    Herein  lies  the  value  of  the  method. 

By  means  of  these  various  methods  there 
was  obtained,  in  the  course  of  time  a  consider- 
able number  of  equations  wfaidi  could  be  inte- 
grated by  quadratures.  Lie  showed  that  this 
rather  scrappy  theory  could  be  understood  as 
the  consequence  of  a  single  principle.  This  we 
shall  now  proceed  to  explain,  making  use  of 
geometric  images  for  the  sake  of  deamess  as 
well  as  brevity. 

The  equations 

x,=*lx.y),  y,=i'lx,y), 
are  said  to  constitute  »  irantformatioH  of  the 


t  (Jti.  yi)  if  Hicf  c 

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EQUATIONS,  DIFFERENTIAL 


Ttiete  equations  m^  contain  a  certain  num- 
ber of  arbitrary  constants  oi,  .  .  .  ar;  iiiey  are 
then  said  to  constitute  an  r~paraineter  family  of 
trans fonnatioDS.  Let  us  consider  the  simplest 
case  oi  a  oDe-paraineter  family  which  we  may 

(15)  Xi  =  f<.X,  y;  a),     yi  =  <r(j:,  y;  a). 

If  die  parameter  a  has  a  definite  value,  this 
transformation  converts  every  point  (x,  y)  into 
a  definite  other  point  (ri,  ji)-  Let  us  transform 
this  new  point  (rj,  vi)  by  equations  of  the  tame 
form,  but  with  a  difTcrent  parameter  b,  into  a 
third  point  (jTi,  y,),  so  that  we  shall  have 

(16)  x,=f{x,.y,:b),    y,=i>ix,.y,:b). 

In  general,  if  we  eliminate  Xi,  yi  between  (IS) 
and  (16)  we  shall  find  Xi  and  yi  as  functions  of 
r,  y,  a  and  b.  It  may  happen  that  these  func- 
tions assiune  the  form 

(17)  *.=*(*,  y;e),    y.=l!'(i.y;  e) 
where  c  is  a  function  of  a  and  b,  and  where  the 
function!;  f  and  ii  are  the  same  as  in  (IS)  and 

(16J.  If  this  is  the  case,  the  trans foimations- 
(15)  are  said  to  foim  a  one-parameter  group. 
The  one-parameter  family  of  transformations 
(15)  then  has  the  property  that  the  transforma- 
tion, obtained  by  combining  any  two  of  its 
transformations,  is  itself  a  member  of  the 
family.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  family  is 
then  called  a  group.  (See  Gboufs,  Thedsy  of). 
It  is  obvious  how  this  definition  may  be  ex- 
tended to  cover  r-parameter  groups. 

The  one-parameter  group  (IS)  will  contam, 

in  gcnei^   the   identicsl   transformation;    lc, 

1  certain  vahie  a*  c£  a  (15)  will  reduce  ' 


._n  exceptional  cases  arise  which  we  need  not, 
at  present,  discuss.  From  every  one-parameter 
group  we  may  deduce  in  this  way  an  infiniteti- 
mal  transformation,  and  Lie  has  shown  that 
conversely  every  infinitesimal  transformation 
determines  a  one-parameter  group.  There  is  a 
similar  connection  between  an  r-parameter 
group  and  a  corresponding  set  of  r  infinitesimal 
transformations,  between  which  certain  rela- 
tions must  then  be  satisfied 

A  one-parameter  group  always  has  an  m- 
tariant:  Le.,  there  exists  a  function  fl(*,  y) 
such  that,  for  all  transformations  (15)  of  the 
group.  O  (xi,  yi)=:^(x,  y).  Such  a  function  is 
said  to  admit  the  one-parameter  ^oup  of  trans- 
formations. It  admits,  in  particular,  the  in- 
finitesimal transformation  of  the  group.  Simi- 
larly, a  differential  equation  may  admit  one  or 
more  infinitesimal  transformations.  Lie  has 
shown  that  in  the  cases  in  which  the  variables 
•    may  be  separated,  i.e    in  which  integration  by 

auadratures  is  possible,  it  is  possible  to  write 
own  infinitesimal  transformations  which  leave 
the  equations  invariant.  He  has  developed  a 
general  theory  showing  what  advantage  is 
^ned  for  the  integration  of  a  differential  equa- 
tion b^  the  knowledge  that  it  admits  one  or 
more  infinitesimal  transfoimatians.  _  Let  us  re- 
marlc,  explicitly,  that  this  theory  is  not  con- 
fined to  equations  of  the  first  order  nor  even 
to  ordinary  differentia]  equations. 

Before  passing  to  the  con»derat)on  of  the  ele- 


mentaiy  theory  of  equations  of  higher  order,  we 
proceed  to  explain  the  important  notion  of  sin- 
gular solution.    Geometrically,  an  equation  of 

the  first  order  j=tCr,  y)  determines  the  tan- 
gent of  an  integral  curve  at  every  point  of  the 
plane.  If  we  start  from  any  point  P,  the  tan- 
gent of  the  integral  curve  passing  through  that 
point  is  completely  determined.  We  follow  the 
direction  thus  indicated  for  an  infinitesimal  dis- 
tance to  the  point  (x+Sx,  y-l-ilyi.  At  this 
point  the  tangent  is  again  given  by  the  differen- 
tial equation,  etc.  We  obtain  in  this  way,  syn- 
thetically, the  family  of  integral  curves,  say 
F(',  y,  c)"^0.  Any  one  of  these  curves  is 
obtained  ^  giving  a  definite  value  to  the  con- 
stant of  integration  c.  The  envelope  of  this 
^tem  of  curves,  however,  will  also  be  a  solu- 
tion of  the  differential  equation.  For  it  will 
also  be  a  curve  whose  tangent  satisfies  the  re- 
quirements of  the  eauation.  But,  in  general,  the 
envelope  will  not  be  itself  a  member  of  the 
family  of  curves,  i.e.,  it  will  not  be  possible  to 
find  its  equation  by  giving  a  special  value  to  c. 
The  envelope  is  wen  said  to  give  a  singular 
solution  of  the  equation.  If  it  exists,  it  may  be 
found  without  any  integration,  that  is  to  say, 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  general  integral  of 
the  differential  equation. 

The  most  important  case  of  a  differential 
equation  of  a  higher  order,  which  may  be  treated 
by  elementary  methods,  is  that  of  the  linear 
homogeneous  differential  equation  of  the  nth 
order  with  constant  coefficients.    A  linear  homo- 

Etneous   differential   equation  of  the  nth  order 
IS  the  form 


(18) 

If  y>i  V>>  •  •  •  •  Ji"  are  particular  solutions  of  the 
equation,  y^  Ciyi  +  e^  +  .  .  ,  +  cnyn,  where  ft, 
.  .  .  en  are  constants,  is  also  a  solution.  More- 
over, if  yi,  ,  .  .  yit  are  linearly  independent,  Le., 
if  they  satisfy  no  relation  of  the  form 
riyi+W«  +  - .  ■  -t-7iiyii=0.  where  Ti,  .  . .  Xh  are 
constants,  the  above  expression  for  y  is  the 
general  solution,  yi,  .  .  .  ^  are  then  said  to 
constitute  a  fundamenlal  system  of  solutions. 
In  the  case  that  Pi,  .  .  .  pn  are  constants  a 
fundamental  system  may  be  easily  obtained.  In 
fact  y      -■■■-"-  ■  •  ■■         ' 

if  pis 

P"  +  PiP*-'  ...  +  Po-fi  +  pn  =  0. 

Moreover,  if  pi, .  . .  pn  are  the  roots,  supposed 
distinct,  of  this  equation,  tP^'  tP^'  ■  ■  ■  tP^ 
actually  form  a  fundamental  system.  If  ^  roots, 
say  Pi,  Pt,  . . .  pjit  coincide,  tlie  ^  identical  fnno- 
tions  eP^, . . .  ePx'  are  replaced  by  tP^,  x^', 
AP^, . . .  s^eP^. 

Total  Differential  Sqnatlona.—  In  the  case 
of  an  equation  between  two  variables  which  we 
have  considered  so  far,  one  important  distinc- 
tion, which  we  shall  now  have  to  make,  has  not 
been  necessary.  If  P(x,y)dx  +  Q(x,y)dv'~^ 
is  such  an  etjuation,  it  is  always  possible  to  find  a 
single  function  ^x,  y)  such  that  ^(j^.  y)^ 
const,  shall  represent  the  general  integral.  Cither 
the  expression  Pdx  +  Qdy  is  the  complete  dif- 
ferential erf  fCx,  y)  so  that  P  '~^  and  Q^^' 
or   else   upon  multiplication  with   Enler's   in- 


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EQUATIONS,  DIP^RBHTIAI. 


legrating  factor  KPtt^^  +  Q^y)  becomes  such  a 
complete  differential.    This  is  not  the  case  when 
there  are  more  than  two  variables.     Consider 
such  an  equation  in  three  variables, 
(19)  Pdx  +  Qdy  +  Rds'^Q. 

where  P,  Q,  R  are  functions  of  x,  y,  and  x.  For 
the  sake  of  ^nnmetry  assume  that  x,  y,  z  are 
regarded  ss  functions  of  a  fourth  variable  (. 
The  problem  before  us  is  to  find  alt  sets  of 
functions  x,  y,  s  oi  I  which  will  satisfy  (19). 
It  may  happen  that  the  left  member  of  (19) 
becomes  a  complete  differential  upon  multipiica- 
tion  with  a  function  p  of  x,  y,  >,  so  that 


I^P  = 


'^=g"'«=i- 


The  elimination  of  f  from  these  three  equations 
shows  that  this  can  be  the  case  only  if  P,  Q,  R 
satisfy  the  so-called  integrabili^  condition: 

Moreover  it  may  be  shown  that  if  P,  Q,  R  satis^ 
tbb  condition,  there  exists  a  function  t(x,y,e) 
and  an  integrating  factor  M(x,  S,  ')   such  that 

lKPdx  +  Qdy  +  Rdt)—d*, 
so  that  integration  of  (19)  will  give  the  result 
fix^y.s)  =conat.  But  if  (20)  is  not  satisfied, 
no  integration  of  (19)  in  this  sense  is  possible. 
The  reason  for  this  distinction  as  well  as  the 
discussion  of  the  non-integrable  case  will  be 
clearly  understood  if  we  make  use  of  a  geo- 
metric interpretation.  Let  x,  y,  z  be  Cartesian 
co-ordinates  of  a  point  in  space.  If  x,  y,  z  are 
known  as  functions  of  t,  there  will  be  determined 
a  certain  space-curve.  It  is  our  problem  to  de- 
termine such  space-curves 

^  =  /(0.    3'  =  ff(0.    «-*(*) 


__.    __.     The   tangents   of   all   of   these   curves 

which  pass  through  the  point  {x*,yt, Ztf  form  a 

plane  pencil  with  {x%  y*,  2,)  as  vertex  and  the 

plane 

P{x^y^ii,Mx~x.)+Q(x^y^  »)(3i-3*) 

+  Rlx^y^Z,')ii-z.)  =  fi 
as  plane.  Thus  there  is  for  every  point  P  a 
plane  p  containing  P,  to  which  all  of  the  in- 
tegral curves  of  (19)  which  pass  through  P 
must  be  tangent,  we  may  now  imagine  an 
integral  curve  of  (19)  constructed  as  follows: 
Start  from  a  given  point  P  and  construct  the 
corresponding  plane  p.  We  go  from  P  to  a  point 
Q  inhnitesimally  close  to  P  but  otherwise  arbi- 
trarily situated  in  the  plane  p.  At  Q  we  con- 
struct the  plane  7  corresponding  to  it,  and  in 
this  plane  we  pick  out  a  point  R  infinitesimally 
close  to  Q.  Proceeding  in  this  way  we  grad- 
ually build  up  an  integral  curve.  It  may 
happen  that  all  of  the  integral  curves  of  (19) 
which  {lass  through  the  point  P  are  situated 
upon  a  certain  surface  S.  If  this  is  the  case 
for  all  points  P,  the  inte^rability  condition  is 
satisfied;  there  exists  a  single  infinity  of  sur- 
faces 0(*,ji,a)  =c,  such  that  an  arbitrary 
curve  upon  each  of  these  surfaces  satisfies  the 
differential  equation.  In  general,  however,  such 
a  family  of  surfaces  does  not  exist.  We  may 
then  integrate  (19)  as  follows :  Take  an  arbt- 
trary  surface  •<*,  y,  z)  *—t>.    Let  P  be  any  point 


P,  and  let  p'  be  the  plane  tangent  to  the  surface 
♦(*^,.Y.  «)'~'0  at  P.  The  intersection  t  of  p  and 
p  will  be  at  the  same  time  tangent  to  an  in- 
tegral curve  of  (19)  and  tangent  to  the  surface 
*  =0.  From  P  we  go  along  (  to  a  point  Q  in- 
finitesimally dose  to  P  and  there  repeat  this 
process.  We  may  build  up  in  this  way  all  of 
the  integral  curves  of  (19)  which  are  situated 
upon  an  arbitrary  surface.  Upon  every  arlw- 
trary  surface  there  will  be  a  smgle  infinity  of 
such  curves.  Analytically  this  process  may  be 
carried  out  as  follows:    From  4*^=0  we  fiiid 


u» 


5*^, 


■^  +  f'''  +  £*-° 


From  this  equation  and  V''=0,  di  and  i  may  be 
expressed  in  terms  of  x,  y,  dx  and  y.  Substitu- 
tion of  these  values  into  (19)  gives  rise  to  an 
equation  of  the  form 

Mix,  y}dx+Nlx.  y)dy=0. 
which  may  be  integrated,  in  the  form  f  (x,  y) 
=c.  This  latter  eqtiation  together  with  'P{x,  J, 
Ji)— 0  ^ves  the  required  solution.  By  giving 
all  possible  forms  to  the  functions  i>  all  possible 
solutions  will  be  obtained 

Similar  considerations  are  necessary  in  the 
general  case  of  «  variables.  The  first  consider- 
able contribution  to  this  theory  is  due  to  Pfaff. 
For  this  reason  such  an  equation  is  known  as  a 
Pfa^an  equation,  and  the  problem  of  its  inte- 
gration as  Pfaff's  problem.  The  problem  leads 
to  a  system  of  no  more  than  «  mtegral  equa- 
tions when  the  number  of  variables  is  2n  or 
2h  —  I.  If  the  eqiutions  are  of  higher  than  the 
first  degree  in  Die  differentials.  Lie  speaks  of 
them  as  Mongt  eqttations.  Many  prablems  of 
differential  geometry,  especially  in  relation  to 
the  theory  of  complexes,  are  connected  with 
Pfafi'ian   and   Monge  equations. 

Partial  Differential  Ec]uatiooB.-~  Frequently 
functions  of  several  variables  are  defined  1^ 
relations  between  those  functions  and  thetr 
partial  derivatives.  Such  equations  are  called 
partial  differential  equations.  Foi  the  sake  of 
simplicity  we  will  confine  ourselves  to  the  case 
of  a  single  unknown  function,  and  for  the  most 
part  to  the  case  of  two  independent  variables. 
As  in  the  case  of  ordinary  differential  equationj, 
it  will  be  instructive  to  see  first  how  such  equa- 
tions may  arise  as  the  result  of  elimination  of 
arbitrary  elements  from  equations  which  do  not 
involve  the  derivatives.  Let  z  be  ^ven  as  a 
function  of  x,  v  and  of  the  two  arbitrary  con- 
stants a,  b  by  ttte  eqtution 
(21)  Hx.  y.  m;  a,  6)=0. 

Let  p,  q  represent  ^  and  ^  respectivdy. 
Then  differentiation  will  give 

™     i^+E- ««+!=»■ 

Between  the  three  equations  (21)  and  (22)  a 

and  h  may  be  eliminated.    Let 

(23)  F(.p.  q;  X.  y.  z)=0. 

be  the  result   of   this  elimination.     Tt   is  the 

partial  diffcretitial  equation  which  corresponds 

to  (21)  :  (21)  is  called  the  complete  integral  of 

(23). 

But  a  and  b  in  (21)  may  be  futictloiis  of 
X,  y  and  still  the  result  of  the  elimitwtion  may 


9QUATI0HS,  DIPPERSNTIAt 


be  the  same  equation  (23).      In  fact  we  find 
from  (21),  asBuming  that  a  and  b  s 
of  X  and  jt. 


which  eqnattcms  will  reduce  to  (22),  and  there- 
fore give  rise  to  the  same  equation  (23),  if 

Let  the  determinant  of  these  equations  be  de- 
noted by  J,  BO  that 

aoa6_aod6^ 

dxdy      dydx 
then  we  may  write,  in  place  of  (24),  the  equiva- 
lent equations 


If  4^  0,  we  must  theiefore  have 

From  these  equations  a  and  b  may  be  obtained 
as  functions  of  x  and  y;  if  these  values  are 
substituted  in  (21),  a  function  2  of  ;r  and  y  is 
obtained,  independent  of  any  arbitrary  con- 
stants, but  still  3  solution  of  ihe  partial  differ- 
ential equation  (23).  This  solution  is  called  a 
tingttlar  integral  of  (23).  It  may  or  may  not  be 
a  special  case  of  the  complete  integral. 

Equations  (24a)  are  also  satisfied  if  yj  =  0, 
i.e.,  if 

(25)  fc  =  *(fl), 

where  ^(a)  denotes  an  arbitraiy  function  of  a, 
U  we  multiply  the  left  members  of  (24)  by  dx 
and  dy  respectively,  and  add^  we  find 

whence,  since  db=t'(a)da. 


If  we  eliminate  a  and  b  from  the  equations 
(21),  (25)  and  (26),  we  find  2  as  a'function  of 
*  and  y,  ihe  expression  of  which  depends  upon 
die  arbitrary  function  *.  Moreover  Jhis  func- 
tion s  will  again  be  a  solution  of  (23).  It  is 
known  as  the  general  integral  and  involves  an 
arbitrary  function.  It  may  be  shown  that  every 
int«si9l  of  such  a  partial  differential  equation 
belongs  to  one  of  these  three  classes. 

(geometrical  interpretation  will  again  render 
the  matter  perfectly  clear.  Let  x,  31.  «  be  co- 
ordinates of  a  point  In  space;  (21)  will  repre- 
sent a  two-parameter  family  of  surfaces,  or,  as 
we  may  say,  a  family  of  "o'  surfaces.  The 
equation  of  the  plane  tangent  to  one  of  these 
surfaces  at  a  point  (_x,  y,  s)  will  be 
i~z=p(S—x)+q('i-y). 
For  a  fixed  value  of  x.  y,  2,  (23)  gives  therefore 
an  infinity  of  planes  through  that  point  (en- 
veloping a  cone)  ;  any  integral  surface  of  (21), 
which  passes  through  that  point  must  have 
one  of  these  planes  as  its  tangent  plane.  In 
other  words,  the  differential  equation  deter- 
mines a  certain  cone  corresponding  to  every 
point  of  space,  and  with  this  point  as  vertex; 


an  integnil  surface  must  be  tangent  at  each  of 
its  points  to  the  corresponding  cone.  Mow  let 
a  complete  solution  of  the  equation  be  given, 
so  that  we  know  a  family  of  m*  surfaces  each 
of  which  ful&ls  the  requirements  of  the  problem. 
If  we  put  2>=*  ^a),  where  f(a)  is  any  function 
of  a,  we  obtain  a  one-parameter  family  of  sur- 
faces included  among  the  m '  surfaces  Just 
mentioned.  The  envelope  of  this  one-parameter 
family  is  given  by  the  general  integral.  The 
singular  integral  is  the  envelope  of  all  of  the  »' 
surfaces  of  the  complete  integrals,  provided 
that  such  an  envelope  exists. 

Since  the  surface  represented  by  the  general 
integral  is  the  envelope  of  a  single  infinity  of 
surfaces  represented  by  the  complete  integral, 
each  of  these  latter  surfaces  will  touch  the 
former  along  a  certain  curve ;  such  3  curve  is 
known  as  a  ckaraclerutic.  if  the  partial  diffel- 
.  fls  ,  as 
ential   equation   is   not   Imear   m    ^   and  v-, 

diere  are  «'  characteristics.  A  linear  equation 
has  only  00  characteristics.  The  integral  sur- 
faces may  be  looked  upon  as  generated  by 
characteristics,  and  the  usual  method  of  inte- 
fating  the  partial  differential  equation  con- 
sists in  setting  up  a  system  of  ordinary  differen- 
tial equa'tions  which  determines  the  character- 
istics. 

The  iioints  of  view  in  the  faigber  theory,— 
In  speaking  of  ordinary  differential  equations, 
we  have  already  mentioned  the  fact  that  the 
point  of  view  of  the  elementary  theory  is  inade- 
quate even  in  those  cases  in  which  the  reduction 
to  quadratures  is  possible.  Given  for  example, 
the  equation 


Vto 


-«->1(i-iM. 


whid)  may  b«  reduced  to  a  quadrature, 

J  V(l-j*)(l-AV)- 
The  reduction  of  the  equation  to  this  form  is  a 
mere  formal  process  which,  in  itself,  teaches  us 
nothing;.  We  shall  have  to  ask  ourselves  the 
following  questions :  to  what  extent  does  a 
given  differential  equation  defitie  a  function 
y  of  JT?  what  are  the  characteristic  properties 
of  tlus  function?  what  analytical  processes  in- 
volving known  functions,  infinite  series,  prod- 
ucts, etc.,  will  serve  for  the  computation  of  the 
values  of  the  function  for  all  of  the  values  of 
its  ai^ument?  In  the  case  of  the  above  differ- 
ential equations  these  questions  have  been  com- 
pletely answered  by  the  creation  of  the  theory 
of  elhptic  functions  by  Abel  and  Jacobi.  In  gen- 
eral it  is  to  be  expected  that  every  differential 
equation  defines  a  transcendental  function ;  it 
is  the  theory  of  these  transcen dentals  which 
constitutes  properly  the  most  important  por- 
tion of  the  dieory  of  differential  equations. 

In  order  fully  to  understand  the  properties 
of  functions  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  look 
upon  the  variable  as  being  capable  of  assuming 
not  only  all  real  but  also  all  complex  values. 
In  the  hands  of  Cauchy,  Riemann,  Weierstrass 
there  has  grown  up  in  this  way  the  theory^  of 
iuncliotu  of  a  complex  variable  (q,v.).  This 
theory  serves  as  a  tase  for  our  further  discus- 
We  shall,  however,  confine  ourselves  t 


.yGooi^le 


EQUATIONS,  DIFFERENTIAL 


be  the  given  differential  equation:  Let  fix,  y) 
be  analytic  in  the  vicinity  of  {Xt,  y>)  i.e.,  let 
it  be  possible  to  develop  fix,  y)  into  a  series 
proceeding  according  topositive  integral  powers 
of  jr  —  X,  and  y  —  y^  Then,  as  was  nrst  proved 
by  Cauchy,  there  exists  a  function  ^  of  x  which 
may  be  developed  according  to  positive  integral 
powers  of  x — x^  which  reduces  to  j  =  jt  for 
x-^xt,  and  which  satisfies  the  differentia!  equa- 
tion. This  theorem,  which  may  be  easily  gen- 
eralized to  apply  to  equations  of  higher  order, 
or  to  systems  of  equations  of  the  first  order,  is 
generally  known  as  the  fundamental  theorem 
of  the  theory  of  differential  equations.  It 
proves  the  existence  of  analytic  funciions  which 
are  uniquely  defined  as  solutions  of  analytic 
differential  equations  and  which  satisfy  the  sub- 
sidiary condition  of  reducing  to  given  values 
for  a  Kiven  value  of  the  argument.  The  theorem 
may  be  proved  by  the  method  of  dominating 
functions.  This  consists  in  findinga  series  whi<£ 
formally  satisfies  the  differential  equation  and 
reduces  to  ya  for  x^^x,;  its  convergence  is  then 
demonstrated  by  comparing  it  term  for  term 
with  a  corresponding  series,  which  is  formed  in 
the  same  way  from  another  differential  equa- 
tion, and  which  is  known  to  be  convergent. 
The  exact  circle  of  convergence  cannot,  however, 
be  generally  stated.  A  great  many  papers  have 
been  written  on  questions  which  easily  suggest 
themselves  in  connection  with  this  theorem.    If 


Let  yi, .  .  .  yii  be  the  members  of  such  a  funda- 
mental ByGtem.  Let  ai,  .  ,  .  om  be  the  singiilar 
pointA  (poles)  of  the  coeflidents  ^i,  .  .  .  ^ 
which  we  shall  assimie  to  be  rational  functions 
of  *.  Let  ji,  .  .  .  yn  be  continued  analytically 
along  a  path  passing,  in  the  positive  direction, 
around  one  of  these  singular  points  a,  and  let 
yi,  .  .  .  yta  be  the  new  branches  of  the 
functions  yi.  .  .  .  jn  which  are  thus  defined  bjr 
power-series  in  the  vicinity  of  x'^xa  after  this 
process.    We  must  have 

(28)  y*==iifey,+ajto',-(-  .  .  .+aM3i»,  {<-=l,  2, .  . .«). 
where  oki  are  constants,  since  >i  .  .  .  >»  must 
constitute  again  a  system  of  solutions  (more- 
over a  fundamental  system).  A  new  funda- 
mental system  may  be  chosen  in  the  following 
manner.    Put 

s=-:eiyi-Hco^  +  . . .  H-cnyn, 
where  Ci,  .  .  .  c*  are  constant  coefficients.    After 
the  continuation  around  a,  swill  be  changed  into 
i=ei(a„y, -1-  .  .  .  -f.a„y,)-t-  .  .  . 

This  will  be  equal  to  (js,  where  w  is  a  constant,  U 
ci(au— ")  +c^>M+  . . .  -|-em»iii^O, 

C<!ht  +  C,iat,~u)  -f  .  . ,  +  cn-hu^fi. 


9  negative  or  fractional  exponents,  how 
far  are  its  solutions  determined  and  what  is  the 
form  of  their  developments?  Besides  the  ana- 
lytic solutions  whose  existence  Cauchy  has 
demonstrated,  are  there  other  non-analytic 
solutions?  The  first  investigations  of  these 
questions  are  due  to  Brjot  and  Boquet.  They 
have  since  been  completed  by  a  great  many 
authors. 

Cauchys  existence  theorem  can  be  made 
more  precise  in  the  case  of  iinear  differential 
equations.     Let 


(27) 


dx« 


+  f. 


d>^^y  I 


-\-pny=<i 


be  a  homogeneous,  linear  differential  e<)uation  of 
the  «th  order.  In  the  vicinity  of  x~'Xt  let  the 
coeSSdents  pii  be  expressible  as  power-series, 
proceeding  according  to  positive  integral  powers 
ol  X  —  jTi,  and  convergent  for  all  values  of  x  for 
which  \x  —  Xt\<T,  where  r  is  a  real  positive 
quantity,  i.e.,  for  all  points  of  the  plane  of  the 
complex  variable  which  are  within  a  circle  of 
radius  r  and  of  center  xt.  Then  there  exists  a 
function  y  of  x,  expressible  as  a  power  series 
convergent  in  the  same  domain,  which  satisfies 
the  differential  equation,  and  which,  together 
with  its  first  M~l  derivatives,  assumes  arbi- 
trarily prescribed  values  for  x'^xt. 

The  proof  of  this  theorem,  due  to  Fuchs,  IS 
also  based  on  the  method  of  dominating  func- 
tions. The  important  point  is  the  fact 
that  the  true  radius  of  convergence  of  the 
series  is  determined  by  inspection  from  the 
differential  equation  itself.  The  existence 
of  a  fundamental  system  of  solutions 
expressible   by   power-series   follows   at   once. 


(29) 


(30)     ^(«)  = 


.  -hc«(o«.— «)=0. 


If  ui  is  a  root  of  (30)  and  the  ratios  rA 
Ci.  .  .  .  Cn  are  determined  from  (29)  after  u 
has  been  put  equal  to  "i.  we  shall  therefore 
find  a  solution  <■  of  (27)  which  changes  into 
"iSt  when  the  variable  x  describes  a  closed 
path  around  the  singular  point  considered.  If 
the  equation  f(u)  =  0  has  n  distinct  roots,  we 
shall  find  n  such  Bdutions,  and  we  may  write 


(31) 


(»=1,  2,  . 


n) 


...  place  of  (28),  Moreover,  these  b  solutions 
A,  .  .  .  «ii  will  constitute  a  fundamental  system. 
We  shall  not  attempt  to  discuss  the  case  of  co- 
incident roots  of  the  equation  (30),  which  is 
known    as   the   fundamenlai   or    chancttristic 


Now  the  function 
has  predaely  the  same  property.    Therefore  the 


quotient  r 


,    function  uniform    i 


(»-o)'( 

vicinity  of  x'^ a,  and  therefore  expressible  by  a 
so-called  Laurent  series  proceeding  according  to 
positive  and  negative  but  integral  powers  of 
«— «.    Let  ^(r)  be  such  series;  then  we  have 

(32)        u={x—ayifi{x).  («=  1,2 b). 

The  Laurent  series  will  be  convergent  for  all 
points,  excepting  a  itself,  of  the  circle  which  ha) 
a  as  center  and  which  reaches  op  to  the  nearest 
singular  point  of  the  differential  equation.  The 
main  questions  to  solve  are:  1st.  Determine  the 
etponents  rn  2d.  Find  the  coefficients  of  the 
Laurent  aeries  f<.  These  questions  are  capaUe 
of  a  direct  and  general  solution  in  the  special 
case  in  which  the  Laurent  series  contains  only 
a   finite   number  of  terms  involving  negative 


BQUATI0N8,  DXFraSUBNTIAL 


powers  ot  x—a.    In  tiiat  case  die  differential 
equation  (27)  may  be  written  in  tbe  form. 

dx"  ""^  x—a  <to>— I  "^  Oe-aJ'An.— J  ■*" ' ' ' 

.     ^"(^>    -     - 


CM) 


^(*- 


«)•■ 


where  Pi,  Fi,  .  .  .  Pn  are  expressible  as  power- 
series  proceeding  according  to  positive,  integral 
powers  of  x — a.  The  exponents  r.  are  then  the 
roots  of  the  deUrmiHUting  fundamental  equation 
of  the  nth  degree 
(34)  r(r-l)  .  .  .  (f-n  +  l)  +P.Co)r(r-l)  •  •  ■ 

Cr-«  +  2)+...  +FnCfl)=0. 
AfCo-  ri  has  been  obtained  from  this  equation, 
the  method  of  indetenninate  coefficients  enables 
one  to  find  the  coefficients  of  the  power-series. 
In  the  case  of  equal  roots  some  of  tbe  solutions 
may  contain  such  tenns  as  log  ix  —  a), 
)lo8  ix — a)  j',  etc.;  the  general  discussion  of  the 
various  cases  which  may  arise  is  rather  com- 
plicated. 

The  case  in  which  the  equation  may  be 
written  in  the  form  (i3)  is  usually  described  as 
that  in  which  the  solutions  are  regttlar  about 
jr=ii.  If  they  are  regular  in  the  vicinity  of 
each  aingiiiin-  point,  induding  x=^  "> ,  the  equa- 
tion is  said  to  be  of  the  FufhsioH  type,  and  may 
be  written  as  follows: 

where  y*.  y",  etc.,  denote  fl>e  derivative*  of  ji  of 
the  first,  second  order,  etc,  where 
f3Sii)  «={»—«,)(*—«,)  .  .  .  («— am), 
fli,  .  .  .  dm  and  »  being  the  singular  points,  and 
where  G/  denotes  a  polynominiJ  in  s  ot  degree 
no  higher  than  A.  The  most  important  special 
case  of  such  an  equation  is  that  of  the  hyper- 
geometric  series,  Uie  so-called  Gauss  equation, 
which  is  of  the  second  order  and  has  three 
Giogular  points,  0,  1  and  *.  Historically,  the 
theory  of  the  Gauss  equation,  as  treated  by 
Riemann,  was  the  origin  of  the  general  theory 
of  linear  differential  equations.  A  Urge  num- 
ber of  the  most  important  conceptions  ot  the 
theory  of  functions  are  closely  connected  with 
this  equation.  The  question  of  finding  the 
cases  in  which  the  general  solution  is  algebraic 
led  Schwan,  Fuchs  and  Klein  to  the  remark- 
able algebraic  functions  which  are  connected 
with  the  five  regular  solids.  This  equation  also 
leads  to  the  general  theory  of  aulomorphic 
functions,  of  which  the  elliptic  functions  are  a 

If  in  the  vicinity  of  a  singular  point,  the 
solutions  are  regular  they  may  be  developed  in 
the  manner  indicated.  TTie  problem  of  finding 
the  developments  of  the  solution  in  the  vicinity 
of  a  point  where  they  are  not  regular  is  far 
more  difficult  and  still  awaits  a  satisfactory 
general  solution.  A  solution,  not  regular  at 
x^^,  may  have  the  special  form. 

fOfx— a)PVW. 

where  p  is  a  constant,  where  ^{x)  is  an  ordinary 

—a.  and  where 


i>  that  it  differs  from  a  regular  integral  only 


by  the  presence  of  the  factor  e".  Such  an  in- 
tegral,  if  it  exists,  is  called  a  normal  integral. 
There  may  also  be  integrals  of  a  similar  form 
in  which,  however,  (x — a)  i/*appears  in  place  of 
x^a,  where  A  is  a  positive  integer.  They  arc 
called  subnormai.  The  x:onditions  for  the  exist- 
ence of  normal  and  subnormal  integrals  have 
been  investigated,  but  none  ot  these  investiga- 
tions is  as  yet  in  a  final  form.  Considerable 
progress  in  the  theory  of  non-regular  integrals 
nas  been  made  in  recent  years  by  Blrkhoff. 

It  is  possible  however  to  change  the 
method  of  attack.  The  general  theory  shows 
that,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  singular  point 
jr='o,  a  solution  exists  of  the  form  (x — a)''?(*), 
where  #(x]  is,  in  ^neral,  a  Laurent  series. 
The  question  is  this:  how  to  determine  the 
exponent  p  and  the  coefficients  of  #(x).  In  the 
Tegular  case,  when  #(x)  is  an  ordinary  power- 
scries,  substitution  of  this  expression  iuto  the 
differential  equation,  and  comparison  of 
powers  of  x  —  a,  solves  the  problem.  One  may 
do  the  same  thing  in  general.  But  then  one 
finds  it  necessar^^  to  solve  a  system  of  linear 
equations  infinite  in  number  and  with  an  infinity 
of  unknown  quantities.  This  leads  to  the 
notion  of  infinite  determinants,  due  primarily 
to  G.  W.  Hill.  Hill  applied  infinite  deter- 
minants just  as  though  they  were  finite,  paying 
no  attention  to  convergence  or  rigorous  defi- 
nitions. This  deficiency  was  made  up  and 
the  whole  theory  placed  upon  a  soiia  basis 
by  Poincare  and  Koch. 

The  theory  of  linear  differential  equations 
has  served  as  a  basis  for  practically  all  that  is 
known  about  non-linear  equations.  There  are 
two  fundamental  properties  of  the  linear  equa- 
tions which  render  them  peculiarly  accessible. 
In  the  first  place  it  is  known,  a  priori,  how  the 
arbitrary  constants  enter  into  the  expression  of 
its  general  integral;  in  the  second  place  the 
singular  points  of  its  solutions  are  fixed,  i.e. 
independent  of  the  constants  ot  integration. 
Other  classes  of  differential  equations  may  be 
de&ied  which  have  one  or  both  of  these  proper- 
ties. The  first-mentioned  point  of  view  leads 
to  the  differential  equations  with  fundamental 
solutions.  These  may  be  defined  in  various 
ways  and  have  been  investigated  by  Guldberg, 
Vessiot,  Lie  and  Wilcrynski.  The  idea  of  in- 
vestigating the  differential  equations  with  fixed 
branch-points  is  due  to  Fuchs.  For  equations 
of  the  first  order  he  succeeded  in  formulating 
the  conditions  in  a  very  simple  theorem,  Poin- 
carf  then  showed  that  all  such  equations  can  be' 
transformed  into  a  Ricati  cqtiation,  i.e.,  an 
equation  of  the  form 

f36)  ^=o.+fliy-HHJ*. 

where  Ot,  ih,  a,  are  functions  of  ^,_or  else  are 
integrable  by  quadratures  or  algebraic  functions. 
raSrential  equations  ot  the  first  order  with 
fixed  branch-points  do  not,  therefore,  as  was  at 
first  expected,  lead  to  new  transcendental  func- 
tions.    For.  the  Riccati  equation  may,  by  tbe 

transformation  y= —  i  be  converted  into  a 

linear  differential  equation  of  the  second  order. 
It  may  be  noted,  incidentally,  that  this  remark 
enables  us  to  prove,  in  a  simple  manner,  the 
theorem  that  the  anharmonic  ratio  of  any  four 


.lOogle 


448 


EQUATIONS,  GALOIS'  THEORY  OP 


solutions  of  a  Riccati  eqiuticm  is  constant    This 

is  important  in  geometric  applications. 

The  most  important  recent  investigations  in 
the  theory  of  differential  equations,  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  theory  of  functions  of  a  com- 
plex variable,  are  due. to  Painlev£.  A  brief  ac- 
count of  some  of  them  will  indicate  their  funda- 
mental nature.    Let 


(37) 


=/{*.  y) 


be  an  algebraic  differential  equation  of  the  fir&t 
order.  The  general  integral  will  be  a  function 
of  X  and  u,  u  being  the  constant  of  integration. 
We  may.  instead,  consider  u  as  a  function  of  x 
and  y  defined  by  the  partial  differential  equation 


(38) 


+  £/{^»  =  0. 


dx^  dy 


f,  y,», 


The  general  integral  of  (37)   is  said  ■ 
reducible  if  other  equations,  algebn  ' 

5~'T-'  T-i'  etc.,  may  be  adjoined  to  (38)  com- 
Ox  ay    ox' 

patible  with  it  without  being  deducible  there- 
from. All  of  the  equations  of  the  first  order 
which  have  been  studied  are  reducible  in  this 
sense;  for  instance,  the  Riccati  equation,  the 
linear  equation,  etc.     In  the  case  of  a  linear 

equation  the  condition  t-t^O  may  be  thus  ad- 


flj* 


du 


tiaa  =z~^-  **^    "^^^  definition  <rf  redudbiUty 

may  be  extended  to  equations,  or  systems  of 
equations,  of  any  order. 

Applied  to  equations  of  the  first  order,  the 
following  theorem  results.  If  an  equation  of 
the  &rst  order  is  reducible,  only  four  cases  are 
possible :  1st,  the  equation  is  algebraically 
integrabte;  2d,  it  has  an  algebraic  integrating 
factor;  3d,  the  lo^rithm  of  the  integrating 
factor  has  algebraic  first  derivatives;  4th,  a 
first  integral  is  given  by  a  system  of  difierential 
equations  whose  genera]  solution  is  of  the  form 

«=»  — T— 1'  (o,  b,  c,  d  being  arbitrary  constants,) 

and  which  may  be  reduced  to  a  Riccati  equa- 

Irreducible  equations  of  the  first  order  lead 
to  known  results,  if  we  confine  ourselves  to  the 
case  that  y  shall  be  a  uniform  function  of  x, 
'  This  is  not  the  case,  however,  for  equations  of 
higher  order.  Among  the  equations  of  the 
second  order,  the  simplest  case  is  that  of  the 
equation 
(39)  y-  =  V+:r. 

Its  general  integral  is  a  uniform  function  of 
X,  which  may  be  represented  as  a  quotient  of 
two  integral  transcendental  functions  in  the 
_<Plog  1 


dxf 


1  integral  trans- 


cendental function  which  satisfies  the  equation 
(*0)  i  {«")'+ 2(e')'+m'-«=0. 

wherein— 1    and    which    may.    theretore,    be 


Aldiough  great  progress  has  been  made  in 


this  direction  and  although  greater  progress  is 
to  be  expected  as  the  efforts  of  mathematiciana 
are  being  gradually  rewarded,  the  results  are 
meager  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  matite- 
matical  ph^icist,  who  would  like  to  refer  to  the 
mathematician  the  questions  connected  with 
the  integration  of  a  differential  eouation  which 
may  have  appeared  in  some  of  nis  investiga- 
tions. For  very  rarely  will  it  happen  that  such 
an  equation  belongs  to  one  of  the  classes  with 
which  the  mathematician  is  prepared  to  deal- 
It  remains  necessary  to  stu(G'  such  et^ualions 
directly  by  methods  of  successive  approximation 
especially  adapted  to  ihem,  usually  upon  the 
assumption  that  all  of  the  variables  that  enter 
he  confined  to  real  values.  The  restriction  to 
real  variables  in  such  cases,  the  systematic  a.id 
rigorous  application  of  the  method  of  successive 
approximations,  has  been  productive  of  many 
valuable  results  in  recent  years,  especially  in 
the  hands  of  Picard  and  Hilbert.  The  theory 
of  partial  difierential  equations,  ^marily,  has 
made  rapid  progress  through  tlteir  efforts  and 
many  mathematicians  are  following  their  ex- 
ample. It  may,  however,  be  predicted  that,  even 
in  the  theory  of  partial  difierential  equations, 
the  restriction  to  real  variables  will  gradually 
pass  away.  For  in  the  case  of  analytic  func- 
tions, and  these  after  all  are  the  most  import- 
ant, the  characteristic  properties  are  veiled  by 
such  a  restriction.  But  a  necessary  prerequisite 
for  a  theory  of  partial  differential  equations 
with  complex  variables  is  the  theory  of  func- 
tions of  several  complex  arguments;  this  theory, 
however,  is  still  in  its  infancy, 

Bibliographr.— A.  R.  Forsyth.  <A  Treatise 
on  DiflerenUal  Eqtiations'  (3d  ed.,  London 
1903).  -niis  contains  an  account  of  the  more 
elementary  parts  of  the  theory.  A.  R.  Forsyth, 
'Theory  of  Differential  Equations'  (6  vols; 
Cambridge  1890) .  In  this  work  the  main 
stress     is     laid     upon     the     function  theoretic 

?oint  of  view.  S.  Lie,  'Vortcsungen  uber  Dif- 
erentialgleichungcn  mit  bekannten  infinite^- 
malen  Transformationen,'  bearbeitet  und  he- 
rausgegeben  von  G,,  Scheffers  (Leipiig  1891). 
E.  Picard,  'Traitfi  d'analyse'  (Vols.  2  and  3; 
Paris  1893-95).  Important  principally  for  the 
modem  theory  of  partial  differential  equations. 
P.  Painlevi,  'Lecons  siir  la  thiorie  anaWtique 
des  Equations  difffrentielles,  profcsstes  a  Stock- 
holm,' Sept.,  Oct.,  Nov.,  1895.  Lithographed  at 
Paris,  189?,  an  account  of  the  most  advanced 
points  of  view.  L.  Sthlcsinger,  'Handbuch  der 
Theorie    der    linearen    Differentialglcichungen' 


subject  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  expert 
mathematician,  see  the  various  articles  on  dif- 
ferential equations  in  'Encyclopadie  der  mathe- 
matischen  Wisscnsehaften  mit  Einschluss  ihrer 
Anwendungen, '  which  is  now  being  published 
in  Leipzig.  A  French  edition,  much  more  ex- 
tensive than  ihe  German  edifion,  of  this  monu- 
mental work  is  also  being  published. 

EhnE3T  J.  WiLCZYNSKI, 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  University  of  CtA- 
eago. 

EQUATIONS.  Galois'  Theory  of.—  In  the 
IGth  century  the  Italian  mathematicians  suc- 
ceeded in  solving  the  cubic  and  biquadratic 
equations.  Their  brilliant  achievements  must 
have  made  it  seem  probable  that  the  solutioa 


jOOgIc 


SQTTATIOHS,  GALOIS'  THEORT  OF 


of  tbe  cqitatioas  of  fifth  and  higher  degrees 
would  soon  be  found.  Such,  however,  was  not 
to  be  the  case.  For  two  centuries  the  tint 
mathematicians  of  the  day  essayed  in  rain  to 
solve  the  quintic.  Tschirnhausen,  Euler,  Vao- 
dermonde,  Ma]fatti  and  Lagrange  nubo^ed 
dieir  researches  in  valuable  memotrs,  but  at  tbe 
dose  of  the  18th  century  the  solution  of  the 
ntuation  of  the  fifth  degree  seetns  farther  away 
tl^n  ever. 

In  their  opisrent  defeat,  however,  lay  the 
germs  of  ultimate  victory.  As  a  result  of  all 
these  investigations  it  became  manifest  that  tbe 
solution  of  algebraic  equations  and  certain 
groups  of  substitutions  of  their  roots  were  inti- 
mately related.  In  the  case  of  the  general 
equations  of  degrees  three  and  four  this  rela- 
tion was  very  clear  indeed;^  It  was  less  clear  in 
re^rd  to  the  general  equation  of  degree  h,  and 
still  more  hacy  in  regard  to  the  spedal  eqita- 
ttons  which  luid  been  considered  -up  to  that 
time.  It  was  reserved  to  Evareste  Galois  to 
put  these  loose  ends  together  and  to  develop  a 
theory  of  the  solution  of  algebraic  equations  at 
once  S7mple  and  far-reaChing.  Indeed,  the  ideas 
of  Galois  are  not  only  fundamental  in  most 
algebraic  investigations,  but  they  have  also  been 
extended  by  Lie  and  others  wiui  great  efFect  to 
the  theory  of  differential  equations.  Bat  even 
here  they  do  not  Slop.  It  is  in  Gatois'  theory 
that  the  notion  of  a  group  first  came  promi- 
nently before  the  mathematical  public;  a  notion 
which  to-day  pervades  a  good  part  of  the  whol'e 
domain  of  mathematics. 

Galois  died  at  the  age  of  22  (1832).  Twice 
be  presented  memoirs  to  the  Paris  Acad- 
emy, containing  an  account  of  his  theory.  The 
first  was  lost,  the  second  was  returned  to  its 
youthful  author  by  Poisson  as  unintdligible. 
Galois'  theory  was  tirst  made  public  to  the 
mathematical  world  in  1846  wnen  Liouvilk 
published  this  latter  memoir  without  comments. 
In  1856  Betti  puUished  an  expoudon  of  Galois' 
theory  with  complete  proofs  and  tome  valoabk 
extensions. 

Lagrange  in  his  great  memoir  of  1770-71 
developed  what  he  styied  a  calcul  dti  cotnbinO' 
tions  and  which  is  in  fact  the  origin  of  Galois' 
Theory  of  Equations,  This  new  calcul  was 
further  developed  in  a  number  of  papers  by 
Ruffini,  beginning  \799,  who  tried  to  demonstrate 


i  means;  by  Gauss  (1801)  and  Lagrange 
(1808)  in  the  solution  of  the  eouations  on  which 
the  roots  of  unity  depend;  ana  finally  by  Abel, 
who,  besides  being  the  first  to  rigorously  demon- 
strate the  insolvability  of  the  quintic  by  radi- 
cals (1826),  discovered  a  new  class  of  aleebraic 
solvable  equations  which  occur  in  tbe  division 
of  the  elliptic  functions  (1EQ9). 

BA9A1-  mmoKS. 
Domain  of  Rationality.—  One  of  the  most 
fundamental  notions  in  Galois'  theory  is  that  of 
a  domain  of  rationality  which  was  first  clearly 
formulated  by  Abel,    When  an  equation 
/{*)=a^-^Ote»— '+...  +a»-j:  +  «n  =  0  (1) 

offers  itself  for  solution,  its  coefficients  are  sup- 
posed known,  It  often  happens  that  other 
quantities  are  known,  or  are  assumed  as  known. 
Suppose  ^.  >!,...  "J  are  such  quantics.  finit*  m 
number.    The  totality  of  rational  futtctions  of 

VOL.  1  —29 


these  letters  with  rational  atuidMrs  as  coefficients 
constitutes  a  domain  of  rationality  nrfiich  we 
denote  by, 

R(X, ,.,,..  u). 
Thus  any  element  of  this  domain  may  be  ob^ 
tained  by  a  finite  number  of  additions,  sub- 
tractions, multiplications  and  divisions  per- 
formed on  the  letters  \  /i,  .  .  .  •■'.  The  domain 
of  rationality  which  we  lay  at  the  base  of  a 
given  algebraic  investigation  is  to  some  degree 
a  matter  of  choice.  In  any  case,  however,  the 
coefficients  of  the  equations  we  start  with 
should  lie  in  it 

Every  domain  must  contain  the  domain 
^(1),  called  the  absolute  domain,  and  which  is 
simply  the  totality  of  rational  numbers.  For 
the  domain  8{\  .  .  .  u)  must  contain  the  ele- 
ment X/X^^l.  It  is  often  desirable  to  add  cer- 
tain elements  17,  f.  ...  to  a  domain  Ri.Kj'i  ■  •  ■) 
forming  the  new  domain  Ji'(A,  /<,...  4,  ;,  ... ) 
The  danents  «,  f, ...  are  s^  to  be  adjoitui  iaB. 

Rational  Functions  in  R.— In  elementary 
algebra  and  in  the  function  theory  a  ration^ 
function  oi  X,  y,  s,  ,  .  .  .  is  an  expression  of  the 


(om 


Ax^^yot^ . . 


m 


Bxn'yiH'' 

where  the  exponents  m,  n  are  non-negative 
integers  and  the  coeiScients  are  merely  inde- 
pendent of  the  variables  x,  y,  i,  .  .  .  In  Galois' 
theory  the  term  rational  function  is  a  much 
narrower  one.  In  fact  the  term  rational  has 
no  meaning  unless  in  connection  with  a  specific 
domain  of  rationality.  Thus  the  expression  (2) 
is  a  rational  functioa  oi  x,  y,  .  .  .  in  Galois' 
theory  with  respect  to  the  domain  R,  when  and 
only  when  tbe  coefficients  .^,  d,  ...  lie  in  R. 
Thus  such  a  function  as  (2)  may  be  rational 
with  respect  to  one  domain  aiid  not  with  respect 
to  another.     For  example 

*  +  V=r3y. 

is  a  rational  function  of  r,  y  with  respect  to  the 

domain  J?  Cf>),  p^e  J  ;  bnt  it  js  not  rational 
with  respect  to  R(l)  or  R{V— 3).     When  the 


An  equation  as  (I)  is  rational  with  respect 
to  R  when  its  coefficients  a*,  a,,  .  ,  .  an  He  in  R. 

RedutibUity  and  Irredncibility  is  another 
basal  nation  of  Galois'  theory.  The  rational 
integral  function  oi  x,  y,  a  .  .  . , 
Fix,  y,  I,  .-)=-^«»'y"H^.,.+...+t*"yV...,  (3) 
with  respect  to  the  domain  R  is  reducible  in  R 
when  it  is  die  product  of  two  or  more  rational 
intgrral  functions  ai  x,  y  .  .  .  with  coefficients 
'    R,  vii.,  F'^G-HI ...    In  this  case  we  say 


(3)  cannot  be  split  up  into  two  such 

factors,  it  is  irreducible  with  respect  to  R.  An 
equation  as  (1)  is  reducible  or  irreducible  in  R 
according  as  its  left  side  is  reducible  or  irre- 
ducible in  R. 

An  equatiaa  as  (1)  maybe  irreducible  in  one 
domain  and  reducible  in  another.    Thus 

r'  +  »-  +  l=0 
is    irreducible    in    R(l).    but    "    reducible    In 
Jl(V— 3).    In  fact. 


sC'+j:+i=(3P— P){*— P*),    P=«» 


Google 


■4C0 


EQUATIONS,  GALOIS'  THXOST  OF 


If  f  I, .  . .  *«  are  the  roots  of  (l),it  isobviouBly 
reducible  in  R  (f.,  .  .  -  f-).  In  fact  its  left  side 
splits  up  into  mtional  lineal  factors, 

/{x)=<u(:.-f.).. -(«-W._ 

A  theorem  of  utmost  importance  in  Galois' 
theory  is  the  following: 

Let  /(j)=0,  g(x)~^  be  rational  equations 
for  Ike  domain  R.  and  let  f(_x)^Q  be  .irredu- 
cible in  R.     //J7(x)  =  "-'--' ..-<•"->  = 

0;  it  admits  all  the  root 
is  divisible  by  f(x). 

Equality.— As  a  third  pillar  on  which  Galois' 
theory  rests  is  the  distinction  between  format 
and  naxnericat  equality,  as  we  may  designate 
it  for  lack  of  better  terms.  It  is  only  by  such  a 
distinction  that  Galois  was  able  to  extend 
Lagrange's  methods  so  as  to  apply  to  any  type 
of  algebraic  equation.  As  long  as  we  are  deal- 
ing with  constants,  equality  and  inequality  are 
of  course  the  same  as  in  arithmetic  —  they  are 
numerical.  What  do  we  mean,  however,  by  the 
equation 

f,  V  being  rational  functions  of  the  variables 
P,  q,  .  .  .  for  a  domain  J??  In  general  R  will 
contain  variable  elements  which  then  may  enter 
the  coefficients  of*,  V-  Let  us  write  the  above 
equation 

Kw,  W,   ...Ci,  Cfc...>=*{lh,  W,  .  .  ■  ci,   (,,  .  .  .). 

where  Vi^  Vi   represent  now   all   the  variable 

elements  in.^,  i>,  among  which  will  be  p,q 

while  ci,  Ck  .  .  .  represent  constants.  By  an 
equation  of  the  above  type  we  mean :  that  for 
each  and  every  set  of  numerical  values  Vi.  n, 
.  .  .  can  lake  on  ^consistent  with  their  definition, 
the  resulting  nu'meneal  value  of  *  m  identical 
with  that  of  f. 

When  no  two  of  the  quantities  *.  +.  a;. . .  - 
are  equal  we  shall  call  them  distinct  or  unegtuU. 

THE  GALOISIAN  RESOLVENT  AND  CKOUP. 

Coostniction  of  nl-valued  Functions;  In- 
detenniiuuiti. —  Let 

f(*)=arfn+a,jp>-'+  .  . .  +a,=0  (1) 

be  an  equation  whose  solution  is  to  be  effected. 
The  fir^l  thing  to  do  is  to  choose  a  domain  of 
rationality  R.  As  already  remarked,  the  nature 
of  R  depends  partly  upon  (1)  and  partly  upon 
our  own  pleasure.  In  any  case  it  must  contain 
the  coefficients. 

Without  loss  of  generality  we  may  suppose 
its  roots  miequal.  For  by  means  of  the  greatest 
common  divisor  of  fix)  and  f(x)  we  may  ob- 
tain by  rational  operations  an  equation  whose 
roots  are  the  distinct  roots  of  (1). 

Let  us  now  adjoin  »  new  variables  u,,  .  .  .  «n 
to  R,  forminff  a  domain  R',  and  introduce  the 
rational  function 

F,  =  «iri+  u,xi+  .  .  .  +  an«ii.  (4) 

If  we  permute  the  Xt,  Xt,  .  .  .  sm  in  all  pos- 
sible ways,  or,  as  we  say,  apply  the  n !  substitu- 


Xl,  Xi, 


X) 


of  the  symmetric  group,  we  get  the  nl  functions 
Vu  V,,  .  .  .  f'n!.  (5) 

With  these  we  form  the  equation 

P(/;ui....  Un\  =  (l—V,)  ft-V,)..,  (/_Vi,1^=0.  (61 
whose  coefficients  He  in  R"  In  the  discrimi- 
nant of  (6>.  £l(u,. . . .  un),  we  may  eive  to  Ki. 
.  . .  iin  values,  a, ,  .  .  .  n, ,  in  R,  integral  values, 


even,  if  we  choose,  in  an  infinity  of  ways  so  that 
D:tO.  In  that  case  the  Quantlcs  (5)  are  dis- 
tinct and  the  roots  of  f6)  thus  unequal.  The 
function  (4)  has  thus  n  I  values  under  the  sym- 
metric group.  A  special  case  of  this  funcdon 
(4)  was  used  by  Lagrange;  in  its  general  form 
it  was  first  employed  by  Abel.  Its  fundamental 
importance  in  the  solution  of  algebraic  equa- 
tions was  first  brought  out  by  Galois.  For  thb 
reason  the  function  V  in  (4)  is  called  the 
Gatoisian  reiohtnl  ftaietian.  Besides  the  func- 
tion (4)  there  are  obviously  an  infinity  of  other 
n  l-valued  functions.  The  function  (4)  is  em- 
ployed on  account  of  its  simplidh'. 

On  replacing  the  u's  1^  them's  these  variaUes 
disappear.  Their  introduction  was  to  show  the 
existence  of  n  l-valued  rational  functions  of  the 
roots  xi, . . .  xn.  Such  auxiliary  variables  which 
we  introduce  into  our  reasoning  and  which  at 
any  moment  can  be  made  to  disappear  by  giving 
them  appropriate  special  values,  are  called  in- 
deiermtnates.  In  a  primitive  wsv  they  are  used 
by  all  mathematicians.  Kronecker  has  ^own 
that  they  are  an  implement  of  immense  pov<«r 
in  algebraic  investigations.  Since  in  die  end 
we  can  alwajn  repace  the  icdetcrminates  by 
values  lying  in  our  domaui,  we  shall  suppose 
that  our  domain  contains  in  advance  as  many 
of  these  auxiliary  variables  as  we  care  to  use. 

Oalolalui  Rnolrcnt  and  Group. —  In  gen- 
eral the  equation  (6)  is  reducible  in  J!,  so  that 

P(0*=G.  ((,  «„  . .  .  *.)  G.  ((,  «„...*,)... 
Let  us  take  now  any  one  of  these  irreducible 
factors,  say  that  one  whidi  admits  V,  as  root, 
to  form  the  equation 

c  ((,  tt,, . . .  ih)  =  a  (7) 

This  is  called  the  Galoisian  Resolvent  of  H) 
for  the  domain  R.    Let  its  degree  in  f  be  m. 

Galois  showed  now  that  the  solutions  of  (1) 
and  (7)  are  equivalent  problems.  In  fact 
every  rational  function  of  the  roots  of  (1), 
and  in  particular  the  roots  themselves  and  hence 
also  the  rooU  Vt,  V^  .  .  .  Vm  of  <7>,  are  ra- 
tional functions  of  Vi.  We  have  therefore  for 
any  rational  function  of  the  ;r's 
*Cr„  . . .  >^)^.+r,V,+r,y,^+  . . . 4- r,,-. V,-*-". 

The  advance  that  is  made  b^  considering  the 
equation  (7}  instead  of  the  ori^al  equation  (1) 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the  roots  ol  (7)  are  rational 
in  any  one  of  them.    Let  the  roots  of  <7)  be 

yu  y%  ■  -^  y-^ 

These  are  obtained  from  the  expression  (4) 
by  effecting  certain  substitutions, 

Si=' I,  Si,  .  .  .  Sm,  (G) 

on  the  roots  jri,  .  .  .  «■.  These  m  substitutions 
G  enjoy  now  three  remarkable  properties : 

t"  Every  rational  ftoiction  ^(ii  .  ,  .  .  »»)  af  tht 
roots  of  (1)  which  remains  una'tered  by  G 
lies  in  R,  or,  as  we  say,  is  rationa'ly  known. 

2*  //  the  rational  function  of  the  roots 
*(xi, ...  en)  M  rationally  knoian,  it  remains  no- 
altfred  for   the   substitutions   G. 

3°  The  substitutions  G  form  a  group,  and 
there  is  no  other  group  of  substitutions  having 
the  properties  1°,  2*. 

"rhis  group  is  called  the  Ga'oisian  group  of 
the  eauation  (!>  for  the  domain  R.  For  the 
definition  of  the  various  terms  concemim^ 
groups  see  GitoiTPs,  Thrwy  of.  The  index  of  a 
sub-group  //  nf  a  group  G  with  respect  to  G  is 
the  r«tio  between  the  number,  of  terms  in  H 


.lOOg  Ic 


EQUATIONS,  GALOIS'  TKSOKY  OP 


451 


and  the  number  of  terms  in  G.  We  say  for  the 
domain  R,  because  by  changing  R  the  irre- 
ducible factors  of  (6;  will  in  general  change, 
and  therefore  the  substitutions  G  will  in  gen- 
eral change.  The  importance  of  the  Galoisian 
Soup,  or,  as  we  shall  say  more  shortly,  the 
roup,  of  an  equation  /{jJ—O  lies  in  the  fact 
that  an  investigation  of  its  structure  reveals 
many  of  the  most  important  properties  of  the 
algebraic  irrationalities  definea  by  this  equation. 
In  particular  it  affords  a  rational  and  uniform 
scheme  for  effecting  the  solution  of  any  alge- 
braic equation.  Before  entering  on  this  topic 
let  us  consider 

SOKE  PBOPEBTIES  OF  THE  GAIOISIAM  CSOUF  G. 

Since  the  grouo  G  of  an  equation 

(W  +  aix^—'  +  .  .  ■  +aB  =  0  (1) 

is  unique  for  a  given  domain  of  ratiooaUty  R,  it 
follows:  1°  that  the  group  is  independent  of 
the  particular  n  l-vatued  function  we  take ;  2° 
that  we  get  the  same  group  whichever  of  the 
irreducible  factors  G.(rt,  Gi(t),  ...  of  (6)  we 
may  choose;  and  3°  inat  these  functions  Co, 
Gi,  ■  .  .  are  all  of  the  same  degree. 

4°.  In  any  rationai  efptation 

between  the  roots  of  (1)  the  svbsliluliont  of  G 
may  be  applied,  and  the  retull  is  a  true  etpiatton. 
This  is  not  true  for  all  substitutions.    For 
example,  let 

/(;r)'-*'-l-0, 
whose  roots  are 

XM=e    '    .  ».  =  0,  1,2. 

Take  as  domain  J!(l},  and  as  rational  rela- 

On  applying  the  substitution 
=C0,  1,  2) 
s  relatinn  becomes, 

which  is  false. 

Group  Beloneing;  to  a  Rational  Fnnctioi) 
of  the  Roots  and  Rational  Functions  Belong- 
ing to  a  Group. — ^Let 


/*>X,Xt\  _ 


«*.. 


Xn) 


the  domain  being  i?{l),  is  not  5".  but  a  smaller 
group. 

//  9{Xi,  .  .  .  Ml),  VCxi,  ■  ■  .  Xn)  belone  to  Ike  same 
subgroup  H  of  the  GfUoisian  group,  each  can 
be  expressed  rationally  in  terms  of  the  other. 

KATIONAL    RESOLVENTS. 

Let  Plxt,  ■ .  .  Xn)  be  a  rational  function  of  the 

«rft»-(-ai«»— >-f  .  .  ,  +an  =  a,  (1) 

whose  group  for  the  domain  R  is  G.  Let  f 
belong  to  a  subgroup  H  of  C  of  index  r.  Then 
OD  applying  the  subetitutions  of  G  to  f  it  will 
take  on  r  distinct  values, 

f .  fr.  .    .   .    *r— ,.  (8) 

which  are  called  conjugate  functions.  Tbey  are 
in  fact  roots  of  an  irreducible  equation 

*(>)  =  (y~rt(y-t.)  .  .  .  (y— ft— J,  <9) 
whose  coefficients  lie  in  R.  It  is  thus  a  rational 
equation.  Suppose  one  of  its  roots,  say  f, 
can  be  found.  If  we  adjoin  it  to  R,  forming 
a  domain  R",  the  group  of  (1)  is  no  iM^er  G, 
but  H. 

Suppose  not  only  f  but  all  the  roots  of  (9) 
can  be  found.  Their  adjunction  to  R  forms  a 
domain  R"  for  which  the  group  of  (1>  is  the 
subgroup  of  G  contained  in 


r"r 


be  a  rational  function  of  the  roots  of  <1).  Since 
the  group  G  of  (1)  contains  the  identical  sub- 

titution,  f  remains  unaltered  by  at  least  one 
subsiiiution  of  G  and  may  remain  unaltered 
by  others.  These  substitutions  form  a  subgroup 
of  G  called  the  group  belonging  to  f.  On  the 
other  hand,  let  n  be  a  subgroup  of  G.  Any 
rational  function  f(xi.  .  .  .  xn)  which  remains 
unaltered  by  the  substitutions  of  ff  but  is 
changed  fey  all  other  substitutions  of  G  is  said  to 
belong  to  tt.  It  is  important  to  note  that  white 
the  substitutions  of  the  Galoisian  group  which 
leave  a  rational  function  *(ii,  .  .  .  Xn)  unaltered 
form  a  group,  this  property  does  not  hold  for 
substitutions  which  lie  outside  G.  For  example, 
the  substitutions  of  the  symmetric  group  .S'. 
which  leave 

2-im 
*=XM,    xm=e     •    ,    m  =  0,1.2,3,  4.  5, 
do  not  form  a  group.    This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that    the    group    of    Uie    equation    x* — 1  ~*, 


of  the  given  equation  (1).  But  in  reducing  the 
group  of  this  equation  we  have  made  a  step  in 
its  solution.  For  when  the  domain  of  rationality 
has  been  enlarged  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
group  of  the  equation  (t)  embraces  only  the 
identical  substitution,  the  roots  of  (1)  are 
rationally  known,  that  is,  can  be  expressed 
rationally  in  terms  of  quantities  lying  in  that 
domain  of  rationality.  The  equation  (9)  is 
called  a  resolvent  equation,  or  more  specifically 
a  rational  resolvent,  since  its  roots  f,  ^i,  .  .  .  are 
rational  functions  of  the  roots  of  a  given 
equation  (1). 

The  group  of  the  resolvent  equation  (9)  is 
of  importance  sometimes.  In  the  functions  (8) 
considered  as  functions  of  the  x'ij  let  us  effect 
the  substitutions  of  the  group  G.  This  gives 
rise  to  a  substitution  group  t  in  the  fa,  and 
this  group  is  the  group  of  the  resolvent  equa- 
tion (9),  the  domain  of  rationality  being  that 
of  G,  vii.,  R.  The  groups  G  and  f  are  what 
is  called  meroedrically  isomorphic  To  the 
identical  substitution  of  f  corresponds  the 
group  /  above  mentioned,  viz.,  the  subgroup  of 
G,  which  leaves  all  the  roots  (8)  unaltered. 
To  any  subgroup  A  of  i"  will  correspond  s 
subgroup  Gi  of  G,  and  conversely.  In  particular 
if  n  is  an  invariant  subgroup,  Gi  is  also 
invariant. 

GALOIS'    SOLUTION    OF    AN    EQUATION. 

Let  G  be  the  group  of  the  equation 

fl«*"-t-ouP» —*-*-.  .  .-)-o»— 0  (1) 

for  the  domain  R.  Let  Hi  he  a  subgroup  of 
G  of  index  Tx.  Let  f,(xi.  .  .  .m)  be  any  one  of 
the  infinity  of  rational  ftmcdons  belonging  to 
Hi.  Then  h  is  root  of  a  rational  resolvent 
^(v)=<^0  of  degree  n.  On  solving  ♦i=>0  and 
"  '  ■  or  more  of  its  roots  to  form  a 


group  o    _.  .     _      

of  index  rt,  to  which  belongs  the  rational  func- 
tion Mxi,  ■  .  .  Xn).     lilis  is  the  root    of   a  r 


8l^ 


403 


EQUATIONS.  OALOIS'  THEORY  OF 


coIvcnt*i(y)  — 0  of  degree  r^  On  solving  ♦.=0 
and  adjoining  one  or  more  of  its  roots  to  form 
a  new  domain  Ki,  the  group  of  (1)  is  now  a 
subgroup  Ci  of  Ci.  As  the  order  of  the  groups 
G,  Ci,  Gt.  decreases,  we  must  eventually 
arrive  at  the  identical  group  when  the  roots  of 
(1)  are  rationally  known.  Since  the  group  G 
usually  admits  quite  a  variety  of  subgroups,  and 
since  the  ftinctions  f  belonging  to  a  given  sub- 
group are  infinite  in  number,  Galois'  theory 
shows  that  ihe  number  of  ways  for  solving;  a. 
given  equation  is  endless.  At  the  same  time  it 
clearly  shows  that  the  number  of  distinct  ways 
is  usually  quite  limited,  depending  on  the  snb- 
s  of  G. 

'  e  solutions  of  the  equa 


follows:  Let  (7i  be  an  invariant  subgroup  of  C, 
such  that  G  contains  no  invariant  subgroup 
containing  Gi.  It  is  then  a  maximum  invariant 
subgroup  of  C.     If  G  has  i 


G.GtC,  .  .  .  G;,=l, 
such  that  each  is  a  maxim 
group  of  the  preceding  group,  is  called  a  series 
of  composition  o]  G.  If  the  index  of  Gr  under 
Gm~i  is  r«,  the  numbers  r,,  r,,  .  .  .  rx  are  calltd 
the  factors  of  composition.  It  may  be  possible 
to  decompose  a  group  G  into  a  series  of  com- 
position in  more  than  one  way.  Thus  the  cyclic 
group  Ct, 

I,  J,  »•.  i".  j«,  I*, 


sthes 


C^A.l 


C,  B.  I, 

A=\\,s\-s'\,    fl«|1,j*). 

The  factors  of  composition  of  the  first  series 
are  2,  3,  while  those  of  the  second  series  are 
3,  2.  They  are  thus  the  same  aside  from  their 
order.  A  theorem  of  Jordan  states  that  kovt- 
ever  a  group  be  decomposed  in  a  series  of  com- 
Posilion^  Ihe  factors  of  composition  are  Ike 
same  as\de  from  their  order. 

What  makes  the  solution  of  an  equation  by 
means  of  a  series  of  composition  so  remarkable 
is  the  fact  that  the  resolve:      '       ~  " 


„  1  rational  i 
tion.  Thus  on  adjoining  one  of  its  roots  the 
same  effect  is  produced  as  adjoining  all. 
Finally,  the  resolvent  equations  ♦■=0  are  the 
simplest  possible 

CytJic  Equation  of  Prime  Degree. —  When 
the  group  G  of  an  equation  F(x)  ^==0  is  a  cyclic 
group  of  prime  order  p  its  solution  is  readily 
effected,  as  Abel  showed.  Let  the  roots  of 
f=Obe«.,  i,,...*p_i,andletr={0.  1,...^— 1). 
Then 

G^tl.r.y'....r!~-'\. 

For  the  case  in  hand  we  may  suppose  the 


^th   roots  of    unity  p,  />*,...  lie    in  the  orgi 
Dal  domain  of  rationality.  Consider  the  rational 

functions 

%=!,-(- p*I,-(-  ...+  ^f-')*p-,;A=l,  2,...^.— I. 

On  applying  7  they  go  over  into  p— *e.  Heu« 
<^=0*  are  unaltered  by  y  and  hence  by  G. 
They  are  therefore  rationally  known.  On  ex- 
tracting a  ^th  root  we  get 

x.+lAx,+  .  .  .  -|.pAtp-'>rp-,=  yje^ 

This  system  of  ^  —  I  equations  together  with 

gives 


x.—j^p-^-yii. 


•  (yj^''At 


...p-i. 

The  ^th  roots  which  enter  here  must  be  deter- 
mined uniquely  in  terms  of  one  of  them,  say 
« jeT"    1"''*  others  are  rational  in  this  one,  for 

{«.-t-P*«.+  ...+  P<»'-')*«ir-j) 

(»+  Wi+  .  .  .+p»-'xp-l)''—^'=A^ 
remains  unchanged  for  7  and  hence  for  G, 
Hence  these  ^dare  rationally  known.    We  have 

This  result  gives  the  theorem:  Cyclic  equations 
of  prime  degrees  can  be  lofped  algebraically,  i.e., 
0y  the  extraction  of  roots  from  kntrwn  quanti- 
ties. 


are  all  primes.  Then  (1)  can  be  solved  alge- 
braically. For  the  corresponding  chain  of  re- 
solvents 

♦,=0.*,=  0.  ... 


has  just  been  effected.  Since,  as  will  be  set 
forth  later  at  more  length,  it  is  never  necessary 
to  employ  other  than  rational  resolvents,  the 
above  results  leads  to  Galois'  Criterion  for  the 
Solution  of  an  Equation  by  Radicals.  In  order 
that  (1)  admit  an  algebraic  solution  it  is  nrees' 
sary  and  sufficient  that  the  factors  of  composi- 
tion of  its  Galoisian  group  consist  of  primes 
only. 

Application  to  the  Solution  of  the  Biqnadro- 
Hc 

i^  +  o.j'  +  a-j'  +  iw  +  Oi— ft  (II) 
For  simplicity  let  us  suppose  its  coefFicienIs  are 
indepenoent  variables.  Let  the  original  domain 
of  rationality  R  embrace  besides  the  coefficients 
a  cube  root  of  unity  p.  Then  the  group  of  (11) 
is  the  symmetric  group  St.  As  subgroups  of 
S,  we  note  the  alternate  group  A%,  which  con- 
sists of  all  the  substitutions  of  S.  which  can  be 
obtained  by  an  even  number  of  exchanges  of  the 
roots  of  our  equation,  the  axial  group  C"* 
!l,    (12>(34),    a3)(24),    (14)(23>'.and  the 

■      ■•     group    &=(!,     (12)(34)].     TV 


>y  Google 


BQUATIONS.  GALOIS'  THEORY  OF 


^  I  form  a  series  of  compo- 
are  obviously 

2,  3,  2,  2. 
As  they  are  primes,  the  equation  ([])  a<linits 
an  algebraic  solution.  To  solve  (II)  let  us 
proceed  with  Starkweather  as  follows;  To  form 
our  lirst  resolvent,  let  us  use  the  subgroup  A*, 
and  take  as  function  belonging  to  this  group 

(x>-x,)(jr.-— r.)(-r.-*.) 


The  corresponding  resolvent  is 

where    J    is  the  discriminant  of  (II). 


(12) 
(13) 


A  subgroup  rd  Ai  ia  Gt     A  rational  fnnctioa. 
belonging  to  this  is 

This  gives  the  resolvent 

—  t«.(«i"— 4«0  +  ».*I  =  0.         (14) 

The  solution  of  this  cubic,  which  is  a  O'cUc 
enuation,  ^ves  V"  as  a  known  explicit  function 
of  quantities  in  ff,.  On  adjoining  V  we  get  the 
,  for  which 
:t  subgroup  v 
wnicn  ociongi 

X=x,  +  ^,—  (x,  +  x,}. 
This  gives  the  resolvent 

X^X'—W  +  of—ia^^-O. 
The  extraction  of  a  square  root  gives  x, 
whosc^  adjunction  produces  the  domain  R, 
(fl,Vi,  ♦,  x),  for  which  the  corresponding  group 
of  01)  is  C  The  last  group  we  take  is  the 
identical  group,  to  which  belongs  x,.  The  cor- 
responding resolvent  is 

«'  +  i(o.-a;)«+  {*+^~^)^o. 
"Hie  solution  of  this  quadratic  gives  x,.  Its 
ad  unction  gives  the  dom&in  ^(£,V^i  V*,  X>*t) 
for  which  the  group  consists  only  of  the  iden- 
tical substitution.  Hence  all  Ihe  other  roots  of 
(11),  viz.,  St,  Xm,  X,,  must  lie  in  ^i.  This  is 
indeed  so,  tor 

«.=«,~ia,-(-i;t. 
To  get  It,  jTi,  we  note  that  if  i^,  ^'  denote  the 
two  other  roots  of  (14), 

-V'0(tf'— V-")(V''— »") 
f^-V'HV'-V'") 
Here  the  numerator  is  the  square  root  of  the 
discriminant  of  (14),  which,  as  is  well  known, 
is  the  same  as  the  discriminant  A  of  (11).    The 

denominator  is  obviously  -j^ .     Thus 


=1^'_t"  = 


groups,  At,  0,  C,  1,  where 
0=11.  (1324),  (13)(24>.  f  14231.  (12),  (34), 
(12) (34),  <14)(23)  1. 
Aa  latiotMl  function  belonging  to  A,  La- 
grange uses  the  function  <12),  which  gives  rise 
to  the  rcsolvCDt  (13).  As  rational  function 
belonging  to  O,  Lagrai^K  takes 

9=ts:>-|-m— («4-xOI*. 
whose  conjugate  values  are 
fl.=  1  x,+x.-lx,+x,)  \\9i=l  *,-t-*r~(»+*i  I '. 
The  corresponding  resolvent  is 
e=^—  (3d,»— Sajft  +  (Jo,«—  I6afa,  +  I6rt« 

+ 160,0,— 64a.)9—(oi'—4a,a,  -1-  8o,)>=0. 
For  the  subgroup  G,  he  takes 
tl=x>+x.—ix,  +  x^. 
which  gives  the  resolvent 

For  the  identical  group  1,  Lagrange  uses 

<^^x,+x,—  {x,  +  x.). 
which  gives  the  resolvent 

For  the  domain  S'(R,  V  J,  ",  ».,  "„  1, "),  the 
group  of  the  biquadratic  is  (1),.  and  its  roots 
therefore  lie  in  R'.    In  fact  we  have 

xt+x.~x,-~xf^Ve„ 

x,+x,  +  x,+x* o,. 

From  which  we  get     _ 

*,=i(-«.+Ve-i-V''.-i-v'sr}.j=i,2^3,4.__ 

Here  we  choose  at  will  the  signs  of  V",  V^i- 
The  sign  of  V^i  is  then  determined,  for 
VS  V^,V  »>= 4«io.— a.'~  8a.. 
Abellan  Equations. —  Let  G  he  the  group  of 
an  equation  /(*>  =0  for  a  certain  domain.  If 
the  substitutions  of  G  are  commutative,  that  is, 
{j^(^^=i(i,  for  any  two  substitutions  tj,  W  of 
G.  the  equation  /=0  is  called  Abelian  in  honor 
ol  Abel,  who  first  studied  them.  We  may  show 
at  once  that  every  subgroup  of  C  is  invariant 
and  that  its.  factors  of  composition  are  all 
primes.  Hence  alt  Abelian  equations  can  be 
solved  algebraically.  The  most  important  equa- 
tions of  this  type  are  the  equations  of  degree 
f(n)  on  which  the  nth  roots  of  iinity  depend. 
Here  p(n).  called  the  lolienl  of  n,  is 


'{'-r){'-7)- 


wher 

of  «.     ,  

Equat'on  of  Degree  >  4.— The  group  of 
the  equation  (I)  when  no  restrictions  are  placed 
on  the  coefficients,  i.e.,  when  they  are  inde- 
pendent variables,,  and  when  the  domain  of 
rationality  contains  not  only  the  co^cients  but 
any  constants,  is  the  synunetric  ^oup.  When 
n'°'2,  3,  4,  its  factors  of  composition  are  primes. 
Not  so  when  «>4.    In  this  case  its  only  in- 


the  factors  of  composition  are  2,  in!.  The 
latter  is  not  a  prime.  We  have  thus  Abeft 
Throrem:  Eqvatioiu  of  degree  >  4,  whose 
group  is  (!»  stmmefric  group,  amnot  be  tpivtd 


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EQUATIONS,  GALOIS*  THEORY  OF 


algtbrmcaUy;  i.e.,  their  roots  cannot  be  found 
by  extracting  roots  from  known  quantities. 

We  have  just  observed  that  when  the  coeffi- 
dents  of  an  equation  of  degree  >  4  are  inde- 
pendent variables,  it  cannot  be  solved  algebraic- 
ally. Front  tha.1  we  cannot,  however,  deny  that 
etirry  equation  of  degree  >  4  with  constant  co- 
efficients may  admit  an  algebraic  solution.  This 
important  question  was  finally  settled  by  Hil- 
bert,  who  showed  that  there  are  an  infinity  of 
equations  of  any  degree  with  rational  integral 
coefficients  whose  group  in  if(l)  is  the  sym- 
metric group. 

IRRATIONAL  RESOLVENTS, 

Up  to  the  present  we  have  considered  the 
effect  on  the  Galoisian  Group  of  an  equation,  of 
adjoining  roots  of  rational  resolvents  to  the  cur- 
rent domain  of  rationality.  In  many  investiga- 
tions it  is  important  to  consider  the  adjunction  of 
roots  of  equations  which  may  not  be  rational 
functions  of  the  roots  of  the  given  equation. 
Equations  whose  roots  are  not  rational  functions 
of  the  roots  of  the  given  equation  are  called 
irralional  resolvatts  when  used  in  the  solution  of 
the  given  equation.  A  theorem  which  lies  at 
the  foundation  of  this  subject  is  due  to 
Kronecker.  Let  fix)  -=0,  g{y)  =0  be  hvo  ra- 
tional irreducible  equalio»s  for  the  domain  R  of 
degrees  m,  n  respectively.  If  on  adjoining  a  root 
*ti  of  f'^0,  ff(y)  becomes  reducible,  the  adjunc- 
tion of  a  root  y,  of  g'^0,  tfill  make  f(x)  re- 
ducible. If  *(e),  iix)  of  degrees  a,  ^,  re- 
sfectively,  be  the  irreducible  factors  for  the 
new  domains  that  xi  ji  satisfy,  then 


As  an  important  corollary  of  Kronecker's 
tibeorem  we  have:  Let  the  adjunction  of  y. 
reduce  the  group  G  of /(j-)  ="0  to  an  invariant 
subgroup  01  index  i.  Then  n  is  a  multiple  of  i 
and  hence  never  less  than  ■'.  When  u^  (and 
this  is  always  the  case  if  n  is  a  prime)  p(y)  =0 
is  a  rational  resolvent. 

Another  theorem  of  great  importance  in  this 
connection  is  due  to  Jordan,  [f  the  adjunction 
of  all  the  roots  of  jj(ji)  ~0  reduces  G  to  a  sub- 
group Gi  of  index  i,  the  adjunction  of  alt  the 
roots  of  f(,x)  reduces  the  group  H  of  g(_y)  to 
a  subgroup  Hi  of  index  k.  The  Iwo  groups 
Gi,  Hi  are  im'Oriatit  and  t^fc.  Finally,  ivheu 
H  is  simple  giy)  "=0  is  a  rational  reso'vent. 

Application  to  Some  Celebrated  Problems. 
—  The  Delian  Problem  or  duplication  of  the 
cube  requires  the  solution  of 
.r*— 2=0 
by  rule  and  compass.  The  construction  of  die 
r^ular  polygons  by  rule  and  compass  is  an- 
otner  famous  problem  of  antiquity.  Its  solu- 
tioh  depends  upon  the  irreducible  equation  of 
degree  #(n)  already  referred  to.  That  the 
Delian  Problem  is  impossible  follows  at  once 
from  the  theorem :  In  order  that  a  root,  real 
or  imaginary,  of  an  irreducible  equation 
f{x)  =0  can  be  constructed  geometrically  it  is 
necessary  that  the  degree  of  f  be  a  poiuer  of 
two.  From  this  theorem  wc  also  conclude: 
The  necessary  and  sufficient  condition  that  a 
regular  polvgon  of  n  sides  can  be  constructed 
by  rule  and  compass  is  that  the  tolient  of  n  is 
a  ptfwer  of  two. 

Another  famous  question  is  the  Cas*s  Irre- 


dudbilis  of  cubic  equations.  The  theory  of 
irrational  resolvents  enables  us  to  prove  readily 
the  following  general  theorem :  An  irreducible 
equation  of  degree  n  whose  roots  are  all  real 
can  never  be  solved  by  real  radiealt  alont  if  m 
contains  other  factors  than  two. 

That  the  casus  irredudbilis  is  indeed  snch 
follows  as  corollary  of  this  theorem. 

Holder's  Theorem. —  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  fundamental  contributions  to  Ga- 
lois' theory  in  recent  years  is  a  theorem  of 
Holder,     Speaking  roughly,  it  asserts  that  how- 


be  conducted,   sometime  in   the   ( 


I  the 


are  uniquely  determmed  a 
must  be  employed.  When  the  group  of 
fix)—  0  is  simple  (in  which  case  we  say  f(.x) 
is  simple)  it  can  be  solved  by  no  other  simple 
equation  g  (y)^  0  essentially  different  from 
/=0.  The  solution  of  any  given  equation 
therefore  depends  upon  a  chain  of  simple  equa- 
tions. But  of  all  simple  equations  belonging  to 
a  given  group  certain  ones  will  enjoy  peculiar 
properties  which  will  recommend  their  selection 
as  normal  equations.  The  reduction  of  the 
given  equation  to  these  normal  equations  is  a 
problem  by  itself. 

THE  SOLUTION  OF  THE  QUIMTIC. 

We  have  seen  that  the  equation  of  fifth  de- 
gree Q^Q  whose  group  is  the  symmetric  group 
cannot  be  solved  by  means  of  radicals,  i.e.,  by 
resolvents  of  the  tyiie  I'n — o=;0.  On  adjoin- 
ing (*.-*,)  ix^x,)  { J.-:r.)  (.x,-^x,)  {x,-x.) 
{x^x.)  (x^x.)  (x^x,)  ix^x.)  (x^x.)  the 


3  discriminant  < 


e  group  of 


a  simple  e<{uation  for  the  domain  J{(V^> 
Other^  algebraic  equations  having  this  group 
arise  in  the  theory  of  linear  differential  equa- 
tions, and  also  in  the  theory  of  elliptic  func- 
tions.   In  fact  the  hypergeometric  function 

.<......,-.+{|.+^±i||f'»+... 

is  a  solution  of  a  very  simple  differential  equa- 
tion of  the  second  order  G"M).  For  variable 
"•  .".  /■  it  represents  a  new  transcendent ;  but 
for  certain  values  of  these  ^rameters  it  re- 
duces to  the  elementary  functions ;  e,g,,  it  may 
become  algebraic  In  seeking  for  these  latter 
cases  Scbwarz  was  led  to  introduce  a  new  vari- 
able s,  the  quotient  of  two  fundamental  inte- 
grals of  G—Q.  This  variable  for  certain  values 
Ml,  0,y  satisfies  the  equation 

/(*)=1728rfCO+H'(*)-0. 
where 

H(j>— ^~-288»"+494j"-(-288j'+  1. 
The  equation  /=0  stands  in  so  intimate  relation 
with  the  icosahedron  that  it  is  called  tbc  icosa- 
hedral  equation.  Indeed  if  we  project  stereo- 
graphically  the  icosahedron,  on  tne  j-plane,  the 
centre  being  at  the  origin,  the  12  vertices  and 
the  middle  points  of  the  20  faces  will  be  pre- 
cisely the  roots  of  f  and  H  respectively. 

From  this  it  is  easy  to  conclude  that  the 
group  of  /"K)  is  formed  of  the  60  rotations 
which  leave  the  icosahedron  unchanged.  Klein 
has  shown  that  the  icosahedral  equation  whose 


EQUATIONS,  GBNKtAI.  TffiK»tY  OP 


roots  arc  very  tiaqple  known  ftnction»  of 
F(f,  (S,  7,  X  can  be  put  in  connection  with  Q=i). 
TTie  equation  7=0  may  thus  be  considered  as 
a  nonnal  resolvent  of  the  quintic. 

A  nonnal  resolvent  which  sftrings  from  the 
elliptic  functions  is  the  following:  In  trigo- 
nometry one  of  the  problems  is  to  express  sin 

—  in  terms  of  sin  c,  k  a  prime  number.    This 

may  be  done  algebrdcally,  as  is  readily  shown. 
In  the  elliptic  functions  the  same  problem 
arises.       Here  the  algebraic  relation  between 

^1    ."i.WjJand  #  («,  "i,  "i)  it  of    degree   n* — 1. 

The  sdution  of  this  equation  depends  upon  an 
equation  ol  degree  «+l  called  an  equation  of 
transformation.    For  te=5  such  an  equation  Is 
J'y'+  lOijp"— 12j.y+5=K>,  (IS) 

whose  group  is  the  above  Am  and  whose  roots  are 


»=0.  1,  2.  3,  4. 
Here  J  is  the  discriminant  g,'—37gi'.  How 
equations  of  tins  type  could  be  set  in  relation 
wtth  the  quintic  was  first  shown  by  Henuite  > 
in  1858.  The  equation  (15)  was  used  by  Kie- 
pert  It  forms  a  very  conrenient  narmal  re- 
solvent of  the.  quintic. 

Having  found  in  the  elliptic  functions  con- 
venient noirnat  resohrenb  for  this  quintic,  we 
might  hope  to  employ  the  equations  of  transfor' 
mation  of  hlghec  orders  to  solve  the  general 
equations  of  higher  degrees.  The  considera- 
tion of  their  groups,  however,  shows  very  easily 
that  this  is  not  possible.  To  find  suitable 
equations  we  must  pass  from  tlie  elliptic  to  die 
hyperelliptic  functions.  By  their  ud  the  gen- 
eral equation  of  every  degree  can  be  solved. 

Biblioervpfay.^  Bolzi,  O.^  'Theory  of  Sub- 
Groups  and  its  Application  to  Algebra' 
art  Jout^al  Matk.  V.  13);  Cajori.  F., 
'Theory  of  Equations>  (New  York  1904) ;  Hil- 
bert.  article  in  Crtltt's  Jonmal  (V.  ex) ;  Hol- 
der, article  in  Matkematiiche  Annaien  (V. 
xxxiv) ;  Jordan  (ibid.,  V.  I,  1869)  'Traitj  des 
substitutions'  (1870);  Netto,  'Substitutioncn- 
theoric*  {tr.  bv  Cole.  F.  N.)  ;  Pierpom,  'Galois 
Theory  of  Algebraic  Equations'  (Antiatt  of 
ifalhematics,  V.  I,  H,  1899-1900);  Serret, 
'Alerebre*    (1866)  ;   Weber.   'AIgebra>    {2d  ed.. 


James  Pte»pont, 
Professor  of  MafkemaHcs,  Yale  VniversUy. 
EQUATIONS,  General  Theory  of.  The 
theory  of  equations  finds  its  origin  in  efforts  to 
solve  the  equations  which  arise  in  the  appli- 
cations of  algebra  to  problems  in  pure  geometry 
or  in  applied  mathematics.  In  the  exposition  of 
this  theory  a  rational  integral  algebraic  func- 
iTon  of.  X  arises  which  may  be  defined  as 
follows : 

S{.%)=aa^->ravX>^^-a«^-\-  .  .  .  -fo,-i*-t-on. 
It  is  assumed  here  that  the  exponent  n  is  a  posi- 
tive integer  and  that  the  coefficients  a*,  Oi, 
Ol,  .  .  .,  On  are  algebraic  niunbers  independent 
of  X.    If  this  polynomial,  is  put  equal  to  zero. 


we  have  an  equation  of  the  Hth  deerec.  Any 
value  of  the  variable  x  which  makes  the  value 
of  the  polynomial  zero  is  said  to  'satisfy  the 
equation'  /(r)°"0  and  is  called  a  "root*  of 
the  equation.  Thus,  —  1  is  a  root  of  the  equa- 
tion x'  +  x  +  Z—O,  because  (— 1)'-|-(_1) 
-t-2— a 

'  Ptrndunaital  Theorems  about  Root!.— 
That  at  least  one  root  of  the  equation  fix) 
=•0  always  exists  is  a  fundamental  theorem 
which  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  establish  rigor- 
ously. The  proofs  usually  given  in  elementary 
texts  lack  rigor.  Among  the  most  satisfactory 
demonstrations  are  the  four  given  by  C.  F. 
Gauss  and  the  one  based  on  the  theory  of  func- 
tiODS,  given  by  A.  L.  Cauchy.  Granted  that 
every  equation  of  the  Mh  degree  has  at  least 
one  root,  it  is  easy  to  show  that  it  has  n  roots 
and  no  more.  An  equation  of  the  second  degree 
(a  *quadratic  equation*)  has  two  roots,  one  oi 
the  third  degree  (a  "cubic  equation')  has  three 
roots,  one  of  the  fourth  degree  (a  "quartic*  or 
"biquadratic  equation")  has  four  roots,  and  so 
on.  The  proof  of  this  theorem  may  be  outiined 
as  fellows:  If  r,  is  a  root  of  fix)  ~0,  then 
f{x)  is  divisible  by  *  —  ri  without  a  remainder, 
so  that  fix)  —  ix—n)f,ix).  where  /,(i),  the 
quotient,  is  of  the  (n — l)th  degree.  If  n  is  a 
root  of  S^^I)  -=0,  then  in  the  same  way  /.(jt) 
-(:r_r,)/„(4-),and/(*)"(*-rO<^-r.) 
/„  (.x).  Proceeding  in  this  manner,  the  degrees 
of  the  successive  quotients  diminish  by  unity  at 
every  step,  until  finally  a  binomial  quotient  of 
the  first  degree  of  the  form  luix  —  rn)  is  ob- 
tained. We  then  have  f<x)^am{x  —  n) 
{*  — r.)  ...  (*— r«)— a  -niere  are  here  » 
binomi^  factors  and  no  more,  each  of  which, 
when  equated  to  zero,  yields  a  root.  In  special 
cases  some  of  these  roots  may  be  equal  to  each 
other.  Such  roots  are  tailed  "equal*  or 
•multiple'  roots. 

There  are  important  relations  existing  be- 
tween the  roots  and  the  coefRcients  of  an  equa- 
tion.   From  the  equalities 

(«-f,)(«-f^'=x'-(r,-(-f,)*-(-f-,f,=-0; 
(«_r,)(«-r3(*-n)=«^~{r.-»-f,-ffO)^ 

-t-lnri-HriTi-l-frf'J*— Cirrfv—O; 

(«— ri){*— ft).  .  .  («— fs)=sP«  . 

+{rir,+r,r,-^  .  .  .  -^-r»-^fn)x*^ 
—  ...  +(— l)-fir,...f™  =  0, 
we  see  that  in  the  equation  /(*)"" 0,  when, 
Ot=l,  the  coefficient  a>  of  the  second  term  is 
equal  to  minus  the  sum  of  the  roots;  the  co- 
emdent  at  of  the  third  term  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  products  of  the  roots,  taken  two  by  two; 
the  coefBcient  at  of  the  fourth  term  is  equal  to, 
minus  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the  roots, 
taken  three  by  three ;  and  so  on,  until  finally  we 
arrive  at  the  last  coefficient,  on,  which  is  equal 
to  I  —  1)"  times  the  product  of  all  the  roots. 
The  coeiKcients  of  the  equation  are  said  to  be 
symmetric  fvnctions  of  the  roots,  that  is,  func- 
tions in  which  any  two  roots  may  be  inter- 
changed without  altering  the  value  of  the  func- 
tion. As  an  illustration  take  2:1^  -f  4**  -|-  6x 
—  5  —  0.  To  make  o."=l.  divide  through  by  Z 
Then  the  sum  of  the  three  roots  is  —  2,_the  sum 
ot  their  products,  taken  two  by  two,  is  3,  the 
product  of  all  three  roots  isv 

The  roots  of  an  equation  may  be  complex 


>y  Google 


EQUATIONS,  GBKBRAL  THEORY  OP 


(i.e;,  imaginary)  quantities.  (See  Alcxbsa). 
Thus  the  equation  x'  +  x  +  l="li  has  the  two 
complex  roots  i(— I +»V3)  and  i(— 1— (Vl), 
whereisV— 1-  H  the  eoefficienis  gf  the  equa- 
tirai  fix)  '^  are  ail  real,  then  it  can  be  shown 
that,  if  complex  roots  occur  at  all,  they  occur 
in  conjugate  pairs;  that  is,  if  a +  *^  is  a  root, 
then  a — ib  is  likewise  a  root.  From  this  it 
follows  at  once,  that  no  cubic  or  other  equation 
of  odd  degree  and  with  real  coeSdenls  can' 
have  all  its  roots  complex.  Considerable  infor- 
mation on  the  character  of  the  roots  can  usually 
be  secured  from  "Descartes'  Rule  of  Signs,' 
which  may  be  stated  as  follows;  An  equaliott 
tfitk  real  eoefficienli  has  as  many  potilive  reals 
as  it  hat  vonaftoiu  in  lign,  or  fewer  by  an  ivtn 
tmmber.  A  variation  is  said  to  exist  whenever 
two  successive  terms  have  opposite  signs.    Thus 

tbcre  are  two  variations  in   4- +.     The 

theorem  ma^  be  proved  from  the  consideration 
that  every  time  ttiat  a  new  positive  root  is  in- 
troduced into  an  equation,  by  multii)lying  f(*) 
by  (x  —  r),  the  number  of  variations  is  in- 
creased by  an  odd  number.  Applying  Descartes' 
Theorem  to  the  equation  *"  —  ** -f  *■ +2** — 
5""0,  observe  that  the  sequence  of  signs  is 
+  —  ++—.  There  are  three  variations; 
hence,  the  equation  has  either  three  positive 
roots  or  one.  To  apply  the  theorem  to  negative 
roots,  we  first  transform  the  given  equation  into 
a  new  one  whose  roots  are  the  same  as  those 
of  the  given  equation,  excepting  in  sign.  This 
can  be  done  by  writing  —  .r  in  place  oi  *.  The 
above  sextic  then  becomes  x'+x*  +  x'  +  2x' 
—  5"^.  This  transformed  equation  has  one 
varration;  hence,  by  Descartes  Rule  (q.v.),  it 
has  one  positive  root,  and  the  given  equation 
bas  one  negative  root.  As  the  total  nimibcr  of 
roots  is  six  and  the  number  of  real  roots  is 
four  or  two,  it  follows  that  either  two  or  four 
of  the  roots  are  complex.  By  the  same  reason- 
ing we  can  show  that  .t'.^  1  -""t)  has  on?  posi- 
tive and  four  complex  roots  and  that  1*  +  x" 
+  1="0  has  all  its  roots  complex.  In  son 
cases,  as  i(i  ir*  + **  — .ir"  +  S  =  0,  Descaric 
Rule  gives  but  little  information. 

Strenuous  efforts  have  been  pi«  forth  by 
mathematicians  to  discover  theorems  by  which 
the  exact  number  of  real  and  of  complex  roots 
of  equations  with  real  coefficients  can  always 
be  determined.  The  most  noted  result  of  these 
efforts  is  the  theorem  of  J.  C.  F.  Sturm,  dis- 
covered in  1829.  Sturm's  theorem  tells  the 
number  of  complex  roots,  and  the  number  of 
real  roots  within  a  given  interval,  with  unfailing 
certainty;  but  it  labors  under  the  disadvantage 
of  being  laborious  in  its  application.  Hence 
it  is  commonly  used  only  when  the  simpler 
methods  fail  to  give  the  wanted  information. 
We  state  the  theorem  for  the  special  case  when 
/(r)  —  0  has  no  efjual  roots.  Let  f  (x)  be  the 
first  derived  function  of  /(jt).  (See  Calculus). 
Then  proceed  with  the  process  of  finding,  by 
division,  the  highest  common  factor  of  f(x) 
and  f(x),  with  this  modification,  that  the  sign 
of  each  remainder  he  changed  before  it  is  used 
as  a  divisor.  Continue  the  process  until  a  re- 
mainder is  reached  which  does  not  contain  x, 
and  change  the  sign  of  thai  also.  TTi-^  functions 
/<*■>.  f(x).  together  with  the  several  remain- 
ders with  their  signs  changed,  viz..  ft('),  fi(x). 
.   .    .,  f  (j),   are   called  "Sttrm's  functions.* 


Sturm's  theorem  is  as  fdtows:  //  /(jr)"*0 
has  no  equal  roots,  let  any  Into  ret^  quantiliet 
a  and  b  be  subslitnled  for  x  in  Stttrm's  func- 
tions, then  the  difference  between  the  nnmber 
of  variations  of  sign  in  the  series  when  a  is 
svbstiluled  for  x  and  the  number  when  b  is 
subililuled  for  x  expresses  Ike  number  of  real 
roots  of  fix)  "0  between  a  and  h.  To  make 
this  clearer,  take  /{j) —j"  — j*  — lOr  +  1, 
then  f{x)=ix'  —  2x—\Q,  /,U)  — 62t  4-1, 
/i(jr)_— 38,313.  For  the  indicated  values  of  x 
the  signs  of  the  Sturmian  functions  are  as 
follows  1 


+       +       +       -•- 


^'■HS-O. 


— «  —  -H  —  -l- 

Since  j""*  gives  no  variations  and  x=- — » 
gives  three  variations,  there  are  three  real 
roots  between  »  and  — *.  Hence  there  are 
no  complex  roots.  The  real  roots  lie  between 
3  and  4,  0  and  1,  —2  and  —3. 

Tmsfomutioni  of  Bqaationa. — The  study 
of  (he  properties  of  an  equation  is  frcquentiy 
facilitated  by 'the  transformatioD  of  the  given 
equation  into  a  new  one  whose  roots  (coeffi- 
cients) bear  a  given  relation  to  the  roots  (co- 
efficients) of  the  original  equation.  Thus,  in 
applying  Descartes'  Rule  to  negative  roots  we 
transformed  the  equation  into  another  whose 
roots  were  numerically  the  same,  but  differed 
in  sign.  If  the  roots  of  the  new  equation  are 
to  be  m  times- those  of  the  one  given,  we  plate 
ji"Mjr  and  substitute  y/m  for  x.  For  instance, 
if  the  roots  of  the  transformed  equation  are 
to  be  10  times  those  in 

1000 

or  y'— liy— 200j+SOOO=ft  The  result  is  ob- 
tained more  easily  by  the  rule:  Multiply  the 
second  term  by  m,  the  third  by  m',  and  so  on. 
If  the  roots  of  the  new  equation  are  to  be  the 
reciprocals  of  the  roots  of  the  old  we  write 

"e  important  transformatioa  is  the 

ini^ing  the  roots  by  a  given  number 
n.    We  have  here  y='x — k.    Substituting  y+h 
tor  X  in  otx' +a,xn-' +  0^''-'+  . .  .  -|-aM<=0,  we 
obtain 
*(y-t- A)  •+a,{y +*)'•-' 

+<H(y+A)  «-'+... +0-K). 
Expanding   the  binoioials   and  collecting   like 
terms,  we  obtain,  let  us  suppose, 

A,y  +A^'i-'+A,yn-*+.  ..+An^^. 
Writing  x—k  for  y  we  get 
A,(.x—h)"+A,(x-ky'-^ 

+  ...+An-,(x^l)+An=0, 

which  diflFers  from  the  original  equation  merely 
in  form.  This  new  form  suggests  an  easy  way 
for  carrjing  out  the  actual  comptitation. 
Dividing  the  left  member  by  *■ — k,  the  re- 
mainder obtained  is  seen  to  be  ^n,  the  abso- 
lute term.    Dividing  the  qnotient  thus  chained 


*=-^.    Arr 

y 

of  dirr 


EQUATIONS,  OBNBRAL  THBORY  OP 


red  equation  :. 
called  'synthetic  dtvi 


u^< 


:   secured     The    process, 
"   '  1   very  convenient 


1  tiiis  trans  formation.  Suppose  we  desire 
trans  farm  x.+&ri— x+fr~0  into  another  in 
whidi  the  second  term  is  wanting.  The  sum  of 
the  roots  is  —  8  hence,  to  cause  jt"  to  disappear, 
we  must  increase  each  root  by  Z  (i.e.,  oiinu]- 
ish  by  —2).  Dividing  successively  by  x+2  we 
obtain  the  coefficients  —40,  63,  —24.  0,  1,  and 
the  required  equation  is  j*— 24j:'+63*-— 40— 0. 
The  transformations  thus  far  considered  are 
all  spemi  cases  of  the  so-called  homographie 
or    projective    tranafonnation    in    wbidi    y=~ 

'■  I  J,  a,  b,  c,  i  being  constants.    Thus,  if 


1  and  c^^,  we  have  the  preceding  . 
formation.  The  homographie  transformation  is 
of  interest  in  geometry,  in  the  study  of  homo- 
graphic  ranges  of  points.  The  most  general 
rational  algebraic  transformation  of  the  roots 
of  an  equation  /(.r)=0  of  the  «th  degree  can 
always  be  reduced  to  an  integral  transformation 
of  a  degree  not  higher  than  the  (n— l)th,  and 
can,  therefore,  be  represented  by  the  relation 

This  lait  is  known  as  the  *Tschimhausen  trans- 
formation,* by  whidi  Tschimhausen  in  1683 
hoped  to  be  able  to  reduce  the  general  equation 
of  the  Rtb  degroe  to  the  binomial  form 
*" — a-^,  which  is  always  solvable.  But  this 
transfonnation  to  the  binomial  form  can  be 
effected  only  for  general  equations  that  are 
lower  dian  the  fifth  degree. 

Solnt'on  of  Bqnatrona. — This  subject  re- 
solves itself  into  two  quite  distinct  parts:  (1) 
The  solution  of  numerical  equations  (i.e., 
equations  whose  coefficients  are  given  numbers) 
by  some  method  of  approximation  to  the  exact 
value  of  the  roots ;  (2)  the  solntion  of  equa- 
tions, whose  coefficients  are  cither  given  num- 
bers or  letters,  by  operations  which  will  give 
the  Bccorate  values  of  the  roots,  expressed  in 
terms  of  the  coefficients, —  such  expressions  to 
involve  no  other  processes  than  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  division  and  the  ex- 
traction of  roots.  The  former  ts  called  a  solo- 
tion  by  approximation,  the  second  is  called  the 
alffebraie  solution  of  equations.  In  the  former 
each  root  may  be  found  separately,  in  the  lat- 
ter a  general  expression  is  obtaineo  which  rep- 
resents all  of. the  roots  indifferently.  The  for- 
mer is  of  importance  to  the  practical  computor, 
the  latter  is  of  special  interest  to  the  pure 
mathematician.  The  solution  by  approximation 
can  be  effected  for  erpiations  of  any  degree;  the 
algebraic  solution  is  impossible  for  general 
equations  of  the  fifth  or  of  higher  degrees. 
See  Equatiitos,  Galois'  Theory  of. 

Algebraic  Solution  of  EquatioiUv— The 
algebraic  sohition  of  the  quadratic  equation 
fl.r'-)-6*-f-C"~0  is  well  known.  (See  Algebra). 
The  algebraic  solution  of  the  cubic,  due  to 
Scipio  Ferro  and  Tarta^li^  and  first  published 
by  H.  Cardan  in  1545,  ts  known  as  'Cardan's 
solution.*  To  effect  it,  first  transform  the  gen- 
eral cubic  e<]uaiion  so  that  the  second  term 
shall  be  wanting.  This  don^  we  have  x'+<ix+ 
fc— 0.    Putting  *=j-(-«  we  obtain 

:r+3yt(y+s)+^+a(y+i)+I^-0, 
or       /+«»+  (3ys+a}  (y+t) + 6-=0. 


We  may  subject  y  and  e  to  any  second  condi- 
tion which  is  not  inconsistent  with  x=y+e. 
It  will  be  convenient  to  assume  2ye+a=0. 
Then   ^+^+ii-=0,    or,   substituting  for  t  its 

value  — ^j/3jp,  we  obtain  y+  ^y^^-^j  and 


=y+«,  we  have 


?v-rH 


Since  y*  and  «*  have  each  three  cube  roots,  it 
might  seem  as  if  y+z  or  x  had  altogether  nine 
values.  As  the  cubic  has  only  three  roots,  this 
cannot  bcL  Of  the  nine  values,  six  are  ex- 
cluded by  the  relation  3y«-i-i]=4,  which  y  and  ' 
must  satisfy.     Eliminating  t  between  r^^+a 


and  3ya+a~0,  we  get  i 


3y 


where  y  has 


the  three  values  obtained  from  the  expression 
for  y*  given  above.  This  last  expression  for  x 
does  not  involve  the  difficulties  of  the  first  ex- 
pression. If  the  numerical  values  of  the  coef- 
ficients a  and  6  are  given,  the  numerical  values 
of  the  roots  may  be  obtained  by  substituting 
the  values  of  a  and  b  in  the  above  expression 
for  X.  In  any  case,  this  mode  of  computing  x 
is  more  laborious  than  Homer's  method  of 
approximation  (explained  below),  but  when 
all  three  roots  of  the  cubic  are  real  and  dis- 
tinct,  an   unexpected   difiicnlty  is  encountered. 


ber.    As  the  si 


■^27 


rqireeenta  a  negative  mim- 
t  of  a  negative  number 


:  (imaginary)  number,  v 
quired  to  find  the  cube  root  of  a  complex  num- 
ber.  But  there  exists  no  convement  arithmet- 
ical process  for  doing  this.  Nor  is  there  any 
way  of_  avoiding  the  complex  radicals  and  of 
expressing  the  values  of  tne  real  roots  by  real 
radicals.  This  is  the  famous  'irreducible  case* 
in  the  solution  of  the  cubic  Its  interest  is 
purely  theoretical.  The  practical  computor 
experiences  no  difficulty,  for  he  can  always  find 
the  values  of  ^r  by  the  methods  of  approxima- 
tion. 

Since  Cardan's  time  a  grrat  many  different 
algebraic  solutions  of  the  cubic  and  also  of  the 
quartic  have  been  piven.  They  are  brotM^t 
together  for  convcraent  reference  in  L.  MAt- 
thiessen's  'Grundiu^e  der  Antiken  und  Mo- 
demen  Algebra,'  Leipiig  1878.  We  proceed  to 
give  Enler's  algebraic  solution  of  the  general 

?uartic  By  transforming  it,  bring  it  to  the 
arm  x'+ax'+bx+c^.  Assume  the  general 
expression  for  a  root  to  be  jr=V''+Vi'-(-ViD. 
Squaring, 

)(■— u— e— to=2V»'Vp+2V«Vw-f2Vi'ViD. 
Squaring  again  and  simplifying 
»*—2^{u+v+v)—8xVuVvVv 

+  (ii+v+wy~4(uv+uiir+vw}~^. 
Equating  coefficients    of   this    and   the   given 
quartic  we  have  _  _ 

fl— —  2(«+tH-«F>.    b'-sVuVWv. 
c—  («+H-w)"— 4{wH-w 


Cioogle 


EQUATIONS,  GKNBRAI.  THBORY  OF 


Bui  — (ft+v+w),  (uv+uw+vw),  — uvw 
the  coefficienis  o£  a  cubic  whose  roots  are  i 
VI.    This  cubic,  called  ■Euler's  cubic,*  i» 


y'+yy  +  - 


16 


-=0. 


Solving  it,  we  have  the  values  of  >,  v  vid  w, 
and,  therefore,  the  values  of  x.  Of  the  eight 
apparent  values  of  x,  four  are  excluded  by  the 
relation  i=— sV"  VwV"-  To  solve  the  quartic 
hy  the  present  method  we  must,  therefore,  first 
solve  "Holer's  cubic*  called  the  resolvenl. 
When  this  resolvent  has  a  rational  root,  then 
its  other  two  roots  can  be  expressed  in  terms 
of  square  roots  and  the  quartic  can  be  solved 
algebraically  without  the  extraction  of  cube 
roots.  All  methods  of  solving  algebraically  the 
general  quartic  d^iend  upon  the  solution  of 
some  resolvent  cubic. 

BiiKwnial  equationa  of  the  form  j^ —  1=bO,  or 
more  generally,  of  the  fonn  sc" — O^O,  are 
known  as  cyclotomic  equations,  and  can 
always  be  solved  algebraically.  They  possess 
also  many  interesting  properties.  We  .  shall 
give  a  Irigonomttric  solution  and  mention  a  few 
at  these  properties.  Let  i"=o=r[co9  (2iT  +  9) 
+  »  sin  (2jtT  +  e)|,  where  a  may  be  a  complex 
quantity,  where  k  may  be  any  integer,  and  where 
T  and  B  are  known  from  the  value  of  a.  (See 
Tbioinometby).    By  De  Moivre's  heorem  we 

By  assignini  to  k  a.ny  n  consecutive  integral 
values  we  obtain  m  distinct  values  for  x  and  no 
more  than  n,  since  the  ii  values  recur  in  periods. 
These  values  are  the  roots  required. 

Among  the  properties  of  «" — 1=K)  are  the 
following;  It  has  no  multiple  roots;  if  r  it 
a  root,  then  any  positive  integral  power  of 
r  is  a  root;  if  m  and  n  are  relatively  prime, 
then  *"— 1=0  and  j">— 1=^)  have  no  roots  in 
L,  except  1 ;  if  A  is  the  highest  common 
if  m  and  n,  then  the  roots  of  xfi — 1=0 
xm^l=^  and  jt"— 1=^;  if  r 
is  a  cotnplex  root  of  x  — I'H),  n  being  a  prime 
nimber.  then  I,  r,  r*.  .  .  .  ,  r"^'  are  the  roots; 
the  roots  of  jT" — 1~K)  and  j-" — 1=0  satisfy 
the  equation  *■"— 1=0;  ;r"— 1=0  has  always 
prwmtwe  roots,  i.e.,  roots  which  are  not  also 
roots  of  unity  of  a  lower  degree  than  n.  For 
the  proofs  consult  Bumside  and  Panton, 
•Theory  of  Eq^uations,'  Vol.  I.  The  theoiy  of 
rooti  of  unity  is  closely  allied  with  the  problem 
of  inscribing  regular  polygons  in  a  circle,  or  the 
theory  of  the  'division  of  (he  circle.*  Consult 
P.  Bachmann,  'Kreistheilung,'  Leipzig  1872. 

Solution  by  Approximation,—  Of  the  vari- 
ous methods  which  have  been  given  for  the 
solution  of  numerical  equations,  the  most  satis- 
factory, all  things  considered,  is  the  one  known 
as  "Homer's  method'  It  is  commonly  used  for 
finding  incammtnsurable  roots  (i.e.,  sudi  as  in- 
volve an  interminable  decimal  which  is  not  a 
repeating  decimal),  but  it  may  be  used  also  for 
finding  commensurable  roots  (i.e.,  such  as  are  in- 
tegers or  rational  fractions).  It  is  desirable  here 
to  begin  with  the  theorem  that  a  rational  frac- 
tion cannot  be  a  root  of  an  equation  of  the  ntk 
degree  udtk  integral  coefficients,  the  coefficient 
of  x*  being  unity.  To  prove  this,  let,  if  possible, 

■j-bearootof /{x)-=0,  where  A  and  t  are  in- 


tegers and  -r-  a  fraction  redticed  to  its  lowest 
terns,  and  where  iii'=l.  Substitute  -r-  for  x, 
then  multiply  both  members  of  the  equation  by 
4"  — ',  and  we  obtain,  after  transposing,  -t-  = 


lowest  terms  c. 


It  equal  a 


integer.    Hence  -r 


cannot  be  a  root.  This  being  the  case,  it  fol- 
lows that  all  commensurable  roots  are  exact 
divisors  of  on,  for  an  is  numerically  the  product 
of  all  the  roots.  We  know  that  if  (fx)  is  di- 
visible by  x  —  T,  without  a- remainder,  r  is  a 
root.  Hence  we  are  enabled  to  find  all  com- 
mensurable roots  of  numerical  equations  of  the 
type  now  under  consideration  by  testing  in  suc- 
cession each  factor  of  On.  For  instance,  in  the 
equation  ^  + 8^*+ I3.r -|-2'=0  the  factors  of 
On  are  ±  1  and  ±2.  Taking  the  factor  —2, 
we  find  that  /(.r)  is  exactly  divisible  by  .r  +  2. 
The  test  for  each  of  the  three  other  factors 
yields  a  remainder.  Hence  — 2  is  the  only  com- 
mensurable root. 

Before  we  can  appl^  Homer's  method  we 
must  know  the  first  significant  figure  of  the 
root  to  he  found.  In  other  words,  we  must 
•locate*  the  rooL  This  can  always  be  done 
by  Sturm's  theorem,  but  usually  the  following 
theorem  is  more  cmvenient  If  two  real  num- 
bers  a  and  b,  when  substiluted  for  x  in  fix), 
give  to  Hx)  contrary  signs,  an  odd  mimber  of 
roots  of  the  tqwUio*  f{x)°'Q  lies  between  a 
and  b.  Thus,  to  locate  the  roots  of 
y—S^r*— 46*-  — 71  — 0,  substitute  for  x,  ia 
succession,  the  values  — 6,  — S,  — 4,-3,  — 2, 

—  1.  0,  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10.    It  is  found 

/(8)  and  f(9)  are  pairs  of  values  of  /(jt) 
havmg  opposite  signs.  As  there  are  three  roots 
in  all,  we  conclude  that  there  is  iust  one  root 
between  each  of   the  pairs  of   values  — 5  bihI 

—  4,  —2  and  ~1,  8  and  9.  To  reduce  the 
number  of  trials  in  more  difficult  examples, 
there  are  theorems  on  the  upper  and  lower 
limits  of  roots  which  may  be  i^)plied. 

Horner's  method  consists  of  successive 
transformations  of  an  equation.  Elach  traiKfor- 
mation  diminishes  the  root  by  a  certain  amonnL 
If  the  required  root  is  1.953,  thei]  the  root  is 
diminished  successively  by  1,  .9,  .05,  .COS.  Syn- 
thetic division  is  employed.  Suppose  we  desire 
to  find,  to  three  decimals,  the  root  between  —  I 
and  — 2  in  the  above  example.  It  is  convenient 
first  to  transfonn  the  equation  so  that  the  root 
becomes  positive.  We  get  jr*  +  3jt* — 46r 
+  71  =  0.  The  first  significant  figure  in  the  root 
is  1.  To  diminish  the  roots  by  1  we  perform 
by  synthetic  division  the  foilowuig  operatioii: 
1-f  3— 46-(-  71  I  I 

1+4—42 

4—42  +  29 


The  transformed  equadon,  -mbtoae  root  lader 


>y  Google 


EQUATIONS,  IHTBGRAL 


consideration  now  lies  between  0  and  1,  is 
^  +  6x*—S7x +  29-^0.  This  root  being  less 
than  unity,  j^  and  3^  are  less  than  x.  Neglect- 
ing x"  and  6x*,  we  obtain  an  approximate  value 
for  X  {torn  — 37x  + 29  =  0,  viz..  x=^.7.  As 
in  the  process  of  ordinary  long  division  or  in 
the  extraction  of  roots,  so  here  the  digit  ob- 
tained by  the  first  approximate  division  maj^  be 
too  large  or  too  small  and  may  need  correction. 
An  error  of  this  sort  will  reveal  itself  later  in 
the  attempt  to  find  the  third  digit  of  the  root 
Such  correction  is  needed  here.  Actually 
X  —  .9.  Diminish  the  roots  of  the  last  trans- 
formed cubic  by  .9,  then  find  the  third  digit  by 
the  process  just  indicated  for  finding  the  sec- 
ond digit,  then  diminish  ^e  roots  again,  and  so 
on.    l^e  entire  operation  is  as  follows: 

H-3  —  46  -1-71  [  1.9S5 


4 
1 

-42        -^29 
5  )      —27.711 

; 

—  37 

0.21 
-■  30:79 

7.02 

+     1.289 
—  1.166625 

.9 

-1-   .122375 

6.9 
.9 

7— 
.9 

-23,77 
.4375 

—  23.3325 
.4433 

8.85 

The  broken  lines  indicate  the  conclusion  of 
the  successive  transformations.  For  advanced 
reading  on  the  solution  of  numerical  equations 
consult  McCIintock,  E.,  in  Am.  Jour,  of 
Maths..'  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  89-110;  Carvallo,  M.  E., 
'Resolution  numinque  complete  d.  Equations 
algibriques  ou  transcendantes'  (Paris  1896); 
A.  Xavier,  'Approximations  numiriques' 
{Paris  1909). 

Mnltiplc  Roota^-Suppose  that  in  f(x)=0 
there  ar«  m  multiple  roots ;  that  is,  m  roots  are 
equal  to  each  other.  Tbta  fU)=U~r)"^ix). 
and  the  first  derivative  isfixj^ix  —  r)'>^\x) 
-f-m(j-_r)»— ^(j-).  the  fact  that  f(,x)  and 
fix}  have  the  factor  (x-r)'"-'  in  common 
suggests  the  following  rule  for  the  discovery 
of  multiple  roots:  Find  the  highest  common 
factor  of  f(x)  and  fix).  If  that  factor  is 
ix—ry,  then  r  occurs  as  a  root  j+  *  ' 
If  the  highest  • 
(*-r)'Cr-rO',  then 
times  and  r,  occurs  ( -r  1  bmes.  It 
fixt=8x^—20x'  +  6x+9,  then  fix)=2Ax' 
—  40J-I-6,  and  the  H.CF.  is  2^  — 3.  Hence  J 
is  a  double  root. 

Blinnnation. —  Take  the  equations, 
/(^)=^  +  &i*  +  6."-0, 
Fixy—x"  +  a^  +  <h~0. 
and  let  r,  and  r,  be  the  roots  of  the  second 
equation.      The    necessao[    and    sufficient   con- 
ditions that  the  two  equations  shall  have  a  root 
in  conunofi  is  that  fir,)  or  /(r,)  shall  vanish; 


that  is,  that  the  product  /{ri)/(r,>   ^all  be 
zero.     Multiply  together 

fir,)=r,'  +  a,r,  +  a,, 
we  get 
f .V,-  -I-  a.  (r^f  +  rfy-,)  +  a.  (f  ■'  -f-  r fl 

+  a,f,r,  +  aMr,  +  r,)+a,'. 
Expressing  the  symmetric  functions  of  n 
and  ri  in  terms  of  the  coefficients  of  the  second 
of  the  given  equations,  we  get  r/r.'  —  61", 
fi/'i' -f  riV.=— i,6,,  r,'+rf  =  b,'~2b,,  T,T,—  I^. 
r,+rt= — bi.  Substituting  these  values,  we  have 
6i' — aibibi  +  aj>\'^~2aj)t  +  ai''bt — OiOiii -f- ii«'. 

This  expression,. involving  the  coefficients  of 
the  two  given  equations,  is  called  the  eiiminani 
or  resultant.  Its  vanishing  is  the  condition  that 
these  equations  have  a  root  in  common.  More 
generally,  if  from  m  equations  with  n  — 1  varia- 
bles we  eliminate  the  variables  and  obtain  an 
equation  J?""0,  involving  only  the  coefficients, 
the  expression  R  is  called  the  elimiruml  or  re- 
sultant of  the  given  equations. 

In  the  above  example  the  elimination  was 
performed  with  the  aid  of  symmetric  functions. 
Of  other  methods  of  elimination  the  best  known 
are  those  of  Eulcr,  Bezout  and  Sylvester.  We 
outline  the  last,  known  as  Sylvester's  Dialytic 
Method.    To  eliminate  x  betwete 

ffrj^aaxn-t-ai*"-"-!-  ,  .  ,  +an=0, 
Fix)  =  b.X^-i-b,x'n^+  .  .  .  +bn—0. 
multiply  the  first  successively  by  x",  x*.  x*,  .  .  ^ 
x"->,  and  the  second  successively  by  x?^  ]C>, 
x*,  .  .  .  ,  xn-i,  and  we  obtain  m+n  equations. 
The  hisiest  power  of  *is«  +  «  —  l.  If /{*) 
=  0  and  F(x)  =0  have  a  common  root,  it  will 
satisfy  all  the  m  +  n  equations.  If  the  differ- 
ent powers  of  x,  viz.,  x,  ^, . .  . ,  *™-|-''-',  be  taken 
as  m  +  n  —  1  unknown  quantities,  satisfying 
m  +  n  linear  eqiuitions,  a  relation  will  exist  be- 
tween the  coefficients.  This  condition  of  con- 
sistency is  the  vanishing  of  the  resultant.  This 
resultant  Sylvester  expressed  neatly  in  the  form 
of  a  determinant.    See  Determinants. 

Discriminanta.- It  has  been  shown  that  a 
multiple  root  o£  fix)  =0  is  also  a  root  of 
f(jr)=0.  But  the  condition  that  these  two 
equations  have  a  common  root  is  expressed  by 
the  vanishing  of  the  resultant 


otherwise  defined  as  the  simplest  function  of 
the  coefficients,  or  of  the  roots,  whose  vanishing 
signifies  that  die  equation  has  equal  roots. 

To  the  references  alreadv  given  we  add  the 
following:  'Eneyklopadie  der  mathematischen 
Wissenschaften,'  Band  I;  Cajori,  Florian,  'In- 
troduction to  the  Modem  Theory  of  Equations* 
(New  York  1904) ;  Netto.  £..  'Vorlesungen 
uber  Algebra'  (Leipzig,  Vol.  I,  1896,  Vol.  II, 
1900);  Serret,  j.  A.,  'Cours  d'Algebre  Sup6- 
rieure'  (Paris,  2  vols.)  ;  Todhunter,  'Theory  of 
Equations'  (London  1880) ;  Weber.  H.,  'Lehr- 
buch  der  Algebra'  (Braunschweig.  Vol.  I,  1898, 
Vol.  II,  1896)  ;  'Encyklopadie  der  elem.  Algebra 
und  Analysis'    (Leipzig  1903). 

Florian  Cajori, 
Professor  of  History  of  Mathematics,  Univer- 
sity of  Ctuifomia. 


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EQUATOR  —  BQUIDA 


EQUATOR,  an  imaginary  great  circle  of  the 
celestial  vault  or  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
As  used  in  astronomy  the  term  signifies  a  great 
circle  of  the  celestial  vault  at  right  angles  to  its 
axis,  and  dividing  it  into  a  northern  and  a 
southern  hemisphere.  It  is  constituted  by  the 
plane  of  the  earth's  equator,  produced  in  every 
direction  till  it  reaches  the  ima^nary  celestial 
sphere.  The  sun  is  twice  a  year  m  the  celestial 
equator  —  namely,  at  the  equinoxes,  whence  the 
ejiuator  is  also  known  as  the  equinoctial  line,  or 
simplj;  the  equinoctial  <sce  EQtJINOx).  The 
point  in  the  equator  which  touches  the  meridian 
IS  raised  above  the  true  faoriion  by  an  arc  which 
is  the  complement  of  the  latitude.  The  sun  and 
planets  all  have  equators.  They  rotate  around 
their  several  axes  and  the  plane  at  right  angles 
in  each  case  is  the  equator  of  the  heavenly 
body.  In  geography,  the  equator  is  a  great  cir- 
cle on  the  surface  of  the  earth  equidistant  from 
its  poles,  and  dividing  it  into  two  hemispheres. 
Its  latitude  is  zero;  it  is  therefore  marked  on 
maps  as  0.  Other  parallels  of  latitude  are 
counted  from  it,  augmenting  in  their  numerical 
designation  as  their  distance  from  it  north  or 
south  increases,  the  poles  being  90  degrees.  The 
plane  of  the  terrestrial  e<juator  is  a  plane  perpen- 
dicular to  the  earth's  axis  and  passing  throi^ 
its  centre.  The  magnetic  equator  is  a  somewhat 
irregular  line^  nearly  but  not  quite  a  great  circle 
of  the  earth,  m  which  there  is  no  dip  of  the  mag- 
netic needle.     It  is  hence  called  also  the  aclinic 


there  being  a  slow  oscillation  of  the  magnetic 
poles,  while  the  geographical  equator  and  poles 
are  almost  fixed. 

EQUATORIAL  ("of  the  equator'),  a  geo- 
graphical and  astronomical  term.  In  astron- 
omy it  is  usually  applied  to  a  telescope  so 
mounted  that  the  right  ascension  and  decli- 
nation of  the  point  in  the  heavens. at  which  it  is 
directed  can  be  read  off  from  two  scales. 
Clockwork  is  sometimes  attached  to  the  instni- 
raent  to  give  the  motion  in  right  ascension,  and 
thereby  keep  the  object  constantly  in  the  field 
of  the  instrument.  See  Astronomy;  Tele- 
scope. 

EQUATORIAL  COUDfi  (vElbow  Equa- 
torial"), a  form  of  equatorial  telescope  invented 
by  Loewy,  of  the  Paris  Observatory.  The  ob- 
server can  remain  stationarv  in  a  comfortabJe 
position,  with  a  desk  table  built  around  the  eye- 
piece end,  and  can  have  all  this  part  enclosed 
from  the  cold,  and  warmed  if  desired  at  the 
same  time  commanding  the  whole  heavens 
without  rising  from  his  chair.  See  Astron- 
omy; Telescopb, 


EQUERRY,  iWy/i  rf,  an  official  of  the  royal 
household  of  Great  Britain  in  the  department 
of  the  master  of  (he  horse.  "There  are  die 
crown  equerry,  equerries  in  ordinary  and  extra 
equerries,  7  of  the  former  and  IS  of  the  latter, 
all  army  or  navy  officers,  one  or  more  of  whom 
is  attached  to  the  suite  of  each  member  of  the 
royal  family. 

EQUESTRIAN  ORDER,  or  EQUITES, 
the  order  of  kni^ts  in  ancient  Rome  (Latin 
ordo  equester).  The  equites  or  knights  orig- 
inally formed  the  cavalry  of  the  army.    They 


are  said  by  Livy  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Romulus,  who  selected  300  of  them  from  the 
three  pnnci[ial  tribes,  naming  them  'celeres.* 
Serviut  Tullius  increased  the  number  to  IS 
centuries,  and  later  there  were  1,800  equites. 
Soon  after  the  first  Punic  War  the  equites  be- 
came a  distinct  order  in  the  state  and  the  juries 
and  the  farmers  of  the  revenue  were  selected 
from  their  ranks.  They  held  their  jxisition  in 
virtue  of  a  certain  property  qualification,  400,000 
sestertii,  about  (17,000,  and  toward  the  end  of 
the  republic  they  possessed  much  influence  in 
the  state.  The  body  of  equites  was  of  mixed 
patrician  and  plebeian  rank,  a  fact  that  helped 
to  increase  their  political  power.  They  had 
particular  seats  assigned  to  them  in  the  dtcus 
and  theatre,  and  the  insignia  of  their  rank,  in 
addition  to  a  horse,  were  a  gold  ring  and  a 
tunic  with  two  narrow  purple  stripes.  At  first 
the  equites  received  two  horses  from  the  state, 
one  for  the  knight  and  the  other  for  his  ser- 
vant, and  the  wherewithal  to  maintain  them. 
But,  at  a  later  date  when  the  order  had  become 
a  desirable  one  to  belong  to  (shortly  after  AOO 
B.c)  wealthy  ciliiens  began  to  enter.it;  and 
these  furnished  their  own  horses  and  maintained 
them  at  their  own  expense.  This  was  because 
from  the  equites  the  higher  officers  of  the  army 
were  selected,  only  after  the  candidate  for  office 
had  passed  successively  throu^  the  equestris 
cursus  honorum,  a  definite  series  of  offices,  sup- 
posed to  fit  him  for  the  performance  of  the 
duties  of  the  hi^er  post  in  the  army  or  of  that 
of  certain  magistrate  offices  to  which  the  equi- 
tes mi^t  be  appointed.  Their  privileges  were 
curtailed  by  SuJla  and  under  the  later  emperors 
the  order  disappeared  from  the  sta^  of  political 
life. 

BibUogrsphyr— Bouchi-Leclercq,  A.,  <Man- 


Studenfs  Roman  Empire'  (1893);  Cagnat,  R., 
'Equites'  (in  * Dictionnaire  des  Antiquitis'  by 
Darembetg  and  Saglis) ;  Friedlander,  A.  H., 
'Sittengeschichte  Roms'  (1901) ;  Greenidge,  A. 
J.  H..  ^Histftry  of  Rome'  (1904);  Heriog,  E. 
'Geschichte  und  System  der  Romischen  Staats- 
verfassung*  (Leipzig  1891);  Madvig,  J.  N., 
'Die  Verfassung  des  romischen  Staates' ; 
Mommsen.  T.,  <Herme5'  (1881);  Taylor,  T. 
M.,  'Political  and  Constitutional  History  of 
Rome'  (1899);  Wilkens,  A,  S.,  'Equites'  (in 
Smith's  'Dictionary  of  Roman  Antiqtii ties' 
(3ded.  1891). 

EQUIDJG,  ek'wi-de,  the  horse  family,  the 
most  highly  specialized  of  the  perissodactyl  un- 
gulates, characterized  by  the  fact  that  onl^  one 
toe  (the  third)  in  each  foot  is  now  functional, 
traces  ('the  splint  bones")  remaining  of  the 
two  other  toes  (the  second  and  fourth)  in  the 
■splint  bones'  hidden  beneath  the  flesh  on  each 
side  of  the  shank  of  the  foot.  (For  the  rela- 
tionships of  this  family  to  the  titanotheres, 
tapirs  and  rhinoceroses,  see  TJnculata;  and 
for  the  evolution  of  the  characteristic  foot- 
structure  see  HoRS^  Evolution  of).  "The  fam- 
ily contains  but  a  single  extant  genus  (Eguus), 
structural  distinctions  not  being  of  sunictcnt 
importance  to  separate  generically  the  modem 
horses  from  several  extinct  species,  or  from  the 
asses  or  zebras,  or  these  from  each  other. 
Apart  from  the  dependence  upon  a  single  toe, 
the  family  is  characterized  bv  the  facts  Oiat  ^e 
orbit  is  completely  surrounded  by  bone ;  die  in- 


BQUXUBRIUU 


cisor  tecdi  are  chisel-shaped;  the  canines  or 
'tushes*  are  nidimenury  (when  present),  and 
the  premolars  (except  tlie  first  or  'wolf  tooth") 
resemble  the  Dvpselodont  molars.  Extentally 
the  members  of  this  family  are  robust,  with 
compacatively  slender  limbs,  the  feet  "booted* 
in  a  single  homy  hoof,  encasing  the  terminal 
phalanx;  the  boov  tliicjdy  clothed  with  short 
close  tiair,  which,  oowever,  becomes  longer,  and 
in  some  Epecies  profuse,  forming  a  mane,  on 
the  oa^  and  tail.  The  colors  are  apt  to  be  dis- 
posed m  dark  stripes  on  a  yellow  or  brownish 
ground,  most  strikingly  in  the  zebras,  but  trace- 
able  in  most  others.  There  are  never  any  horns, 
and  speed  is  depended  on  to  escape  from  ene- 
mies which  cannot  be  beaten  ott  by  kicking 
with  the  hind  feet,  while  strueglea  between  rival 
males  for  the  leadership  of  the  bands  of  mares 
are  carried  mi  mainly  by  bitinf  and  strikinK 
with  the  fore  feet.  The  fore-limbs,  or  both 
pairs,  have  a  callous  pad  upon  the  inside. 
*which,*  says  Beddard,  °is  possibly  to  be  looked 
upon  as  an  aborted  gland,  probably  originally 
of  use  as  secreting  some  odorous  substance 
calculated  to  enable  strayed  members  of  the 
herd  to  regain  their  companions."  The  whole 
structure  of  the  equida  has  been  developed  in 
adaptation  to  a  life  upon  open  dry  plains,  where 
ability  to  travel  with  rapioity  and  to  live  upon 
crass  and  herbage  has  been  perfected  to  a  high 
degree.  The  stomach  has  no  such  complicated 
arrangement  for  the  assimilation  of  this  com- 
paratively innutriiious  diet  as  has  been  acquired 
iy  the  ruminants  Cq-v.).  The  alimentary  canal 
is  of  great  length  (about  eight  times  the  lei%th 
of  the  body)  :  and  the  stomach,  simple  in  form, 
is  divided  into  a  cardiac  and  a  pyloric  part, 
sharply  distingtiished  Iqt  the  dense  epithdial 
lining  of  the  forroer.  The  cxcum  is  twice  as 
large  as  the  stomach  and  there  is  no  ^11-blad- 
der.  The  teats  are  two  in  number  and  situated 
in  the  groin.  One  or  two  foals  are  produced  at 
a  birth  after  a  gestation  of  about  11  months.  All 
the  species  are  gregarious  and  [Kil^amous  and 
like  most  such  animals  arc  readily  tamable, 
though  the  Ecbra  lias  proved  somewhat  intracta- 
ble and  useless  to  mankind. 

The  family  in  the  course  of  its  history  has 
occupied  all  the  larger  land-areas  of  the  globe 
except  Australia:  out  although  its  ancestors 
abounded  in  both  Americas  in  the  past,  and 
modem  horses  run  wild  have  multiplied  and 
flourished  exceedingly  upon  their  grassy  plains, 
no  living  species  is  native  to  the  New  World. 
In  the  Old  World  the  horse  or  horses  and  sev- 
eral of  the  asses  were  Asiatic  and  European ;  a 
second  species  of  ass  and  the  various  lebras 
were  wholly  African.    See  Ass;  Hmse;  Quag- 

EQUILIBRIUM,  a  state  of  balance  as  to 
the  forces  acting  upon  any  body.  The  condi- 
tion* is  generally  considered  in  respect  to  the 
action  of  gravity,  and  especially  as  to  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  body  under  observation.  In 
accordance  with  that  law  of  physics  that  the 
centre  of  gravity  tends  always  to  occupy  the 
lowest  pc«sib1e  position  —  that  is,  the  position 
in  which  it  is  nearest  to  the  centre  of  the  earth 
—  eontlibn'nm  appears  in  three  forms ;  (1) 
stable  equilibfiom,  when  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  below  the  point  of  support;  (2)  unstable 
equilibrium,  when  die  centre  of  gravity  i-!  above 
the  point  of  support;    <3>  neutral  equifibrimn. 


when  the  centre  of  gravity  and  the  point  of 
support  coincide.  An  illustration  may  be  found 
in  a  wheel  supported  free  of  the  ground  on  its 
axle.  If  the  wheel  is  of  uniform  build  in  all 
of  its  parts  it  will  be  in  neutral  equilibrium,  re- 
maining at  rest  in  any  position  to  which  it  may 
be  revolved  on  the  axle.  If,  however,  a  weigbit 
be  attached  to  the  rim  of  the  wheel  at  its  low- 
est point,' when  the  wheel  is  moved  so  as  to 
raise  the  weight  ever  so  little  the  wheel  will 
swing  back  until  the  weight  b  a^ain  at  the  low- 
est point,  in  which  position  it  is  in  stable 
equilibrium.  If  the  wheel  is  then  revolved  so 
that  the  weight  is  directly  above  the  axle,  and 
carefiill}[  b^anced  in  that  position,  the  wheel 
will  be  in  unstable  equilibnum,  for  when  dis- 
turbed it  will  immediately  revolve  so  as  to  brii^ 
the  weight  to  the  lowest  point  again,  and  come 
to  rest  m  stable  equilibrium.  See  Applied  Me- 
chanics;   Mechanics. 

In  physiology,  the  abiUty  to  maintain  the 
body  by  proper  muscular  force  under  nervous 
control,  so  that  it  can  perform  co-ordinated 
movements  or  resist  the  force  of  gravity.  By 
equilibrium  is  here  meant  the  control  of  the 
body  in  the  upright  position,  apart  from  die 
localized  processes  of  co-ordination.  Loss  of 
equilibrium  shows  itself  particularly  in  walk- 
ing and  running.  Here  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  body  is  constantly  changing  and  the  ability 
of  the  individual  to  hold  himself  erect  depends 
upon  a  number  of  features.  The  eye,  the  tactile 
sense  of  the  feet,  the  joint-senses,  the  muscular 
sense  that  weighs  the  various  muscular  move- 
ments and  the  higher  cerebral  centres  are  all 
involved,  and  loss  of  equilibrium  or  inco-ordina- 
tion  may  result  from  disease  or  injury  to  any  of 
these  fiinctioos.  Loss  of  eyesight  does  not 
necessarily  involve  any  loss  of  equilibrium,  but 
loss  of  tactile  sense  of  the  feet,  such  as  is  seen 
in  locomotor  ataxia  or  in  people  who  have  had 
their  feet  frozen,  almost  invariably  produces  a 
loss  of  equilibrium.  In  the  same  lusease  (loco- 
motor ataxia)  and  in  forms  of  neuritis  the  toss 
of  muscular  sense  and  joint- sense  produces 
similar  phenomena.  For  the  higher  cerebral 
centres  of  control  there  is  good  reason  to  ■ 
believe  that  the  semt-drcular  canals  in  the  in- 
ternal ear  constitute  a  special  sense-organ  for 
the  determination  of  the  direction  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  head  which  are  so  essential  in  the 
preservation  of  general  equilibrium.  I^seases 
of  the  semi- circular  canals  are  frequently  ac- 
companied with  dizziness  and  vertigo.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  sacctilus  and  atriculus 
□f  the  internal  ear  act  to  maintain  equilibrium 
while  at  rest  It  also  seems  probable  that  cer- 
tain areas  in  the  cerebellum  are  closely  associated 
with  the  equilibrium.  See  Cekkbelluu;  Inco- 
Okdination  ;  Looouotdb  Ataxia. 

EQUILIBRIUM,  Chemical.  In  mechanics 
a  system  is  said  to  be  in  equilibrium  when  the 
forces  that  act  upon  it  are  precisely  balanced,  so 
(hat  their  resultant  is  everywhere  lero.  A 
system  or  mass  is  similarly  said  to  be  in  chemi- 
cal equilibnum  when  its  state  is  such  that  there 
is  no  tendency  toward  a  sensible  chemical 
change  in  any  of  its  jwrta.  As  set  forth  by 
Berthollet,  chemical  equilibrium  is  not  a  condi- 
tion of  rest,  but  one  in  which  the  velocity  of 
rearlion  in  one  direction  i*  equal  to  the  velodhr 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The  absence  of  chemf- 
cal  action  may  be  nbsalute,  or  merely  apparent. 


>y  Google 


BQUILIBRIUH 


In  other  words,  there  may  b«  no  chemical 
changes  going  on  at  all,  or  there  may  be  op* 
posite  changes  going  on  simultaneously  in  such 
a  way  that  no  resultant  modification  can  be  ob- 
served in  any  part  of  the  system,  however  small 
the  part  selected  for  observation  may  be.  In 
the  latter  case  the  existence  of  the  simultaneous 
and  opposite  reactions  can  only  be  indirectly 
inferred  from  a  study  of  the  system  when  it  is 
not  in  equilibrium. 

According  to  the  theory  of  chemical  afBnIty 
that  was  held  before  the  importance  of  mass- 
action  was  understood,  two  substances  either 
would  combine  or  would  not,  according  as  their 
'aiSinities''  were  more  or  less  completely  satis- 
fied in  the  combined  stale,  or  in  the  uncombined 
state.  That  this  view  is  cntireiy  inadequate  to 
explain  the  facts  of  chemistry  is  made  evident 
by  the  following  simple  examfile:  When  steam 
is  passed  over  red-hot  iron  filings  it  is  decom- 
posed into  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  the  iron  ab- 
sorbing the  oxygen  with  the  formation  of  oxide 
of  iron,  while  tne  hydrogen  escapes  in  the  free 
state ;  but  if  hydro^n  is  passed  over  red-hot 
oxide  of  iron  the  oxide  is  reduced  to  the  metal- 
Uc  state,  its  oxygen  combining  with  the  hydro- 
gen to  produce  steam,  which  passes  on  in  the 
hydrogen  current  This  apparent  contradiction 
may  be  best  explained  by  assuming  that  when  a 
mixture  of  steam  and  hydrogen  is  in  contact 
with  a  red-hot  mixture  of  iron  oxide  and  me- 
tallic iron,  both  of  the  foregoing  reactions  take 
place  simultaneously.  If  the  metallic  iron  and 
the  steam  are  present  in  excessive  amounts,  the 
resultant  action  will  be,  on  the  whole,  the  oxida- 
tion of  the  iron  and  the  decomposition  of  the 
Steam ;  while  if  the  iron  oxide  and  the  hydrogen 
are  present  in  excess,  the  resultant  action  will 
be  the  reduction  of  the  oxide  to  the  metallic 
state  and  the  simultaneous  formation  of  steam. 
It  is  therefore  apparent  that  in  some  reactions, 
at  any  rate,  the  rdative  masses  in  which  the 
various  constituents  are  present  must  be  con- 
sidered with  much  care  before  any  prediction  of 
the  chemical  deportment  of  the  mixture  can  be 
made.  Attention  was  first  directed  to  this  fact 
t^  Claude  Louis  Berthollet  <<Essai  de  statique 
chimique'  1803).  In  the  example  cited  above, 
if  the  iron,  iron  oxide,  hydrcven  and  steam 
were  left  in  contact  in  a  closea  vessel,  a  stale 
of  apparent  equilibrium  would  be  finally  at- 
tained in  which  the  formation  and  decomposi- 
tion of  the  steam  would  occur  with  equal 
rapidity,  so  that  no  visible  change  would  take 
place  hereafter.  When  this  state  of  *chemical 
equilibritmi'  is  attained  the  abstraction  of  hy- 
drogen or  of  iron  oxide,  or  the  addition  of 
steam  or  of  metallic  iron,  will  destiny  the 
equilibrium,  and  more  iron  will  be  oxidiied. 
until  a  new  state  of  equilibrium  is  established. 
Similarly,  the  abstraction  of  steam  or  of  me- 
tallic iron  or  the  addition  of  hydrogen  or  of 
iron  oxide  when  the  system  is  in  equilibrium 
will  be  followed  by  the  reduction  of  a  portion 
of  the  iron  oxide  and  the  establishment  of  a 
new  state  of  equilibrium.  According  to  Ber- 
thollet, all  reactions  are  fundamentalTy  of  this 
kind.  When  sodium  chloride  is  added  to  a  solu- 
tion of  silver  nitrate  we  know  that  the  silver  is 
all  thrown  down  in  the  form  of  an  insoluble 
chloride.  In  this  case,  Berthollet  would  con- 
sider that  the  sodium  chloride,  sodium  nitrate, 
silver  chloride  and  silver  nitrate  tend  toward  a 
state  of  chemical  equilibrium;  but  that  since  the 


silver  chloride  is  conlinaally  removed  from  the 
solution  by  reason  of  its  insolutnlity,  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  state  of  equilibrium  ever  to  be 
attained,  just  as  it  would  be  impossible  for  siKh 
a  state  to  be  attained  in  our  previous  illustra- 
tion, if  one  of  the  constituents  (say  the  iron 
oxide)  were  removed,  or  rendered  inactive  in 
any  way,  as  fast  as  it  were  formed. 

The  ideas  of  Berthollet  have  been  found  to 
be  sound  in  their  essentials,  and  they  have 
served  as  the  foundation  for  the  modem  theory 
of  chemical  action,  thou|^  their  full  develop- 
ment cannot  be  explained  without  the  use  of  the 
differential  calcnius.  The  basis  of  the  theory  of 
mass-action,  so  far  as  solutions  are  concerned  at 
all  events,  appears  to  be  substantially  as  fol- 
lows :  Two  substances  in  solution  cannot  com- 
bine with  each  other,  except  when  a  molecnie, 
or  ion  (see  SoLtrnoNS)  of  the  one,  in  its  wan- 
dering through  the  solution,  chances  to  encoun- 
ter a  molecule  or  ion  of  the  other.  Now  while 
we  do  not  know  the  actual  number  of  encoun- 
ters that  take  place  in  a  given  time  between 
molecules  of  different  kinds,  we  do  know  that  in 
a  homeogeneous  solution  die  chance  that  any 
one  given  molecule  of  the  first  kind  will  encoun- 
ter some  molecule  of  the  second  kind  within 
(say)  the  next  second,  is  strictly  proportional  to 
die  number  of  molecules  of  the  second  kind  that 
are  present  in  the  solution:  and  conversely,  the 
chaiKC  that  any  giver  molecule  of  the  secot»d 
kind  will  encounter  smne  molecule  of  the  first 
kind  within  the  next  second  is  strictly  propor- 
tional to  the  number  of  molecules  of  the  first 
kind  that  are  present  Since  the  number  of 
molecules  of  each  kind  that  are  present  in  an 
actual  solution  is  practically  infinite  this 
amounts  to  saying  that  the  actual  number  of 
encounters  between  molecules  of  different 
kinds,  in  one  second,  is  proportimal  to  the 
product  of  the  number  of  molecules  of  the  first 
and  second  kinds  that  are  present.  As  an  illus- 
tration of  the  usefulness  of  this  principle,  we 
may  consider  the  equilibrium  of  a  mixture  of 
acetic  acid  and  ethyl  alcohol.  Some  of  the  acid 
combines  with  some  of  the  alcohol  to  form 
water  and  ethyl-acetic  ester  (see  Esms),  but 
the  reaction  is  never  complete,  since  a  state  of 
equilibrium  is  attained  after  a  time.  In  which 
the  inverse  combination  takes  place  just  as  fast 
as  the  direct  one.  The  molecular  weight  of 
acetic  add  (CHiCOO.H)  is  60,  that  of  ethjrt 
alcohol  {CJI.OH)  is  44„that  of  ethyl-acetic 
ester  or  ethyl  acetate  (CH.COO.C.H,)  is  88^ 
and  that  of  water  (HiO)  is  1&  A  mass  of  any 
substance  which  contains  as  many  Krams  as 
there  are  units  in  the  molecular  weight  of  the 
substance  is  known  as  a  "gram-molecule*  of 
the  substance.  This  name  is  rather  unhappily 
chosen,  but  the  idea  itself  ii  a  useful  one.  and 
is  commonly  employed  in  modem  writings  upon 
theoretical  chemistry.  Let  us  suppose  that  one 
gram-molecule  of  acetic  add  (60  grams)  is 
originally  mixed  with  M  gram -molecules  of 
ethyl  alcohol  <46M  grams),  and  with  N  gram- 
molecules  (18M  grams)  of  water,  and  let  us 
in(]uirc  what  the  composition  of  the  mixture 
will  be  when  the  state  of  final  chemical  equi- 
librium has  been  attained.  The  advantage  of 
taking  the  gram-molecule  «s  a  unit  of  mass  ii, 
that  when  this  tmit  is  used  the  number  of 
grams  of  acetic  add.  alcohol  and  water  tint 
are  originally  present  will  be  proportional  to  1, 
M  and  N,  and  we  may  speak  of  M  and  H  and 


EQUIHULTIPLS  —  EQUINOX 


<  really  the  number  of  actual  molecv 
preaenL  The  acetic  acid  and  alcohol  act  Upon 
each  other  as  indicated  by  the  equation 
CHJZOO.H+CJhOU  =  CH.COO,GH.+H.O, 
Now  let  us  assume  that  when  the  state  of  equi- 
lil^am  has  been  attained,  X  gram -molecules  of 
the  alcohol  have  been  decomposed.  This  implies 
that  X  gi-am-moleculeA  of  the  acetic  add  have 
also  been  decomim&ed,  and  that  X  gram-mole- 
cules, each  of  water  and  of  ethyl  acetate  have 
been  formed.  The  total  numbers  of  gram-mole- 
cules of  the  various  substances  that  are  preseni: 
when  the  final  state  of  equilibrium  is  attained 
are  therefore  as  follows:  Acetic  acid,  1 — X; 
alcohol,  M—X;  water,  X;  ethyl  aceute,  N+X. 
The  number  of  molecular  collisions  per  second, 
in  which  a  molecule  of  acetic  acid  encounters  a 
molecule  of  alcohol,  is  therefore  (in  the  final 
state)  proportional  to  <1— X)  (M—X);  and 
since  the  chemical  action  is  itself  proportional 
to  the  number  of  such  collisions,  we  may 
;  that  the  number  of  gram-molecutes  of 


t  whose  value  we  do  not  know.  The 
same  line  of  reasoning  shows  that  the  number 
of  gram-molecules  of  ethyl  acetate  that  are 
lost  from  the  solution  in  the  same  time,  through 
combining  with  water  to  reproduce  acetic  acid 
and  alcohol,  is  B<N+X)X,  where  B  is  another 
constant,  whose  value  is  also  unknown.  Since 
the  existence  of  equilibrium  requires  that  the 
quantity  of  ethyl  acetate  present  shall  be  con- 
stant, we  have  A(l—X)  (M— X)=B(N-t-X)X. 
Now  it  is  known  by  experiment  that  when  the 
original  mixture  is  free  from  water,  and  con- 
tains chemically  equivalent  amounts  of  acetic 
acid  and  alcohol,  so  that  M-=l  and  N=0,  the 
state  of  final  equilibrium  is  attained  when 
X=-^  If  these  values  of  M  and  X  are  sub- 
stituted in  the  foregoing  equation,  we  find  that 
A  and  B  are  connected  I^  the  necessary  relation 
A^MB.  If  we  replace  A  by  4B  and  then  divide 
through  by  B,  the  foregoing  equation  reduces  to 
4  (1— X)  (M— X)=(N+X)X,or3X'— C4-i-4M 
-f-N)  X+4M — O,  a  quadratic  equation  from 
which  the  value  of  X  (that  is,  the  niunber  of 
Rrani-molecules  of  acetic  acid  decomposed)  may 
be  inferred,  in  the  final  state  of  equilibrium,  for 
any  desirca  initial  mixture  of  acetic  acid,  alco- 
hol and  water.  This  example  has  been  given  at 
some  length,  both  because  it  illustrates  clearly 
the  principles  of  chemical  equilibrium  and  the 
law  of  maS5-acti(Mi,  and  because  reactions  of 
this  very  kind,  in  which  esters  are  formed  by 
the  direct  action  of  an  acid  u^n  an  alcohol, 
have  a  special  historic  interest,  since  their  study 
has  contributed  in  no  small  measure  toward 

E lacing  the  modem  theory  of  chemical  equi- 
brium  upon  a  firm  foundation. 
When  it  is  desired  to  determine  the  state  of 
a  chemical  system  after  the  lapse  of  a  definite 
interval  from  an  initial  instant  for  which  its 
State  is  given,  we  must  form  a  differential 
equation  m  which  the  condition  is  expressed 
that  the  chemical  change,  per  unit  of  time,  is 
proportiflnal  (as  above)  to  the  product  of  the 
number  of  gram-molecules  of  the  reacting  sub- 
stances that  are  present  at  the  instant  consid- 
ered; and  having  formed  this  equation  and  inte- 
grated it,  we  obtain  an  expression  in  which  the 
composition  of  the  system  is  expressed  as  a 


function  of  the  time.  When  several  substances 
that  may  react  upon  one  another  are  present, 
the  differential  equation  is  more  complicated  in 
form,  as  might  be  expected;  but  for  details  of 
this  sort  reference  must  be  made  to  works  on 
theoretical  chemistry.  When  the  system  con- 
tains several  acids  and  one  or  more  bases,  the 
distribution  of  the  bases  among  the  various 
acids  may  be  investigated  in  accordance  with 
similar  principles,  and  by  comparing  the  nu- 
merical results  that  are  thus  obtained  with  the 
facts  of  observation,  estimates  of  the  true  rela- 
tive "afiinilies*  of  the  acids  may  be  had. 

When,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  course  of  a 
reaction  depends  upon  the  temperature,  the 
principles  of  mass-action  apply  as  before,  but 
regard  must  also  be  had  for  the  laws  of  ther- 
modynamics Cq.v.),  which  usually  impose  cer- 
tain limitations  upon  the  equations.  The  full 
theory  of  chemical  changes  in  which  thermo dy- 
namical considerations  play  an  important  part 
was  given  by  J.  Willard  Gibbs,  in  a  paper  of 
great  power  and  originality,  entitled  'On  the 
Equilibrium  of  Heterogeneous  Substances,'  [pub- 
lished in  the  'Transactions  of  the  Connecticut 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences'  for  1OT5. 
Gibbs'  basic  phase  law,  or  'phase  rule*  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  is  as  follows : 

n  different  bodies  (chemical  substances, 
either  simple  or  compound)  can  form  n+2 
phases,  and  these  can  co-exist  at  one  single 
point  only;    that  is,  at  a  definite   temperature 

Tbt  great  importance  of  a  full  understand- 
ing of  the  laws  of  chemical  equilibrium  rests  in 
the  fact  that  by  far  the  larger  part  of  all  chemi- 
cal processes,  both  in  nature  and  in  the  indus- 
trial arts,  result  not  in  complete  reactions,  but  in 
a  condition  of  chemical  equilibrium,  with  meas- 
urable   quantities    present    of    every    possible 


Bibliocnphy.  -Arrhenius,  S.  C.  'Theories 
of  Chemistry>  (London  1907)  :  Billow,  S.  L., 
'Theoretical    and    Physical    Chemistry'    (Nev- 


,.„  'The  Phase  Rule'  (London  1911);  Hoff. 
J.  H.  van't,  'Lectures  on  Theoretical  and 
Physical  Chemistry'  (London  1899)  ;  Nemst, 
W.,  'Theoretical  Chemistry*  (London  189S). 

EQUIMULTIPLE.    See  Multiple  Series. 

EQUINE  ANTELOPE.    See  Blaokik. 

EQUINOCTIAL. 
mous  with  equator.  V 
equator  there  is  equal  length  of  day  and  night 
over  all  the  earth;  hence  the  name  equinoctial. 
See  Equator;  Equinox. 

EQUINOCTIAL  GALE,  a  gale  poituTarly 
supposed  to  occur  at  the  time  of  the  spring  or 
autumn  equinox.    See  Equinox. 

EQUINOCTIAL  POINTS  are  the  two 
points  wherein  the  equator  and  ecliptic  intersect 
each  other ;  the  one,  being  the  first  point  of 
Aries,  is  called  the  vernal  point;  and  the  other, 
in  the  first  point  of  Libra,  the  autumnal  point. 
See    Ecliptic;   Equinox;    Equinoxes,  r 

SrON  OF  THE. 


the 


of 


EQUINOX,  in  astronoiny,  is  that  _ 

year  when  the  day  and  night  are  equal : 
length  of  the  day  is  then  12  hours;  the 


.lOOglc 


404 


XQUIM0XB8  —  BQDITY 


Bun  is  asceadJDg  six  boura,  and  descending  die 
same  time.    This  is  the  case  twice  a  year,  in 

Sring  and  in  autumn,  when  the  sun  is  on 
e  equator.  When  the  sun  is  in  this  situation 
the  horizon  of  every  place  is  divided  into  two 
equal  parts  by  the  circle  bounding  light  and 
^rlcness.  generally.  The  vernal  equinox  is  on 
21  Marcn,  and  marks  the  beginning  of  spring; 
the  autumnal  is  generally  on  23  September, 
which  is  coDsidered  the  commencement  of  au- 
tumn; at  al!  other  times  the  length  of  the  day 
and  of  the  night  are  unequal,  and  their  differ- 
ence is  the  greater  the  more  we  approach  either 
pole,  and  in  the  same  latitude  it  is  everywhere 
die  same.  On  ihe  equator  this  inequality  en- 
tirety vanishes;  there,  during  the  day,  which  is 
equal  to  the  night  the  sun  alw^s  ascends  six 
hours  and  descends  six  hours.  In  the  opposite 
hemisphere  of  our  earth  the  inequality  of  the 
days  increases  in  proportion  to  the  latitude :  the 
days  increase  there  while  they  diminish  with 
us,  and  vice  versa.  The  points  where  the 
ecliptic  intersects  the  equator  are  called  equi- 
noctial points.  The  vernal  equinoctial  point 
was  formerly  at  the  entrance  of  the  constella- 
tion of  Aries;  hence  the  next  30  degrees  of 
the  ecliptic,  reckoned  eastward,  have  been 
called  Aries;  but  this  point  long  ago  deserted 
the  constellation  of  Aries,  and  now  stands  in 
Pisces;  for  it  is  found  by  observation  that  the 
equinoctial  points,  and  all  the  other  points  of 
the  ecliptic,  are  continually  moving  backward 
or  westward ;  which  retrograde  motion  of 
the  equinoctial  points  is  what  is  called  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes.  This  retrograde 
'  motion  is  quite  analogous  to  the  revolution  of 
a  gyroscope  weighted  at  one  end  and  balanced 
in  the  middle.  It  is  due  to  the  gravitational 
pull  exerted  by  the  sun  and  moon  on  the  equa- 
torial protuberances  of  the  earth,  which  is  a 
spheroid,  not  a  sphere.  It  appears  from  the 
result  of  calculations  that  the  path  of  the  poles 
of  the  et^uator  is  nearly  a  circle,  the  poles  of 
which  coincide  with  those  of  the  ecliptic,  and 
that  the  pole  will  move  along  that  circle  so 
slowly  as  to  accomplish  the  whole  revolution 
in  about  25,800  years.  The  diameter  of  this 
circle  is  equal  to  twice  the  inclination  of  the 
ecliptic  to  the  equator,  or  about  47*.  Now,  as 
the  ecliptic  is  a  fixed  circle  in  the  heavens, 
but  the  equator,  which  must  be  equidistant  from 
the  poles,  moves  with  the  poles,  therefore  the 


observations  it  appears  that  the  equator  cuts 
the  ecliptic  every  year  50.25"  more  to  the  west- 
ward than  it  did  the  year  before ;  hence  the  sun's 
arrival  at  the  equinoctial  point  precedes  its 
arrival  at  the  same  fixed  point  of  the  heavens 
every  year  by  20  minutes  23  seconds  of  time, 
or  by  an  arc  of  50.25".  Thus,  by  Httle  and  little, 
these  equinoctial  points  will  cut  the  eclipdc  more 
and  more  to  the  westward,  till,  after  25,800 
years,  ihey  return  to  the  same  point.  The  pre- 
cession 01  the  equinoxes  is  not  absolutely  uni- 
form, for  the  forces  inducing  the  precession  de- 
pend on  die  position  of  the  sun  and  moon  with 
reference  to  the  earth.  Thus  at  the  vernal  and 
autumnal  equinoxes  the  sun  is  in  the  plane  of 
the  equator,  and  can  cause  no  precession. 
Another  important  factor  in  causing  the  pre- 
cession to  vaiy  is  the  fact  that  the  plane  of  the 
inoon's  orbit  IS  somewhat  inclined  to  the  eclip- 
tic.   Besides    causing    the    component    of    the 


moon's  attraction  in  the  plmc  of  the  ediptic 
to  vary,  this  inclinadon  introduces  a  component 
perpendicular  thereto.  This  is  an  important 
factor  in  causing  the  path  of  the  pole  of  the 
e<iuator  to  be  a  wavy  curve  rather  than  a  pre- 
cise circle.  This  wavy  modon  is  known  as 
nutation.  See  Dayj  Eo-utic;  Equatm; 
Gyboscofe. 

EQUINOXES,  PraceMlon  of  the,  dK 
motion  of  the  equinoxes  along  the  ecliptic  due 
to  the  change  is  the  direction  of  the  earth's 
axis  of  rotation,  caused  by  tlie  attiacdoo  of  the 
moon  and  son  on  the  prottAcrBnt  equatorial 
ring  of  the' earth.     See  EguiNCUc. 

BQUISBTUH.  See  Equisetales  under 
Febns  and  Fern  Allies. 

Equestrxak 


to  work  out  substantial  justice  in  cases  where 
that  could  not  be  obtained  normally  in  the 
common  law  courts.  The  common  law  became 
very  Strict  and  narrow  at  a  vety  early  period, 
and  if  a  suitor  could  not  bring  his  case  in  such 
a  form  as  to  fall  within  one  of  the  recognized 
writs,  he  was  without  a  remedy.  For  example 
the  common  law  courts  had  no  provision  for 
the  preventing  of  wrongs,  however  imminent 
they  might  be.  Here  the  Qiancery  Court 
could  step  in,  and  by  injunction  against  the 
person  threatening  a  wrong,   cover  this   con- 


tion  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Chancellor  (q.v.). 
Hence  arose  the  curiosity  presented  for  an 
extended  period  in  English  legal  history,  in 
which   a   suitor's   chances   of  success   defended 


for  the  time  being,  and  justifying  Sclden's 
sneer,  that  "they  should  make  the  standard  for 
equity  the  Chancellor's  foot"  Between  the  17lli 
century  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. However,  equity  became  almost  as  fixed 
as  the  common  law,  but  the  systems  were 
always  kept  distinct  until  the  passing  of  the 
Judicature  Acts  of  1873  and  I87S,  under  which 
they  were  consolidated.  Since  1875  law  and 
equity  have  been  administered  equally  to  alt  the 
divisions  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  and  if 
there  is  any  oinBict  between  the  rules  of  law 
and  equity,  those  of  equity  are  to  prevail. 

After  the  RevoluUon,  the  Slates  of  the 
American  Union  continued  the  English  system; 
but  while  some  of  them  have  kt^t  strictly  to 
that  system  and  have  disdnct  courts  of  law  and 
of  equity,  other  States  have  law  and  equity 
administered  by  the  same  judges  and  courts, 
at  one  time  sitting  as  courts  of  law  and  at 
another  time  as  courts  of  equity. 

Some  of  the  rules  and  maxims  of  equitv 
°^£ouity    considers    that    as    done    wnicn 


*He   who  comes  into   equity  must  c .    __ 

clean  hands.*    'Between  equal  equities  priority 
of  time  will  prevail.*    'Between  equal  eqidtiei 


V.Google 


EQUITY— ERAOKOSTIS 


4a6 


the  law  wilt  prevail.*  'Ko  right  without  x 
remedy.*  ■When  a  court  of  equity  has  once 
acquired  jurisdiction  of  a  cause  it  will  continue 
to  act  until  the  matter  is  finally  disposed  of.* 

Equity  is  divided  into  three  great  classes  or 
divisions :  Equitable  titles,  equitable  rights 
and  equitable  remedies.  Equitable  titles  are 
those  which  are  recognized  "only  by  a  court  of 
equity,  as  where,  when  a  person  gave  a  value 
for  a  (kose  in  action  which  was  assigned  to 
him,  the  assjj^ment  was  not  recognized  at  law, 
as  it  would  violate  the  rules  against  champerty 
and  maintenance,  but  equity  allows  the  assignee 
to  brine  suit  in  the  name  of  the  assignor. 
Equitabfe  ri^ts  arise  where  a  guardian  enters 
into  a  transaction  with  his  former  ward  a  very 
short  time  after  the  ward  has  obtained  his 
majority.  If  within  a  reasonable  time  the  ward 
returns  what  he  received  from  the  guardian 
the  guardian  will,  in  equity,  he  compelled  to 
return  the  property  to  the  ward.  Equitable 
remedies  anse  in  those  cases  in  which  the  law 
recognizes  a  right  but  cannot  enforce  it,  as 
where  a  contract  is  made  for  the  sale  of  a 
piece  of  property,  if  the  seller  refuses  to  con- 
vey, the  purchaser's  remedy  at  law  is  for 
damages  for  breach  of  the  contract ;  but  in 
equity  the  court  will  decree  specific  perform- 
ance. Generailjr  this  applies  only  to  real  estate, 
because  if  it  is  personal  property,  after  the 
damages  are  recovered  other  personal  property 
of  the  same  kind  can  be  pUFciia.sed;  hut  if  the 
personal  property  is  of  such  nature  that  it 
cannot  be  duplicated,  such  as  a  painting  by  a 
particular  artist,  equity  will  affirm  relief  in  the 
way  of   specific  performance. 

Suits  in  equity  are  commenced  by  a  bill  or 
petition.  The  bill  may  be  amended,  or,  if  the 
proceeding  have  gone  too  far  for  that,  a  sup- 
plemental bill  may  be  filed.  The  defense  is  by 
demurrer,  plea  or  answer.  The  jn^ment  of 
the  court  is  called  a  decree,  and  uie  relief 
granted  is  such  as  to  affect  all  the  parties,  and 
1$  adapted  to  the  facts  and  circumstances  of 
that  particular  case.  The  general  rules  of  evi- 
dence are  the  same  as  in  a  proceeding-  at  law, 
but  the  answer  to  the  bill,  if  made  under  oath, 
b  evidence  for  the  defendant  in  so  far  as  it  is 
respomive  to  the  bill. 

Consult  Kerly,  p.  M.,  'Historical  Sketch 
of  the  Equity  Jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of 
Chancery>  (London  1890) ;  Pomeroy,  J.  N., 
'Equity  Jurisprudence  as  Administered  m  the 
United  State3>  (3d  ed.  San  Francisco  1905)  ; 
Spence,  G.,  'Equity  Jurisdiction  of  the  Courts 
of  Chancery'    (2  vols.  London   1846-49). 

EQUITY,  Courts  of.    See  Court, 

EQUITY  OF  REDEMPTION.  The  right, 
enforceable  b  equity,  of  a  mortgagor  to  re- 
deem the  mortgaged  property,  even  after  for- 
feiture, by  paying  the  debt  with  interest  and 
costs.  This  ri^t  is  barred  only  by  strict 
foreclosure  proceedings  or  by  one  of  the  vari- 
ous statutory  procedures  provided  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  by  the  mortgagee  taking  possession  of 
the  property  after  forfeiture  and  holding^  It 
for  die  period  required  by  the  statute  of  limita- 
tions. The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  interest 
or  estate  remaining  in  the  mortgagor  in  prop- 
erty he  has  mortgaged.  See  Chancery; 
EgutTv;   FoarETTusE;   Mortgage;  Reoemptiow. 

EQUIVALENT,  having  equal  value, 
power,   area  or  volume.       In  chcimstiy,    (1) 


atomic  weight.  (2)  The  equivalent  of  a  base 
is  the  number  of  grams  of  it  which  will  neu- 
tralize one  gram-molecule  of  a  monobasic  acid. 
The  equivalent  of  an  acid  is  the  number  of 
grams  o£  it  which  will  neutralize  one  gram- 
molecule  of  caustic  potash  or  soda.  See 
Ckeuistky, 

BQUULEU5,  i-kwoo'le-fis,  in  astronomy 
('the  Colt"  or  "Little  Horse»),  one  of  the  48 
original  constellations  of  the  Almagest,  situated 
just  between  the  head  of  Pegasus  and  Del- 
phinus.  It  has  Aquarius  on  its  south  side.  It 
IS  a  very  inconspicuous  constellation,  its  bright- 
est star  being  of  the  fourth  ma^itude.  Also 
a  name  givea  to  the  rack,  or  mstrument  of 

ERA,  the  largest  unit  of  geologic  time. 
According  to  United  States  Geolopcal  Survey 
usage,  all  geologic  time  is  divided  into  the_fol- 


lowin^  eras,  beginning  with  the  oldes 
terozDic,  Palxozoic,  Mesozoic,  and  Cenozoic 
By  some  authorities  one  and  sometimes  two 
other  eras  are  recognized.  The  earlier  part 
of  the  Proterozoic  is  split  off  under  the  name 
Archeozoic  or  Azoic,  and  to  its  latter  divisions 
is  given  the  name  Proterozoic  or  Eozoic.  The 
latter  part  of  the  Cenozoic  is  also  sometimes 
split  off  to  form  the  Psychozoic.  But  these 
names  are  not  ffcnerally  recognized,  and  the 
official  classification  is  into  the  four  eras  first 
given.  These  divisions  are  in  part  based  on 
palteontologic  evidence,  that  is  on  changes  in 
fossil  form,  and  in  part  on  structural  con- 
siderations. With  few  exceptions  there  is 
unconformity  (q.v.)  between  the  Proterozoic 
and  the  Palseozoic.  The  close  of  the  PaUeozoic 
is  marked  by  the  folding  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  and  the  close  of  the  Mesozoic  by 
the  Rocky  Mountain  uplifL  See  CHRONOLOcy; 
Epoch;  Proterozoic;  Paleozoic,  etc. 

BRA  OF  GOOD  FEELING,  1817-24.  In 
American  political  history,  Monroe's  two  ad- 
ministrations, up  to  the  canvass  for  his  suc- 
cessor. There  were  practically  no  >  issues,  and 
but  one  party.  The  issue  on  which  the  Fed- 
eralist party  was  founded  had  long  since  been 
appropriated  by  the  Democrats,  and  it  had 
foolishly  taken  theirs  in  exchange.  The  em- 
bargo and  the  war  had  created  a  sectional 
issue ;  but  peace  ended  that  and  left  no  pretext 
for  division.  The  Hartford  Convention  (q.v.) 
had  killed  the  old  leaders  politically;  the  new 
ones  had  joined  the  Democrats,  because  the 
embargo  and  the  war  had  driven  New  England 
capital  from  commerce  into  manufactures, 
and  it  wished  to  demand  tarifF  favors  from  the 
administration.  But  it  was  a  decade  before  the 
tariff  and  internal  improvements,  the  next  divi- 
sion Unes,  assumed  theoretic  consistent. 
Monroe  issued  an  inaugural  in  1817  especially 
to  placate  the  Federalist ;  and  followed  it  by 
a  tour  through  New  England  where  he  was 
received  with  immense  ovations  from  both 
parties.  He  was  unanimously  re-elected  in 
1820,  save  for  the  whim  of  one  elector.  The 
personal  factions  which  contested  the  field  in 
1824,  the  coalition  (q.v.)  which  decided  the 
result,  and  the  jacksonians'  fury  over  it,  ef- 
fectually ended  the  good  feeling. 

ERAGROSTIS,  a  large  genus  of  the 
grasses,  belonging  to  the  festucett.  There  are 
over  lOO  species  of  the  Eragrostis,  of  which 
there  are  in  America  about  30,  either  native 


jOOgIc 


BKAN  — BRASUUS 


or  naturalized.  Tbe  species  are  from  a  few 
incbea  to  several  feet  in  height,  and  are  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  None 
are  of  commercial  importance,  and  such  as  are 
used  for  hay  are  accidental  growths  among 
cultivated  ffrasses.  The  strong  scented  Era- 
grostis  (£.  major),  is  an  ill-sradling  grass, 
but  tall,  erect  and  rather  handsome,  owing  to 
die  shape  and  size  of  its  leaves.  It  is  found  in 
abnost  every  part  of  the  United  States  and  On- 
tario, nmluralued  from  Europe. 

ERAN,  Eranian,  See  Iran,  Ikaniah. 
;  ERA£D,  a-rar,  Sibaatien,  Frendi  musical 
instrument  maker:  b.  Strassburg  S  April  1752; 
d.  Passy,  near  Paris,  5  Aug.  1831.  He  went  to 
Paris  at  18,  and  with  his  brother,  Jean  Bap- 
tiste,  produced  pianofortes  so  superior  to  any 
previously  made  in  France  that  his  fame  quickly 
spread,  and  orders  flawed  in  upon  him  from  all 
Quarters,  During  the  Revolution  he  went  to 
England  and  established  a  manufactory  in  Lon- 
don, and  when  peace  was  restored  his  life  was 
passed  between  that  city  and  Paris.  His  im- 
provements upon  the  harp,  more  especially  that 
of  the  double  movement,  the  principle  of  which 
he  afterwards  communicated  to  the  piano,  en- 
titled him  to  high  merit  as  an  inventor. 

BRAS,  i'ris,  WolfgUK,  German  econo- 
mist: b.  Schonfeid,  1843;  d.  1892.  He  received 
his  education  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig, 
Jena  and  Berlin.  In  1866-.70  he  served  as  secre- 
tary to  the  Rhenish-Westphalian  Industrial  As- 
sociation and  from  1871  to  1886  was  recorder 
of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  at  Breslau.  After 
1886  he  was  secretary  of  records  of  the  Silesian 
Textile  Manufacturers'  Association.  He  pub- 
Ushed  <Der  Wahrungsstreit>  (1883)  ;  'Einricb- 
tnngen  fiir  die  Binnenschiffahrt  an  deuftchen 
und  hoUandischen  Handelsplatzen>  (1885)  ; 
•Unser  Handel  mit  den  Balkanlandern^  (1891). 
He  edited  the  Jahrbuch  fur  Valkmirtschaft  in 
1868-69. 

ERASISTRATUS,  *r-a-sls'tr»-tiis,  Greek 
physician.  He  lived  in  the  3d  century  before 
the  Christian  era,  was  the  court  physician  to 
Seleucus  Nicator,  Idng  of  Syria,  and  rendered 
himself  famous  by  the  sagacity  with  which  he 
discovered  the  malady  of  Antiochus,  the  Idn^s 
son.  He  subsequently  went  to  Alexandria, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  stud^f  of  anat- 
omy. He  was  the  first  who  systematically  dis- 
sected the  human  body,  and  his  description  of 
the  brain  and  nerves  is  much  more  exact  than 
any  given  by  his  predecessors.  He  classified 
the  nerves  into  nerves  of  sensation  and  of 
locomotion,  and  it  is  said  had  almost  stumbled 
upon  the  discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  for  he  explained  that  the  veins  apd  the 
arteries  had  their  origin  in  the  motion  of  the 
heart.  He  was  remarkably  adverse  to  blood- 
letting and  the  giving  of  purgatives,  relying 
chiefly  upon  diet  and  regimen,  bathing,  exercise, 
friction  and  the  most  simple  articles  of  the 
vegetable   kingdom,    for    the    restoration    and 

(reservation  of  health.  His  professional  fol- 
>wers,  a  body  of  physicians  of  note,  were 
known  as  Erasistrateans.  He  wrote  several 
works  on  anatomy,  practical  medicine  and 
pharmacy,  of  which  only  the  titles  remain,  to- 
gether with  a  great  number  of  short  fragments 
preserved  by  Galen  and  other  ancient  medical 
writers.    Constilt  Fuchs,  <De  Erasistrato  Capita 


Selecla>  (in  'Hermes,'  Vol. ,  XXIX,  B«riin 
18W) ;  HieronymuB,  'Erasisirati  et  Erasdirat- 
eonim  Historia'  (Jena  1790^  ;  Susemihl,  'Ge- 
schichte  der  griechischen  Litteratur'  (Vol.  I, 
Leipzig  1892). 

ERASMUS,  e-rai'miis.  Saint,  Syrian  bishop 
and  martyr.  He  is  said  to  have  been  put  to 
death  under  Diocletian  by  disemboweling  and 
his  martyrdom  is  frequently  represented  in  art 
As  he  was  counted  as  one  of  the  14  Succorers 
of  the  Distressed,  so  was  his  aid  especially  in- 
voked in  affections  of  the  stomach.  The  re- 
maining 13  Succorers  are  Saints  Acasius, 
Blasius,  Christopher,  Qrriacus,  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  E^dius,  Eustathius,  George  the 
liartyr,  Pantaleon,  Vitus,  Barbara,  Catharine 
and  Margaret.  Tune  2  is  the  saint's  day  of 
Erasmus.  On  the  capture  of  Fonnia  (the 
reputed  scene  of  the  martyrdom  of  Erasmus 
in  the  3d  century),  by  the  Saracens  in  84^  the 
body  of  the  saint,  or  what  was  popularly  be- 
lieved to  be  his,  was  removed  to  Cajeta. 

ERASMUS,  Ddidcrios,  Dutch  scholar:  b. 
Rotterdam,  probably  28  Oct  1467;  d.  Basd, 
Switierland.  12  July  1536.  He  was  the  illegiti- 
mate SOD  of  one  Gerhard  of  Gouda.  The  name 
bw  which  he  is  known  is  merely  the  Latin  and 
(jreek  rendering  of  Gerhard,  Desiderius,  the 
Latin,  and  Erasmus,  or,  more  correctly,  Eras- 
mius,  the  Greek  equivalent.  He  was  a  singing- 
boy  in  the  cathedral  of  Utrecht  till  his  ninth 
year,  then  entered  the  school  at  Deventer, 
where  he  displayed  aucli  brilliant  powen  that 
it  was  predict^  "ihat  he  would  be  the  most 
learned  man  of  bis  time.  At  the  age  of  17 
he  assumed  the  monastic  habit  near  (louda,  but 
the  bishop  of  Cambrai  delivered  liim  from  this 
constraint  by  taking  him  as  a  Latin  secretary. 
In  1492  he  was  ordained,  and  went  to  Paris  to 
perfect  himself  in  theology  and  polite  literature, 
and  there  became  the  instructor  of  several  rich 
Englishmen,  from  one  of  whom — Lord  Mont- 
joy —  he  received  a  pension  for  life-  He  ac- 
companied them  to  England  in  1497,  where  he 
was  graciously  received  by  the  king.  He  re- 
turned soon  after  to  Paris,  and  then  traveled 
into  Italy  to  increase  his  stock  of  knowledge. 
He  now  asked  a  dispensation  from  the  vows  of 
his  order,  which  the  Pcqie  granted  him.  He 
visited  Venice,  Padua  and  Rome;  tau^t  at 
Louvain  1502-04;  but  brilliant  as  were  ttie 
offers  here  made  him,  he  preferred  the  in- 
vitation of  his  friends  in  England.  When  be 
visited  the  lord-chancellor,  Sir  Thomas  More 
(1506),  without  making  himself  known  to  him, 
the  chancellor  was  so  delighted  with  his  con- 
versation that  he  txclaimed,  'You  are  either 
Erasmus  or  the  devil.*  He  made  his  third  visit 
to  England  in  1509.  He  was  offered  a  benefice, 
but  was  unwilling:  to  fetter  himself  by  an  office 
of  this  kind.  He  was  for  a  short  time  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  and  Greek  at  Oxford.  He 
afterward  traveled  through  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands,  and  went  to  Basel,  where  he  had 
his  works  printed  by  Froben  and  acted  as  gen- 
eral adviser  of  Froben' s  presses,  which  be 
raised  lo  be  the  most  important  in  Europe. 

To  profound  and  extensive  learning  Erasmus 
Joined  a  refined  taste  and  a  delicate  wtt 
Naturally  fond  of  tranquillity  and  independence, 
he  preferred  the  pleasure  of  literary  ease  and 
retirement  to  the  pomp  of  high  life.  All 
through  life  he  suffered  from  a  bad  stomacb; 


ERASMUS  UONTAHUS— BRASTUS 


fie  coutd  not  eat  nor  bear  the  smell  of  fish; 
as  he  humorously  put  it,  "his  heart  was  Catho- 
lic, but  bis  stomach  was  Lutheran."  For  a 
man  of  a  detached  and  inquiring  mind  like  his, 
partisanship  was  impossible;  but  he  wished  to 
see  the  power  of  the  clergy  broken  as  the  main 
obstacle  to  the  spread  of  liberal  ideas.  But  he 
recoiled  from  the  fanaticism  which  accompa^ 
nied  the  Reformation,  and  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  evangejicism  to  which  it  gave  birth. 
Indeed  theological  disputation  had  no  attrac- 
tions for  him.  although  it  has  been  said  of  him 
that  he  laid  the  egg  which  Luther  hatched. 
Luther  spoke  for  the  lowborn ;  Erasmus  for 
the  more  cultured  class.  He  implies  that  the 
revelation  of  religion  has  added  nothing  to  life 
that  makes  it  worth  living.  The  incisive  way 
in  which  he  handled  the  religious  abuses  of 
his  time  prepared  men's  minds  for  Luther's^ 
work,  and  he  was  also  free  and  outspoken  in 
bis  criticism  of  the  treatment  meted  out  by 
kings  to  their  subjects.  The  great  service  he 
rendered  was  in  fighting  the  battle  of  sound 
learning  and  plain  common  sense  against  ob^i/ 
scurantistn,  and  in  emphasizing  the  sover- 
eign  place  of  reason  as  the  ultimate  guide  in  </ 
all  questions,  religious  and  political  not  ex- 
cepted. Besides  his  editions  oi  various  classics, 
the  first  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  from 
MSS.  (with  Latin  translation),  and  his  other 
philological  and  theoloncal  writings,  may  be 
only  mentioned  his  well-known  bo<Mc  in  praise 
of  folly,  'Encomium  Morise,'  and  his  'Collo- 
quies' (1S19).  His  lettera  are  very  valtiable  in 
reference  to  the  history  of  that  period.  (See 
CouxiQUixa  of  Ebasuus;  Pbaise  of  Folly, 
The).  Consuh  <Lives>  by  fCnigfat  (1726); 
Jortiii  (1748);  BuriKny  (1752);  Durand  de 
Laur  (1874)  ;  Feugere  (1874)  ;  Dnimmond 
(1873)  ;  Froude  (1894). 

BRASHUS  MONTANUS,  corned' 


but  not  produced  till  1747.  It  did  : 
score  such  a  success  as  many  of  his  other 
comiedies.  Now,  however,  it  is  considered  not 
only  to  be  an  e:scellent  picture  of  the  times, 
but  it  has  its  value  for  all  times  as  showing 
the  contrast  in  life  between  appearance  and 
reality  and  also  the  demand,  strong  then  as  now, 
that  the  individual  seek  the  tru£  for  its  own 
sake. 

Erasmus,  the  son  of  a  well-to-do  peasant, 
has  studied  at  the  university  and  now  is  on  a 
visit  to  his  parents  in  the  village,  called  'The 
Hill."  As  he  has  tasted  of  the  tree  of  knowl- 
edge, he  wants  (o  show  off  his  great  learning, 
claiming  to  be  able  to  "prove'^  in  a  logical  wa_y 
any  assertion,  however  foolish,  he  makes.  His 
arivgant  ways  and  hair-splitting  methods 
arouse  the  antagonism  of  all.  Tbroupih  the 
■Lieutenant,'  who  is  Holherg's  mouthpiece  in 
the  comedy,  Erasmus  is  properly  punished,  and 
he  is  finally  compelled  to  renounce  the  only 
true  assertion  he  ha?  made,  viz.,  that  the  earth 

In  the  leading  character,  Erasmus  Montanus, 
with  his  insufferable  intellectual  conceit,  ac- 
quired at  the  university,  Holberg  attacks  the 
methods  and  aims  of  this  seat  of  learning, 
ridicules  the  academic  pedantry,  the  formalism 
of  logic  and  the  Latin  disputations  as  prac- 
tised at  llie  time.     Holberg  knew  that  among 


the  peasants,  ignorant  diou^  they  were  and 
often  so  sadly  neglected,  there  was  a  good 
deal  of  common  sense.  In  Jacob,  Erasmus* 
brother,  Holberg  has  presented,  in  a  most 
humorous  manner,  the  contrast  to  the  vain  and 
empty  'learning*  of  the  hero.  In  Peter  the 
deacon,  Jesper  the  bailiff,  Jeronimus  whose  con- 
servatism rfirinks  in  terror  from  anything  that 
is  new,  Holberg  shows  his  mastery  in  drawing 
character,  and  in  the  scenes  in  which  they 
figiire,  the  author's  humor  is  at  its  best.  Many 
bayings  in  this  comedy  are  common  property 
in  the  current  speech  of  the  Scandinavian 
countries  even  to-day.  Consult  Campbell,  'The 
Comedies  of  Holbei^.' 

GiSLB  BOTBNS. 

SRASTIANS,  in  England,  a  name  applied 

lo  a  party  that  arose  in  the  17th  century,  deny- 
ing the  right  of  autonomy  to  the  church  —  a 
right  neither  maintained  nor  denied  by  Erastus 
(q.v.).  The  Erastian  controversy  broke  out  at 
the  time  of  the  Westminster  Assembly.  The 
leading  Erastians  in  that  assembly  were  Light- 
foot  and  Coleman,  who  were  supported  by 
Selden,  Saint  John  and  Whitelocke.  three  noted 
lawyers,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  The  Eras- 
tians  in  Enf^and  would  subordinate  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Church  to  the  authority  of  the 
State,  both  as  regards  doctrine  and  discipline. 
Since  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  con- 
troversy has  been  confined  chiefly  to  the 
Church  in  Scotland  where  the  term  Erastinian 
has  been  applied  to  those  denying  the  power 
of  the  Church  to  nullify  the  operation  of  lay 
patronage,  Consuh  Cunningham,  'Historical 
Theology*  (Vol.  II,  Edinburgh  18621 ;  Henson, 
'English  Religion  in  the  Seventeentn  Century' 
(London  1903), 

BRASTUS,  Thomaa  (a  Latin  translation  of 
his  name  Liebler  or  Lieber),  (Jerman  theolo- 
gian and  physician :  b,  Auggen,  near  Muhlheim, 
1524;  d,  Basel  Switzerland,  1S83.  He  studied 
theology  at  Basel  (where  he  Grecized  his 
name),  and  philosophy  and  medicine  at  Bologna 
and  Padua,  After  nine  years  in  Italy,  he  was 
appointed  physician  to  the  counts  of  Henneberg. 
In  1558  he  received  an  invitation  to  go  to  the 
court  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  and  accepted 
it.  There  he  became  first  physician  and  Pri^^^ 
Councilor  and  professor  of  medicine  at  Heidel- 
berg, He  removed  from  Heidelberg  to  fill  the 
chair  of_  medicine  at  Basel  in  1580.  Shortly 
before  his  death  he  had  been  appointed  profes- 
sor of  ethics.  Erastus  was  a  skilful  physician 
and  a  man  of  upright  character,  an  equally 
vigorous  writer  against  'the  new  medicine  of 
Philip  Paracelsus*  (1572)  holding  thai  the  only 
true  road  to  knowledge  is  to  be  found  in  ex- 
perimental investigation,  and  not  in  astrology, 
magic  and  other  obsolete  practices.  In  theology 
fie  was  a  follower  of  Zwingli,  and  his  fame  now 
rests  on  his  strenuous  opposition  to  Calvinist 
discipline  and  Presbyterian  order.  In  1564  he 
maintained  the  Zwinglian  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  at  the  conference  of  Maulbronn,  and 
it  was  in  defense  of  it  that  he  wrote  'Vom 
Verstand  der  Wort  Christi  "Das  ist  Mein 
Leib»  '  (1565).  Erastus  was  excommunicated 
on  a  false  suspicion  of  heresy,  founded  on  a 
correspondence  with  Unitarians  of  Transyl- 
vania, but  was  restored  in  1575.  His  chief  work 
is  a  treatise  on  excommunication  entitled  'Ex- 
plicatio  gravissims  qtuestionis  utrum  Excom- 


■8l^ 


SRATO— SRANZO 


o  mandato  nitatur  divino,  an  excogitata 

sit  ab  hominibus.'  This  was  answered  by  Bexa 
in  his  'De  vera  Ejtcommunicatione  et  Christi- 
ano  Presbyterio'  (1590).  Erastus  maintained 
that  no  member  of  the  church  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  her  communion  as  a  punishment 
for  sin.  Punishment  is  "the  special  duty  and 
office"  of  the  civil  magistrate.  Consult  Bon- 
nard,  'Thomas  Eraste  et  la  discipline  ecdesi- 
astique'  (1894)  ;  Lee,  'The  Theses  of  Erastus 
Touching  Excomtnunication'  (Edinburgh  1S44). 
See  Ebastians. 

ERATO,  fr'a-to  (Gr.  eraS.  I  love),  one  of 
the  nine  Muses,  whose  name  si^ifies  loving,  or 
lovely.  She  presides  over  lync  and  especially 
amatory  poetry,  the  songs  of  lovers,  and 
touches,  as  Ovid,  in  his  'Art  of  Love,'  informs 
us,  the  hearts  of  the  coldest  maidens  by  her 
tender  lays.  She  is  represented  as  crowned 
with  roses  and  myrtle,  m  the  acl  of  playing, 
the  plectrum  in  her  right  hand  and  the  lyre  m 
her  left. 

In  zoology  erato  is  a  genus  of  cowries  be- 
longing to  the  family  of  cyprxidx.  (See 
Muses.)  Erato  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the 
planetoids. 

ERAT08THENBS,  6r-a-t6s'the-nez,  Greek 
astronomer,  geographer  and  philosopher :  b. 
Cyrene,  Africa,  276  b.c.  ;  d.  about  196  b.c  He 
studied  in  his  native  town  and  Alexandria  and 
then  went  to  Athens.  He  became  librarian  at 
Alexandria,  and  improved  the  science  of  mathe- 
matical geography,  which  he  reduced  to  sys- 
tem; but  he  gamed'his  greatest  renown  by  his 
investigations  of  the  iizt  of  the  earth,  his  esti- 
mate of  the  circumference  of  which  was  sur- 
prisingly near  the  truth.  He  wrote  also  on 
chronology,  grammar,  philosophy,  literature, 
history  and  the  drama,  and  was  considered  no 
mean  poet.  He  rendered  much  service  to  as- 
tronomy and  first  observed  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic.  He  is  said  to  have  starved  himself  to 
death  after  becoming  blind.  The  extant  frag- 
ments of  his  writings  were  collected  by  Bern- 
hardy  in  his  'Eratosthenica'  (1822)  ;  his  geo- 
graphical fragments  were  published  by  Berger 
m  1880. 

His  commentary  on  'Timaeus'  (of  Plato) 
seems  to  have  been  highly  valued  in  his  day, 
and  his  philosophical  dialogues  became,  as  they 
were  intended,  popular.  His  'On  the  Old 
Comedy,'  which  treated  of  the  foremost  comic 
poets  in  12  or  more  books,  was  looked  upon  as 
a  really  great  work.  In  it  he  dealt  with  the 
works  of  the  poets  and  the  general  life  and 


since  he  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  dates  of 
the  principal  events  in  history,  politics  and  lit- 
erature from  the  fall  of  Troy  to  his  own  day. 
In  his  'Katasterismoi'  he  deals,  in  an  interest- 
ing manner,  with  the  relation  existing  between 
the  popular  Greek  mythology  and  the  constella- 
tions. In  his  'Geography,'  issued  ia  three 
books,  he  made  the  first  known  attempt  to  treat 
the  subject  scientifically,  historically  and  ex- 
perimentally. He  wrote  two  books  on  mathe- 
matics, which  have  not  survived  him,  and  he 
worked  out  a  'sieve*  to  discover  all  prime 
numbers. 

BibUofraphy.— Berger,  'DiegeograpMschen 
Fragmentc  des  Eratosthenis'  (Leipzig  1870) ; 
Bemhardy,     'Eratosthenica'     (Berlin     1822); 


Christ-Schmidt,  'Geschichte  der  griechischen 
Litteratur'  (Munich  1911)  ;  Hillier,  'Eratosthe- 
nis Carminum  Reliqux*  (Leipzig  1872)  ;  Maass, 
'Eratosthenica'  (BerKn  1883)  ;  Olivieri, 
'Pseudo-Eratosthems  Catasterismi'  (in  Mytho- 
graphi  Gra^i'  III,  Leipzig  1897)  ;  Robert, 
'Eratosthenis  Casasterismorum  Reliquise  (Ber- 
lin 1878);  Schaubach,  'Kataslerismoi'  (1795); 
Seidel,  'Geographical  Fragments  of  Eratos- 
thenes' (1799);  Stiehte,  <Zu  den  Fragmenten 
des  Eratosthenes'  (in  Phiiologus,  supplement- 
ary, Vol.  2,  (36ltingen  1863)  ;  Susemihl,  <Ges- 
chichte  der  griechischen  Litteratur  an  der 
Alexandrine rzeit'    (Leipzig  1892). 

ERANZO,  ^-row'tho,  Cataliiu  de,  Spanish- 
American  heroine:  b.  San  Sebastian,  Viscaya, 
10  Feb.  1585 ;  d.  Cuitaxtla,  near  Oriiaba, 
Mexico,  1650.  The  daughter  of  a  good  family 
of  Biscay,  she  was  placed  at  an  early  a^  in 
a  Dominican  convent  of  her  native  city  with  a 
view  to  entering  on  a  relignous  state.  Soon 
she  attracted  attention  by  her  originality  of 
character  and  her  passionate  love  of  liberty.  In 
consequence  of  a  dispute  with  one  of  her 
superiors,  Otalina,  on  18  May  1607,  being  then 
a  novice,  she  scaled  the  walls  and  escaped  to 
the  woods,  where,  subsisting  on  herbs  and  roots, 
she  remained  three  days  and  in  that  time  trans- 
formed her  garb  into  that  of  a  man.  Pro- 
ceeding to  Vittoria  she  found  employment  as  an 
amanuensis.  Thereafter  she  wandered  over  a 
^eat  part  of  Spain,  being  employed  many  times 
in  divers  occupations  usually  reserved  to  the 
male  sex.  After  some  years  she  embarked  on 
a  Spanish  vessel  bound  for  America  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  crew.  On  arrival  in  the  New  World 
she  deserted  and  secured  employment  with  a 
rich  merchant,  who  later  made  her  administrator 
of  his  affairs.  After  many  adventures  in  which 
she  managed  successfully  to  conceal  her  sex  she 
enlisted  as  a  soldier  and  won  distinction  fight- 
ing against  the  natives,  winning  the  grade  of 
ensign.  Her  disposition  led  her  into  many 
scrapes,  principally  duels,  in  which  she  was  not 
always  victorious.  More  than  once  she  slew  her 
opponents  in  duels  and  in  quarrels  and  twice 
she  was  reprieved  after  sentence  of  death  had 
been  imposed  on  her.  Being  gravely  wounded 
in  a  quarrel  at  Cuzco,  Catatma  believed  herself 
to  be  dying  and  longed  to  reveal  her  sex. 
She  revealed  the  secret  to  the  priest  who  visited 
her.  She  afterward  met  Bishop  Augtistin  de 
Carvajal  to  whom  she  related  the  story  of  her 
life,  telling  him  she  was  willing  to  submit  to 
examination  by  a  committee  of  matrons,  adding 
that  she  still  preserved  her  purity.  It  was 
proved  by  the  matrons  that  she  had  spoken  the 
truth.  Catalina  lived  in  a  convent  in  1620-22, 
then  traveled  to  New  Granada,  and  sailed  tor 
Spain,  arriving  in  Cadiz,  1  Nov.  1624.  Her 
fame  had  preceded  her  and  she  was  enthusi- 
astically received.  In  Madrid  she  was  received 
by  Philip  IV,  who  panted  her  a  life  pension 
of  800  crowns.  She  journeyed  to  Rome,  where 
she  narrated  her  eventful  history  to  Pope  Urban 
VIII,  who  gave  her  permission  to  dress  in  male 
attire  for  the  rest  of  her  life.  Returning  to 
Spain  she  resided  in  Seville  until  1630,  when 
she  set  out  for  Mexico,  where  she  served  in  the 
army  for  some  years  and  afterward  with  a 
siring  of  pack-mules  began  trade  between 
Mexico  Oty  and  Vera  Cruz.  She  was  buried  at 
Oritaba.    In  1653  the  history  of  her  life,  written 


mtB— KRCILLA  V  ZUNIOA 


by  herself,  was  piiblished  in  Uexico.  This 
autobic^^phy  under  the  editorship  of  Joaquin 
Maria  Ferrer  was  issued  at  Paris  in  1829  under 
the  title  'Historia  de  la  Monja  Alfcrei,  etc., 
escrita  por  ella  mistaa  con  notas  y  piezai  justi- 
ficBttvas.) 

BRB,  Wilhelm  Heinrich,  German  i 


and  therapy  at  Leipzig,  thereafter  removing  : 
the  same  capacity  to  the  University  o£  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  was  appointed  clinical  director. 
He  has  made  extended  investigations  on  electro- 
therapy and  neuropathology.  His  published 
works  include  'Handbuch  der  Krankheiten  der 
peripheren  cercbro-spinalen  Nerven'  (2d  ed, 
1876);  'HandbuchderKrankbeitendesRucken- 
marks  und  dcs  verlangerten  Marks'  {2d  ed, 
1878)  ;  'Handbuch  der  Elektrofherapie'  (Eng- 
lish trans,  by  Putzel,  1883)  ;  'Uebcr  die  neucrc 
&itwickluDg  der  Nervenpathologie*  (1880) ; 
'Dystrophia  Uuscularis  Progressiva'  (1891); 
(Gesammelte  Abhandlungen'   (1910). 

BRBBN,  Henry,  American  naval  c^cer: 
b.  New  York.  September  1832;  d.  1909.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1854,  became  commander  in  1868,  rear- 
admiral  in  1894,  and  was  retired  in  the  latter 
year.  During  the  Gvil  War  he  served  with 
Admiral  Farragut  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
on  the  Mississippi  River  with  Admiral  Dupont. 
etc  In  1866-69  he  was  on  duty  in  South 
America ;  later,  in  command  of  the  Tutcaroro, 
be  made  deep-sea  soundings  in  the  Pacific; 
afterward  commanded  the  Pensacola  in  a  trip 
round  the  world,  and  in  1891-92  was  command- 
ant of  the  New  York  Navy  Yard  and  of  the 
European  squadron  in  1893-94.  He  voluntarily 
returned  to  service  in  the  Spanish-American 
War. 

ERBBN,  Karljarotnir,  Czech  poet:  b. 
Miletin  1811 ;  d.  1870,  He  received  his  educa- 
tion at  the  University  of  Prague,  was  a  leading 
figure  in  the  Cxech  troubles  of  1848  and  two 

Sars  later  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
useum  at  Prague  and  archivist  of  the  town  in 
1851.  In  1855  fie  published  the  important  his- 
torical work  'Regesta  Diplomatica  nee  non 
Epistolaria  Bohemix  et  Moravife.'  His  fame 
spread  through  his  volume  of  ballads,  'Kytice,* 
and  his  collections  of  folksongs  and  popular 
melodies.  In  1863-65  his  100  Slavic  folk  tales 
earned  him  a  reputation  similar  to  that  of  the 
Grimm  Brothers.  He  also  edited  the  vernacular 
works  of  John  Huss.  Consult  NovSk, 
'Cechische  Litteratur  der  Gegenwart'  (Leipzig 
1907). 

ERBIUH,  a  rare  metallic  element,  occurring 
in  the  form  of  a  tantalate  or  silicate  in  the 
minerals  gadolinite,  fergusonite  and  euxenite, 
and  as  a  phosphate  in  the  mineral  xenotime. 
It  has  the  chemical  symbol   Er,   or   E,  and  an 


and  when  strongly  heated  glows  with  a  bril- 
liant preen  light.  It  is  not  affected  by  water, 
but  dissolves  slowly  in  hot  acids  with  the  for- 
mation of  the  corresponding  erbium  salts.  Most 
of  the  salts  are  rose-colored  and  the  haloid 
compounds  are  also  deliquescent     The  name 


erbium  is  derived  from  Ytterby.  Sweden,  where 
the  mineral  gadolinite  is  found  The  recog- 
nition of  erbium  as  a  new  element  is  attributed 
to  Mosander  (1843),  but  the  metal  itself  has 
not  yet  been  isolated. 

BRET,  WUhclm,  Orman  biblical  scholar: 
b.  Beriin  1876.  He  was  educated  at  Halle. 
Greifswald,  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg.  He  has 
held  several  pastorates  and  taught  in  various 
seminaries.  His  works  on  Hebrew  religion  and 
history  has  brought  him  an  international  repu- 
tation. They  include  'Die  Purimsage  in  der 
BibeP  (1900) ;  Jeremia  und  seine  Zeit> 
(1902) ;  '  Sicherstellung  des  Monotheismus' 
(1903);  Israel  und  Judk>  (1903);  'Die  Ur- 
geschichte  der  BibeP  (1904);  'Die  Hebraer' 
(1906);  'Elia,  Elisa,  Jona'  (1907);  'Hand- 
buch zum  Alten  Testament'  (1909)  ;  'Kirchen- 
geschtchte>  (Sth  ed  1913)  ;  'Das  Marcusevan- 
gelium'  (1911);  'Von  Jenisalem  nach  Rom» 
(1912) ;  Geschichte  der  Religion  in  der  Alten 
Welt'    (1913). 


BRCILLA  Y  ZUNIGA,  &r-thel'yii  £  thoo- 
nye'ga,  AloBzo  de.  Spanish  soldier  and 
epic  poet:  b.  Madrid,  7  Aug.  1533;  d  there, 
29  Nov.  1594.  He  was  of  noble  family  and 
was  a  close  friend  of  the  prince  who  afterward 
became  Philip  XI  of  Spain.  His  father  died 
when  the  boy  was  less  than  a  year  old.  and 
his  mother,  who  had  charge  of  the  family  es- 
tates and  who  was  related  to  the  royal  families 
of  several  of  the  European  countries,  made 
visits  to  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary  and  other 
European  courts^  taking  Alonzo  with  her.  She 
also  succeeded  m  getting  him  appointed  page 
at  the  court  of  Spain.  Before  he  had  reached 
man's  estate  he  nad  seen  much  of  the  court 
and  was  one  of  the  most  traveled  persons  in 
Spain.  At  the  age  of  22  Ercilla  sailed  for 
South  America  on  the  Spanish  squadron  sent 
out  at  the  Icing's  command.  In  15S7  he  ac- 
companied the  new  governor  of  Chile,  (^rcia 
Hurtado  e  Mendoza,  from  Panama  to  Lima. 
An  insurrection  breaking  out  among  the  Arau- 
canian  Indians  of  Chile,  Ercilla  joined  an  expe- 
dition sent  against  them.  The  difficulties  the 
Spaniards  had  to  encounter,  the  heroic  resist- 
ance of  the  natives,  and  the  multitude  of  gallant 
deeds  by  which  the  war  was  signalized,  inspired 
(he  young  and  brave  Ercilla  with  the  idea  of 
making  it  the  subject  of  an  epic  poem,  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  'La  Araucana.'  While 
on  this  campaign  Ercilla  and  a  fellow  officer, 
Pineda,  were  arrested  bv  the  commanding  officer 
and  condemned  to  death.  They  spent  the  night 
in  the  death  chapel;  and  in  the  morning  their 
sentence  was  commuted  to  imprisonment  while 
the  expedition  lasted  and  final  banishment  from 
the  country.  Ercilla  recovered  his  liberty  after 
a  short  time  and  frequently  distinguished  him- 
self for  bravery  in  tne  remaining  part  of  the 
campaign.  Returning  to  Spain  in  1562,  during 
a  two  years'  journey,  he  visited  Germany  for 
the  third  time,  Hungary,  France  and  Austria. 
He  was  knighted  and  made  Duke  of  Lemia  on 
hia  return  to  Spain.  In  1575  he  went  to  Italy 
and  was  received  by  the  Pope._  Later  he  again 
visited  Germany,  became  a  friend  of  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian  and  attended  his  coronation 
as  King  of  Bavaria.  Later  he  was  sent  on  diploi 
— ■_  _.-__■___  by  the  King  of  Spain.    He  seems 


8l^ 


EKCKHANN-CHATKIAN—  ERDHANN 


his  property  in  his  old  age.  He  returned  ti> 
Spain  after  having  finished  the  first  part  of  his 
epic.  In  1570  he  had  married  Maria  Bazan  at 
Madrid,  whose  charms  and  virtues  are  cele- 
brated by  him  in  various  passages  of  his  poem. 
In  1S69  the  first  15  cantos  of  his  poem  appeared ; 
in  1578  a  second  part,  and  in  1590  a  third  part 
were  added,  making  in  all  37  cantos.  The  'Arau- 
cana'  is  an  historical  epic  in  the  octave  measure 
in  which  the  author  confines  himself,  with  the 
exception  of  some  episodes  and  a  few  fictions, 
to  the  exact  historical  course  of  events.  Hence 
-  the  poem  often  assumes  almost  the  character 
of  a  chronicle.  In  addition  to  its  poetic  merits, 
which  are  not  few,  'La  Araucana'  is  very  valu- 
able for  the  information  it  gives  of  the  condi- 
tions in  the  Spanish  colonies  of  America.  Ercilla 
is  impartial  even  to  his  Indian  enemies  whom  he 
admires.  His  literary  work  is  good  and  his 
descriptions  of  times,  manners  and  personages 
are  vivid  and  bear  the  stamp  of  truth.  His 
battle  pictures  are  especiaUy  vivid.  Consult 
Barros  Arana,  'Historia  General  de  Chili' 
(Santiago  1884).  Lope  de  Vega  has  taken  from 
the  epic  of  Ercilla  the  materials  for  his  piece 
'Araucana  Conquered.'  The  best  editions  are 
those  published  at  Madrid  in  1776  and  1876  and 
1828.  It  has  been  translated  into  Italian,  and 
twice  into  French.    See  Araucana,  La;  Akau- 

CAKIANS. 

KRCKMANN-CHATRIAN,  erk*man-sha- 
tre-aii',  the  combined  surnames  of  two  French- 
men^  natives  of  Alsace,  who  collaborated  in 
writing  romances.  Emile  Ehckmann  :  b.  Phals- 
bourg,  20  May  1822;  d  LundviUe,  14  March 
1899.  Having  completed  his  studies  in  the  com- 
munal college  of  his  native  town,  he  went  to 
Paris  in  1842  to  study  law.  Returning  to  Phals- 
bourg  in  1847  because  of  a  serious  illness,  he 
began  to  turn  his  attention  to  romance  writing 
durinc  his  convalescence.  It  was  about  this 
time  (1848)  that  he  met  his  collaborateur,  Louis 
Graties  Charles  Alexandre  Chatrian,  b. 
Soldatenthal.  18  Dec.  1826;  d.  Raincy,  3  Sept. 
1890.  Chalrian  was  a  member  of  an  old  family 
of  glass-work  owners,  and  it  was  intended  that 
be  should  follow  the  same  craft.  Instead  of 
doing  so,  however,  he  left  his  native  village 
and  became  a  teacher  in  Phalsbourg,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Erckmann.  For  sev- 
eral j^ears  the  stories  produced  by  this  copart- 
nership were  published  in  obscure  newspapers, 
both  in  Slrassburg  and  Paris,  but  about  1860 
their  graphic  romances  of  Alsace  in  the  time 
of  Napoleon  I  gained  a  rapid  popularity.  Their 
stones,  though  not  possessing  any  particularly 
high  literarjr  value,  were  distinguished  especially 
for  their  sincerity,  their  striking  descriptions 
and  their  clever  characteriiations.  Their  pub- 
lished works  include  'L'lHustre  Dr.  Mathius' 
(1859) ;  <Contes  de  la  Montague'  (1860)  ;  'Con- 
tes  Fanlastiques'  (1860)  ;  'liahie  DaniSl  Rock> 
(186!);  'Les  Contes  des  Bords  du  Rhin' 
(1862) ;  'LTnvasion,  ou  le  Fou  Y^of '  (1862)  ; 
■Joueur  de  C!arinette>  (1863);  'L'Arai  Friti> 
(1864);  'Hisloire  d'un  Consent  de  1813' 
(1864) ;  'Madame  Thfrese'  (1864)  ;  'Waterloo' 
(1865);  'Histolre  d'un  Homme  du  Peuple' 
(1865);  'La  Guerre'  (1866);  <La  Maison 
Forcstiere'  (1866);  'Le  Blocus'  (1867);  'His- 
toire  d'un  Paysan'  (4  vols.,  1868-70)  ;  'Le  Juif 
Polonais'  (1869);  'Histoire  d'un  Sous-Maitre> 


(1869);  'Hjstoire  du  Plebiscite'  (1872);  'Let 
Deux  Frires'  (1873) ;  "UneCampagncen  Kaby- 
Ue'  (1874);  'Le  Brigadier  Frederic'  0874): 
'Hugues  le  Loup'  (1876);  'Maitre  Gaspard 
Fix'  (1876);  'Souvenirs  d'un  Ancien  Chef  de 
Chantier'  (1876);  'Contes  Vo^ens'  (1877); 
'Le  Grand-Pere  Lebigre*  (1880);  'Quelques 
Mots  sur  L'Esprit  Humain'  (1880)  ;  'Lcs  Vieux 
de  la  Vieille'  (1881) ;  'Le  Banni'  (1882). 
Some  of  these  have  been  collected  into  groups, 
in  accordance  with  their  contents:  'Romans 
Nalionaux'  (1867);  'Comes  et  Romans  Popu- 
laires'  (1867);  'Contes  et  Romans  Alsaciens' 
(1876).  They  also  dramatised  successfully  some 
of  their  novels:  'L'Ami  Fritz'  (1867);  <Le 
Juif  Polonais'  (1869,  known  in  its  English  adap- 
tation by  L.  Lewis  as  'The  Belts'  and  pro- 
duced with  considerable  success  by  Sir  Henry 
Irving)  ;  'Madame  Thtrfae'  (1882)  ;  <Les  Deux 
Frires'  (1884,  known  in  its  dramatised  form  as 
<Les  Rantzau').  English  translations  are  avail- 
able of  practically  all  these  publications.  There 
are  also  German  translations  of  many  of  them 
and   of   some   of   these  a   collection   was   made 


of  which,  however,  achieved  much  success.  In 
regard  to  their  methods  of  collaboration  it  be- 
came known  that  when  the  two  friends  met  they 
elaborated  the  scheme  of  a  work-  then  Ehck- 
mann wrote  it.  (^atrian  corrected  it,  and  some- 
times put  it  in  the  fire.  Sometimes  Erckmann 
would  even  be  required  t^  his  friend  to  write 
his  story  over  three  times.  Chatrian  also  acted 
as  business  manager,  made  all  contracts  and 
collected  all  toyalties.  Shortly  before  bis  death 
a  break  occurred  between  the  two  old  friends 
which  led  to  a  law  suit,  but  was  finally  com- 
promised. (See  L'Ami  Fritz).  Consult  Acker, 
P.,  '  Elrckmann- Chatrian'  (in  La  Kevue  de  Parii, 
Vol.  XIX.  No.  6,  p.  347,  Paris  1912)  ;  Anon., 
'  Erckmann-Cbatrian'  (in  The  Bookman,  Vol. 
XL,  p.  494,  New  York  1915)  ;  Claretie,  J.,  'Erck- 
mann-(That  rian>  (in  'Celebrity  Contemporaines,' 
Paris  1883) ;  Hinzelin.  E.,  'La  Veriti  sur  Erck- 
mann-Chatrian'  (in  La  Rnme,  Ser.  VI.  Vol. 
LXXXIX,  p.  310,  Paris  1911);  Velde.  M.  S. 
van  de,  'French  Fiction  of  To-day'  (2  vols., 
London  1891). 

ERD^LYI,  er'dal-ye,  J&noa,  Hungarian 
poet:  b.  Kapos  1814;  d.  1868.  In  1848  he  be- 
came director  of  the  national  theatre  at  Pest 
and  in  the  following  year  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  philosophy  at  Sirospalak.  He  published 
a  collection  of  popular  songs  of  Hungarjr  to- 
gether with  the  principal  legends  entitled 
'Nepdalok  es  mondak'  (3  vols.,  1848).  In  1851 
he  published  a  collection  of  Hungarian  proverbs. 
His  smaller  works  have  been  issued  in  Ger- 
man under  the  titles  'Bahnen  und  Palmcn' 
(1886)  and  'Sttidicn'   (1890). 

ERDMAN   ACT.     See   AKBmtATiOK,    Is- 

DUSTB1AL. 

SRDMANN,  David,  German  theologian:  b. 
Giislebiese,  Brandenburg,  1821;  d.  1905.  He 
received  h;s  education  at  the  University  of  Ber- 
lin and  in  1850  was  appointed  assistant  preacher 
at  the  cailiedral  there.  Six  years  later  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  theology  at  Konigsberg. 
In  1864  he  was  made  superintendent -general  oE 
Silesia,  and  25  years  later  he  became  superior 
consistorial  cotmselor.  In  190O  he  retired.  His 
published  works  include    'Lieben  und  Ldden 


BRDMANH — BRBBU& 


471 


der  eratcn  Christa)>  (1^)  ;  'Die  ReforaiatioD 
und  ihre  Martyrer  in  Iulien>  (1855)  ;  'Luther 
imd  die  Hohenzollem'    (2d  ed., 


1  reichen 

Leben:  Blatter  der  Erinnening  an  David  Erd- 
maon>  (Berlin  1907). 

ERDBUNN,  Johum  Eduard,  Geratan  phi- 
losopher r  b.  Wolniar,  in  Uvonia,  13  June  1805; 
d.  Haile,  12  June  1892.  He  studied  theology 
at  the  universities  of  Dorpat  and  Berlin,  com- 
ing there  under  the  influence  of  H^el  (q.v.). 
In  1829  he  became  a  clergyman  in  his  native 
tOKii.  In  1832  be  returned  to  Berlin,  became  s 
member  of  the  philosophic  faculty  of  the  uni- 
versity in  1832,  and  in  1836  professor  extraordi- 
nary of  philosophy  at  the  University'of  Halle, 
being  appointed  ordinary  professor  in  1839.  He 
was  one  of  its  best-known  and  most  successful 
teachers  and  lecturers.  His  numerous  philosophi- 
tal  writings,  characterized  for  the  most  part 
ly  their  Hegelian  tendencies^  were  widely  read, 
chieRy  because  he  was  brilliantly  successful  in 
some  of  them  in  his  attempt  to  combine  a 
strictly  scientific  attitude  toward  his  subject 
with  easy  style  and  clear  jjresentation.  His 
writings  include  'Versuch  emer  Wissenschaft- 
lichen  Darslellung  der  Ge^chichte  der  Neuercn 
Philosophic'  (3  vols.,  Leipzig  1834-51);  'Vorlc- 
sungen  iiber  Glauben  una  Wissen,  etc'  (Berlin 
1837) ;  <Leib  und  Seele'  (Halle  1837)  ;  ^Natur 
und  Schopfung'  (Leipzig  1840)  ;  'Grundriss  der 
Psychologie'  (Leipzig  1840);  'Grundriss  der 
LoEik  und  Meiaphysik*  (Halle  1841)  ;  'Ver- 
"schte     Aufsatze'      (Halle     1846)  ;     'Philo 


Jhische  Vorlesungen  ubcr  den  Staat'  (Halle 
851);  'Psychologische  Briefe"  (Leipzig  IST^ " 
'Vorlesungen   iiber   Akademisches   Leben 


ir  1851)1 


Studium'  (Leipzig  1858)  ;  'Grundriss  der  Ge- 
schichte  der  Philosophie'  (2  vols.,  Berlin  1865- 
67).  The  last  has  been  translated  as  *A  History 
of  Philosophy'  (W.  S.  Hough,  ed.,  3  vols.,  Lon- 
don 1890).  There  is  also  a  translation  of  an- 
other one  of  his  works  by  B.  C  Burt,  'Outlines 
of  Logic  and  Metaphysics'  (London  1896). 
Erdmann  also  edited  the  works  of  G.  W.  von 


'Emste  Spiele'  (Berlin  18SS) ;  many  others 
have  been  printed  separately  as  pamphlets.  His 
sermons,  given  between  1846-67,  were  collected 
in  two  volumes  (Halle  18S0  and  1867),  while 
others  were  published  separately. 

BRDHANN,  Otto  Liim£,  German  chemist: 
b.  Dresden,  11  April  1804;  d.  Leipzig,  9  Oct. 
1869.  He  studied  at  theuniversities  of  Dresden 
and  Leipzig,  first  medicine  and  then  chemistry, 
and  was  graduated  from  the  latter  institution 
in  1824.  In  1825  he  began  the  teaching  of 
chemistry  at  his  alma  mater,  a  profession  to 
which  he  devoted  his  entire  life  and  in  which 
he  was  highly  successful,  being  catc  of  the  most 
brilliant  lecturers  of  his  day.  In  1827  he  be- 
came an  extraordinary  professor  and  in  1830 
was  given  the  chair  of  technical  chemistry 
which  he  occupied  until  his  death.  He  also 
acted  as  rector  of  the  university  at  various 
times,  notably  so  in  1848-49  when  he  managed 
by  his  great  tact  to  steer  the  university  un- 
harmed through  the  troublous  times  of  the 
(jerman  revolution.  With  the  exception  of 
a  few  ^ears  devoted  to  travel  he  sijent  practi- 
cally his  entire  life  in  Leipzig,  taking  a  deep 


interest  in  art  and  its  public  affairs.  As  early 
as  1835  he  was  elected  a  director  of  the  Leip- 
tig-Dresden  Railway,  the  first  important  Ger- 
man railway,  for  the  development  of  which  he 
did  much  and  in  whose  affairs  he  was  actively 
interested  throughout  his  hfe.  His  chief  claim 
to  fame,  however,  rests  on  his  chemical  re- 
searches which  embraced  a  wide  range  of  sub- 
jects. He  examined  minutely  the  technology  of 
nickel;  and  described  some  of  its  compounds ; 
analysed  a  number  of  minerals  and  slags,  and 
experimented  on  several  other  points  of  inor- 
ganic chemistry.  In  inorganic  chemistry  his 
chief  research  is  upon  indigo,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  discovered  isatin.  His  work  in  this 
direction  formed  the  principal  foundation  of 
most  of  the  wonderful  later  discoveries  in  con- 
nection with  indigo.  The  most  important  work 
in  which  he  engaged  was  the  exact  determina- 
tion of  atomic  weights.  In  company  with 
Marchand  (q.v.)  he  made  determinations  of 
oxygen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  sulphur,  calcium, 
copper,  mercury  and  some  others,  and  his  num- 
bers have  been  fully  confirmed  by  subsequent 
experimenters.  In  1828  he  founded  and  from 
then  on  conducted  the  Journal  fiir  Technische 
und  Okonomische  Chemie,  of  which  18  volumes 
were  published.  In  1833  its  title  was  changed 
to  Journal  fUr  Praktiscke  Chemie.  After 
his  death  it  was  continued  by  others  and  is 
still  one  of  the  most  important  scientific  pub- 
lications of  its  land ;  the  name  Erdmann  con- 
tinues to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  pub- 
lication to  this  (^.  He  also  published  in  1828 
'Lchrbuch  der  Chemie'  which  has  since  then 
gone  through  a  number  of  editions.  Of  his 
'Grundriss  der  Allgemeinen  Waarenkunde, 
etc.,'  the  15th  revised  edition  was  edited  by 
E.  Remenovsky  (Leipzig  1915).  Of  note  is 
also  'Uber  das  Studium  der  Chemie'  (Leipzig 
1861).  Consult  Berichte  der  DeuUcken  Ckem- 
iscken  GeielUchaft  (Vol.  Ill,  p.  374.  Berlin 
1870)  ;  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  Lon- 
don (Vol.  XXni,  p.  306,  London  1870), 

BRBBUS,  in  Greek  mytholo^,  the  son  of 
Chaos  and  Darkness.  He  married  his  sister. 
Night,  and  was  the  father  of  the  Light  and  Tiay. 
The  Moirje,  or  Fates,  by  some  are  called  his 
dau^ters.  He  was  transformed  into  a  river. 
and  plunged  into  Tartarus,  because  he  aidea 
riie  Titans.  From  him  the  name  Erebus  was 
pven  to  the  infernal  regions,  particularly  that 
part  of  it  designated  as  the  abode  of  virtuous 
shades,  whence  they  pass  over  immediately  to 
the  Elysian  fields.  Consult  Hesiod,  'Theogony' 
(Schoemann  ed.,  Berlin  1868). 

ERKBUS,  Honnt,  an  active  volcano  on  the 
east  coast  of  South  Victoria  Land,  in  lat.  78° 
Iff  S.,  rising  over  13,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It 
was  discovered  in  1841  by  Ross,  who  named  it 
after  one  of  his  vessels.  His  progress  further 
south  was  barred  by  a  wall  of  ice.  In  more 
recent   times  its  vicinity  has  served  as  winter 

Suarters  to  the  Antarctic  expeditions  of  Capt. 
:.  F.  Scott  (1901-04)  and  of  Sir  E.  H.  Shackle- 
ton  (1907-09)  and  as  a  result  it  has  become 
one  of  the  best-known  and  most  thoroughly 
investigated  regions  of  the  Antarctic.  During 
Shackleton's  expedition  an  ascent  was  made  in 
March  1908.  Consult  Scott,  R.  P.,  'The  Voyage 
of  the  Discovery'  (2  vols.  London  1905) ; 
Shackleton,  E.  H.,  'The  Heart  of  the  Ant- 
arctic*   (2  vols.  London  1909);  Zimmermanti, 


^  Google 


ERBC  AHD  ENID  —  BREBnTES 


p  97,  Paris  1909). 

BRBC  AND  ENID,  a  metrical  romance 
dealing  with  the  adventures  and  love  of  one 
of  the  knights  of  King  Arthur.  The  author 
is  Chrestien  de  Troyes. 

ERECH,  e'rfk,  an  ancient  city  of  Baby- 
lonia, on  the  site  of  the  modem  Warka.  It 
was  of  great  extent  and  of  high  commercial 
importance  in  the  Parthian  period.  Recent  ex- 
cavations have  hrougfat  much  to  light  regarding 
its  shrines  and  ruling  dynasties.  It  appears  to 
have  been  the  seat  of  at  least  two  prineijjal 
dynasties,  Uarduk  is  said  to  have  been  its 
founder  according  to  Assyrian  and  Babylonian 
records  where  Uie  city  is  often  mentioned. 
,  Documents  dating  from  the  period  721-710  b,c. 
have  recently  been  discovered.  The  city  con- 
tained a  famous  temple  of  Nana.  (See 
Babylonia).  Consult  Loftus,  'Travels  and 
Researches  in  Chaldea  and  Susiana,  with  an 
Account  of  the  Elxcavations  at  Warka*  (Lon- 
don 1857),  and  Meyer,  E.,  'Geschichte  des 
Altertums'    (3d  ed.,  Berlin  1913). 

ERECHTHEUH,  i-rSk-thfi'iim,  the  temple 
of  Erechtheus  (q.v.)  on  die  north  side  of  the 
Acropolis  (q.v.)  at  Athens.  It  was  built  in 
honor  of  Athena,  Poseidon  and  Zeus.  The 
name  of  Erechtheus  is  associated,  as  a  local 
hero  or  demigod,  with  that  of  Athena.  In  this 
temple  was  preserved  the  oldest  existing  statue 
of  Athena,  which  was  supposed  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven  and  the  sacred  olive-tree  created 
by  Athena  as  a  gift  to  the  city,  of  which  she 
is  worshipped  at  Athena  Polias,  the  protector 
of  the  town  and  state.  The  building  is  one  of 
die  finest  remaining  examples  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture, having  been  rebuilt  after  the  Peloi)on- 
nesian  War  in  pure  Ionic  style  after  the  original 
building  bad  been  destroyed.  Its  ground  plan 
is  unusual,  resulting  from  the  union  under  one 
roof  of  three  separate  chapels,  or  halls  of  wor- 
^ip.  The  porch  of  the  caryatides  is  one  of  its 
distinguishmg  features.  Jn  thb  porch  the  place 
of  columns  is  taken  by  colossal  figures  of 
women  whose  heads  su^Mrt  the  capitals  on 
which  the  entaUature  rests.  The  Erecfatheum 
was  described  in  considerable  detail  by 
Pausanias.  It  is  one  of  the  best  preserved  build- 
ings on  the  Acropolis,  in  spite  of  the  hard  usage 
to  which  it  was  put  by  the  Turks  and  otber 
invaders.  In  comparatively  recent  times  it  has 
been  restored  to  some  extent,  not  entirely  with 
pleasing  results.  Consult  Carroll,  M.,  ed,  'The 
Attica  of  Pausanias'  (New  York  1907) ;  Fcr- 
gusson,  J.,  'The  Erechiheum'  (in  Transarlioni 
of  ike  Royal  InttituU  of  Bniitk  ArchitecU, 
London  1875-76)  ;  Fowler,  H.  N.,  'The 
Erechtheion  at  Athens'  (in  Papers,  Archtt- 
oiogical  Institute  of  Amerita,  American  School 
of  Classical  Sivdies  at  Athens,  Vol.  I,  1882-83, 
p.  213,  Boston  1885);  Fraier,  J.  G.,  trans., 
'Pausanias's  Description  of  Greece'  (6  vols., 
London  1898)  ;  Frickenhaus.  A,  and  Washburn, 
O.  M.,  'The  Building  Inscriptions  of  the 
Erechlheum'  (in  American  Journal  of 
Archaology,  Ser.  11,  Vol.  X,  p.  1,  Norwood 
1906)  ;  Gale,  E,,  'The  Erechtheum'  (in  Archi- 
tectural Record.  Vol.  XII.  p.  498,  New  York 
19Q2)  ;  Gardner,  E.  A.,  'Ancient  Athens'  <New 
York  1907)  ;  Inwood.  H.  W..  'The  Erechtheion 
at  Athens'    (London  1827);  Kolbe,  W.,   'Die 


Bauurkunde  des  Erechtheion  vom  Jahrc  408' 
(in  Kaiserlick'Deutsches  Archteologisches  Insti- 
(«(,  Millheilungen,  Alhenische  Abtheilting,  Vol 
XXVI,  p.  223,  Athens  1901)  ;  Leopold,  J.,  'Ober 
das  EredithEion>  (Munich  1878)  ;  Quaest,  A.  F. 
von,  'Das  Erechtheion  zu  Athen>  (1840): 
SehulU,  A.  W.,  and  Gardner,  E.  A.,  'The  North 
Doorway  of  the  Erechtheum'  (in  Journal  of 
Htllenie  St%dies,  Vol.  XII,  p.  1,  London  1891) ; 
Stevens,  G.  P.,  'The  Restoration  of  the 
Erechtheum'  (in  Putwtrt^s  Monthly,  VoL  I,  p.  6^ 
New  York  1906) ;  Stuart,  J.,  and  Revctt,  N, 
'The  Antiquities  of  Athens'  (London  1837); 
Thiersch,  F,,   *Uber  das  Erechtheum,  etc'    (in 


(New  York  1913). 

ERECHTHEUS,  E-rSk-thfls,  or  EHICH- 
THONIUS,  Attic  hero  or  demigod,  worshipped 
in  the  earliest  period  of  Athenian  history.  He 
was  brouglit  up  b^  Athena,  who  placed  him 
while  yet  a  babe  in  a  chest,  which  was  en- 
trustea  to  Agraulo.,  Pandrosos  and  Herse,  the 
daughters  of  Cecrops,  with  the  strict  charge 
that  it  \.'as  not  to  be  opened.  Unable  to 
restrain  their  curiosity,  they  opened  the  chest 
and  discovering  a  child  entwined  with  serpente, 
were  punisheO  with  freniy_  and  threw  them- 
selves down  the  most  precipitous  part  of  the 
Acropolis.  Afterward  Erechtheus  was  the  chief 
means  of  establishing  the  worship  of  Athena  in 
Attica,  where  he  instituted  the  Panalhenxa  in 
her  honor.  He  was  a  god  of  agriculture  and 
had  a  Joint  temple  with  Athena  on  the 
Acropolis,  His  connection  with  the  serpent  is 
probably  that  common  to  the  culture  gods. 
Consult  Farnell,  'Cults  of  the  Greek  States' 
(Oxford  1896)  ;  Frazcr,  *Pausanias'  (London 
1913).    See  Erechtheum. 

EREGLI,  a-ri'gle,  Turkey  (the  ancient 
Heracleia  Pontica),  a  seaport  town  of  the 
Kastamimi  vilayet,  125  miles  east  of  Constan- 
tinople, on  the  Black  Sea.  Coal  is  mined  in 
the  neighborhood  and  shipped  at  this  point, 
about  750,000  tons  being  Uie  annual  ou»ut. 
The  harbor  is  known  as  Zoungundalk.  Pre- 
vious to  the  war  of  1914  French  caiHtalists 
held  a  controlling  interest  in  the  coal  mines  of 
the  district    Pop.  6,500. 

BREMACAUSI5,  cr'e-ma-k&'sis.  slow  com- 
buvtion  (from  Greek  erlma,  gently,  and  kausts, 
burning),  a  term  emjiloyed  by  Liebig  to  denote 
the  gradual  combination  of  tne  constituents  of 
a  combustible  substance  with  the  ox^en  of  the 


M.  H. 

BREHITA,  Johannea.    See  Cassianus. 

EREMITES  (Jr'e-mlts)  OF  SAINT 
FRANCIS,  and  EREMITES  OF  SAINT 
JEROME,  two  religious  orders  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  order  of  the  Eremites  of 
Saint  Francis  de  Paula  was  founded  by  Frands. 
a  native  of  Paula,  in  Calabria,  1436.  and  bad 
there  its  first  house.  It  received  the  approval  of 
the  Holy  See  1474;  it  is  properly  styled  Order 
of  Minim  Hermits  of  Saint  Franci.s  de  Paula 
(Ordo  Minimonun  Eremilarum  Sancti  Franeisd 
de    Paula).    Their    foimder    chose    the    name 


XRBTRIA— ntOOT 


478 


•Minims*  (minimi,  least,  smillest  to  keep  tlie  • 
brethren  ever  in  mind  of  the  Christian  humility 
to  which  they  were  vowed.  The  order  of 
Eremites  of  Saint  Jerome,  styled  also  Hierony- 
mites,  con  Isted  onginally  of  hermits,  but  thn 
adopted  the  cenobite  rule  of  Saint  Austin  with 
the  approval  of  Gregory  XI,  1373.  This  order 
was  confined  to  the  Spanish  Peninsula. 

BRBTRIA,  Greece,  an  ancient  Ionic  trading 
and  cotoniiing  town  on  the  southwest  coast  of 
Eubcea,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  Persians 
in  490  B.C..  and  rebuilt  by  the^  Athenians.  The 
recent  excavaiions  and  explorations  made  by 
the  American  School  at  Athens  (1890-95)  and 
the  Greek  Archxological  Society  have  resulted 
in  finding  the  theatre  and  old  temple  and  many 
other  buildings,  together  with  remains  of  pre- 
Persian   times.     Eretria  was  the  home   of   the 


ERFURT,  iSr'foort,  Germany,  (1)  town  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  formerly  the 
capital  of  Thuringia,  and  a  fortress  till  1873, 
situated  on  the  river  Cera,  about  13  miles 
west  of  Weimar.  In  the  15th  and  16th  cen- 
turies Erfurt  was  a  flourishing  comraerical  and 
manufacturing. place,  but  its  university  made  it 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  German  cities.  The 
university,  established  in  1378,  was  suppressed 
in  1816.  Its  trade  and  manufactures  have 
rapidly  increased  in  recent  times  along  with 
its  population.  The  most  characteristic  industry 
is  tnat  of  flower-growing,  plants  and  seed  being 
exported  in  enormous  quantities  to  almost  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  most  important  edifice 
IS  the  cathedral.  The  large  bell  called  Maria 
gloriasa,  made  of  the  finest  bell-metal  and 
weighing  275  hundredweight,  hangs  in  one  of 
the  towers.  The  cell  in  which  Luther  lived 
while  an  Au^ustinian  monk,  from  1505  to  1512, 
containing  his  Bible,  portrait,  etc.,  was  in  the 
Martins sti ft  or  orphan-house  into  which  the  old 
Augustinian  convent  had  been  converted,  but 
was  destroyed  by  fire,  along  with  the  relics  of 
Luther,  in  1872.  According  to  tradition  Erfurt 
was  founded  as  early  as  the  6th  centuty,  by  a 
certain  Erpes.  It  was  not  a  free  Impenal  city, 
but  always  maintained  a  sort  of  independence. 
Saint  Boniface  established  here  an  episcopal  see. 
In  1483  it  concluded  a  treaty  with  Saxony,  by 
which  it  agreed  to  pay  an  annual  sum  for  pro- 
lection.  In  the  17th  centun^  the  Elector  of 
Mainz  obtained  possession  of  it.  The  Congress 
of  Erfurt  (September-October  1808)  was  at- 
tended by  Napoleon,  Alexander  of  Russia,  and 
many  (^rman  sovereigns.  In  1813  the  town  was 
taken  by  the  Prussians,  after  a  severe  bom- 
bardment. In  1814  it  was  granted  to  Prussia  by 
the  Congress  of  Vienna.    Pop.  111,463.     (2)   The 

Evemment  of  Erfurt  of  which  it  is  the  capital 
s    an    area    of    1,364    square    miles.      Pop. 
530,775. 

BRG  (Or.  'worf ),  in  physics,  the  unit  of 
work  in  t  e  cent! meter-gram- second  system.  It 
is  the  work  done  in  overcoming  a  force  of  one 
dyne,  through  a  distance  of  one  centimeter.    See 

ERGASTERIA.    See  Laubiok. 

ERGOGRAPH,  The,  a  maclune  for  testing 
a  child's  capacity  for  5tu<^  and  which  shows  the 
de^ee  of  fatigne  that  is  eiepeiieiiccd  by  pnpilf. 


Its  operatton  is  based  on  the  fac.  that  the 
fatigue  of  a  set  of  muscles,  if  accurately  meas- 
ured, will  show  the  extent  of  the  general 
weariness.  The  physical  deterioration  of  many 
school  children  has  been  a  source  of  anxiety  to 
both  physicians  and  instructors;  if  i)y  means  of 
this  instrument  the  exact  power  of  endurance 
of  each  pupil  can  be  demonstrated,  the  course 
of  study  can  be  so  arranged  as  to  suit  different 
temperaments  and  so  lessen  the  mental  strain. 
Also  a  machine  for  registering  the  exact  effort 
made  in  any  feat  of  strength,  testing  the  com- 
parative and  relative  strength  of  various  sets 
of  muscles. 

ERGOT,  er'gdi,  according  to  the  United 
States  Pharmacopceia.  'is  the  sclerotiura  of  the 
fungus  Claviceps  purpurea  replacing  the  seed  of 
the  t^e.'  Thus  the  Pharmacopceia  calls  for  a 
certain  definite  kind  of  ergot  for  medicinal  use; 
but  there  are  a  number  of  allied  species  of  para- 
sitic fungi  that  infest  not  only  the  rye,  but  a 
number  of  other  grasses;  other  species  of  the 
same  eenus  {Claviceps),  and  other  genera. 
Both  the  botanical  and  phvsiolomcal  relation- 
ships of  these  forms  are  close.  The  ordinary 
ergot  of  commerce  consists  of  purplish  grain- 
like masses,  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  long  and  one-eighth  to  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  wide,  and  somewhat  resembling  large  grains 
of  tye.  Microscopically  the  ergot  is  made  up 
of  the  closely  matted  mycelium  of  the  fungus, 
which  has   entirely   replaced  the  cells  of   the 

The  fungus  is  propagated  by  means  of  mi- 
nute spores.  These  arc  blown  about  by  the 
wind,  or  carried  about  by  insects  and  lodge 
upon  rye  or  other  grasses.  They  there  ger- 
minate and  form  a  more  or  less  viscid  yellowish 
mass  filled  with  spores  of  another  type,  the 
conidia.  These  in  turn  may  be  carried  by  in- 
sects to  other  grasses.  As  the  fungus  grows 
and,  little  by  httle,  replaces  the  tissue  in  the 
grain,  there  results  a  brownish  to  blackish 
mass  which  in  different  species  assumes  differ- 
ent shapes.  These  are  collected  with  the  differ- 
ent grasses  and  may  be  the  cause  of  various 
types  of  poisoning  in  cattle.  The  fungus  grow- 
ing on  rye  constitutes  the  ergot  of  commerce, 
which  has  been  used  in  medicine  for  many 
years.  The  principal  sources  of  ergot  at  the 
present  time  are  Spain  and  Russia. 

Chemically  considered,  ergot  is  an  extremely 
complex  body  and  it  cannot  be  said  that  even 
at  the  present  time  a  full  knowledge  of  its  com- 
position has  been  gained.  It  contains  large 
quantities  of  an  inert  fixed  oil,  a  resin  and 
one  or  two  active  principles  which,  from  the 
earliest  chemical  investigation  to  the  present, 
have  been  called  by  no  less  than  50  or  60  differ- 
ent names,  among  these  being  ergotine,  ecbotine, 
ergotin,  comutine,  sphacelic  acid,  ergotic  acid, 
etc.  The  unsatisfactory  condition  of  organic 
drug  analysis  accounts  for  these  varying  re- 
sults and  confusions.  The  investigations  of 
Robert  (1890)  and  his  students  are  the  first 
of  real  merit,  and  Robert  isolated  a  body  cor- 
nutine  to  which  he  ascribed  the  chief  activi^ 
of  ergot.  More  recently,  however,  Jacobi,  a 
student  of  Schmiedeberg,  has  isolated  two 
bodies,  sphacelotoxin  and  chrystoxin  which  are, 
he  claims,  the  active  principles. 

Taken  internally,  ergot  has  the  singular 
power  of   stimulaUng  an   involuntaiy  muscle. 


,^le 


474 


ERGOnSH — SRICHSiEN 


cansing  it  to  contract.  In  this  manner  it  pro- 
duces a  number  of  reactions  on  those  oc^gaus 
which  are  rich  in  this  type  of  muscular  nbre. 
Acting  on  the  heart  and  blood  vessels,  it  con- 
tracts the  cardiac  muscle  and  the  arterial  walls. 
causing  an  increase  in  the  force  of  the  heart's 
contraction  and  a  marked  rise  in  the  blood- 
pressure.  It  also  stimulates  the  unstiiped  mus- 
cular tissue  of  the  stonuch  and  intestines,  oc- 
casionally causing  purging  with  violent  peristal- 
sis. The  or^n  in  the  body  contaimng  the 
neatest  amount  of  unstriped  muscular  tissue  is 
the  uterus  and  naturally  the  action  of  ergot 
would  be  most  forcibly  manifested  in  this  organ. 
It  here  causes  contractions,  the  uterus  becoming 
hard  and  pale  and  forces  the  blood  out  of  the 
uterine  blood  vessels.  During  pregnancy  the 
action  is  much  more  pronounced,  since  the 
uterus  is  so  much  more  dilated.  Ergot  has 
many  applications  in  medicine,  but  its  chief 
uses  are  to  control  blood-pressure  and  to  treat 
uterine  disorders.  Ergot  is  usually  ^ven  as  a 
fluid  extract  of  ergotin,  prepared  m  several 
ways,  as  wine  of  ergot,  etc. 

ERGOTISM.  In  the  article  on  ergot  it  has 
been  shown  that  there  are  a  great  many  closely 
related  parasitic  fungi,  growing  on  different 
varieties  of  grasses.  A  number  of  these  in- 
fected grasses  belonging  to  the  ergot  family 
produce,  when  eaten  by  cattle,  forms  of  acute 
and  chronic  poisoning.  These  are  character- 
ized by  changes,  particubriy  in  the  blood  ves- 
sels, causing  swellings  below  the  knees  or  ankles, 
with  gangrene  of  the  skin  and  at  times  symp- 
toms of  paralysis  of  the  extremities.  In  year* 
in  which  unusual  humid  conditions  have  per- 
mitted the  wide  and  abundant  growth  of  these 
parasitic  fungi,  large  areas  of  pasture  land  have 
become  infected,  resulting  in  widespread  poison- 
ing of  cattle,  almost  resembling  epidemics. 

In  Europe,  where  the  eating  of  rye  bread  is 
much  more  common  than  in  mis  country,  par- 
ticularly in  Russia  and  Italy,  cases  of  chronic 
poisoning  by  ergot  occur  tn  man  from  eating 
the  bread  made  from  infected  grain.  The  chief 
symptoms  here  are  those  referable  to  changes 
in  the  blood  vessels  of  different  parts  of  the 
body,  with  secondary  consequences.  Thus,  in 
some,  there  is  a  loss  of  touch- sensation  in  the 
hands  and  feet,  a  condition  which  may  go  on  to 
the  formation  of  ulcers  and  gangrene.  This 
is  the  result  of  the  cutting  off  of  the  blood  sup- 


the  blood  vessels.  In  some  cases  disease  of  the 
spinal  cord  results.  This  is  thought  to  be  due  to 
the  artificially  induced  anaemia  with  secondary 
degenerations  in  the  columns  of  the  cord.  This 
disease,  called  pellagra,  closely  resembles  a  toxic 
neuritis  or  locomotor  ataxia.  Treatment  con- 
USti  tisually  in  a  change  of  food,  local  anti- 
septics, tannin  used  internally  to  neutralize  the 
alkaloids  of  the  ercot  and  castor  oil.  Hot 
water  is  often  applied  locally  to  dilate  the  blood 
vessels  and  cUonil  hydrate  has  been  found 
serviceable  when  taken  internally.  See  Ebgot; 
Pellagra. 

ERIC,  e'rik  or  a'rik,  the  name  of  several 
Danish  and  Swedish  kings.  Eric  VII,  Idng  of 
Denmark:  b.  1382;  d.  Rugenwald  1459;  the 
son  of  Duke  Wratislaw  of  Pomerania,  he  was 
selected  as  her  successor  by  Queen  Margaret 
of  Denmark,  and  in  1412  mounted  tiic  Oirone  ot 


■  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  united  by  die 

Treaty  of  Calmar.  Cruel  and  cowardly  in  char- 
acter, he  lost  Sweden  in  14J7  through  a  revolt 
of  the  peasants  of  Dalecailia,  and  in  1439  was 
deposecl  also  in  Denmark.  Eric  VIII,  "The 
Saiht,*  became  king  of  Sweden  in  1155,  did 
much  to  extend  Christianity  in  his  dominions 
and  to  improve  the  laws,  and  fell  in  battle  with 
the  Danes  in  1160.  Eaic  XIV,  the  last  of  the 
name  who  reigned  in  Sweden,  succeeded  in  1560 
to  the  throne  of  his  father,  the  great  Gustavus 
Vasa,  and  at  once  began  to  exhibit  the  folly  that 
disgraced  his  reign.  He  married  a  Swedish 
peasant  girl,  who  acquired  an  influence  over  him 
which  was  ascribed  by  the  superstitious  to 
witchcraft;  she  alone  was  able  to  control  him 
in  the  violent  paraxysms  of  blind  fury  to  which 
he  was  subject  His  capricious  cruelties  and 
the  disastrous  wars  that  followed  on  his  follies 
at  length  alienated  his  subjects,  who  threw  off 
their  allegiance  in  1568  and  elected  his  brother 
John  to  the  throne.  In  1S77  he  ended  his  mis- 
erable life  half  voluntarily  by  a  cup  of  poison. 
He  had  a  genuine  love  of  letters,  and  solaced 
his  captivity  with  music  and  the  composition 
of  psalms.  His  story  has  been  worked  into  dra- 
matic form  by  Swedish  poets;  in  German  l^ 
Kmse  in  his  tragedy,   'King  Erich'    (1871). 

ERIC  THE  RED,  the  coloniier  of  Green- 
land :  b.  Norway  about  950.  After  committing 
homicide  he  fled  to  Iceland  and  in  984,  again 
seeking  asjrlum  as  a  murderer,  he  reached  Green- 
land twhich  from  the  11th  century  belonged  to 
Norway).    Here  he  built  a  chief  town,  called  i 

Gardar(  which  he  settled  with  Norwwians.    His  | 

son,  Leif  Ericson  (q.v.),  introduced  Christianity, 
but  after  flourishing  for  about  four  centuries 
the  colony  was  wiped  out,  probably  by  some  such  i 

plague  as  black  death,  altnough  recent  authori- 
ties attribute  its  disappearance  to  famine.     Con-  I 
suit  Nansen's,  'In  Northern  Mists :  Arctic  Ex- 
pk>rers  in  Early  Times'  (New  York  1911). 

SRICACB.£,    £r-i-ki'se-e,    the    heaths,    a  j 

family  of  dicotyledonous,  sympetalous  shnibs  or 
under-shrubs  with  small  leaves,  evergreen  in 
tome  of  the  genera,  i^d  wborled  or  opposite 
and  without  stipules.  The  flowers  are  arranged 
in  various  sWies  of  inflorescence,  and  are  gen-  j 

erally   very  beautiful,   the   heath   probably   ex-  | 

celling  all  other  families  in  the  universal  beauty 
of  its  blossoms.  Different  writers  number  the 
genera  from  40  to  70,  and  the  species  from  1,000 
lo  upward  of  1,300.  They  are  of  very  wide  dis- 
tribution. In  North  American  flora,  at  least  20  ' 
genera  are  represented,  among  them  such  plants 
as  the  azaleas,  rhododendrons,  kalmias,  trailing 
arbutus  and  Uie  heaths,  and  they  are  specially 
abundant  in  western  Europe,  They  love  the 
temperate  and  cold  countries,  and  wherever  they  ' 
are  found  in  the  tropics  they  are  generally 
confined  to  the  mountainous,  upland  regions 
where  the  climate  resembles  that  of  the  temper- 

ERICHSEN,  Sir  John  Eric,  Eogli^  sur- 
geon: b.  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  19  July  1818; 
a.  Folkestone,  England,  23  SepL  1896.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Sur-  ; 
geons  in  1839  and  in  1S50  professor  of  surgety  I 
at  University  College.  In  1866  he  succeeded 
Quain  as  professor  ot  clinical  surgery  in  the 
same  collegE.  a  post  which  he  held  till  hu  retire- 
ment in  1675.  He  was  appointed  president  of 
Univ«rsity  College  in  1S87,  and  held  that  potl 


JOHN  BRICSSOn 


jyGoot^Ie 


.yGooi^le 


SRICHT— ERIE 


till  Us  death ;  in  1880  was  president  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  and  was  created  a  baronet 
ID  1895.  His  most  important  work  was  his 
'Science  and  Art  of  Surgery'  (1853),  a  stand- 
ard publication  which  has  gone  through  many 
editions,  and  has  been  translated  into  severid 
langtiages  and  a  pirated  copy  of  which  was  pre- 
sented to  every  medkal.  officer  in  the  Federal 
army  during  die  American  Ovil  War.  He 
also  published  a  votuine  on  'Concussion  oi  the 
Spine*  (1875). 

EHICHT,  eKiHt,  Loch,  a  lake  in  tfie  Gram- 
pian Mountains,  in  Scotland,  on  the  boundary 
between  the  counties  of  Perth  and  Inverness: 
it  is  60  miles  northwest  of  Perth.  It  is  UH 
miles  lone,  from  one-quarter  to  one  and  one- 
eighth  miles  wide,  with  a  maximum  depth  of 
512  feet,  and  1,153  feet  above  sea-level  (the 
loftiest  of  large  siie  in  Great  Britain),  It  has 
two  outlets,  one  flows  into  Loch  Lydoch  and 
one  into  Loch  Rannoch.  A  cave  at  the  south 
end  near  the  mouth  of  the  Alder,  afforded  re- 
fuge to  Prince  Charlie  after  the  battle  of 
Culloden. 

BRICHTHONIUS,  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  son  of  Dardanus  and  Batea,  and  grandson 
of  Zeus.  He  obtained  the  kingdom  of  Troy  by 
the  death  of  his  brother  Ilus  without  children. 
He  married  Astyoche,  the  daughter  of  Simos, 
by  whom  (or  according  to  some  by  Callirrhoe, 


is   sometimes   blent   or   confused   with 
that  of  Erectheus. 
,  BRICSOH,  Leif,  lif  «r'ik-s6n,  Icelandic  dis- 

'  coverer.    According  to  S^as  he  was  the  son 

of  Eric  the  Red  ^q.v.)  ana  at  the  beginning  of 
the  11th  century  discovered  a  transatlantic  coun- 
try, which  he  called  Vinland,  from  the  vines 
which  abounded  there.  Here  an  Icelandic  set- 
tlement was  established,  but  whether  the  coast 
was  Labrador,  Newfoundland  or  some  region 
farther  south  has  not  been  decided.  A  much 
idealized  statue  of  Leif  Ericson  adorns  Com- 
monwealth Avenue,  Boston,  the-work  of  Miss 
Anne  Whitney,  the  sculptor.  Consult  'The  Eng- 
lish Rediscovery  and  (Jolonization  of  America' 
(London   1891). 

July  1803; 
d.  New  York;  8  March  1889.  He  entered  the 
Swedish  army  in  1820,  but  resigned  in  1826  and 
soon  became  known  as  an  inventor.  In  1828 
he  made  the  first  application  to  navigation  of 
the  principle  of  condensing  steam  and  returning 
the  water  to  the  boiler;  later  he  brought  out  a 
self-acting  gunlock  by  means  of  which  naval 
cannon  could  be  automatically  discharged  at 
any  elevation  without  regard  to  the  roliing|  of 
the  ship.  In  1833  he  designed  a  caloric  engine ; 
and  in  1836  invented  the  screw  propellor.  He 
was  unable  to  prove  the  priority  of  this  in- 
vention, however,  and  received  but  one- fifth 
of  the  $100,000  which  the  British  Admiralty  paid 
for  it  In  1839  he  supplied  engines  and  screw 
to  the  first  steam  vessel  that  crossed  the 
Atlantic.  The  British  Admiralty  did  not  be- 
come interested  in  his  inventions,  and  he  came 
to  the  United  Slates  in  1839  and  two  years 
later  built  the  screw-propelling  warship  Prince- 
ton for  the  government,  the  first  ship  to  have 


and  the  foundation  of  the  steam  ntarine  of 
the  world.  The  achievement,  however,  which 
made  him  most  famous  in  the  United  States  was 
the  construction  in  1861  of  the  ironclad  ilonilor, 
which  was  built  under  a  patent  granted  by  the 
United  States  government  to  Theodore  Rii^es 
Timby  (<}.v.),  the  inventor  of  the  revolving  tur- 
ret, etc;  it  was  launched  100  days  after  its  keel 
was  laid,  and  arrived  in  Hampton  Roads  just 
in  time  to  defeat,  on  9  March  1862,  the  Confed- 
erate ironclad  Merrimac,  which  had  destroyed 
several  wooden  warships.  A  fleet  of  monitors 
was  soon  built  and  did  important  service 
daring  the  remainder  of  the  war.  In  bis 
later  life  Ericsson  became  interested  in  tor- 
pedoes and  in  the  development  of  an  engine 
to  be  worked  by  solar  beat  His  remains  were 
taken  to  Sweden  on  the  cruiser  Baltimore,  and 
interred  with  imposing  ceremonies.  The  centen- 
ary of  his  birth,  31  July  1903,  was  observed  in 
New  York  by  the  unveiling  of  a  bronze  statue 
of  the  inventor  in  Battery  Park  and  in  Worces- 
ter, Mass.  A  magnificent  memorial  was  erected 
also  by  his  countrymen  in  Stockholm.  Con- 
sult his  'Life'  by  William  Conant  Church  (New 
York  1890). 

ERICSSON,  NUa,  Swedish  engineer:  b. 
Stockholm,  31  Jan.  1802;  d.  there,  8  Sept  187a 
He  was  a  brother  of  John  Ericsson  (q.v,).  He 
received  the  swpointment  as  colonel  of  the  Naval 
Etigineering  C^xps  1850,  becoming  director  of 
govcmnient  railroad  construction  1858.  Amoi^ 
nil  engineering  achievements  were  the  construc- 
tion ot  the  Stodchotm  docks,  the  canal  between 
Lake  Saima  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  the 
Trollhattan  Canal  sluices. 

BRIDANUS,  f-rid'a-nus,  a  river  famous  in 
mjrtholu^,  mentioned  in  the  return  of  the  Argo- 
nauts. It  is  located  in  northern  Europe  and  by 
some  said  to  mean  the  Rhone,  by  others  the 
Rhine,  but  generally  thought  to  refer  to  the 
Po,  in  Italy.  When  Phjethon  was  struck  by  the 
thunderbolts  of  Zeus  he  fell  into  this  river  — 
and  his  three  sisters,  the  Heltades.  lamented 
him  until  they  were  changed  into  poplars.  They 
did  not  cease  to  weep  for  him  even  in  this  con- 
dition; and  their  tears  falling  into  the  water 
of  the  river  became  transparent  amber.  The 
ancient  southern  constellation  of  the  "River,* 
situated  south  of  Taurus,  was  also  called 
"Eridanus.* 

ERIE  (Ind.,  wild  cat),  an  American  Indian 
tribe  which  formerly  held  the  east  and  southeast 
shores  of  the  lake  known  by  their  name,  and 
now  included  in  the  Slates  of  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio.  They  were  of  Iroquoian 
stock,  but  in  16S6  were  nearly  aimihilated  by 
their  fierce  kinsmen.  The  survivors  were  there- 
after incorporated  with  the  Senecas. 

ERIE,  Kan.,  city,  county- seat  of  Neosho 
County,  120  miles  east  by  south  of  Wichita, 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fc  and  the 
Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  railroads.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  good  farming  country;  and  con- 
tains a  large  oil  refinery,  an  ice  factory,  a  min- 
eral-water plant,  flour-mills,  ^rain  elevators  and 
lumber  yards.  There  are  oil  and  natural  gas 
fields  nearby.  The  water  works  and  electric- 
light  plant  are  owned  by  the  city.    Pop.  1,300. 

BRIE,  Pa.,  city,  port  of  entry,  county-scat 
of  Erie  Coun^,  on  Lake  Erie,  and  on  the 
Lake  Shore,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Erie  and 
several  other  railroads  85  miles  southwest  of 


Buffalo,  too  miles  northeast  of  Geveland  Erie 
is  on  a  blulT  havine  a  good  view  of  the  lake,  is 
laid  out  with  broad  streets  at  right  angles  with 
one  another,  and  has  several  lai^e  and  attractive 

Krks.  It  is  lifted  with  electricity,  and  has  a 
untiful  supply  of  water  from  the  lake.  The 
peculiarly  advantageous  location  of  Eric  has 
^ven  it  nigh  rank  as  a  shipping  and  manufac- 
turing point.  It  has  the  largest  land-locked 
harbor  on  Lake  Erie.  The  harbor  has  been 
greatly  improved,  and  is  now  five  miles  long  by 
one  mile  wide,  depth  9  to  25  feet  Presqne 
Isle,  lying  directly  in  front  of  the  city,  furnishes 
ample  protection ;  three  lighthouses  stand  at  the 
entrance  to  the  harbor,  and  substantial  wharves, 
where  merdiandise  is  transferred  directly  from 
vessels  to  cars,  extend  along  the  entire  front. 
The  principal  industries  are  manufactures  of 
1  engines,  machinery,  car-wheels,  car- 


ous  kinds  of  woodwork  factories,  petroleum  re- 
fineries, breweries  and  malthouses.  All  told, 
there  are  464  manufacturing  plants,  representing 
in  the  aggregate  over  $40,000,000  capital,  employ- 
ing over  16,000  people  who  receive  upwards  of 
$6,500,000  annually  m  wages,  and  producing  an 
annual  output  valued  at  ^,000,000;  the  value 
added  by  manufacture  beia^  about  $13,000,000. 
The  leading  articles  of  ^pment  are  lumber, 
bituminous  and  semi-bituminous  coal,  iron  ore, 
petroleum  and  manufacturing  products  and 
these  are  conveyed  by  railroads,  steamboats  and 
sailing  vessels  that  ply  regularly  hetween  Erie 
and  other  ports  on  the  Great  Lakes.  Over  1,400 
vessels  enter  and  clear  annually,  Erie  ships 
more  than  1,500,000  tons  of  coal  and  receives 
over  1,000,000  tons  of  ore  every  year.  Among 
the  notable  buildings  are  the  city  hall,  union 
depot,  government  building  (including  post- 
omce,  custom'house  and  other  departments), 
State  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Home  on  Garrison 
Hill,  Hamot  Hospital,  Saint  Vincent  Hospital, 
Protestant  Home  for  the  Frieadless,  United 
States  Marine  Hospital  and  Academy  High 
School.  Near  the  city  is  a  memorial  in  the 
form  of  a  blockhouse,  erected  by  the  State,  in 
honor  of  Anthony  Wayne.  The  city  is  said  lo 
ship  more  freshwater  fish  than  any  other  port 
in  the  world,  and  to  be  the  leading  city  in  the 
United  States  in  the  output  of  engines  and 
boilers,  has  excellent  public  and  private  schools, 
a  public  library,  daily  and  weekly  newspapers, 
three  national  and  several  savings  banks.  Six 
banking  institutions  have  a  total  capital  and 
surplus  of  $3,?00,000  and  deposits  aggregating 
over  $16,400,000.  Erie  occupies  the  site  of  the 
old  French  fort,  Presque  Isle,  built  in  1749;  was 
laid  out  as  a  town  in  1795 ;  had  a  portion  incor- 
porated as  a  borough  in  180S;  and  the  whole 
was  given  a  city  charter  in  1851.  It  was  the 
headquarters  of  Commodore  Perry  in  the  War 
of  1812;  the  fleet  with  which  he  defeated  the 
British  in  the  battle  of  Put-in-Bay  (10  Sept. 
1813)  was  built  and  equipped  here.  Natural  gas 
was  discovered  in  1889.  Pop.  (1910)  66,525; 
(1917)  80,000. 

ERIE,  Port    See  Fort  Erie. 

ERIE,  Lak«,  the  most  southern  of  the  Great 
Lakw  of  North  America;  situated  between  lat. 
41°  30"  and  42°  52"  N.,  and  long.  78°  S3'  and 
83"  25'  W.  It  lies  between  lakes  Huron  and 
Ontario  and  is  bordered  on  die  north  by  Can- 


ada, on  the  east  and  lottth  by  New  Yoric,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio,  on  the  west  by  Ohio  and 
Michigan.  Its  greatest  extent  is  northeast  and 
southwest;  it  is  about  245  miles  long,  SO  miles 
wide  (from  28  to  58)  and  has  an  area  of  abant 
9,600  square  miles;  is  573  feet  above  sea-Ievd, 
8  feet  below  Lake  Huron-  has  a  maximum  of 
210  feet  and  an  average  depth  of  tOO  feet  It 
receives,  through  the  strait,  Detroit  River,  the 
waters  from  all  the  other  Great  Lakes  except 
Ontario;  and  the  chief  streams  exclusive  of 
the  waters  from  the  Great  Lakes  which  flow 
into  it  are  the  Grand  from  the  north,  the 
Maumee  from  the  west,  Sandusky,  Huron  and 
Cuyahoga  from  the  south.  Its  outlet  is  Niagara 
River,  which  flows  into  Lake  Ontario  at  an 
elevation  326  feet  lower  than  that  of  Lake 
Erie.  Some  of  the  indentations  are  the  bays 
of  Sandusky  and  Maiunee,  on  the  south  coast, 
and  Long  Point  Bay  on  the  north.  In  the  west- 
em  part  is  a  group  of  isjands,  some  of  which 
are  Point  PeVee,  Kelly's,  North,  Middle  and 
South  Bass.  Lake  Erie  is  the  shallowest  of  all 
the  Great  Lakes  and  dangers  to  navigation  are 
increased  by  the  heavy  ground-swell.  The  de- 
struction of  lakes  is  largely  due  to  filling  from 
deposits  brought  by  inlets  or  tributaries ;  every 
particle  of  sediment  brought  into  a  lake  tcnc^ 
toward  its  destruction.  Another  danger  Js  in 
changes  in  outlets.  Where  the  Niagara  River 
emerges  from  Lake  Erie  there  has  been  but 
little  change  for  centuries.  It  flows  through  a 
plain,  ana  the  channel  is  to-day  apparently 
what  it  was  hundreds  of  years  ago;  but 
'Niagara  is  wearing  back  its  falls  toward  Lake 
Erie:  and  in  given  time,  as  a  result  of  this  work, 
it  will  so  lower  the  outlet  as  to  completely  drain 
Lake  Erie."  The  importance  of  Lake  Efrie  for 
commercial  purpose  has  been  greatly  enhanced 
by  its  canal  connections  whicn  are  important 
links  in  the  waterway  from  East  to  West.  TTie 
Wetland  Canal  around  Niagara  Falls  removes 
obstacles  to  direct  navigation  from  the  Atlantic; 
the  Erie  Canal  connects  the  lake  by  a  short 
route  with  the  Hudson  River;  canals  crossing 
Ohio  connect  the  lake  with  the  Ohio  River. 
There  are  many  excellent  harbors,  not  all  of 
them  in  use  by  the  large  steamship  lines.  Some 
of  the  principal  ports  are  Buffalo,  Erie,  Cleve- 
land, Sandusky  and  Toledo.  At  Put-in-Bay 
near  Sanduskv  on  10  Sept.  1813  took  place  the 
Battle  of  Lake  Erie  (q.v.).  The  Americans 
were  successful  and  the  result  was  most  im- 
portant to  the  United  States;  it  bad  much  to 
do  with  the  regaining  of  the  territory  of  Michi- 
gan, which  at  the  time  was  in  possession  of  the 
British.  Consult  Russell,  'Lakes  of  North 
America' ;  Smithsonian  Annual  Report, 
'Modification  of  Great  Lakes  t^  Earth  Move- 
ment' (1898).    See  Great  Lakes. 

ERIE,  Lake,  Battle  of,  10  Sept  1S13:  a 
naval  battle  which  annihilated  the  British  fleet 
on  that  lake  and  gave  the  Americans  their 
northwest  at  the  Treaty  of  Ghent.  In  1813  it 
had  become  evident  that  the  reconquest  of  the 
northwest  from  the  British,  who  had  captured 
Detroit  and  were  building  a  fleet  at  Maiden, 
nearby,  to  control  the  lake,  depended  on  wrest- 
ing the  control  from  them;  and  Oliver  Hazard 
Perry  spent  from  27  March  till  September  build- 
ing a  rival  fleet  at  Presque  Isle,  now  Erie,  Pa. 
It  had  nine  vessels :  the  Lmiirence,  flag^ip.  20 
gims;  the  Niagara,  Capt  J.  D.  Elliott,  20  guns; 


KRIB  CANAL— BRIB  RAILSOAB 


47T 


the  Caledonia,  three-gun  bxig;  five  tvo-sua 
Khooners  and  a  goe-gun  sloop;  in  all  54  guns 
with  714  pounds  metal  at  a  broadside.  The 
Biiti^  had  six  vessels  averaging  much  heavier, 
with  63  guns  averagin{^  much  hgbter  —  about 
430  pounds  to  a  broadside-  but  most  of  them 
-were  far  longer  range  tnan  the  American, 
whose  policy  merefore  was  close  action.  The 
crews  were  about  equal,  some  500  each.  The 
British  commandant  was  Capt.  Robert  H.  Bar- 
day,  a  veteran  of  Nelson's;  two  of  the  cap- 
tains were  veterans  also.  The  fleets  engaged  off 
the  islands  north  of  Sandusky  Bay,  near  noon 
of  10  September.  Ferry  in  the  Laturtnct,  with 
two  gunboats,  came  to  dose  quarters  shortly 
after,  and  if  the  whole  fleet  had  followed,  the 
British  would  soon  have  been  overwhelmed; 
but  for  some  reason  (hotly  disputed  and  a  sore 
point  for  many  years)  the  other  vessels  kept  off 
and  played  away  at  long  range,  while  for  two 
hours  the  British  vessels  concentiated  their  fire 
on  the  Lawrence.  Such  carnage  was  scarcely 
ever  known  on  the  ocean ;  of  103  officers  and 
men,  but  20  were  imhurt ;  the  vessel  was  literally 
shot   to  pieces,  and  the   very  wounded   were 


it.  Perry  turned  over  the  comiband  to  a  lii-^ 
tenant,  transferred  himself  in  a  small  boat  to 
the  Niagara,  now  tardily  drawn  nearer,  brought 
that  and  the  rest  into  close  action,  and  in  15 
minutes  (about  3  p.m.)  forced  the  entire  British 
fleet  to  surrender.  The  latter  was  in  a  dreadful 
condition,'  loo:  the  English  had  fought  with 
lieroism  and  skill,  but  a  third  of  its  force  was 
disabled  or  dead.  The  losses  were :  Americana, 
27  killed  and  96  wounded;  British,  41  killed 
and  94  wounded.  The  battle  raised  Perry  to 
the  summit  of  naval  fame,  justly,  for  no  victory 
was  ever  more  due  to  the  genius  and  energy 
of  one  man,  and  few  naval  battles  have  had 
such  momentous  results.  The  remains  of  the 
slain  officers  were  buried  at  Put-in-Bay  Island 
in  1858.  Maclay's  'History  of  the  NBvy>  (Vol. 
31,  1894)  ;  Spears'  'History  of  Our  Navy' 
(1899) ;  Roosevelt's  'History  of  the  Naval  War 
of  1812*  (1882);  Adams,  Henry,  'History  of 
the  United  States'  (Vol.  VII,  1891). 

BRIB  CANAL.    See  Canals. 

ERIB  RAILROAD.  Chartered  24  April 
1832,  by  the  New  York  State  legislature  to 
construct  a  railroad  from  Lake  Erie  to  the 
Hudson  River,  the  New  York  and  Lake  Erie 
Railway  Company  was  organized  with  a  capital 
of  $3,000,000,  the  credit  of  the  State  being  ex- 
tended to  a  like  amount.  The  charter  provided 
that  the  road  should  make  no  connection  with 
any  railroad  in  New  Jersey  or  Pennsylvania 
without  special  legislative  consent  and  also  pro- 
vided that  it  should  run  through  the  southern 


Redfield  in  1830  when  he  proposed  a  railroad 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi  River.  His 
plan  was  that  it  should  be  a  great  national  road 
to  follow  the  so-called  ."Appian  Way»  advocated 
by  Generals  Ointon  and  Sullivan  in  1780  to 
further  the  development  of  what  then  consti- 
tuted the  United  Slates. 

In  1841.  the  railroad  was  opened  from  Pier- 
mount,  at  the  extreme  southern  point  of  New 
York  State  on  the  Hudson  River,  inland  to 
Goshen,  Orange  County,  a  distance  of  46  miles. 


Opposed  as  it  was  by  the  canal  counties  and 
their  representatives  in  both  the  State  and  na- 
tional legislatures,  the  Erie  had  to  fight  for  its 
existence  from  its  birth  through  a  series  of 
legislative  obstructions  and  financial  manipula- 
tions that  developed  even  in  its  early  days.  Be- 
fore its  com;)letion  to  Dunkirk,  which  was  the 
objective  point  on  Lake  Erie,  and  as  a  conse- 

Suence  of  these  obstacles  to  progress,  the  road 
ad  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  receiver.  In 
1845,  the  State  released  its  claim  for  the  money 
advanced  for  construction  and  throu^  (he  ener- 
getic efforts  of  the  Erie's  friends,  it  was  finally 
opened  by  President  Fillmore,  Daniel  Webster, 
his  Secretaiv  of  State,  and  other  government 
and  State  officials,  from  Piennont  to  Dunkirk, 
on  22  April  1851,  a  distance  of  463  miles. 
From  Piermont,  passengers  were  conveyed 
to  New  York  by  steamer.  This  operated 
so  much  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  road  that 
its  charter  was  amended  in  1852  permitting  it 
to  pass  throu^  New  Jersey  to  its  present  termi- 
nal in  Jersey  Ci^,  and  Piermont  was  abandoned 
as  a  terminal  in  May  1861.  Previous  to  that 
abandonment,  the  road  was  again  —  in  1859  — 
in  the  hands  of  a  receiver  and  was  sold  to  the 
Erie  Railway  Company  in  1861.  This  new  com~ 
pany  also  bought  the  Buffalo  and  New  York 
Qty  Railroad  and  so  secured  independent  en- 
trance into  BufialOj  which  was  made  its  prin- 
cipal lake  terminal  in  place  of  Dunkirk.  It  has 
so  remained  up  to  this  time. 

In  accordance  with  English  ideas,  the  road 
was  built  with  a  six-foot  gauge,  a  mistake  in 
construction  that  for  years  acted  as  a  deterrent 
to  its  successful  operation,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  contents  of  cars  had  to  be  transferred  at 
connecting  points.  Another  mistake  of  its 
early  managers  was  a  refusal  of  the  Erie  to  ac- 
cept entrance  into  New  York  city  over  the  New 
York  and  Harlem  lines,  then  being  constructed 
and  wiiich  later  passed  to  the  control  of  the 
New  York  Central.  But  this  management  did 
see  the  value  of  the  coal  traffic  and  in  1801  it 
entered  the  anthracite  coal  fields  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  later  through  its  Bradford  branch 
reached  the  bituminous  fields.  But  in  the  mean- 
time, it  had  become  a  financial  foot-ball  in  Wall 
street,  partly  through  a  desire  to  combine  with 
the  Atlantic  and  Great  Western,  then  building, 
through  Ohio,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a 
route  to  Saint  Louis  on  the  Mississippi  River. 
A  connection  to  the  Ohio  River  at  Qncinnati 
was  ultimately  effected  through  a  combination 
with  the  Atlantic  and  Great  Western  and  an 
operating  connection  with  the  C,  H.  and  D. 
completed  33  years  after  the  first  work  on  the 
Erie  was  begun. 

In  1867,  Jay  (}ould  and  Col.  James  Fisk 
came  into  possession  of  the  Erie  and  from  1868 
to  1872  a  light  ensued  between  Gould.  Vander- 
bilt.  Fisk,  James  McHenry  and  Daniel  Drew 
for  the  possession  of  the  property,  resulting  in 
its  spectacular  wreckage  after  one  of  the  bit- 
terest and  most  vindictive  railway  wars  in  his- 
tory.  The  contest  for  the  possession  of  the 
property  and  the  financial  manipulations  in- 
dulged in  enriched  all  who  were  interested  ex- 
cepting the  actual  owners  of  the  road  and  these 
it  impoverished  as  it  did  the  road  itself.  At  the 
conclusion  of  this  historic  fight.  Hugh  J.  Jewett 
came  in  as  president  in  1874  and  a  year  Uter  was 
made  receiver,  the  properw  having  been  pur- 
chased by  the  securi^  holders  to  prevent  its 


■gk 


SRIGBHA  —  ratII>HTLS 


S 


complete  wreckage.  It  was  reorganized  in  1878 
as  the  New  York,  Lake  Erie  and  Western.  It 
then  owned  525  miles  of  road  and  leased  400 
more.  The  road  was  converted  into  a  standard 
gauge  road  at  a  cost  of  $25,000,000  and  was 
double  tracked  from  Jersey  City  to  Buffalo. 

Attempts  to  enter  Chicago,  first  over  what 
is  now  known  as  the  *PandEandle  Route,*  and 
later  over  the  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne  and  Chi- 
cago were  successfully  blocked  by  rivals  and  it 
was  not  until  1883  that  it  secured  an  entrance 
into  the  western  metropolis  over  the  Chicago 
and  Atiantic  Railway.  Under  succeeding  man- 
cements,  the  road,  in  spite  of  the  enormous 
financial  obligations  which  hampered  it,  was 
operated  as  a  paying  and  successful  property 
until  the  panic  of  1683-84.  The  obligations  ac- 
cruing because  of  its  purchase  of  tlK  Chica^ 
and  Atlantic  and  Pennsylvania  coal  properties 
led  the  road  to  still  further  embarrassment  and 
finally  to  another  receivership  in  1893.  Two 
'ears  later,  the  company  was  reorganized  as  the 
^rie  Railroad  Company  and  assumed  possession 
of  the  property  on  1  Dec.  1895,  which  it  has 
since  operated. 

The  Erie  Railroad  is  to-day  a  great  modem 
highway,  its  main  line  extending  from  Jersey 
City,  N.  [.,  to  Chicago,  111.,  a  (flsUnce  of  999 
miles.  Within  the  last  few  years  tiiis  main  line 
has  been  double-tracked  and  it  is  now  known  as 
a  *Iow-grade  line,"  for  example,  between  Jersey 
City  and  Salamanca,  N,  Y.,  a  distance  of  414 
miles,  the  ruling  grade  has  been  brou^t  down 
from  0.65  to  02  per  cent.  The  present  ruling 
grade  is  said  to  be  lower  than  that  of  aiw  other 
railroad  running  from  Pittsburgh,  Buffalo  or 
the  Ohio  State  line  to  New  York  city.  Between 
Marion,  Ohio,  and  Hammond,  Ind.,  the  ruling 
grade  of  the  Chicago  and  Erie  has  been  re- 
duced from  0.55  per  cent  west  bound  and  0.5 
east  bound  to  0.2  per  cent  in  each  direction. 

The  following  is  the  oflicial  statement  of 
gross  operating  revenues  and  operating  expenses 
and  taxes  for  the  past  five  years  —  operating 
revenues  1911,  $56,649,908;  1912,  $56,492,369; 
1913,  $62,647,359;  1914.  $60,983,574;  1915,  $66,- 
436,719;  the  operating  expenses  for  the  same 
period  were  1911,  $40^45,301;  1912,  $42,508,253; 
1913,  $46,146,760;  1914,  $48,224,007;  1915,  $45,- 
670.:f48. 

A  pioneer  as  a  trunk  line,  it  was  also  the 
first  railroad  to  adopt  what  are  now  universal 
methods  —  among  these  the  running  of  trains 
by  telegraph,  the  use  of  a  printed  time  table, 
the  running  of  Sunday  trains,  emigrant  trains, 
and  special  service  for  suburban  passengers,  the 
use  of  parlor  cars,  the  establishment  of  duiing 
rooms  along  the  line,  the  establishment  of  spe- 
cial milk  trains,  the  running  of  a  newspaper 
special  train  (this  being  done  in  1842).  It  was 
also  the  first  road  to  run  an  excursion  train  of 
the  modern  type  with  a  brass  band  and  a  re- 
duced round  trip  fare,  the  first  road  to  use  a 
bell  cord  to  signal  from  the  conductor  to  the 
engineer,  the  first  to  build  up  local  industries 
by  furnishing  to  manufacturing  companies  the 
use  of  switching  and  terminal  tracks,  a  custom 
now  so  universal,  and  in  more  modern  days,  the 
first  road  to  adopt  all-steel  baggage,  express  and 
postal  cars,  and  is  the  only  railroad  in  uie  world 
operating  a  triplex  or  "centipede"  locomotive. 

See 


BRIGSRON,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  fam- 
ily Comf^osilm,  having  a  strong  odor.  Terpene 
is  the  name  of  the  oil  distilled  from  E. 
canadensis,  a  widely  diffused  species,  and  used 
as  an  irritant  and  stimulant  in  medicine. 

ERIN,  an  old  name  for  Ireland.  It  is  now 
used  only  in  poetry. 

BRINITE,  a  basic  copper  arsenate  having 
the  formula  Cu.(OH)tAsiOi  occumnK^adark 
green  crystalline  coating  of  fibrous  structure  in 
Cxi m wall.  England,  and  the  Tintic  district, 
Utah.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  an  aluminum 
silicate  from  the  Giant's  Causeway,  Ireland. 

ERINNA.  Greek  poetess;  b.  Rhodes  or 
Teos,  about  600  b.c.  ;  d.  at  age  of  19.  Accord- 
ing to  some  she  was  a  Lesbian  and  the  intimate 
fnend  of  Sappho.  Others  aver  that  she  was 
born  at  Teos,  Rhodes  or  Telos,  and  that  she 
lived  in  the  age  of  Demosthenes;  while  others 
again  assert  that  there  were  two  poetesses  of 
the  same  name.  She  left  behind  her  a  few 
poems  which  were  thought  equal  to  those  of 
Homer  in  point  of  merit.  The  chief  of  them 
was  a  work  of  about  300  lines,  called  ■E]akat£> 
(The  Distaff),  of  which  nothing  has  come  down 
to  us. 

ERINYBS,  e-rln'i-ez.  The  Furies  (q.v.). 

ERIOCAULON,  er-I-*-ki1dn.  the  typical 
genus  of  the  ptpewort  family  (£rtocawfoNace«). 
See  PiPEWWT, 

ERIODBNDRON,  a  genus  of  tromcal  trees 
of  the  natural  order  Malvatea.  There  are 
about  a  dozen  species,  which  are  characterized 
by  digitate  leaves,  medium  to  large,  white  or 
reddisn,  solitary  or  clustered  flowers,  and  thick, 
woody  seed-capsules  containing  a  cotton-like 
fibre  which  suggested  the  name  silk  cotton-tree. 
Some  of  the  species  exceed  100  feet  in  height, 
and  furnish  wood  used  in  making  boats.  The 
seeds  of  several  species  are  usea  for  food  to 
some  extent.  But  the  principal  economic  value 
for  which  these  trees  are  noted  is  in  the  fibre 
which  surrounds  the  seeds.  This  is  too  short 
to  be  successfully  woven  like  cotton,  but  is 
highly  valued  in  upholstery  for  stuffing  cushions, 
lounges,  etc.,  for  making  floss  and,  it  is  said, 
as  a  substitute  for  animal  hair  in  making  felt 
for  hats.  The  chief  source  of  supply  is  Java. 
It  is  known  in  various  countries  as  Kapok,  rimi, 
benfang,  etc.  Various  South  American  species 
of  Bomhax,  a  related  genus,  also  furnish  a 
similar  fibre.  Like  many  other  species  of  die 
natural  order  Mahace<F,  the  species  of  these 
two  genera  also  furnish  a  valuable  bast  fibre 
which  is  used  for  rope  and  corda^- making. 
One  species,  E.  occidentale,  is  grown  in  Califor- 
nia to  a  small  extent  as  an  ornamental  tree  un- 
der the  name  CHba  occidentidU. 

ERIOMBTER,  an  optical  instrument  for 
measuring  the  diameters  of  minute  particks  and 
fibres  from  the  size  of  the  colored  rings  pro- 
duced by  the  diffraction  of  the  light  in  whidi 
the  objects  are  viewed. 

BRIOPHORUM.    See  Cotton  Grass. 

ERIPHYLE,  in  the  Greek  mythology,  the 
daughter  of  Talaus,  and  wife  of  Ampl^raus, 
whom  she  betrayed  for  a  necklace  presented  to 
her  by  Polynices.  The  necklace  was  made  by 
Hephaistus  (Vulcan),  and  had  the  power  of 
rendering  whoever  wore  it  unliid^. 


joogle 


BRI8  — BRLKINO 


479 


BRIS,  e'ris  or  Srls,  in  Greek  mythology  the 
goddess  of  discard,  dau^ter  of  NiKht,  and 
sister  of  Nemesis,  and  the  Pares;  or  Fates.  Not 
being  invited  to  the  marriage  of  Peleus,  she  re- 
ven^d  herself  by  means  of  the  appJe  of  discord. 
See  Paris. 

BRITH,  England,  town  in  Kent  on  the 
Thames,  about  14  miles  east  of  London,  con- 
tains the  Maxim -Nordenfeldt  gun-factory,  engi- 
neering works  and  other  manufactories.  Sev> 
eral  yacht  clubs  have  tbeir  headquarters  here. 
Pop.  2?,750. 

ERITREA,  a-re-tri'3,  or  BRYTH'RJEA 
(from  Greek  erythros,  red,  referring  to  the 
Red  Sea),  the  official  name  of  an  Itahan  colo- 
nial possession  stretchitig  along  the  African 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea  from  Cape  Kasar  in  lat, 
18°  2*  N.  to  the  sultanate  of  Raheita  on 
Bab-el-Mandeb  in  lat.  12°  30"  N.  The 
coast- line  is  between  500  and  600  miles  in 
length,  and  the  area  of  the  colony  is  about  94,- 
800  square  miles.  The  chief  town  is  Massowah. 
Population  of  the  colony  is  about  400,000,  the 
tnajority  of  whom  are  Arats. 

ERIVAN,  er-I-van',  Russia,  (1)  a  fortified 
city,  capital  o£  the  government  of  the  same 
name  in  Transcaucasia,  on  the  Sanga  River  at 
an  elevation  of  3,000  feet,  33  miles  northeast 
from  Mount  Ararat.  The  manufactures  consist 
of  cottons,  earthenware  and  leather;  and  the 
situation  of  the  town,  on  the  caravan  route  be- 
tween Russia  and  Persia,  gives  it  a  considerable 
transit  trade.  Pop.  32,505.  (2)  The  govern- 
ment of  Erivan  has  an  area  of  10,745  square 
miles,  and  a  diversified  population  totaling 
(1912)  971^,  of  which  Armenians  and  Tartars 
are  the  chief  components,  but  including  also 
Kurds,  Greeks,  Russians  and  Jews. 

ERJISH  DAGH,  er'jish'  dag  (the  ancient 
Argseus),  an  extinct  volcano  in  the  vilayet  of 
Angora,  Asia  Minor.  It  has  an  elevation  of 
13,000  feet.  The  last  eruption  occurred  in  the 
4th  century  of  the  Qiristian  era. 

ERK,  Ltidwig  Christian,  German  musician : 
b.  Wetilar  1807  d,  1883.  He  studied  at  Offen- 
Irach  under  A.  Andrf,  became  conductor  in  the 
Domkirche  at  Berlin,  founded  tbe  Erk  Minner- 

f;sangverein  tn  1843  and  nice  jyears  later  the 
rk  Gesangverein.  He  was  emmently  success- 
ful as  a  conductor  and  trained  many  fine  sing- 
ers. His  library  including  many  mipublished 
manuscripts  after  his  death  was  acquired  by 
the  KoniKliche  Hochschule  ftir  Musik,  Berlin. 
His  pubfished  songbooks  include  'Singvoge- 
]ein>  (1896);  'Liederkranz>  (1839  et  scq) ; 
'Deutscher  Liederschatz>  (5th  ed.,  1993) ; 
*Tumerliederbuch.' 

ERLACH,  an  ancient  family  of  BertL 
Switzerland,  several  of  whose  members  earned 
distinction  in  various  fields.  The  first  was 
Waltek  von  Eblach,  who  lived  in  the  !2lh  cen- 
tury and  took  his  name  from  Erlach.  a  village 
near  the  lake  of  Brienz.  Rudolf  von  Eblach 
(d.  1360)  fou^t  at  Lanpen,  There  -is  an 
equestrian  statue  to  his  memory  in  Bern.  John 
Limwic  (b.  1595;  d.  1650)  commanded  on  the 
Reformers'  side  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
I^ter  he  entered  the  French  service  and  be- 
f^me  a  marshal  of  Prance. 

BRLANGEN,  Bavaria,  town  on  the  Regnitr, 
12  miles  north  of  Norcmbei^.     As  old  as  the 


TOth  century,  it  owes  its  prosi>erity  to  the  set- 
tlement here  of  French  Huguenots  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  and  to 
its  university.  The  chief  manufactures  are  arti- 
cles made  from  wood,  ivory  and  horn,  electric 
instruments  and  some  cotton  goods.  It  has 
large  breweries.     Pop.  24,874. 

ERLANGBN,  Universitjr  of,  a  Lutheran 
iDStitution  founded  in  1742  in  Baireuth,  but  the 
following  year  moved  to  ErUngen  (q.v.).  In 
1769  Alexander,  the  then  Margrave  of  Bairendi, 
gave  valuable  assistance  to  the  university  and 
the  name  was  changed  to  its  present  legal  title, 
'Friedrich- Alexander  University.*  Owing  to 
the  changes  of  government  of  the  country  the 
growth  of  the  institution  was  retarded  until 
1880.  Since  that  time  new  buildings  have  been 
added,  and  the  institution  has  increased  in  at- 
tendance and  influence.  In  1913  the  number  of 
students  enrolled  was  about  1,350.  Its  libraty 
conuins  about  260,000  volumes,  some  300,000 
pamphlets  and  a  considerable  number  of 
manuscripts. 

BRLANGER,  Camille,  French  composer: 
b.  Paris  1863.  At  the  age  of  17  he  entered  the 
Paris  Conservatoire  and  studied  piano  there 
under  Mathias,  and  composition  under  Bazille 
*nd  Delibes.    His  cantata  'Vellida>  secured  him 


was  surpassed  three  years  later  by  'Le  juif 
polonais.'  Others  from  his  hand  are  'Le  fils 
de  rstoile'  (1904);  'Aphrodite'  (1906);  'Han- 
nele'  (1908)  ;  <Noel>  (1911;  produced  at  Chi- 
cago in  1913);  'La  Sorciere>  (1912);  <Gio- 
conda>  (1914). 

ERLAHGER,  Joseph,  American  physiol- 
ogist: b.  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  5  Jan.  1874,  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  California 
in  1895  and  from  Johns  Hc^Idns  as  M.D  in 
1899.  Later  he  was  house  officer  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  Hospital  and  from  1900  to  1906  was 
successively  fellow  in  pathology,  assistant,  in- 
structor, associate  and  associate  professor  of 
thysiology  at  Johns  Hopkins.  In  1906-10  he 
eld  the  diair  of  jihysiology  at  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  and  since  the  latter  year  has  held  a 
similar   chair  at   Washington   University. 

ERLAU,  Sr'low,  or  EGER,  a'ger,  Hungary, 
town,  capital  of  the  county  Heves,  on  the  Eger, 
75  miles  east- northeast  of  Budapest.  The  man- 
ufactures consist  chiefly  of  woolen  and  linen 
clolh,  hats,  combs,  leather,  shoes  and  harness. 
The  finest  red  wines  of  Hungary  are  made  from 
grapes  grown  in  the  neighborhood.  There  are 
two  thermal  springs,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
river,  Erlau  was  in  possession  of  the  Tutts 
from  1596  to  1687,    Pop,  2a0S2: 

ERLKING  (Gcr.  Erlkonig).  a  mythical 
personage  first  introduced  into  (}erman  poetry, 
through  Herder's  translation  of  a  Danish  bal- 
lad, *The  Erlking's  Daughter,'  and  made  famil- 
iar to  all  readers  by  Goethe's  ballad,  'Der  Erl- 
konig,' or  translations  of  it.  This  goblin  is 
represented  as  exercising  a  malignant  and  fatal 
influence  upon  men,  and  especially  children,  by 
alluring  promises  or  visions  which  lead  to  their 
destruction.  The  word  is  of  E)antsh  origin 
(Ellerkotige,  or  Elverkange,  Idng  of  (he  elves). 


.Google 


BRLON  — BRHAHI 


BRMAN,  (Johann  Peter)  Adolf,  German 
Egyptologist:  b.  Berlin,  31  Oct  1854.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  universities  of  Leip- 
zig and  Berlin.  In  1883  he  was  made  associate 
professor  of  Egyptology  at  the  last  named  in- 
stitution, where  his  faOier  and  Rrandfather  had 
both  held  the  chair  of  physics.  Two  yeaJs  later 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Egyptian  de- 
partment of  the  Berlin  Royal  Museum.  In 
1892  he  became  full  profcEsor  of  Egyptology. 
His  work  on  Egyptian  grammar  has  been  of 
inestimable  value  to  students  and  he  may  be 
said  to  be  the  first  to  put  this  branch  on  a 
really  sdentific  basis.  His  published  works  in- 
clude 'Die  Pluralbildung  dcs  Aegyptischen' 
(1878) ;  'NeuaKyptische  Grammatik>  (1880)  ; 
'Die  Sprache  des  Papyrus  Westcar>  (1889); 
'Die  Marehen  des  Papyrus  Westcar*  (1890)  ; 
'Altagyptische  Grammatik'  (1894;  Eng.  trans, 
by  Breasted,  London  1894) ;  '(Jeaprach  einei 
Lebensmijden  mil  seiner  Seele>  (1896)  ;  'Die 
Flexion  des  Agyptischen  Verbums'  (1900); 
'Zauberspruche  fur  Mutter  und  Kind'  (IWl) 
"  '  "  ■■  ■  •  '1909):  'Aegyptischi 
_..  „  jnd  Aegyp- 
tiscbes  Leben  im  Altertum'  (188S;  Eng.  tran*., 
'Life  in  Ancient  Egypt*  189lS),  the  but  work 
on  the  subject. 

BRMIHB,  any  weasel   (q.v.)   which  turns 
white  in  winter,  as  is  the  habit  of  all  those  liv- 
ir  has  its  pelt  made  up  as 


yellowish  white,  except  the  tip  of  the  tail,  which 

- : t.i--i,      tin -I.:-  £T :..  _».kJ^  ..«  :»*.^ 


becomes  complete! v 

Sof  the  tail,  whicn 
r  is  made  up  into 
tippets,  coat  trimmings  or  garments,  the  black 
tails  are  attached  as  ornaments  in  rows,  which 
gives  the  regularly  spotted  effect  characteristic 
of  ermine  furs,  and  imitated  in  heraldry,  under 
the  terms  •ermine'  and  "erminois,'  expressive 
of  furs  as  a  bearing.  In  mediaeval  times  the 
use  of  this  kind  of  fur  was  restricted  to  roy- 
alty, and  later  it  became  a  part  of  the  insignia 
of  judges  in  high  courts,  perhaps  as  a  symbol 
of  the  majesty  of  the  law;  whence  the  expres- 
sion 'the  ermine*  as  a  metonym  for  the  judi- 
ciary office.  Ermine  is  mainly  derived  from 
northern  Russia  and  Siberia,  where  it  is  the  fur 
of  the  stoat  {Putorius  crminco)  l  but  a  great 
amount  is  supplied  by  northern  Canada,  from 
two  or  three  American  species  of  weasels. 

ERMINE  MOTH,  any  of  several  white 
moths  marked  with  black  spots  as  in  ermine 
furs.  The  name  is  given  in  America  to  various 
bombycids,  but  was  originally  applied  to  a  Eu- 
ropean zygaenid  (Ypomoneuto  pellida). 

BRHINB,  or  BRMYNB,  STREET,  one 
of  the  four  great  roads  constructed  in  England 
by  the  Romans.  It  led  from  Bishopsgate, 
London,  by  way  of  Durolipons  (Godmandies- 
ter),  Lindum  (Lincoln),  Danim  (Doncaster)  t« 
Eboracum  (York),  whence  it  continued  north- 
ward past  Hadrian's  wall  into  Scotland.  At 
Lincoln  it  formed  a  junction  with  the  Foss 
Way,  leading  to  Bath  and  Exeter.  The  Vicinal 
Way,  a  branch  from  London,  led  through 
Essex,  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  to  Venta  Icenorum 
(Cvstor  near  Norwich)  and  connected  with  the 
main  road  at  Durolipons  by  a  branch  from 
Camnlo-dnnum  (Colchester). 


SRHINIS,  a  comic  opera  in  two  acts  by 
Edward  Jakobowski,  first  produced  at  the 
Comedy  Theatre,  London,  9  Nov.  18S5,  and  in 
New  York  at  the  Casino  10  Uarch  1886.  Based 
upon  the  well-known  melodrama  'Robert  Ua- 
caire,'  the  plot  is  lightened  by  the  substitution 
of  the  vagabonds  Ravennes  and  Cadeaux  for 
the  two  murderers  of  the  original  play.  Er- 
minie  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  suc- 
cesses in  the  realm  of  light  opera  and  to  Amer- 
ican audiences  it  is  associated  with  the  names 
of  Francis  Wilson  and  Pauline  Hall,  who  took 
part  in  the  first  New  York  production.  The 
music  is  light  and  graceful,  i£  not  strikingly 
original,  ^e  princii>al  numbers  are  Erminie's 
song  'Ah,  when  love  is  young.'  "Dull  is  the  life 
of  the  soldier  in  peace,'  the  fetching  lullaby, 
*Dcar  mother  in  dreams  I  see  her,'  the  whist- 
ling chorus,  'What  does  the  Dicky  Bird  say,* 
the  gavotte,  'Join  in  pleasure,  dance  a  measure,* 
and  the  'Goodni^t*  chorus  at  the  close. 

Lewis  M.  Isaacs. 

ERHLAND,  or  ERHELAND.  a  diocese  of 
East  Prussia,  situated  in  the  District  of  Konigs- 
berg.  It  was  erected  as  a  see  in  1230  under  Uie 
Teutonic  Knights  and  within  50  years  became 
practicallv  independent  of  the  metropolitan  of 
Riga.  This  independence  was  acknowledged 
when  in  1742  the  pallium  was  conferred  on  its 
preJate  by  Benedict  XIV.  Many  of  the  earlier 
bishops  were  also  temporal  sovereigns  of  this 
district  and  as  such  after  1354  were  acknowl- 
edged princes  of  the  Empire.  In  1466  the^ 
came  under  the  king  of  Poland  and  with  diffi- 
cult)'' prevented  the  Polish  sovereigns  from  in- 
vading their  right  of  free  election.  Pope  Pius 
11  as  Aeneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini  was  once 
bishop  of  Ermland  At  the  period  of  the  Ref- 
ormation the  diocese  was  ruled  b^  Stanislaus 
Hosias,  who  held  his  subjects  in  their  allegiance 
to  the  older  faith.  In  1772,  on  the  partition  of 
Poland  Ermland  passed  to  Prussia,  It  is  still 
a  bishop's  see^  with  the  cathedral  at  Braunsberv. 
Consult  Hipler,  'Analecta  Warmiensia 
(Braunsberg  1872)  and  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ge- 
schichte  una  Alterdiumskunde  Ermlands'  (ib„ 
1S58  et  se^.). 

ERN,  or  ERNE,  earn,  a  name  in  poetic 
rather  than  common  or  scientific  use  for  any 
of  the  sea-eagles ;  specifically  the  European 
white-tailed  eagle  of  which  the  American  hald- 
eagle  (_Haliaelus  UucocepJiaius)  is  a  near  rel- 
ative. It  is  the  original  English  name  for  the 
eagle,  the  modem  term  coming  from  the 
French.    See  Eaglz. 

BRHANI,  an  opera  in  four  acts  by  Giuseppe 
Verdi  (libretto  by  P.  U.  Piave,  founded  on 
Victor  Hugo's  drama),  first  produced  at  Venice, 
9  March  1844.  Its  success  was  immediate  and 
prolonged  and  was  probaUy  contributed  to  not 
a  little  b^i  the  interference  of  the  police,  who 
objected  in  particular  to  the  conspiracy  scene 
in  the  third  act  The  chorus  «Si  ridesti  il  Leon 
di  Castiglia,*  which  ends  this  scene,  aroused  the 
Venetians  to  such  a  pitch  of  political  endiu- 
siasm  that  at  one  time  the  theatre  was  closed. 
The  opera  abounds  in  strenuous,  hot-blooded 
music  that  found  its  way  easily  into  the  hearts 
of  Verdi's  countrymen.  But  its  popularity  was 
not  confined  to  Italy^  With  'Emam'  Verdi  be- 
came an  important  European  figure.  When  the 
opera  reached  Paris,  Victor  Hugo  objected  so 


RRHB  — ERNST 


strenuously  to  the  utiliutloii  of  his  dnuna  as  an 
operatic  libretto  that  the  book  was  altered,  the 
characters  changed  to  Italians  aod  the  new  title 
of  'II  Proscritto'  given  to  it.  Verdi  traveled 
a  laiig_  distance  in  his  artistic  growth  and 
'Emani'  now  seems  very  old-fashioned. 
Nevertheless  the  dramatic  power  of  some  of 
the  concerted  numbers  is  undeniable  and  it 
contains  melodies  that  still  live,  notably  Elvira's 
aria  in  the  first  act  "Emani,  involami." 

Lewis  M.  Isaacs. 

ERNE,  the  name  of  a  lake  and  a  river  of 
Ireland.  The  river  Erne  takes  its  rise  in  Lough 
Gowna,  flows  north  into  Lough  Oughter,  thence 
through  Upper  Loueh  Erne  to  the  Lower 
Lougn  Enie,  from  wuch  il  flows  into  Donegal 
Bay.  The  river  has  a  total  length  of  about  60 
miles  and  is  navi^ible  for  light-drai^fht  vessels 
for  about  two-thirds  of  that  distance.  Lough 
Eme,  including  Upper  and  Lower,  hat  a  len^ 
of  about  40  miles  and  has  a  width  varying 
from  4  to  12  miles.  Many  islets  dot  its  suriace- 
which  is  150  feet  above  sea-level.  The  lake  is 
the  paradise  of  the  angler;  salmon,  trout, 
bream,  perch,  pike,  aboundioK  ia  its  waters, 
The  lake  possesses  remarkable  scenic  beauty 
and  the  archsolt^cal  remains  on  some  of  th« 
islets  and  on  its  shores  form  an  added  attrac- 
tion to  the  tourist  Consult  Devenisl^  'Lough 
Eme:  Its  Histories,  Antiquities  and  Traditions' 
(Dublin  1897). 

ERNEST  MALTRAVKRS,  a  novel  by  Bul- 
wer-Lytton,  published  1837.  Its  sequel  is  entitled 
<Aliee,  or  The  Mysteries'  (1838).  In  the  pref- 
ace to  the  first-named  novel,  the  author  states 
that  he  is  indebted  for  the  leading  idea  of  the 
work  —  that  of  a  moral  education  or  apprentice- 
ship—to Goethe's  'Withelm  Meister.'  The 
apprenticeship  of  Ernest  Maltravers  i^  how- 
ever, less  to  art  than  to  life.  'Ernest  Maltra- 
vcrs'  is  written  in  the  Byronic  strain,  and  is  a 
fair  example  of  the  English  romantic  and  senti- 
mental novel  of  the  thinies- 

ERNESTI,  fr-nes'te,  Johann  Au^mat,  Ger- 
man scholar:  b,  Tennstadl,  Thuringia,  4  Aug. 
1707;  d.  Leipzig;,  II  Sept.  1781.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg  and  Leipzig,  and,  devoting  himself 
to  classical  studies,  became  rector  of  the 
Thomas  School  at  Leipzig  in  1734,  a  post  which 
he  held  till  1759.  He  became  professor  of  the- 
ology in  the  University  in  1759.  He  prepared 
editions  of  Homer,  Callimachns,  Polybius, 
Suetonius  and  Tacitus,  and  of  Xenophon's 
'Memorabilia'  and  Aristophanes'  'Gouds,'  and 
an  excellent  edition  of  Cicero  (3d  ed.  1776-77), 
to  which  he  added  a  valuable  'Key  to  Cicero,' 
often  re-edited.  Regarded  as  the  first  Lalinist 
of  his  age,  he  gave  a  great  impetus  to  classical 
and  biblical  study  ana  was  the  founder  of  a 
true  exegesis  of  Scripture  by  the  laws  of  gram- 


then 


c  of  the  'German  Cicero.' 


ERNST,  ftmat  I  (sumamed  "Tre  Pkiu9>), 
Duke  of  Saxe-fioda  and  Altenburg,  and 
founder  of  the  house  of  Gotha:  b.  Castle  of 
Aiteubuig,  24  Dec  1601 ;  d.  1675.  He  was  the 
son  of  John,  Duke  of  Weimar,  and  brother  of 
the  famous  Bernard  of  Saxe- Weimar.  He 
fought  with  distinction  as  colonel  of  horse 
under  Gustavus  Adolphus,  at  the  battles  of 
Nuremberg,  Ltitien  and  Nordlingen  during  the 


afterward  became  famous  for  the  wisdom  and 
frugality  of  his  administration,  for  the  reforms 
that  he  instituted  and  for  the  progress  his  prin- 
cipality made  during  his  reign.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  Gotha  line  which  became  ex- 
tinct  by  the  death  of  Frederick  IV  in  1825. 
His  son  Bernard  founded  the  house  of  Meinin- 

f:n;  Ernst  that  of  Hildburghausen,  and  Tohan 
mst  that  of  Saalfeld.    Consult  Beck's  'Ernst 
der  Fromme'    (1865). 

ERNST  II,  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha  and  Alten- 
burg: b.  1745;  d.  1804.  On  succeeding  bis 
father  in  the  dukedom  he  set  about  to  reform 
the  government  and  ameliorate  the  condition  of 
his  people.  He  refused  to  allow  his  army  to 
sencf  levies  to  join  the  forces  of  his  near  rela- 
tive George  Illin  tilting  against  the  American 
colonies,  although  large  sums  were  offered  as  an 
inducement.  He  was  a  patron  of  science;  insti- 
tuted for  the  first  time  a  measurement  of  an 
arc  of  the  meridian  in  Germany  and  established 
an  observatory  near  Gotha.  He  wrote  on. 
astronomy,  and  amonghis  works  are  'Astro- 
nomische  Taf eln '  ( 1799) .  A  biography  by 
Beck  was  published  at  Gotha  in  1854. 

ERNST  II,  Angnitas  Charles  John  Leo- 
pold Alexander  Edward,  Duke  of  Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha :  b.  Coburg,  1818 ;  d.  1893.  He  was 
brother  of  Prince  Ajbert,  consort  of  Queen 
Victoria  of  England,  and  seems  to  have  re- 
sembled him  in  tastes  and  character.  He  was 
instrumental  in  winning  the  battle  of  Edcem- 
f6rde  in  the  war  agamst  Denmark  in  1849, 
fou^t  on  the  side  of  Prussia  in  the  Austro- 
Prussian  and  Franco-Prussian  wars.  Alone 
among  the  German  princes  he  was  liberal  and 
worked  for  the  reform  of  the  constitution  as 
well  as  for  the  unification  of  Germany.  His 
liberalism  caused  his  little  duchy  to  become  an 
asyhim  for  political  refugees  trom  the  other 
states.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
Alfred,  duke  of  Edinburgh.  He  wrote  some 
successful  operas. 

ERNST,  Atinut,  King  of  Hanover  and 
Duke  of  Cumberland:  h  Kew,  S  June  1771;  d. 
18  Nov.  1851,  He  was  the  fifth  son  of  Geor^ 
III  of  Elngland.  He  lost  an  eye  at  Tournai  m 
1794,  held  a  command  in  the  campaign  in  Han- 
over in  1813-14  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Leipzig.  He  took  up  his  abode  at  Berlin  but 
returned  to  Englana  while  the  discussions  on 
Catholic  emancipation  were  going  on,  and  en- 
deavored by  every  means  in  his  power  to  pre- 
vent the  passing  of  that  measure.  He  as  a 
reactionary  also  opposed  the  Reform  Bill  of 
1832.  On  the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria  in 
1837  he  ascended  the  throne  of  Hanover,  in 
consequence  of  the  succession  to  die  sover- 
eignty of  that  country  being  limited  to  male 
heirs.  After  150  years  of  absentee  rulers,  Han- 
over again  had  a  resident  sovereign.  His  arbi- 
trary and  tyrannical  disposition,  which  had 
hitherto  shown  itself  in  opposing  every  step  in 
the  way  of  political  reform  and  progress,  was 
now  manifested  by  his  abrogating  the  consti- 
tution which  had  been  granted  m  1833.  In 
1848,  however,  he  was  compelled  to  accede  to 
popular  demands  and  accord  the  nation  a  more 
liberal  form  of  government.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  George  V,  the  last  of  the  Hanover- 
ian kings.    The  unp<^ularity  of  the  Duke  of 


■gk 


BRNST  — BROS 


Cumberland  in  Britain  was  extreme  atid  the 
contingency  of  his  sticceedinf?  to  the  throne 
was  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  misfor- 
tunes that  could  befall  the  nation.  Thus  was 
the  Duke's  ambition,  balked  by  the  marriage  of 
(Jueen  Victoria,  against  which  he  loudly  pro- 
tested, and  refused  to  attend  the  ceremony. 
Consult  Wilkinson,  'Reminiscences  of  King 
Ernst  of  Hanover'    (1880). 

ERNST,  Harold  Clarence,  American  bac- 
teriologist :  b.  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  31  July  1856. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in 
1876  and  ai  its  medical  school  in  1880,  and  be- 
came professor  of  bacteriolom'  there.  From 
1898  to  1908  he  ?;erved  as  president  of  the  Bos- 
ton Society  of  Medical  Sciences,  and  in  1909 
was  president  of  the  American  Bacteriologists' 
and  Pathologists'  Association.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Journal  of  Medical  Research  after  1896, 
and  contributes^^  lo  scientific,  medical  and  other 
periodicals.  His  published  works  include  'In- 
fectiousness of  Milk>  (1896):  'Infection  and 
Immunity'  (1898) ;  'Prophylactic  Hvaiene' ; 
'Animal  Experimentation'  (1902)  ;  'Modern 
Theories  of   Bacterial   Immunity'    (1902). 

ERNST,  Oswald  Herbert,  American 
military  officer:  b.  near  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  27 
June  1842.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  and  was  commissioned 
a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  1898.  He  was 
engineer  in  charge  of  western  river  improve- 
ments in  1878-86;  had  charge  of  harbor  im- 
provements in  Texas  in  1886-^;  and  while  on 
the  latier  service  began  the  great  work  which 
resulted  in  the  deepening  of  the  channel  at  the 
entrance  of  Galveston  harbor  from  12  to  3S 
feet.  In  1893-98  he  was  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy.  In  the  war 
with  Spain  he  went  with  General  Miles  to  Porto 
Rico  in  July  1898,  and  on  9  August  ted  the 
troops  in  the  aclion  at  Coamo.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  1899- 
1901,  which  selected  the  Panama  route,  and  of 
the  Commission  of  1905-06  which  determined 
the  type  of  canal  should  be  with  locks.  He 
was  president  of  the  Mississippi  River  Commis- 
sion 1903-06  and  chairman  of  the  American 
section  of  the  Internationa)  Waterways  Com- 
mission 1905-15.  He  has  been  a  director  of 
the  Panama  Railroad  since  1905.  He  retired 
from  the  army  27  June  1906.  He  has  published 
•Manual  of  Practical  Military  Engineering' 
(1873)  and  a  'Report'  (1904)  on  the  tunnels 
under  the  Chicago  River. 

KRNST  LUDWIQ,  Grand  Duke  of  Hesse: 
b.  Darmstadt,  25  Nov.  1868.  He  succeeded  to 
the  throne  in  1892.  In  1896  he  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-general. In  1894  he  married  Princess 
Victoria  Melita  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  He 
divorced  her  in  1901  and  in  1905  he  married 
Princess  Eleonore  of  Solms-Hohensohms-Lich.  . 
In  1909  the  Duke's  play  'Bonifatius'  was  pro- 
duced at  Darmstadt  in  the  Court  Theatre. 

ERNULF,  er'niilf,  or  ARNULF,  English 
prelate:  b.  France,  1040;  d.  15  March  1124.  He 
was  appointed  prior  of  Canierbuij  by  Anselm 
and  was  subsequently  abbot  of  Peterborough 
(1107)  and  bishop  of  Rochester  (1114).  He 
was  equally  remarkable  for  skill  in  caiton  law 
and  personal  sainttiness,  and  compiled  a  great 
colleclion  of  documents  about  his  own  (Thurch, 


Stemes    'Tristra 

EROICA  SYMPHONY,  The,  a  famous 
symphony  by  Beethoven,  first  given  at  Vienna 
in  1805,  under  the"title  of  'Bonaparte.'  It  was 
afterward  renamed  Sinfonio  eroUa.     See  Bee- 

BROS,  the  Greek  god  of  love,  from  which 
the  Romans  derive  their  Cupid  (cupido,  de- 
sire). In  this  sense  Eros  is  a  fiction  of  later- 
day  poets.  Hesiod  is  the  first  to  mention  Eros, 
whom  he  asserts  to  be  the  fairest  of  the  gods 
who  rules  over  the  minds  and  the  councils  of 
gods  and  men.  It  was  he  who  brought  order 
and  harmony  oijt  of  chaos.  In  this  cosmogonic 
sense  he  is  used  by  many  of  the  early  writers. 
In  Orphic  poetry  and  in  Plato  he  is  conceived 
of  as  the  oldest  and  most  powerful  of  all  the 
gods.  In  some  instances  he  is  described  as  the 
son  of  Kronos  and  Ge,  and  in  others  he  is  of 
independent  ori^n.  "The  Eros  of  the  later 
poets,  which  is  familiar  to  us,  is  conceived  as 
a  son  of  Aphrodite  (Venus)  and  Hermes;  or 
of  Venus  and  Zeus;  or  of  Zephyrus  and  Iris; 
or  of  Aphrodite  and  Ares  (Mars).  He  is  de- 
picted as  a  wanton  mischievous  boy,  no  longer 
the  god  of  harmony,  but  of  sensual  love.  He  is 
represented  with  wings,  bows  and  arrows,  etc. 
See  Cupm. 

A  creature  called  Antdk>3  was  generally 
connected  with  Eros,  first  as  opposed  to  Eros 
and  fighting  against  him,  and  later  as  the  aveng- 
ing Eros  who  punished  those  who  did  not  re- 
the  love  of  others. 


most,  where  his  worship  was  very  ancient 
Here  a  festival  was  celebrated  io  honor  of  the 
god.  At  Sparta,  Samos,  Parion  and  at  Athens, 
where  he  had  an  altar  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Academy,  the  god  was  also  worshipped.  At 
Mezora  he  stood  with  Himeros  and  Potbos  in 
the  temple  of  Aphrodite.  His  statue  was  rep- 
resented at  first  by  a  crude  stone,  which  de- 


id  undoubtedly  the  source  of  all  the  later  rep- 
resentation of  Eros  as  a  chubby  boy.  Among 
the  things  sacred  to  Eros  and  accompanying 
him  are  the  rose,  wild  beasts,  the  hare,  the 
cock  and  the  ram.    See  Psyche. 

EROS,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  minor 
planets,  discovered  photographically  by  Witt  in 
1898,  al  the  Urania  Observatoiy,  Berlin.^  The 
orbits  of  most  of  the  other  known  asteroids  He 


wholly  beyond  that  of  Mars;  but  Eros  ap- 
proaches much  nearer  lo  the  sun,  and  at  times 
It  may  be  within  13,500,000  miles  of  the  earth. 
It  is  th'is  fact  which  gives  the  planetoid  its 
great  astronomical  interesL  The  relative  dimen- 
sions of  the  solar  system  are  known  with  high 
predsion,  and  if  any  dimension  can  be  accu- 
rately measured  in  miles,  all  the  other  dimen- 
sions become  known  al  once,  in  terms  of  the 
same  unit.  It  is  apparently  pouible  to  determine 
the  parallax  of  Eros  (and  hence  its  distance 
from  the  earth  in  miles)  wttli  relatively  high 
precision  and  a  correspondingly  accurate  deter- 
mination of  the  absolute  dimensions  of  the  solar 
system  in  general  will  result.  As  Eros  ap- 
proaches the  earth  more  closely  than  any  other 
heavenly  body  except  the  moon,  its  parallax  is 
relatively  large;  and  the  fact  that  its  diameter 


EROSION  — BROTIC  POETS 


do«  not  exceed  20  miles,  so  that  it  appears  in 
die  telescope  as  a  mere  point  of  light  without  a 
sensible  disk,  indicates  that  extremely  precise 
micrometrie  measures  of  its  position  on  the 
heavens  may  he  had.  Astronomers  are  keenly 
alive  to  the  possibilities  offered  by  this  seem- 
ingly insignificant  little  planet,  and  at  everv 
favorable  opposition  Eros  will  be  studied  with 
exceeding  care. 

The  planet  itself  is  known  to  be  a  little 
world,  nearly  round,  which  revolves  about  the 
sun  in  a  period  of  643  days.  A  very  remark- 
able fact  about  it  is  that  it  is  found  to  vary 
periodically  in  brightness;  when  brightest  it  is 
mote  than  three  times  as  bright  as  when  faint- 
est, the  period  of  a  complete  variation  being 
somewhat  more  than  five  hours.     It  was  su^- 

Esled  that  the  apparently  single  planet  is,  in 
rt,  two  planets,  so  close  together  that  they  ap- 
pear to  us  as  one,  the  time  of  their  revolution 
about  their  common  centre  of  gravity  being 
twice  the  period  of  the  apparent  variation  in 
brightness.  More  careful  photometric  study, 
however,  renders  it  certain  that  the  planet  is 
single,  having  one  side  much  brighter  than  the 
other,  and  that  its  variation  in  br^htness  is  due 
to  its  axial  rotation. 

An  asteroid  very  similar  to  Eros  was  dis- 
covered by  Wolf  on  4  Feb.  1918,  and  although 
the  orbit  of  this  new  body  is  far  larger  than 
that  of  Eros,  the  eccentricity  is  so  great  (0.5S3), 
that  when  nearest  to  the  earth  it  is  but  little 
more  than  17  millions  of  miles  from  us.  Thus 
this  asteroid  and  Eros  come  nearer  to  us  than 
any  other  planets  of  the  solar  system.  It  hap- 
pens that  the  time  of  nearest  approach  for  both 
of  these  bodies  is  toward  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1931.  It  is  probable  that  from  observa- 
tions made  at  this  time  the  distance  of  the  sun 
will  be  ascertained  with  an  accuracy  far  trans- 
cending that  available  at  present. 

EROSION,  or  DENUDATION,  the  proc- 
ess of  slow  removal  in  air  or  water  of  the 
products  of  rock  decay  whereby  the  surface 
features  of  the  earth  are  obliterated.  It  in- 
cludes the  destructive  work  of  winds,  of 
streams,  of  glaciers  and  of  the  ocean.  Its 
various  aspects  may  be  considered  under  two 
heads:    (I)    subaerial;    (2)    marine. 

I.  Under  subaerial  erosion  comes  the  action 
of  air  and  water  on  all  land  surfaces  above 
sea-level,  first  in  making  rock  material  fine, 
weathering,  and  second,  in  its  removal,' trans- 
portation. Chemical  processes,  due  to  moisture 
and  COi  ia  the  air,  break  up  the  rock-minerals. 
ChanRcs  of  temperature  crack  off  flakes  from 
rock-ledges  and  reduce  them  to  smaller  flakes. 
Water,  freezing  in  cracks,  forces  apart  large 
blodcs  of  rock.  In  a  climate  with  dr^  seasons 
the  dust  may  be  swept  away  by  the  winds  (de- 
flation), lea«ng  the  larger  pebbles.  Stony  des- 
erts have  thus  been  formed  in  Arizona  and 
other  parts  of  the  world.  The  dust-charged 
winds  can  carve  and  wear  down  rock  surfaces. 
Instances  are  common  in  the  arid  regions  of  the 
West  and  in  the  desert  of  Sahara.  Gladers 
scour  out  their  valleys  powerfully  and  cany 
away  much  material. 

The  erosive  action  of  water  begins  with  the 
raindrop.  If  a  piece  of  soft  ground  with  small 
stones  lying  about  be  examined  closely  after  a 
shower,  it  will  be  found  that  soil  has  been 
beaten  down  and  washed  away  from  Ae  areas 


not  protected  by  stones.  This  aci 
takes  place  on  a  larger  scale  in  semi-arid  cli- 
mates when  rock-decay  is  slow  and  curious 
pillars  of  earth  or  soft  rock  capped  by  pro- 
tecting boulders  are  formed.  Examples  may 
be  found  in  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  Colorado. 
When  the  raindrops  unite  to  form  tiny  rivulets 
the  process  of  river-erosion  has  begun.  In  fact, 
a  patch  of  soft  ground  on  a  hillside  during  a 
shower  shows  many  of  the  phenomena  of 
SI  ream 'format  ion,  as  likewise  does  even  a  dust- 
covered  street.  The  work  of  surface  water 
is  continuous.  Some  rock- constituents  are  dis- 
solved and  borne  away  in  solution ;  other 
particles  arc  Carried  away  in  suspension  and,  by 
abrasion  on  rocks  below,  help  the  stream  carve 
its  channel  deeper.  When  the  current  slackens 
some  of  the  waste  from  the  higher  lands  may 
be  deposited,  the  coarser  matenals  first.  Thus 
mountains  are  worn  down  and  plains  formed. 
The  higher  the  mountains,  the  deeper  the  valleys 
can  be  carved;  but  even  the  highest  mountains 
are  ultimately  deeply  dissected,  and  finally  worn 
down  so  that  the  current  of  the  river  may  not 
be  strong  enough  to  transport  the  detritus.  The 
carving  of  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado, 
a  stupendous  piece  of  work  as  it  is,  is  but  a  be- 
ning  in  the  complete  leveling  of  the  region.  A 
country  thus  worn  down  is  said  to  have  reached 
a  base-level  of  erosion,  and  its  neariy  level 
surface  forms  a  peneplain.  If  such  a  region  be 
uplifted  the  streams  will  start  work  again  vigor- 
ously, and  a  new  cycle  of  erosion  will  be^n. 
A  region  reduced  to  its  base-level,  if  neither  ele- 
vated nor  depressed,  can  remain  unchanged 
through  millions  of  years. 

The  amount  of  waste  brought  down  by  some 
rivers  is  enormous.  Thus  the  Po  in  flood  car- 
ries one  part  sediment  to  every  300  parts  of 
water;  the  Ganges  one  part  sediment  to  835 
parts  of  water.  These  may  seem  small  ratios 
of  sediment,  but  the  total  amount  of  material 


brings  down  150,000,0(X]  tons.  The  Mississippi 
annually  brings  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  406,231;- 
000  tons  of  material  in  suspension,  enougjl  to 
lower  its  whole  basin  one  inch  in  300  years.  It 
is  calculated  that  the  average  amount  of  material 
removed  as  sediment  annually  by  streams  over 
the  whole  land  surface  is  600  tons  per  square 

2.  Marine  erosion  Is  continually  wearing 
away  the  continents.  Waves  undermine  cliSs, 
grind  up  sand  and  boulders,  and  working  with 
the  undertow,  drag  the  materials  out  and  deposit 
them  in  the  ocean.  Some  geolo^sts  even  hold 
that  marine  planation  is  more  important  than 
river  work  in  the  destruction  of  continents. 

EROSTRATUS,  Ephesian  incendiary.  To 
perpetuate  his  name  as  the  destroyer  of  one  of 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world  he  set  fire  to 
the  magnificent  temple  of  Artemis  (Diana),  at 
Ephesus,  on  the  night  Alexander  the  Great  was 
bom  (356  B.C.).  The  indignant  Ephesians  de- 
creed that  whoever  pronounced  his  name  would 
be  put  to  death,  a  sure  means  of  insuring  his 

EROTIC  (Greek  erOs,  love)  POETS,  the 
name  applied  to  certain  modem  French  ficlion- 
ists,  and  in  Greek  literature,  particularly  to  a 
class  of  romance  writers,  and  to  the  author  of 
die  'Milesian  Tales.'    Tiiese  writers  belong  to 


joogle 


BROTOHAHIA— XSKBTT 


the  later  periods  of  Greek  literature,  and  abound 
in  sophistical  subtleties  and  oniamcnts.  The 
best  of  them  are ,  Achilles,  Tatius,  Heliodonis, 
Longus,  XenophoQ  oE  Ephesus  and  Chariton. 
The  word  erotic  is  used  in  two  closely  related 
senses,  (1)  amorous,  treating  of  love  or  in- 
spired by  love ;  (2)  a  love  poem  or  composition. 

EROTOMANIA,  a  kind  of  paranoia  in 
which  there  is  present  a  morbid  ideation  toward 
a  real  or  imaginary  object  of  love.  See 
Paranoia. 

ERPENIUS,  £r-pe'nl-iis  (Latinized  from 
Van  Erpe),  Thomas,  Dutch  Orientalist:  b. 
Gorkum,  Holland,  II  Sept  1534;  d.  Leyden,  13 
Nov.  1624,  His  fame  rests  principally  on  his 
acquaintance  with  the  Oriental  languages.  To 
extend  his  knowledge  of  them  he  visited  Eng- 
land, Prance,  Italy  and  Germany,  and  became 
acquainted  with  the  most  eminent  scholars.  He 
learned  at  the  same  time  the  Persian,  Turkish 
and  Ethiopian  languages.  He  returned,  in  1612, 
to  Leyden,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  Arabic 
and  other  Oriental  languages.  He  established  a 
press,  at  great  expense,  for  the  printing  of 
works  of  Oriental  literature.  In  1619  a  second 
Hebrew  professorship  was  founded  at  Leyden, 
and  committed  to  Erpenius.  Soon  after  he  re- 
ceived the  oflice  of  Oriental  interpreter  to  the 
states- general.  The  most  learned  Arabs  ad- 
mired the  elegance  with  which  he  expressed 
himself  in  their  language,  so  rich  in  delicate 
peculiarities.  His  reputation  as  a  perfect  master 
of  the  Arabic  became  universal,  and  he  was  re- 
peatedly invited  by  the  king  of  Spain  to  explain 
inscriptions  on  the  Moorish  buildings  and  monu- 
ments. The  works  of  Erpenius  (some  of  which 
were  published  after  his  death),  are  held  in  the 
highest  estimation.  Besides  his  ' Gramma tica 
Arabica,'  his  'Grammatiea  Hebraica,'  and  other 

grammatical  works,  his  most  valuable  and  cele- 
rated  publication  is  his  'Historia  Saracenica' 
{1625). 

BRllAHTE,  Vincenso,  ven-cbend'so  ir- 
ran'le,  Italian  poet  and  statesman  :  b.  Palermo, 
16  July  1813;  d.  Rome,  29  April  1891.  He  was 
many  years  an  exile  for  his  share  in  Sicilian 
politics.  His  works  are  two  volumes  of 
'Tragedies  and  Lyrics*  (1874) ;  the  dramas 
•The  Feast  of  Saint  Fclix>  and  'Suleiman  the 
Great';  the  poems  'The  Ideal'  and  'Liberty.' 
He  wrote  also  a  "History  of  the  Osmanli  Em- 
pire from  Osman  to  the  Peace  of  Carlowitz' 
(I8S2-83). 

BRRANTIA,  er-Sn'shi-a,  an  order  of  anne- 
lids of  the  sub-class  Polych^eta,  characterixed  by 
their  not  dwelling  in  fixed  tubes,  but  wandering 
about  freely,  seeking  animal  food  They  have 
a  well- developed  head,  with  protrusible  pharynx 
usually  armed  with  chitinous  jaws,  and  efficient 
locomotory  organs.  A  typical  genus  is  Nereis, 
with  many  familiar  species. 

ERRAHD,  fir-rar,  Charlw,  French  painter 
and  architect:  b.  Nantes,  1606;  d.  Rome,  IS  May 
1689.  He  was  instructed  in  painting  by  his 
father,  Charles  Errard,  known  as  the  elder,  and 
perfected  his  knowledge  at  Rome.  On  his 
return  to  France  he  gradually  rose  to  eminence 
in  his  profession.  In  1648  he  became  one  of  the 
12  founders  of  the  Academy  of  Painting.  He 
was  enraged  in  the  decoration  of  the  Palais 
Royal,  Louvre  and   other  palaces.    His   chief 


claim  to  notice  lests,  however,  upon  lus  con- 
nection with  the  foundation  o£  the  French 
academy  at  Rome,  which  was  projected  by  him 
and  carried  into  effect  in  166C^  with  12  pupils, 
and  of  which  he  was  the  first  director. 

ERRATA,  e-ra'ta  (Latin,  the  plural  form 
of  erratum,  an  error),  the  list  of  errors  and  cor- 
rections placed  at  the  end  or  at  the  beginning 
of  a  book.  Before  the  invention  of  printing, 
and  for  a  short  time  after,  the  errata  were  cor- 
rected on  the  page  where  they  occurred,  but 
this  was  foimd  to  be  inconvenient  when  the 
art  became  a  little  more  developed.  The  first 
known  example  occurs  in  an  annotated  edition 
of  'Juvenal,'  published  at  Venice  in  1478,  which 
contains  a  list  occupyhie  two  pages.  'The  Vul- 
gate,' published  in  1590,  at  Rome,  by  Sixtus  V, 
and  of  which  the  proofs  were  revised  by  that 
Pope  himself,  contains,  instead  of  a  table  of 
errata,  a  bull  which  excommtmicated  those  who 
would  dare  to  make  any  alterations  in  the  text. 
The  book,  however,  was  found  to  contain  so 
many  blunders  that  it  was  afterward  si»)pressed, 
and  the  Papal  bull  had  no  other  effect  than 
that  of  amusing  the  learned  and  creating  a 
demand  for  the  copies  still  existing^some  of 
which  have  been  sold  for  about  &00.  See 
Btnj.;  Mistake. 

BRSATICS,  or  ERRATIC  BLOCKS,  in 
geology,  boulders  or  large  masses  of  angular  or 
subangular  rock  which  have  been  transported  to 
a  distance  from  their  original  outcrop  by  the 
action  of  ice  during  the  Glacial  Period.  Thus 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Jura  Mountains,  in  France, 
immense  blocks  of  granite  are  fotmd  which 
have  traveled  60  miles  from  their  original  situa- 
tion and  in  northern  United  States,  boulders 
arc  found,  the  nearest  source  of  which  must 
he  over  200  miles  distant  from  the  present  loca- 
tion.   See  Geology;  Gi-AaEs;  Gi.acial  Pekiod. 

ERRESA,  £r-ra'ra  Alberto,  Italian  Mlitical 
economist:  b.  Venice,  2l  April  184Z  He  was 
educated  at  Padua  and  has  held  the  pro- 
fessorship of  political  economy  and  statistics  in 
the  schools  of  several  Italian  cities,  including 
Venice,  Milan  and  Naples,  and  also  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Naples.  Among  his  works  are  'Sloria 
c  stalistica  delle  Industrie  Venete'  (1S70); 
'Storia  della  econoraiapoliticaneisecoli  XVII,  e 
XVIII  negli  stati  della  republica  Venela' 
(1877);  'Demoaraphia'  (1892);  and  'Leiione 
di  economia  politica'  (1892). 

ERRETT,  Ibuc  American  cler^man :  b. 
New  York,  2  Jan.  1820;  d.  near  Qnciiuiati, 
Ohio,  19  Dec.  1888.  In  1840  he  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  "Christian  Church,*  a  sect 
founded  by  Alexander  Campbell,  aad  held 
pastorates  in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michiean  and 
Chicago,  III.  For  a  time  he  assisted  Campbell 
in  the  editorship  of  the  MiUtnniai  Harhingrr, 
in  1866  he  established  the  Christian  SUmdard, 
and  published  it  until  his  death.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  Alliance  College  1868-69;  filled  many 
offices  in  his  Church,  and  wrote  'Brief  View  of 
Christian  Missions'  (1857);  'First  Principles, 
or  the  Elements  of  the  Gospel'  (1867); 
'Jerusalem'  (1872) ;  'Talks  to  Bereans' 
(1875); 'Letters  to  a  Young  Christian'  (1877): 
■Evenings  with  the  Bible'  (1884-87)  ;  'Our 
Positbn;  the  Plea  Urged  by  the  People  Known 
as  Disciples  of  Christ>  (1885).  Consult  Lamar, 
'Isaac   Errett'    (Cincinnati   1894). 


V_i 


oogic 


BKSHINBS — SR8KINB 


BRSHINBS,  er'rinz,  medidnes  adminis- 
tered locally  to  produce  sneezing,  and  so  relief 
from  catarrh  by  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils. 
Tbe  term  is  not  generally  used  at  present. 

ERROR,  (Latin  errare,  to  wander)  (I)  In 
attronomy  errors  or  differences  in  calculations 
and  observations,  to  correct  which  recourse  is 
had  to  a  system  of  reduction  known  as  the 
method  of  least  squares.  To  correct  errors  of 
instrument  measurement  is  of  tbe  greatest  im- 
portance in  all  scientific  work,  ana  great  care 
and  pains  are  taken  to  secure  these  corrections. 
(2)  Clerical  error,  a  mistake  in  writing,  a  slip 
of  the  pen.  (3)  Joiner  in  error,  in  law;  the 
taking  of  issue  on  the  su^estion  of  error.  (4) 
Wtit  of  error,  in  law^  a  process  issued  by  a 
court  of  review,  to  an  infenor  court,  suggesting 
that  error  has  been  committed  and  requiring 
the  record  to  be  sent  up  for  examination;  now 
commonly  known  as  an  appeal.  (5)  Court  of 
error,  a  court  exercisipg  appellate  jurisdiction 
by  means  of  writs  of  error.  (6)  Assignment 
of  error,  in  law,  specification  of  the  error  sug- 
gested or  objected  to.  For  ordinary  errors, 
see  Boix;  Mistake. 

ERROR,  Personal.  See  EQUAnoH,  Fee- 
son  ai. 

ERSCH,  ersh.  Johann  Samtiel,  German 
bibliographer;  b.  Grossglogau,  23  June  1766;  d. 
Halle,  16  Jan.  1828.  He  was  principal  librarian 
and  professor  of  geography  and  statistics  at 
Halle,  and  is  credited  with  being  the  founder 
of  modem  German  bibliography.  Among  his 
publications  are  a  'Dictionary  of  French 
Writers';  'Manual  of  Gennan  Literature'; 
and,  in  connection  with  Gruber,  the  'Universal 
Encyclopedia  of  Arts  and  Sciences'  (1818). 
This  latter  is  a  work  of  great  merit 

ERSB,  ers,  a  corruption  of  the  word  Irish; 
a  name  applied  to  Irish  Geelic  people,  and  also 
la  the  lowlBuders  of  Scotland.  See  Celtic 
Languacxs  ;  Celtic  Literatube. 

BRSKINE,  Bavid  Stewart,  11th  Earl  of 
BaCHAN,  Scottish  author  and  antiquarian :  b. 
1742;  d.  1829.  He  received  his  education  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow  and  in  1780  founded  the 
Society  of  Scottish  Antiquaries.  He  published 
'An  Account  of  the  Life,  Writings  and  Inven- 
tions of  Napier  of  Mcrchiston'  (1787)  ;  'Essays 
on  the  Lives  of  Fletcher  of  Saltoun  and  the 
Poet  Thomson'  (1792);  'Anonymous  and  Fugi- 
tive Essays'  (1812). 

ERSKINB,  Bbenezer,  Scottish  clergyman 
and  founder  of  the  Secession  Church  in  Scot- 
land: b.  Dryburgh,  Berwickshire,  22  June  1680; 
A  Stirling,  2  June  17S4.  He  was  ordained  to 
the  parish  of  Portmoakj  Kinrosshire,  in  1703, 
in  which  charge  he  remained  28  years^  when  he 
was  translated  to  Stirling  (1731).  His  attitude 
during  the  "Marrow"  controversy  as  well  as 
his  opposition  to  the  system  of  patronage  in  the 
Church,  led  to  a  sentence  equal  to  deposition 
being  passed  in  1733  which  was  recalled  in  the 
foUowmg  year;  in  1733  he  with  a  few  others 
made  a  formal  act  of  secession ;  in  1737  he  was 
joined  by  his  brother,  Ralph  (q.v.)  ;  but  it  was 
not  till  1740  that  he  was  finally  deposed  from 
the  ministry  and  his  church  closed  to  him. 
The  Secession  Church  was  split  in  twain  in  1747 
on  the  question  of  subscription  to  the  civic  oath 
then  taken  by  the  burgesses  of  Edinburgli,  Glas- 


Sw  and  Perth,  Aose  who  maintained  its  law- 
Iness,  led  1^  the  Ersldnes,  being  called 
Burners,  and  their  opponents  Anti-Burghers. 
So  keen  did  feeling  rise,  that  Erstdne  was  for- 
mally deposed  from  the  ministry  by  the  Anti- 
Burghers.  The  breach  in  the  ranks  of  the  se- 
ceders  was  not  healed  until  1820.  Ersldne  was 
the  author  of  several  volumes  of  sermons.  His 
'Life  and  Diary'  were  published  in  18*5.  Con- 
sult his  'Life'  by  Ker,  J..  (1881);  and  Mac- 
Ewcn,  'The  Erskines'  (1900). 
■  ERSKINE,  Henry,  Scotdsh  barrister:  b. 
Edinburgh,  !  Nov.  1746;  d  Almondell,  West 
Lothian,  8  Oct.  1817.  He  twice  held  the  office 
of  lord-advocate,  was  for  long  the  leader  of  the 
Scottish  bar  and  had  a  high  reputation  as  a 

ERSKINB,  John  (of  Dun),  Scottish  re- 
former: b.  1509;  d.  1591.  He  came  of  a  noble 
family  of  which  several  members  perished  at 
the  battle  of  Flodden  Field  His  early  educa- 
tion was  gained  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen. 
Having  accidentally  killed  a  priest  his  family 
sent  him  abroad  to  complete  his  education.  On 
his  return  he  introduced  the  study  of  Greek 
into  Scotland,  That  he  was  one  of  the  earliest 
supporters  of  John  Knox  is  ^thered  from  the 
fact  that  he  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  first 
covenant  of  the  Scottish  reformers.  He  at- 
tended the  marriage  of  Queen  Mary  in  France 
as  one  of  the  special  commissioners  appointed 
for  this  purpose.  Later  Erskine  assumed  the 
role  of  mediator  between  Knox  and  the  Queen, 
He  was  one  of  the  compilers  of  'The  Second 
Book  of  Discipline'   (157S). 

ERSKINB,  John,  of  Camock,  afterward 
of  Cardross,  Scottish  jurist :  b,  1695:  d  near 
Dumbarton,  1  March  1768.  He  was  called  to  the 
Scotch  bar  in  1719,  was  professor  of  Scots  law 
in  the  University  of  Eoinburgh,  1737-65,  and 
was  author  of  'Principles  of  ue  Law  of  Scot- 
land* (1754}, and  the  'Institutes  of  the  Law  of 
Scotland'    (1773),  both  authorities. 

ERSKINB,  John,  Scottish  theologian:  b, 
Edinburgh,  2  June  1721 ;  d  there,  19  Jan.  1803. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh and  at  22  received  his  license  to  preach. 
In  1744  he  was  ordained  minister  of  Kirkin- 
tilloch, where  he  remained  nine  years,  when  he 
removed  to  Culross  parish  in  Dunfermline 
prestfyteiy.  Five  years  later  he  removed  to 
New  Gri^riars,  Edinburgh,  and  in  1767  to  Old 
Grcyfriars.  He  was  for  many  years  the  leader 
of  the  evangelical  party.  He  wrote  many  ser- 
mons and  pamphlets  of  a  theological  nature. 
Consult  Wellwood,  'Life  of  John  Erskine* 
(Edinburgh  1818). 

BRSKINB,  John,  American  educator:  b. 
New  York,  S  Oct.  1879.  He  was  graduated 
at  Columbia  University  in  1900,  and  in  1909  be- 
came associate  professor  of  English  there.  In 
1903-09  he  had  served  successively  as  instructor 
and  associate  professor  of  English  at  Amherst 
College,  He  has  published  'The  Eliiabethan 
Lyric'  (1903)  ■  'Selections  from  the  Faerie 
Queene'  (1905)  ;  Actason  and  Other  Poems' 
(1907);  'Leading  American  Novelists'  (1910); 
'Written  English,'  with  Helen  Erskine  (1910. 
rev,  ed,,  1913)  :  'Selections  from  the  Idylls  of 
the  King'  (1912) ;  'Poems  of  Wordsworth, 
Shelley  and  Keats,'  with  W.  P.  Trent  (19I4>. 


,5lc 


BRSEINV— BRWIN  VON  8TBINBACH 


He  has  edited  'Contemporary  War  Poems* 
<1914)  ;  'The  Moral  Obfigation  lo  be  Intelli- 
gent and  Other  Essays*  (1915);  'Interpreta- 
tions-of  Literature  by  Lafcadio  Heam'  (1915). 
He  has  contributed  also  to  magatines  and  to 
the  'Encyclopedia  Americana.* 

ERSKINE,  Ralph,  Scottish  seceder:  b. 
IS  March  1685;  d.  Dumfermlin,  6  Nov.  17SZ 
He  was  a  brother  of  Ebenezer  Erskine  (q.v.). 
He  was  ordained  to  the  collegiate  charge  of 
Dunfermline  in  1711,  and  in  1737  joined  his 
brother,  who  had  seceded  from  the  Established 
Church.  His  'Gospel  Sonnets'  and  other  reli- 
gious works  were  once  very  popular. 

BRSKINB,  Thomas,  Babon  Erskinb, 
Scottish  jurist:  b.  Edinbui^,  21  Jan.  1750;  d 
Almondell,  West  Lothian,  )7  Nov.  1823.  Fir« 
in  the  navy  and  then  in  the  army,  he  finally 
decided  on  a  legal  career  at  the  suggestion  of 
Lord  Mansfield.  He  became  a  noted  forensic 
orator  and  jurist,  attaining  early  renown  as  a 
pleader  in  support  of  the  accusations  of  cor- 
ruption made  against  Lord  Sandwich;  later  he 
added  to  his  success  by  his  defense  of  Stock- 
dale,  Lord  George  Gordon,  Hardy,  Thomas 
Paine,  Home  Tooke  and  others.  Some  of  his 
greatest  successes  were  obtained  in  combating 
the  doctrine  of  constructive  treason,  by  which 
it  was  sought  to  make  persons  who  aimed  at 
effecting  a  change  in  the  sovereign's  constitu- 
tional character  and  position  Kiiilt^  of  the  cap- 
ital offense  of  "compassing  the  long's  death.* 
His  acceptance  of  a  brief  for  Tom  Paine  re- 
sulted in  his  dismissal  from  the  office  of  attor- 
ney-general to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  1790- 
1806,  but  achieved  no  success  there.  He  was 
created  Baron  Erskine  of  Resiormel,  on  becom- 
ing lord  chancellor  in  1806,  holding  office  till 
the  following  year, 

BRSKINB,  Thonui,  Scottish  theological 
writer:  b.  Edinburgh.  1788;  d.  1870.  He 
studied  law  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  and 
practised  this  profession  from  1810  to  1816, 
when  he  abandoned  it  for  the  literal?  field. 
Many  of  his  views  in  matters  of  theology  were 
unorthodox,  such  was  especially  the  case  with 
his  theories  of  the  atonement  and  universal 
He  propounded  tiis  views  so  sldl- 


Kirk  in  1831  because  of  his  heterodoxy.  His 
■writings  include  'Remarks  on  the  Internal  Evi- 
dence of  the  Truth  of  Revealed  Religion'  (10th 
cd..  1878)  ;  'The  Unconditional  Freedom  of  the 
Ckwpel*  (1828) ;  'The  Doctrine  of  Election* 
(1837;  Zded..  1878);  'Spiritual  Orderand  Other 
Papei^'  (1871).  Consult  his  'Letters,'  edited 
by  William  Hanna  (1877). 

ERTBL,  ar'lil.  Jew)  Paul,  German  com- 
poser: b.  Fosen,  1865.  He  studied  composition 
imder  E  Tanwitz  and  piano  under  Liszt  and 
Bras^in.  He  is  teacher  al  the  BrandenburR  Con- 
ser\-atory,  Berlin,  and  musical  critic  of  a  Berlin 
newspaper.  He  collaborated  on  various  publi- 
cations and  edited  the  Deutsche  Sfiisikerseitung 
18'5"-1905.  His  competitions  include  the  s>-m- 
phonies  'Harald,'  'Maria  Stuart.*  'Der 
Mensch,'  'Belsazar.'  'Pompeii' ;  besides  several 
concertos  and  ballads. 

ERUPTION,  a  term  applied  to  a  local 
'"•"^""-e  in  the  skio  characterized  by  the  fgr- 


matioii  of  redness  or  scaliness,  blistering  or 
pustulation.  In  one  class  of  affections,  known 
as  the  eruptive  fevers,  a  characteristic  form  of 
skin-eruption  is  diagnostic  Thus  the  fine  red 
rash  of  scarlet  fever,  the  bluish  red  rash  of 
measles,  the  irregular  rash  of  chickenpoJt  and 
the  pustulate  rash  of  smallpox  are  readily  recoup- 
nized.  The  popular  notion  that  an  eruptian  u 
an  indication  of  something  evil  within  the  body 
finding  its  way  out  belongs  to  the  medieval  da^ 
of  superstition  and  ignorance,  when  disease  was 
regarded  as  an  evil  spirit  to  be  exorcised,  and 
gave  notice  of  its  evacuation  by  means  of  as 
eruption  on  the  skin.  At  the  present  time  wc 
know  that  most  eruptions  are  either  of  puretj 
local  occurrence^  due  to  localized  irritants,  as 
in  the  case  of  pimpies,  boils,  etc.,  or  diat  the; 
represent  a  disturbance  of  the  nerve-centres, 
whose  end'filaments  are  distributed  to  the  epi- 
thelial structures  of  the  body.  Thus  in  measles, 
not  only  the  skin,  but  also  the  i 


denced  by  nerve-irritation  at  the  periphery  of 
the  body.  The  popular  idea  that  it  is  necessat; 
to  bring  an  eruption  out  in  acute  infectiotn 
diseases  such  as  measles  and  scarlet  fever  i: 
trustworthy,  but  an  interpretation  is  frequently 
given  to  it  that  is  not  sound.  The  presence  of 
an  eruption  on  the  surface  of  the  body  in  these 
affections  is  an  indication  of  die  protective  ener- 
gies of  the  human  organism  in  its  fieht  with 
the  infection  and  poisoning.  The  inability  of 
the  body  to  counteract  the  poison  of  the  ditca» 


ay  prevent  the  development  of  the  eruption, 
_.  id  thus  its  brining  ou^  being  the  sign  of  the 
body's    ability   successfuUy   to    cope  with  the 


poison,  is  the  warrant  for  the  popular  idea  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  eruption.  Many  drugs 
locally  applied,  or  taken  internally,  cause  the 
formation  of  eruptions.  These  eruptions  may 
be  due  to  pureff  nervous  influences,  or  they  may 
be  of  local  origin.  Drug-eruptions  foUowing 
the  use  of  the  iodides  and  bromides  are  of  this 
latter  character.  As  the  drug  is  dinunatcd 
throu^  the  skin,  its  paj^age  there  causes  local 
irritation  and  the  formation  of  an  eri»i6on.  Sec 
Dermatitis;  Measles;  Skin  and  Skin  Dis- 
eases. 

BRUPTIVB  ROCKS.    See  Igntods  Rocks. 

BRWIN  VON  STKINBACH,  f5a  stin'- 
baH,  Orman  architect:  b.  SteinhacK  Baden;  d 
17  Jan.  13ia  The  principal  tower  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Strassburg  had  been  completed  in  the 
7th  century.  It  was  partly  built  of  wood  and 
was  reduced  to  ruins  by  lightning  and  successive 
fires.     The  nave,  begun  in  1015,  was  only  com- 

fleted  in  1275.  Erwin  was  then  requested  to 
umish  designs  for  the  decoration  of  the  in- 
terior  of    the   church    and    for    the   ctnutmc- 


tton  stone  of  the  new  structure  was  laud  25  May 
1277.  The  architect  died  when  the  work  was 
only  half  finished  It  was  ctmtinued  by  his  son 
Johannes  (A  18  March  1339).  and  snbse- 
quently  continued  chiefly  after  his  designs,  sliU 
preserved  at  Strassburg.  His  daughter  Salnna 
assisted  him  in  the  decoration  of  the  interior 
of  the  church;  and  another  of  his  sons,  Win- 
king (d  1330),  was  also  an  architect  of  sone 
distinction.  The  remains  of  this  family  of 
ardiilects  arc  interred  »-iltun  die  caUiedraL 


BRXLEBEH  —  BRTTHKINA 


4S7 


ERXLBBEN,  Irksla-ben,  Johann  CbriB- 

tian,  German  naturalist :  b.  Quedlinburg,  1744; 
d.  1777.  He  was  educaieti  at  the  University  of 
Goltingen  and  in  1771  was  appointed  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  there.  He  published 
'Aufangsgriinde  derNaturgeschichte*  C4th  ed., 
1791)  and  'Aufangseriinde  der  Naturlehre> 
(8th  ed.,  1794).  Erxleben's  mother,  Dorothea 
Christine  Erxleben,  was  the  first  woman  to  ob- 
tain the  degree  of  M.D.  in  Germany. 

BRYHANTHUS,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
river  (now  called  Douana)  and  mountain  (now 
Olonos)  of  Arcadia,  in  Greece.  The  river,  ac- 
cording to  some  the  modem  Dimitzana,  rises 
on  the  frontiers  of  Arcadia  and  Elis,  and  flows 
into  the  AlpheAs.  The  mountain,  situated  to 
the  east  of  the  river,  formed  the  western  point 
of  the  northern  barrier  of  Arcadia,  and  was 
covered  widi  forests.  It  was  in  this  mountain 
that  Hercules  chased  and  killed  the  famous  wild 

ERYNGIUH,  ^-rln'ji-um,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  parsley  family  {Apiaeea).  The  generic 
name  from  the  Gredc  refers  to  their  thistle-Iike 
appearance.  There  are  about  220  species  in  the 
eentis,  of  which  about  22  are  found  in  America. 
Rattelesnake-master^  or  button- snakeroot  (£. 
aquaticum)  grows  m  wet  soil  and  in  the  pine- 
barren^  from  New  Jersey  south  to  Florida  and 
west  of  Texas,  Missouri  and  Minnesota.  Its 
common  names  are  given  to  it  because  of  its 
supposed  efficaCT  as  an  antidote  to  the  venom  of 
snakes.  A  number  of  species  are  cultivated,  both 
on  account  of  the  steel-blue  color  of  the  stem 
and  branches,  and  of  the  unusual  manner  of 


and  is  distinguished  b^  its  rigid,  spiny,  gla 
veined  leaves  and  its  dense  heads  of  blue ' 
flowers.  The  roots  are  sometimes  candied,  and 
arc  reputed  to  be  stimulating  and  restorative. 
FalstarF  s^ks  of  its  use  as  a  confection  and 
its  aphrodisiac  qualities,  either  real  or  supposed, 
are  mentioned  by  dramatists  from  Jonson  to 


BRYON,  a  fossil  crustacean  found  in  the 
rocks_of  the  Mesozoic  period  in  Europe.  Six 
species  have  been  identified  of  which  E.  pro- 
pinqHus  is  the  best  known.    Consult  Cbustacea; 


BRYOPS,  a  genus  of  fossil  amphibians  of 
the  Pemican  rocks  of  Texas,  which  is  of  great 
interest  as  the  ancestor  of  tne  extension  order 
of  labyrinth-odonts,  according  to  the  latest 
general  opinion.  Several  species  have  been  de- 
scribed, of  which  the  best  known  (£.  mega- 
eephalus)  was  six  to  eight  feet  in  total  length. 
It  was  sluggish,  a  water-and-shore  living  animal, 
in  form  something  like  a  C^lifomian  horned 
toad  and  crept  about  on  legs  so  short  as  hardly 
to  lift  its  belly  off  the  mud.  Its  skull  was  en- 
tirely encased  in  bone,  save  small  holes  for 
nostrils  and  eyes,  and  showed  no  sutures.  The 
feet  were  broad  and  spreading  and  the  tail  short 
and  contracted  into  a  terminal  pointed  coccyx. 
Its  ribs  did  not  encircle  the  body,  and  it 
•probably  swallowed  air  like  a  frog."  'This 
animal,'  says  Osborn,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
collateral  ancestor  of  the  labyrinthodonts ;  it 
belongs  to  a  type  that  spread  all  over  Europe 
and  North  America,  and  persisted  into  the 
Metopias   of    th«   Trias  sic.      Cpnjult   Osbom, 


'Origin  and  Evolution  of  Life>  (New  York 
1917)  ;  Gadow,  "Amphibia  and  Reptiles'  (New- 
York  1901);  Woodward,  'Guide  to  Fossil 
Reptiles'  (in  the  British  Museum,  London 
1905). 

ERYSICHTHON.  «r-i-sik'lhdn,  son  of 
King  Triopas,  and  himself  a  legendary  kiiw 
of  Thessaly.  He  cut  down  trees  in  a  sacred 
grove  and  he  was  cursed  by  Demetet  with  such 
unsatisfiable  hunger  that  he  devoured  his  own 
flesh.  He  is  said  to  have  repeatedly  sold  his 
own  daughter;  but  each  time  she  returned  to 
him.  She  bad  received  from  Poseidon  the 
power  of  self -trans  formation. 

ERYSIMUM,  e-risTmCm,  a  ^enus  of 
plants  of  the  family  Brassicacea,  chiefly  bien- 
nials, with  narrow  entire  leaves,  and  yellow, 
often  fragrant,  flowers.  There  are  about  85 
species,  natives  of  northern,  temperate  and  cold 
countries.  E.  ckeiranthouieSj  a  native  of 
Europe,  with  small  yellow  flowers,  is  found  In 
waste  places,  along  streams,  and  in  iields  from 
southern  New  England  to  Newfoundland,  and 
westward  to  the  Pacific  coast, 

ERYSIPELAS,  an  acme  infectious  disease 
of  the  skin  and  subcutaneous  structures  caused 
by  a  streptococcus.  Whether  the  Streptococcus 
erysipelatis  of  Fehleisen,  or  the  Streptococcus 
pyogenes  is  considered  the  causative  factor  or 
not,  the  fact  remains  that  bacterio logically  it  is 
probable  that  these  two  forms  of  bacteria  are 
identical.  The  reaction  of  the  tissues  to  the 
streptococcus  and  its  poisons  causes  the  acute 
inflammation  with  redness,  puffin  ess  and  some- 
times gangrene.  This  local  swelling  is  attended 
with  fever,  headache,  general  constiiutibnat 
symptoms,  nausea,  vomittng,  and  at  times  vnth 
toxic  delirium.  Occasionally  the  streptoceoctu 
wanders  into  the  blood-stream,  and  general 
septicemia  or  pyemia  results.  At  other  times 
a  streptococcic  invasion  of  the  joints  produces 
an  acute  rheumatism  with  secondary  heart  com- 
plications. Erysipelas  may  alTect  any  part  of 
the  body,  but  ts  very  frequently  over  the  face 
and  head.  It  is  extremely  contagious,  the 
organism  finding  entrance  through  minute 
woimds.  Patients  who  have  had  recent  ery- 
sipelas should  on  no  account  be  allowed  to  come 
anywhere  near  women  in  childbirth,  as  puer- 
peral fever  may  result  The  treatment  of  ery- 
sipelas is  by  means  of  tonic  —  iron  and  quinine 
being  favorites— nutritious  and  easily  assimilable 
diet,  milk,  cod-liver  oil  and  some  form  of  al- 
cohol. In  those  patients  in  whom  abscess  for- 
mation occurs,  prompt  surreal  cvacution  b 
imperative.  Local  treatment  by  fdithjiol  and 
similar  antiseptics  is  widely  employed  with 
some  benefit. 

BRYSIPHACB,ffi.    See  MiLimv. 

ERYTHpMA.    See  DiJiMAtiTrs. 

ERYTHIA.    See  Hespixides. 

ERYTHRffiAN  (er^-thre'an)  SEA,  in 
ancient  geograj^y  a  name  given  to  what  is  now 
called  the  Indian  Ocean,  but  including  the  Per- 
sian and  Arabian  gulfs.  The  name  was  lat- 
teriy  restricted  to  the  Arabian  Gulf. 

ERYTHRIC  ACID,  a  white,  crystalline, 
tasteless  and  odorless  powder,  readily  soluble 
in  alkalis  and  alcohol  obtained  from  lichens. 

ERYTHRINA. .  See  Cobal-ume, 


,,  Google 


XR  YTHRITB  —  BRZINQAN 


ERYTHRITE,  or  "^Mbalt  bloom."  a  native 
hydrous  cobalt  arsenate.  It  has  a  beautiful 
peach -blossom  red  culor,  whence  its  name  from 
Ihe  Greek,  erylkros,  red.  It  occurs  in  mono- 
clinic  crystals,  but  more  commoniy  in  globular 
or  stellate  masses  or  earthy.  It  occurs  at 
Schneeberg,  Saxony;  in  Cornwall,  England;  in 
Chile,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  United  Stales. 

ERYTHRONIUU,  a  genus  of  sma!!  plants 
of  the  lily  family,  common  in  damp,  shady 
woods,  of  which  a  well-known  and  widespread 
species  (£.  americanum)  in  the  United  States, 
is  the  "dog-toolh  violet"  or  "adder's  tongue" — 
both  unfortunate  names.  It  is  among  the  ear- 
liest of  spring  flowers,  appearing  as  two  radical 
leaves,  usually  handsomely  mottled,  between 
which  rises  a  slender,  naked  stem  (scape)  three 
to  four  inches  high,  bearing  a  single  bell-shaped 
flower  of  six  distinct  lanceolate  segments,  pate 
yellow,  often  spotted  near  the  base.  About  a 
dozen  other  species  are  known  in  the  United 
States,  sotne  bearing  several  flowers  on  the 
scape,  and  of  various  tints,  as  purple,  rose-color, 
or  pinkish  white. 

ERYTHROPUEUM,  if.rith-r6-p1e'uin,  a 
genus  of  tropical  trees,  of  the  pea  family,  con- 
taining five  species,  found  in  Africa,  Asia  and 
Australia.  £.  gumeense  of  Africa  has  a 
poisonous  red  juice,  which  is  used  by  the  natives 
as  a  test  of  innocence  or  guilt,  and  hence  the 
name  ordeal-tree.  The  natives  of  Guinea  and 
the  Gold  Coast  employ  the  same  juice  to  poison 
the  points  of  their  arrows. 

ERYTHROSIN.    See  -Coal-Tar  Pboqucts. 

ERYTHROXYLON,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  family  Erylhroxylaeem.  The  genus  con- 
tains about  90  species,  composed  almost  exclu- 
sively of  trees  and  shrubs  growing  in  tropical 
regions.  The  flowers  are  small  and  lade  color; 
the  fruit  is  a  drupe.  The  red  dyewood  of 
Brazil  is  E.  sttberosttm,  and  the  oil-wood  of 
Uauritius  is  E.  hypericifolium.  The  chief 
member  of  the  genus  and  family  is  £.  coca. 
See  Coca. 

BRYX^  S'rlks,  ancient  name  of  a  city  and 
mountain  m  the  west  of  Sicily,  about  six  miles 
from  Drepanum  and  two  from  the  seacoast 
The  mountain,  now  Monte  San  Giuliano,  rises 
direct  from  the  plain,  unconnected  with  any 
other  rauRc.  and  hence  possesses  a  much  greater 
altitude  in  appearance  than  in  reality,  its  height 
being  only  2.184  feet.  It  was  ancientiv  believed 
to  be  the  hiRhest  mountain  in  the  island  after 
Etna,  and  is  frequently  alluded  to  by  Virgil  and 
other  poets^  On  the  summit  stood  a  celebrated 
temple  of  Venus,  from  which  the  goddess  re- 
ceived the  epithet  of  Venus  Erycina.  AH  traces 
of  the  ancient  town  of  Eryit  have  now  disap- 
peared, and  its  site  is  occupied  by  the  modem 
town  of  San  Giuliano;  but  some  remains  of  the 
temple  still  exist  in  part  of  the  substructure  of 
the  castle. 

BRZBERG,  arts-birg,  a  mountain  in  Styria, 
Austria,  near  the  town  of  Eisenerz.  It  rises 
about  S.000  feet  above  sea-level.  It  has  valu- 
able deposits  of  iron  ore,  reaching  as  high  as 
40  per  cent  metal,  which  is  taken  out  annually 
to  the  amount  of  over  1,000,000  tons.  Ara- 
Ronite  is  also  found  in  considerable  quantity. 

BRZERUM,  erz'room,  BRZBROUM,  or 
SRZBROOM,  Turkey,  a  city  of  Armenia,  and, 


_         A  Kars  by  Russia,  the 

chief  strategical  centre  and  place  of  resistance 
to  a  Russian  advance,  about  100  miles  south- 
west of  Trebiiond.  Its  fortifications  have  been 
repaired  and  much  improved  since  1864.  The 
inhabitanis  consist  of  Turks,  Armenians  and 
Persians  and  are  very  industrious;  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  important  manufacture,  especially  in  cop- 
per and  iron,  carry  on  a  very  extensive  trade. 
This  is  greatly  favored  by  the  position  of  the 
town,  standing  at  the  junction  of  sewral  im- 
portant roads  leading  from  Transcaucasia  by 
way  of  Trebizond,  and  cwnmunicating  with  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Asia  Minor,  with  Persia,  Kur- 
distan, Meso^tamia,  etc.  Erzerum  is  a  place 
of  great  antiquity.  Anatolius,  commander  of 
the  Emperor  Theodosius  11,  here  built  the  cit- 
adel of  Theodosiopolis,  northwest  of  tne  open 
Syro-Armenian  trading  town  of  Arsen.  On  the 
destruction  of  this  town  by  the  Seljuks,  in 
1049,  the  inhabitants  removed  to  Theodosiopo- 
lis, which  received  from  them  the  name  of 
Arsen- er-Rum,  that  is,  Arsen  of  the  Romans. 
Hence  the  modern  name  Erzerum.  In  1241  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mongols,  and  in  1517 
into  those  of  the  Turks,  notwilnstanding  whose 
mismanagement  it  continued  to  be  the  most 
important  commercial  emporium  of  the  Arme- 
nian plateau,  and  had  a  population  of  100,000. 
In  1829  it  was  taken  by  the  Russians,  but  was 
restored  to  Turkey  by  the  Peace  of  Adrianople. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants,  however,  quitted  the 
town  and  settled  in  the  Russian  territory.  In 
the  winter  of  1877  it  was  besieged  by  the  Rus- 
sians, who  reduced  the  defenders  by  famine, 
until  in  February  1878  it  was  surrendered,  and 
held  by  the  Russians  for  several  months.  It 
was  again,  however,  restored  to  the  Turks.  In 
•  the  European  War  Erzerum  fell  a  prize  to  the 
armies  of  the  Grand  Duke  Nicolas,  on  16  Feb. 
1916,  after  an  assault  lasting  five  days.  Turk- 
ish prisoners  to  the  number  of  IJjOOD  were 
taken  and  323  pieces  of  cannon.     See  Wai, 

EUBOPEAN. 

BRZOEBIRGB,  5rts'g«-ber-BS  (German. 
Ore  Uountains),  a  range  of  low  motmtains 
about  100  miles  long  on  the  boundary  between 
Saxony  and  Bohemia.  It  is  about  25  miles 
wide,  and  has  an  average  elevation  of  2,500 
feet  and  a  maximum  of  4,060  (Mount  Keil- 
berg).  Oil  its  sides  are  extensive  forests, 
among  which  are  many  summer  resorts.  Like 
the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains  in  the  United  States 
and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  they  are  an 
ancient  range,  worn  down  and  awiin  uplifted. 
As  the  name  implies,  the  Erzgeoirge  contain 
valuable  deposits  of  minerals  and  form  an  old 
mining  region.  Silver  ores  were  mined  there 
as  long  ago  as  1150  and  mines  of  lead,  copper, 
tin,  cobalt,  nickel  and  iron  ore  have  also  Iwen 
sunk  there. 

BRZINGAN,  er'zlng-an,  Tui^ey  in  Asia, 
town  and  capital  of  a  sanjak  in  the  vilayet  of 
Erienim,  85  miles  south  of  Encrum.  It  is 
situated  in  a  plain  at  3,900  feet  above  lea-level 
and  is  of  importance  as  a  garrison  town.  It  has 
a  military  hospital,  large  barracks,  goverrmieni 
buildings,  a  moMue,  a  bazaar,  an  Armenian 
normal  school,  and  other  Armenian  sdiools.  It 
has  manufactures  of  cotton,  canvas,  silk,  copper 
and  clothing.  The  government  maintains 
several  tanneries  in  the  neighborhood.  In  1784 
most  of  the  place  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 


XSARH  ADI>OM  —  B8CAL  AtOR 


Juake.  In  andent  times  it  was  calkd  Arsinga. 
'op.  18,000,  about  equalty  divided  between 
Annenian  Qiristians  and  Mohammedans. 

ESARHADDON,  king  of  Assyria  and  son 
of  Sennacherib.  He  reigned  from  681  to  668  B.C. 
When  his  father  was  slain  by  his  brothers, 
Esarh addon  proclaimed  himself  governor  of 
Babylonia  and  set  about  avenginx  his  father's 
deadi.  Within  a  year  he  succeeded  in  having 
himself  acknowledged  king  of  Assyria.  He 
conducted  several  campaigis  against  foreign 
enemies,  first  against  the  Cnald^^ns,  capturing 
Sidon  and  raiing  that  city.  In  6?3-670  b.c  he 
made  two  campaigns  in  which  he  brought  Egypt 
under  his  yoke.  He  died  while  on  the  way  to 
repress  an  msurrection  in  E^pt  in  668  i.c  He 
designated  Assurbanipal  as  king  of  Assyria.  He 
did   much   for   the   rebuilding  of   Babylon   and 

filanned  many  great  building  enterprises.  His 
iberaltty  has  caused  him  to  be  considered  one 
of  the  most  beneficent  kings  of  Assyria. 

ESAU,  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac,  and  twin 
brother  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxv,  24-26).  His  name 
(which  signifies  rough,  hairy)  was  due  to  his 
singular  appearance  at  birth,  being  *red,  and  all 
over  like  a  hairy  garment."  The  struggle  for 
precedence  between  the  brothers  was  fore- 
shadowed the  moment  of  their  first  appearance 
in  the  world.  Esau,  the  father's  favorite,  be- 
came a  cunning  hunter;  Jacob,  the  favorite  of 
the  mother,  became  a  peaceful  shepherd.  One 
day,  as  Esau  returned  famished  from  the  chase, 
he  found  his  brother  preparing  some  Ictitil  pot- 
tare,  and  asked  for  a  share  of  iL  Jacob,  taking 
advantage  of  his  brother's  distress,  offered  him 
the  pottage  if  he  would  give  up  his  birthright 
Although  this  meant  yieldinc;  up  the  headship 
of  the  tribe  and  the  greater  share  of  the  family 
property^  Esau  nevertheless  consented.  He  was 
named  Edom  (red)  in  consequence  from  the 
color  of  the  potiaee;  and  the  name  was  given 
to  the  land  he  setUed  in.  The  next  episode  in 
his  history  is  when  Jacob,  instigated  by  his 
mother,  personated  Esau,  and  succe«ded  in  get- 
ling  his  father's  covenant  blessing.  The  in- 
dignation of  Esau  at  the  base  trick  was  natural ; 
and  Rebckah  sent  Jacob  out  of  the  way  for  a 
ne,  to  escape  his  brother's  vengeance.    On  his 


After  a  subsequent  meeting  of  the  brothers, 
the  death  of  their  father,  we  hear  no  more  of 

Many  biUical  scholars  are  inclined  to  look 
upon  this  story  of  Esau  and  Jacob  as  symbolical 
of  the  relationship  existing  between  the 
Israelites  and  the  Eaomites.  Tbe  characteristics 
of  the  former  are  well  represented  by  Jacob  and 
those  of  the  latter  by  EsaiL  Edom,  which  was 
older  than  Israel,  was  subjected  by  David.  Sec 
Edou. 

ESBJERO,  Is'hyiT^,  Denmark,  seaport,  56 
miles  west  of  Frederick,  with  a  large  export 
trade  in  cattle  and  dairy  products,  mostly  to 
England.  Its  harbor,  the  only  one  of  importance 
on  the  west  coast  of  Jutland,  was  constructed 
by  the  state  at  great  expense  in  1868-74;  and  in 
1887  an  annual  subsidy  was  granted  by  govern- 
ment for  steam  communication  with  Great 
Britain.  A  submarine  cable  connects  with 
Calais.    Pop.  18,208. 

ESCALADE,  is-ka-Udd',  in  war,  a  furious 
fittack  of  a,  wall  or  a  rampart,  carried  oo  with 


ladders,  to  pass  the  ditch  or  mount  the  rampart, 
without  proceeding  in  form,  breaking  ground, 
or  carrying  on  tcguter  works  to  secure  the  men. 
See  Was. 

ESCALANTE,  as-ka-lan'ta,  Juan,  Spanish 
soldier  and  ejg>lorer:  d.  1519,  He  accompanied 
Cortes  to  Mexico  and  by  the  latter  was  made 
high  constable  of  VUla  Rica  de  Vera  Crui.  He 
destroyed,  on  order  of  Cortes,  the  fleet  which 
had  brought  the  Spaniards  from  Spain  and  with 
150  men,  remained  on  the  coast  while  Cort£s 
inarched  against  Mexico  Gly-  When  two  of 
bis  company  were  assassinated  by  the  Indians 
Escalante  set  out  with  50  whites  and  thousands 
of  Indian  allies  to  make  reprisals  on  the  hostile 
tribes.  In  the  ensuine  battle  his  forces  were 
successful  but  he  anaseven  of  bis  white  fol- 
lowers were  slain. 

ESCALATOR,  the  name  applied  to  a  con- 
tinuous carrier  designed  for  conveying  pas- 
sengers  from  one  level  to  another  within  a 
limited  time.  The  various  units  making  np  the 
escalator  are  so  arranged  that  on  the  incline 


steps  connected  together  by  a  heavy  sprocket 
chain  which,  at  the  proper  place,  engages  with 
the  driving  sprocket  wheel.  Each  step  is  es- 
sentialljT  a  four-wheel  truck,  bolted  to  a  shaft, 
which,  m  turn,  is  connected  to  the  links  of  the 
driving  chain.  There  are  two  wheels  at  each 
end  of  the  truck  traveling  on  separate  tracks. 
So  placed  that  the  steps  remain  horizontal  at  all 
points  of  the  ascent.  At  the  landing,  at  the  top 
and  the  bottom  of  the  escalator,  the  trucks 
travel  in  the  same  plane  so  that  the  steps  there 
become  a  moving  platform,  Ample  opportunity 
is  thus  given,  even  to  the  infirm,  to  board  the  de- 
vice before  the  ascent  begins  and  at  die  top  to 
step  oS  again.  A  traveling  hand-rait  moving  at 
the  same  speed  as  the  steps  further  simplifies 
its  use.  Should  a,person  fail  for  an^  reason  to 
step  oil  at  the  upper  landing,  a  device  calkd  a 
shunt  removes  hun  from  it.  This  consists  of  a 
box-like  afiair,  triangular  in  plan,  placed  about 
10  feet  from  the  top  of  the  escalator  with  the 
apex  pointing  against  the  direction  of  the  mov- 
ing ^atform.  In  the  lower  part,  set  in  a  ver- 
tical position,  are  two  belts  rtmning  backwards 
from  the  ^tex.  Anything  coining  in  contact 
with  these  beha  is  gently  brushed  to  one  side. 
Every  part  of  the  escalator  is  made  (< 


of 


of    J 


inch  by  spectal  machinery  designed  for  the  pur- 
pose. As  a  result  of  this  unusual  precision,  the 
various  steps  fit  together  so  nicely  that  a  piece 
of  paper  cannot  be  forced  between  them.  To 
secure  practically  tK^seleas  operation,  the  wheels 
on  vfhtcb  the  trucks  move  are  deadened,  raw- 
bide  pinions  are  used  in  driving  gear, 
and  die  tracks  are  huilt  up  of  wood  and  steel. 
The  links  of  the  sprocket  chain  are  made  of 
two  18>inch  cast  steel  shrouds,  with  l!^-indi 
steel  pins  between  them  at  3  inches  between 
centres.  The  ends  of  the  links  arc  bushed  with 
phosphor-bronze  in  which  graphite  is  inlaid, 
thus  providing  lubrication  of  tne  bearine  sur- 
faces, and  the  heels  are  similarly  provided  with 
a  constant  lubrication  of  graphite.  The  escala- 
tor is  driven  by  an  electric  motor  located  within 
the  structure  of  the  upjjer  landing  and  suitably 
geared  to  the  large  dnving  sprodcet  wheel  by  a 


8l^ 


490 


ESC  ALOF — ESCHATOLOQ  Y 


combination  oC  worm  and  spur  searing.  All 
parts  of  the  running  gear  are  made  of  crucible 
cast  steel,  the  axles  and  link  pins  being  of  cold 
drawn  steel.  Each  casting  is  subjected  to  a  test 
of    many    times    the    working- strain    to    come 

While  there  are  no  mechanical  limitations 
to  the  rate  of  speed  with  which  the  escalator 
may  be  driven,  it  has  been  found  that  a  speed 
of  about  100  feet  per  minute  is  satisfactory  to 
the  public.  Ai  this  rate  of  driving,  4,000  steps 
per  hour  arrive  at  the  landing  and  the  maximum 
capacity  of  the  machine  depends  upon  the  width 
of  the  steps  used.    The  escalators  which  have 


capacity  is  necessary,  have  been  a  little  .  .  . 
five  feet  in  width  and  as  each  step  readily  ac- 
commodates three  people  the  maximum  capacity 
of  such  a  conslrucbon  is  12,000  people  per  hour. 
For  the  smaller  department  stares  and  for  use 
in  railroad  stations  where  the  trai&c  is  not  heavy 
the  escalator  is  made  of  such  width  as  to  ac- 
commodate one  person  on  each  step,  and  the 
capacity  is  therefore  4,000  per  hour.  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  escalator  is  a  perfectly_  re- 
versible machine,  operating  equally  well  in  cither 
direction.  In  the  "dupleic*  type,  the  steps  dur- 
ing the  descent  are  again  guided  into  the 
familiar,  zigzag  position  by  suitably  placed  tracks 
and  thus  the  same  machine  serves  to  carry  pas- 
sengers both  up  and  down.  In  a  third  modihca- 
tion  of  the  device  designed  especially  for  the 
London  underground  railroad,  where  the  dif- 
ference between  levels  is  considerable,  the  steps 
ascend  in  one  spiral  and  descend  in  another 
spiral  below  the  hrst. 

ESCALOP,  or  SHELL,  an  heraldic  sym- 
bol used  to  signify  that  the  bearer  has  voyaged 
much  on  the  sea.    See  Hebalisy       J  T-  R 

SSCANABA,  Mich.^V'ciiy' arU  coiinfy-seat 
of  Delta  County,  on  Little  Bav  de  Nouquette, 
an  inlet  of  Green  Bay;  on  the  Chicago  ana 
Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaulree  and 
Saint  Paul  railroads ;  52  miles  northeast  of 
Marinette.  Owing  to  its  excellent  and  pic- 
turesque situation,  it  enjoys  considerable  repu- 
tation as  a  summer  resort.  The  harbor  has  an 
«i|^t-fflile  frontage  and  there  is  steamboat  con- 
nection with  several  lake  ports.  Much  of  the 
Lake  Superior  iron  ore  is  shipped  from  here. 
It  contams  ei^t  ore  docks,  in  which  are 
handled  over  4;000,000  tons  annually,  and  there 
is,  moreover,  a  large  trade  in  coal,  fish  and  lum- 
ber. There  are  manufactories  of  flooring, 
furniture  and  wooden  ware,  a  plant  for  crush- 
ing iron  ore,  and  large  railroad  repair  shops. 
The  United  States  census  of  manufactures  for 
1914  showed  within  the  city  limits  45  indus- 
trial establishments  of  factory  grade,  employing 
921  persons;  777  being  wage-earners  receiving 
$4^.000  annually  in  wages.  The  capital  in- 
vested aggregated  $1,354,000  and  the  year's  out- 
put was  valued  at  $1,507,000;  of  this,  $771,000 
was  the  value  added  by  manufacture.  The 
buildings  of  note  are  the  public  library,  hospital, 
high  school,  courthouse  and  city  halL  The  city 
was  settled  in  1863,  and  was  incorporated  in 
18B3  and  received  its  city  charter  in  the  same 
j-ear.    Pop,  14.747. 

ESCANDON,  Gniltermo  de  Lands  t, 
Mexican  statesman:  h.  Mexico  City.  He  was 
educated  in  Stonyhurst  University,  England ;  was 
several  years  a  member  of  the  national  Senate, 


represent! ngtbe  states  of  Chihuahua  and  More- 
los:  from  1900-02  he  was  mayor  of  Mexico Gty 
and  became  governor  of  the  Federal  District  in 
1903.    Under  his  administration  many  veiv  im-  | 

portant  reforms  have  been  introduced  and  car- 
ried to  successful  results,  among  them  the  re- 
striction or  practical  discontinuance  of  gam- 
bling; the  improvement  of  the  public  carriage 
service;  the  enactment  of  rules  restricting  the 
speed    of    automobiles;    the   protection    of    the  ■ 

peon  or  Indian  class;  the  improvement  of  the 
prisons  of  the  capital  cit^  and  its  suburbs,  and 
also  of  the  public  buildings  and  military  bar- 
racks ;  the  bettering  of  the  sanitary  condition  of 
the  correctional  sdnools,  the  theatres  and  other  I 

places  of  amusement,  and  of  the  entire  city; 
the  adoption  of  a  sj^stem  of  street  sweeping  and 
sprinkling;  the  placing  of  proper  restrictions  on 
the  sale  of  alcoholic  oeverages,  etc. 

BSCAPS,  the  liberation  of  a  person  from  I 

lawful  custody  without  lawful  authority.  When 
accomplished   by   the   prisoner  it   is   known  as  | 

prison  breach,  but  if  accomplished  by  others 
and  with  force,  it  is  known  as  rescue.  Prison 
breach  with  force  is  a  felony,  but,  if  without  , 

force,  merely  a  misdemeanor.     In  most  modem  | 

jurisdictions  a  prisoner  who  effects  bis  escape 
loses  all  commutation  of  sentence  earned  by 
him  in  any  manner  whatsoever.  His  aids  in 
the  escape,  or  even  attempt  to  escape,  are  guilty 
of  the  same  grade  of  crime  as  the  prisoner  and  I 

are  liable  to  the  same  punishment  Officers  who 
voluntarily  permit  an  escape  are  considered  as  I 

aids   and    punished   as    such.      When    guilty  | 


ESCAPEMENT,  a  part  of  the  maduiKcy  in 
a  watch  or  dock.    See  CijOCk;  WAiCHMAKiNa 

ESCARP,  or  SCARP,  the  slope  of  a  ditdi 
next  the  parapet.  In  permanent  fortifications 
the  escarp  is  usually  faced  with  mason  work 
behind  Which  arc  erected  casemates.     See  FOB- 

TIFICATION. 

ESCARPMENT,  the  abrupt  descent,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  a  cliff,  from  a  plateau  to 
lower  land.  Particularly  famous  are  the  Hel- 
derberg  escarpment  near  Albany,  and  the  Niag- 
ara escarpment,  the  latter  responsible  for 
Niagara  Falls.  The  Allegheiw  Front  is  an- 
other well-known  escaijiment.  See  Mountains; 
Cliff, 

BSCARS.    See  Eskeis. 

ESCAUT,  Is-ko,  the  French  name  for  the 
river  Scheldt, 

ESCHALOT.     See  Shaixot. 

ESCHAR,  fs'kir,  a  portion  of  dead  tissue, 
also  the  artificial  slough  produced  by  the  use  of 


ESCHATOLOGY.  The  teaching  in  re- 
gard to  the  last  things  (Greek  la  eschato).  It 
deals  with  man's  condition  after  death,  the 
destiny  of  nations,  and  the  end  of  the  world. 
Speculation  concerning  the  fate  of  the  intfi- 
vidua!  appears  to  have  started  in  a  very  early 
period  of  man's  career,  Archxological  remains 
mdicate  the  presence  of  certain  customs  al- 
ready in  the  paleolithic  age  which  seem  to  re- 
veal a  nascent  conception  of  survival  after 
death.  The  disposal  of  the  lifeless  body  so  as 
to  provide  it  with  a  shelter,  the  pictorial  repre- 
sentation of  men  disguised  by  the  heads  of 
animals,  and  the  cremation  of  me  dead  scarcely 


S80HATOL00Y 


pennit  any  other  interpretatioa.  Sepulture, 
even  in  its  simplest  form,  apparently  implies  the 
idea  of  somethiog  within  man  Chat  may  be  tem- 
porarily absent  but  still  demands  a  measure  of 
sustenance  and  protection  for  the  body.  Ac- 
cording to  primitive  notions  among  peoples  sur- 
viving until  to-day  in  stone  age  conditions, 
some  of  those  that  once  lived  in  a  nei^borhood 
and,  possessed  of  extraordinary  power,  created 
things  may  return  in  the  guise  of  totems  for 
the  increase  and  strengthening  of  the  tribe. 
The  desire  to  have  the  double  within,  whose 
existence  had  been  suggested  bv  many  an  ex- 
perience, united  with  the  element  of  fire,  for 
whose  permanent  possession  man  had  so  long 
struggled,  is  likely  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
incineration  of  the  hody.  In  the  neolithic  a^e 
specially  cimstrucied  Kanbs,  offerings  of  solid 
food  and  blood  to  the  dead,  and  other  customs 
testify  to  the  growing  belief  in  a  survival  de- 
pendent upon  such  ministrations.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  satisfaction  of  immediate  needs, 
impulses,  and  passions  precluded,  in  these  re- 
mote age^  any  serious  concern  about  the  future 
of  the  tnbe,  while  the  nomadic  habits  which 
allowed  only  a  loose  attachment  to  any  partic- 
ular place  tended  to  prevent  a  local  catastrophe 
from  conjuring  up  toe  thought  of  an  impend- 
ing destruction  of  the  whole  world. 

In  various  centres  the  earlv  dvilizations  de- 
veloped aloi^  different  lines  these  ideas  con- 
cerning the  future.  The  Egyptians  continued 
througn  thousands  of  years  the  practices  of  the 
neoUuic  age,  though  with  some  modifications. 
Tombs  were  differently  constructed,  bodies  were 
embalmed,  painted  food  was  substituted  for 
real,  the  mortuary  ritual  was  enriched,  but  the 
underlying  conception  remained  the  same.  Even 
when  the  Osirian  theology  gave  a  larger 
measure  of  independence  to  the  soul,  which  had 
to  appear  before  the  judges  in  the  nether  world, 
the  connection  with  the  entombed  body  was 
never  lost  in  popular  thought     In   periods  of 


eign  invi 

was  felt  of  some  guarantees  of  a  better  future. 
While  the  Prophecies  of  an  Egyptian  Sage  in 
a  pai^Tus  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  do  not  con- 
tain any  distinctly  predictive  element,  there  is 
at  least  the  suggestion  of  eschatological  thought 
to  the  desire  tor  a  'shepherd  of  all  the  people, 
who  has  no  evil  in  his  heart"  The  freedom  of 
the  Nile  valley  from  any  devastating  natural 
catastrophes  was  not  conducive  to  ideas  of  an 
approaching  end  of  the  world.  Our  knowledge 
concerning  the  .^gean  and  Hittite  civilizations 
is  still  too  scanty  to  allow  any  definite  con^ 
elusions  on  these  points  except  such  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  arclueological  remains.  The 
belief  in  a  survival  throi^b  protection  and 
care  of  the  body  is  clearly  evidenced  by  tombs 
and  eultic  performance*.  Whatever  ideas  the 
Greeks  may  have  brought  with  them  into  their 
new  home,  thev  are  likely  to  have  been  much 
influenced  at  the  outset  by  their  predecessors. 
In  the  Homeric  Age  it  was  thought  that  all 
■outs  pass  at  death  to  a  shadowy  and  imdesir- 
able  existence  in  Hades,  unless  for  special  rea- 
sons  a  hero  is  translated  to  dwell  with  the 
Kods.  This  subterranean  realm  may  be  visited 
by  an  Odysseus  still  in  the  flesh.  Speculation 
upon  successive  ages,  symbolized  bv  gold,  silver, 
copper  and  iron  appears  in  Hesiod,  together 
with  the  suggestion  that  the  process  of  de- 
generacy will  end  in  destruction  of   ibe  last 


race.  As  the  thou^t  of  a  moral  retribution 
beyond  the  grave  asserted  itself,  the  Orphic 
and  Eleusinian  mysteries  offered  lo  the  initiated 
assurance  of  a  blessed  life  after  death  and  sal- 
vation from  future  punishments  adjusted  to 
the  crimes  committed.  Among  the  Pytha- 
goreans the  idea  of  transmigration,  probably 
of  Eastern  origin,  was  added  to  the  Orphic 
conceptions.  The  primitive  notion  seems  to  have 
been  that  at  death  the  soul'  is  carried  hither 
and  thither  by  the  wind  until  it  enters  another 
body.  Plato  developed  this  eschatological  thouifht 
in  various  directions.  He  based  immortality 
upon  the  essential  nature  of  the  soul  as  an 
eternal  "idea"  existing  before  birth  and  sub- 
sisting after  death.  While  accepting  the  Orphic 
scheme  of  retribution,  he  emphasized  the  posi- 
tive value  and  moral  significance  of  lite.  He 
adopted  the  idea  of  the  annul  magnus,  the  cos- 
mic year,  thus  anticipating  the  end  of  the 
present  world;  and  he  sou^t  the  realization  by 
pracliea!  efforts  of  a  society  patterned  upon 
the  ideal,  always  limited,  however,  by  the  Greek 
conception  of  the  city-slate.  Aristotle's  atti- 
tude towards  this  development  was  on  all  points 
negative  or  agnostic. 

In  Bab];Ionia,  the  Sumerians  thought  of  the 
dead  as  going  to  a  land  below  the  earth  whence 
there  was  no  return,  though  some  semi-divine 
heroes,  like  Engidu  and  Enmeduranld,  might 
be  spared  the  common  lot  and  translated  to  be 
with  the  gods,  and  a  Gilgamesh  n.i^t  find  his 
way  thither.  Their  mythical  lore  and  astro- 
nomical observations  furnished  Akkadians, 
Amorites,  Aramaans  and  Chaldeans  with  ma- 
terial for  later  speculation.  But  even  these 
peoples  do  not  seem  to  have  developed  any  new 
type  of  thought  concerning  the  future  of  the 
individual.  While  the  growth  of  a  peculiar 
astrological  system,  periiaps  already  in  the 
Kassile  period,  may  here  and  there  have  sug- 
gested the  idea  of  the  soul  rising  to  life  again, 
and  apparently  led  to  the  conception  of  the 
great  cosmic  year,  there  is  "?.%  yet  no  unmis- 
takable evidence  either  that  the  inhabitants  of 
Babylonia,  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia  before 
the  Persian  period  became  deeply  concerned 
about  existence  after  death,  or  considered  in- 
tensely the  future  of  the  nation  beyond  some 
immediate  emergency,  or  transferred  the  myth- 
ical imagery  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
of  the  world.  This  was  subsequently  done  in 
Syria.  But  even  there  the  Hebrew  writings 
reveal  for  long  periods  substantially  the  same 
ideas.  The  soul  passes  at  death  to  a  subtet^ 
ranean  Sheol  where  there  is  no  moral  distinc- 
tion. Only  exceptionally  an  Enoch  or  Bijah 
may  escape  the  universal  fate  and  be  translated. 
But  the  ethical  fervor  and  insight  of  the  great 
presets,  men  Kke  Amos  ana  Hosea,  Isaiah, 
Micah  and  Jeremiah,  brou^t  to  the  fore  a  con- 
ception of  the  nation  as  having  a  spiritual 
function,  independent  of  the  maintenance  of 
the  popular  religious  cult  and  the  clunging 
fortunes  of  the  state  The  extraordinary 
longevity  of  the  Davidic  dynasty  tended  to 
raise  the  expectation  of  a  return  of  political 
indeiiendence  and  power  under  a  scion  of  the 
old  line.  In  some  circles  the  thought,  so  touch- 
ingly  expressed  in  the  book  of  Job,  that,  from 
a  longing  for  the  work  of  his  hands,  the  Creator 
might  bring  man  back  again  from  Sheol  seems 
to  have  been  entertained,  though  the  author  of 
that  great  poem  resolutely  brusfaeg  aside  this 


ESCHATOLOGT 


"hope  of  man*  Bui  the  way  wai  prnwred  for 
a  new  growth  of  eschatology  tbrou^  contact 
with  Persian  thought. 

The  Aryans  of  the  Iranian  plateau  and  India 
followed  primitive  tendencies  into  different  di- 
rections. A  religious  practice  of  promptly  re- 
turning the  body  to  the  various  elements,  rather 
than  of  preserving  it,  in  connection  with  a  grow- 
ing demand  for  future  retribution,  seems  to  have 
led  the  former  to  the  view  that  the  body  would 
ultimately  be  restored  by  the  elements.  Al- 
though the  duty  of  exposing  the  dead  and  the 
doctrine  of  a  physical  resurrection,  so  strongly 
insisted  upon  m  the  later  Avesta,  are  not  al- 
luded to  in  the  Gathas,  and  the  Achaemenian 
kings  were  buried,  it  is  probable  that  diey  had 
long  been  maintained  in  certain  Mazdayasnian 
circles,  and  they  appear  to  have  been  known 
to  Herodotus  in  the  5th  and  Thcopompus  in 
the  4th  centuiy  B.C.  That  the  world  will  pass 
through  a  final  ordeal  by  fire  is  taught  in  the 
Gathas.  The  later  Avesta  divides  the  world- 
year,  not  according  to  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes  into  25,868  years,  but  into  12  millen- 
nia, placing  the  advent  of  Zarathushtra  at  the 
end  of  the  9th,  that  of  the  Saoshyant,  or 
Savior,  who  will  raise  the  dead,  at  the  end  of 
the  12th.  In  India,  on  the  Other  hand,  the 
doctrine  of  transmigration  became  strongly  en- 
trenched, while  a  tendency  toward  pantheism 
excluded  the  idea  of  a  creation  and  precluded 
the  growth  of  eschatology.  There  are  no  last 
things  in  a  pantheistic  philosophy,  though  the 
infinite  stretches  of  divine  manifestation  may 
be  divided  into  kalpas,  yupas,  or  epochs.  The 
doctrine  of  metempsychosis  renders  it  possible 
to  introduce  in  the  future  life  of  the  individ- 
ual the  nicest  moral  adjustments,  implying  both 
rewards  and  punishments  in  terms  of  character, 
and  the  possibility  of  rising  and  sinking  in  the 
scale  of  being  according  to  present  conduct. 
But  this  never-ending  series  of  births  and 
deaths  may  coma  to  be  felt  as  an  intolerable 
evil,  and  Buddhism  offered  deliverance  from 
the  infinite  wheel  of  existence  in  Nirvana.    It 


in  the  assembly  of  all  souls,  except  those 

Uted  to  be  with  the  ^ods,  in  Het's  subter- 
ranean realm,  but  also  in  punishments  for  the 
wicked,  a  destruction  by  fire  of  earth's  crust, 
a  new  earth  people  by  the  descendants  of  the 
pure  children  Lif  and  Lifthrascr,  and  a  new 
dynasty  of  gods.  The  practical  character  of 
the  Chinese  has  preserved  ancestor  worship, 
with  its  conservative  influence,  and  given  aa 
ethical  rather  than  metaphysical  turn  to  phil- 
osophical thought,  discouraging  speculation 
about  the  future.  How  sitnilar  ideas  may  grow 
up,  apparently  without  historical  contact,  from 
the  natural  operation  of  the  human  mind,  is 
strikingly  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  ancient 
Peruvians  and  Aitecs  looked  forward  to  the 
destruction  of  the  world,  analc^ous  to  its  de- 
struction by  various  agencies  in  past  epodis, 
and  also,  it  would  seem,  to  a  future  restoration 
of  the  body. 

The  blending  of  Greek  thought  and  Oriental 
speculation  that  followed  the  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  eschatology. 
Plato's  idea  of  immortality,  involving  pre-ex- 
istence  as  well  as  post- existence,  and  emphasize 
ing  deliverance  from  the  prison-house  of  mat- 


ter, spread  in  the  East,  while  the  Persian  doc- 
trine of  a  resurrection  found  its  way  to  Syria, 
and  in  some  Hellenistic  circles  a  spiritual  res- 
urrection immediately  after  death  was  ac- 
cepted as  a  compromise.  The  colorless  exist- 
ence in  SheoT  was  reduced  to  an  intermediate 
state  between  death  and  the  final  assize,  while 
the  Orphic  pictures  of  heaven  and  hell  helped 
to  give  a  distinctive  character  to  man's  ultimate 
fate  in  the  other  world.  Stoic  philosophers 
set  forth  a  theory  of  cycles  according  to  which 
each  cosmic  year  ends  with  a  universal  con- 
flagration, leaving  only  the  elements  out  of 
which  a  new  world  rises  to  pursue  its  course  in 
exact  repetition  of  its  predecessor.  Jewish 
apocalypses  described  a  succession  of  world- 
empires  and  laid  down  a  definite  proeram  ot 
the  last  things  with  many  features  ultimately 
borrowed  from  Babylonian  mythology.  Some- 
times the  coming  kingdom  of  heaven  was 
thought  of  as  ruled  directly  by  God;  some  times 
theocratic  ruler  on  earth  was  expected,  either 


David  and  the  tribe  of  Judah,  as  in  the  Psalter 
of  Solomon  and  later  works.  Similar  eschato- 
logical  expectations  of  a  heaven-sent  niler  and 
savior  of  the  world  are  found  in  the  Fourth 
Eclogue  of  Virgil,  the  Priene  inscription  to 
Augustus,  Sibylline  oracles,  probably  of  pagan 
origin,  and  elsewhere.  In  this  atmosptKre 
Christianity  grew  up.  Jesus  himself  appears  to 
have  believed  in  a  spiritual  resurrection  im- 
mediately after  death  of  those  accounted  worthy 
of  it,  cherished  no  ambition  to  become  a  king 
or  in  other  ways  to  exercise  lordship,  and  looked 
for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  essentially  as  a 
reign  of  righteousness  in  the  life  of  man.  But 
the  belief  that  He  had  been  raised  from  the 
dead  according  to  the  Scriptures  and  would 
return  upon  the  clouds  of  heaven  as  the  Mes- 
siah to  take  vengenance  upon  His  enemies,  raise 
the  dead,  and  establish  His  kingdom  on  earth 
affected  profoundly  the  thought  of  the  eariy 
Church.  When  the  expected  return  was  delayetl, 
the  interest  gradnally  shifted  from  the  idea  ot 
a  righteous  kingdom  on  earth  to  the  perfected 
society  in  heaven,  which  the  travelers  through 
purgatory  might  be  assisted  in  attaining,  but 
from  which  the  denizens  of  hell  are  forever 
excluded.  Yet  in  the  greatest  of  all  apocalypses 
Dante  gives  a  glimpse  of  the  final  order  of 
things  on  earth  at  the  top  of  the  mountain  of 
purgatory  in  which  all  external  authority  has 
at  last  ceased.  The  poet  realized,  however, 
that  before  this  stage  can  be  reached  when  a 
citizen  of  the  world  may  be  left  in  freedom. 
righteousness  and  sanity  to  'crown  and  mitre* 
himself,  a  political  organization  of  the  whole 
human  race  tmder  the  same  law  would  be  nec- 
essary, and  in  'De  monarchia'  suggested  the 
need  of  an  expansion  of  the  empire  to  alt  parts 
in  order  to  guarantee  a  general  security  and 
growth.  When  the  Lutheran,  Anglican  and 
Reformed  churches  rejected  the  doctrine  of  a 
purgatory,  they  considered  man's  destiny  to  be 
fixed  irrevocably  at  death.  This  tended  to  make 
the  closing  scenes  of  the  last  judgment  and  the 
resurrection  of  less  practical  importance,  to 
eliminate  the  premillcnnial  coming  of  Christ 
and  to  present  the  millennium  as  a  result  of  a 
long  development  of  Christian  life.  Among 
Baptists  and  other  radicals  there  was  a  reaction 
against    this    toward  univeraalism  or   milieu' 


tiuiisn).  A  great  crius  lit  the  hittoryof  iui< 
tions  nHturiLlly  produces  a  certain  escbatological 
mood  which  leads  some  minds  to  seek  new  in* 
terpretations  of  old  prophecies,  and  others  to 
tnaJcc  forecasts  of  the  future. 

The  Jewish  and  Christian  doctrines  of  a  final 
jud^ent,  a  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  ever- 
lasting punishments  and  rewards  were  adopted 
by  Iskim,  and  the  eschatolc^^r  was  enricned, 
after  the  prophet's  time,  by  contact  with  Persian 
thought  The  idea  of  a  rcincamatian  of  some 
great  representative  of  Allah  in  the  past  has 
exerted  a  particularly  strong  influence,  and  the 
expectation  of  some  Imam  or  Mahdi  to  reveal 
the  truth  more  fully  or  to  change  the  condi- 
tions of  life  on  earth  has  from  time  to  time 
Stirred  profoundly  the  Mohammedan  world^  In 
later  Judaism  the  denial  by  Maimonides  of  a 
physical  resurrection  found  support  at  the  time 
and  has  led  more  recently  to  a  wide-spread 
hope  for,  an  immortal  life  independent  of  a 
resuscitation  of  the  bo(ly.  The  disillusiomncnt 
that  has  followed  every  Messianic  movement 
has,  no  doubt,  had  something  to  do  "-with  the 
less  prominent  place  held  to-day  even  among 
orthodox  Jews  by  speculation  as  to  the  advent 
of  the  Messiah.  Neithei"  conservatives  nor 
liberals  who  are  interested  in  the  establishment 
of  a  Jewish  state  in  Palestine  seem  to  contem- 
plate a  monarchical  constitution:  and  the  fun- 
damental difference  between  Jewish  cosmo- 
politans and  nationalists  does  not  even  affect 
the  conviction  that  Israel  has  a  particular  func- 
tion to  fulfil  in  the  regeneration  of  the  human 
race. 

Modern  thought,  freeing  itself  from  the 
authority  of  tradition,  has  earnestly  en- 
deavored  to  teat  the  foundations  and  appraise 
the  value  of  the  various  eschatological  con- 
ceptions, and  to  find  out  how  far,  and  on  what 
grounds,  it  is  possible  to  formulate  any  views 
concemmg  the  future  that  shall  be  in  harmony 
with  scientificatly  ascertainable  facts.  There 
-'  1  disposition  to  examine  objectively  and  i— 


consetousuess  to  the  operations  of  special  parts 
of  the  brain  or  the  alleged  commtuiicationi  with 
the  dead,  the  kinship  of  cerebral  functions  in 
man  and  animal  or  the  intrinsic  worth  of  human 
self-consdonsness,  the  patentiality  in  all  or  the 
high  d^ree  of  realization  in  some.  ScientUie 
inquiry,  unable  to  go  beyond  a  non  iiqttet,  may 
not  find  any  ground  for  vetoing  the  assumption 
of  an  ideaUsCic  philosophy  that  the  inmost  self 
in  man  may  be  an  indispensable  unit  in  a  spirit- 
ual universe.  Bnt  there  can  be  no  question  that 
the  characteristic  modem  attitude,  affected  by 
science,  is  one  of  unwillingness  to  dogmatize 
readiness  to  bold  the  judgment  in  suspense,  and 
disinclination  to  regard  knowledge  in  this  fiel<( 
as  essential.  That  the  individual  continues  to 
live  in  the  race  is  capable  of  die  mon  sir  a  lion, 
and  Co  the  consciousness  of  this  fact  a  strong 
moral  appeal  is  possible.  An  intelligent  patriot- 
ism is  to-day  obliged  to  consider  the  future  of 
the  nation  in  connection  with  the  whole  system 
of  sovereign  and  independent  states.  The 
political  integration  of  these  slates  into  an  all 
embracing  league  of  nations  is  felt  to  be  indis- 
pensable to  the  general  security  and  looked 
forward  to  with  confidence.  Eschatological 
thought  is  intensely  occupied  at  present  with  the 
changes,  political,  industrial,  economic,  social. 


[BAT  40fi 

and  religious,  that  are  likely  to  follow  the 
worid  war.  It  attaches  itself  again  to  the 
destiny  of  the  earth.  Barring  an  accident, 
which  is  always  within  the  bounds  of  possi- 
bility, our  planet  may  be  expected  to  run  its 
course  throi^gh  long  ages  before  it  passes  away 
or  ceases  to  be  inhabitable.  A  new  glaci^ 
period,  however,  probably  ties  in  a  much  more 
immetUate  future.  Living  in  an  interval  be- 
tween two  such  periods  particularly  favorable 
to  the  development  of  civilization,  we  are  threat- 
ened by  the  exhaustion  of  some  supplies  on 
which  that  civiliiation  particularly  seems  to 
depend.  A  careful  husbanding  of  all  our 
natural  resources,  an  equitable  distribution  to 
men  and  nations  accojdmg  to  their  needs,  and 
a  just  regard  for  the  necessities  of  coming 
generations  will  be  called  for.  In  the  efforts  to 
realize  the  eschatological  ideals  a  moral  energy 
may  be  released  which  shall  constitute  the  most 
precious  spiritual  harvest  of  the  life  of  man 
on  earth. 

BiWlography^  Deehelette,  J.,  'Manod 
darchiologie  prthistorique'  (1908-14);  De  . 
Morgan,  J  'Leg-  premieres  civilisations' 
<!«»);  Osbom,  H.  R.  *Men  of  the  Old 
Stone  Age>  (1916);  Meyer,  Eduard,  'Ge- 
schichte  des  Altertums>  C3d  ed.,  1913);  Diele- 
rich,  A,  'Nekyia'  (1893);  Cumont,  F.,  <Les 
rSIigiona  orientales  dans  lepaganisme  romain* 
(2d  ed.,  1909):  Moore,  G.  F.,  'History  of  Re- 
ligions>  (1914);  Tastrow,  M.,  'Hebrew  and 
Babylonian  Tradition>  (1914);  Jeremias,  A, 
■Das  Alte  Testament  im  Liehte  des  Alten 
Orients'  (1906) ;  Tiele,  C.  P.,  'Geschiedenis 
van  den  Godsdienst  In  de  Oudheit'  (1®3- 
1902) ;  Soderblora,  N.,  'La  vie  future  d'apris 
Ic  mazdHsme'  (1901);  Marti,  K.,  'Geschichte 
der  israelitischen  Relipon'  (1897) ;  Charles,  R. 
H.,  'Critical  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a 
Future  Life'  (1899);  Greasmann,  H.,  'Ur- 
spning  der  israelitisch-jiidiachen  Eschatologie' 
(^1905);  Guy,  L.,  <Le  millenarisme  dans  ses 
origines  et  son  developpement*  (1904)  ;  BoUs- 
set,  W.,  'Religion  des  Jndentums'  (2d  ed., 
1906)  ;  Auberger,  P.,  'Die  christltche  Escha- 
tologie'  (1890);  Sahnond,  G.,  'The  Christian 
Doctrine  of  ImmortaiiQ''  (1897) :  Boklen,  A., 
'Me  Verwandlschaft  der  judisch-christlichen 
mit  der  parsischen  Eschatologie'  (1902):  Doh- 
schiitz,  A.,  'Eschatology  of  the  Gospels'  (1910); 
MacCuIlock  J.,  'Early  Christian  Visions  of 
the  Other  Worid'  (1912);  Schmidt.  N.,  'The 
Ethics  of  Dante'  (1910);  Myers,  F.  W.  H, 
'Human  Personality;  its  Survival  of  Bodily 
Death'  (1903)  ;  Ward,  James,  'The  Realm  of 
Ends'  (1911)-  Duncan,  W.  B.,  'ImmortaUty 
and  Modem  Thought'  (1912) ;  Adler,  Felix, 
'An  Ethical  Philosophy  of  Ufe'    (191ffl. 

Nathaniel  Schmidt, 
Profetsor  of  SemiHc  Language!  and  Litrraturr, 
Cornell  University. 

ESCHEAT,  ii-ehti'  (old  Frendi  eschet, 
spoil,  rent,  that  which  falls  to  a  person),  the 
reversion  of  property  to  the  sovereign.  The 
law  considers  that  all  property  must  nave  an 
owner;  so  if  a  person  die  intestate  and  without 
issue,  the  property,  in  England,  escheats  to  the 
king,  and  in  America  to  the  state  as  sovereign. 
In  some  jurisdictions,  before  the  sovereign  re- 
ceives title  there  is  a  certain  kind  of  proceed- 
ing to  determine  whether  or  not  there  are  any 
heirs,  while  in  other  jurisdictions  the  sovereign 
gets  the  title  on  the  death  of  the  owner;  but 


,^lc 


BSCHKHBACH  — ESCHKR  VON  DSR  LINTH 


even  in  these  cases  the  sovereign's  title  is  de- 
feasible until  there  are  proceedings  to  determine 
that  the  deceased  had  no  heirs.  When  the  sov- 
ereign obtains  title  by  escheat  it  acquires  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  last  owner,  and 
the  statutory  requirements  must  be  strictly  fol- 
lowed, both  as  to  the  <Usposal  of  the  property 
and  as  to  the  use  of  the  fund  derived  from  the 
sale,  in  case  a  sale  is  necessary.  In  the  United 
States  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  sovereign  in 
relation  to  escheated  property  are  controlled  by 
Statute  in  the  different  States.  Formerly  an 
escheat  might  arise  through  the  failure  of  heirs 
or  forfeiture  for  treason.  In  England  the  word 
escheat  also  signifies  the  district  within  which 
the  king  or  lord  is  entitled  to  escheats;  a  writ 
to  recover  escheats;  the  escheated  possessions 
of  the  state  or  lord;  hence,  generally,  a  retiim 
or  reversion ;  and,  more  generally,  that  whirfi 
falls  to  a  person. 

ESCMENBAGH,  «sh'Sn-baH,  Wolfram 
TOO,  German  medixval  poet :  b.  Eschenbach, 
near  Ansbach,  Bavaria,  about  1165;  d  about 
1220.  He  was  one  of  the  most  promment  min- 
strels at  the  court  of  Hermann,  Land^af  of 
Thuringia,  where  he  spent  part  of  bis  time,  the 
other  part  being  spent  in  Wildcnberg  (Wehten- 
berg).  He  was  a  contemporary  of  another  very 
famous  poet  with  whom  he  came  into  frequent 
contact  at  court.  This  was  Walther  von  der 
Vogelweide  (q.v.).  According  to  his  own 
statement  he  could  neither  reao  nor  write  but 
he  had  a  very  tenacious  memory  which  enabled 
him  to  treasure  up  all  the  learning  that  came  his 
way  so  that  he  soon  became  a  marked  character 
and  finally  was  invited  to  the  court  and  iiiti- 
malely  acquired  all  the  education  of  the  layman 
of  his  day.  His  work  shows  chivalry  at  its  bcsL 
His  epics  rank  among  the  greatest  German 
imaginative  works.  Besides  several  love  songs 
he  wrote  'Parzival';  'Wilhelm  von  Orange,' 
and  'Titurel,  or  the  Guardian  of  the  GraaL* 
See  Pabsifal. 

ESCHENBURO,     jfsh'Jb-boorg,      Johaim 

Joachim,  German  scholar:  b.  Harnbure,  1743; 
.  1820.  He  received  his  education  at  tne  uni- 
versities of  Leipzig  and  Gottingen  and  in  1767 
began  his  lifelong  connection  with  the  Colle- 
gium Carolinum  in  Brunswick,  of  which  he  was 
director  after  1814.  He  published  the  first 
complete  German  translation  of  Shakespeare, 
'Shakespeares  theatralische  Werke'  (13  vols., 
1782)  and  maiw  other  translations  from  Eng- 
lish authors.  He  published  also  'Handbuch  der 
Hassischen  Litteratur'  (1783)  ;  "Entwurf  einer 
Theorie  und  Litteratur  der  schonen  Wissen- 
schaften*  (1783)  ;  ' Bie spiel sam ml ung  lur  The- 
orie und  Litteratur  der  scnonen  Wissenschaften' 
(8  vols.,  1788-9S);  'Lehrbuch  der  Wissen- 
schaftskunde*  (1792)  ;  'Denkmaler  altdeutscher 
Dichtkunst'  (1799),  and  the  hymns  'Ich  will 
dich  noch  im  Tod  erheben,'  and  'Dtr  trau'ich, 
Goti,  und  wanke  nicht.' 


the  University  of  Tubingen, 
many  years  engaged  in  the  practice  of  medicine 
at  Sulz  and  Kirchheim.  In  1811  he  was  ap- 
pointed extraordinary  professor  of  medicine 
and  philosophy  at  Tiibingen  and  in  1818  became 


ordinary  professor  of  practical  philosophy.  He 
resigned  in  1836,  removed  to  Kirchheim  and 
thereafter  devoted  himself  to  philosophical 
study.  He  was  inclined  to  a  belief  in  mysti- 
cism as  an  aid  to  philosophy  and  took  a  deep 
interest  in  animal  magnetism.  In  his  later 
years  his  beliefs  degenerated  into  a  lower  form 
of  supematuralism.  He  wrote  'Die  Philos- 
ophie  in  ihrem  Uhergange  zur  Nichtphiloso- 
piiie'  (1803)  |^*Versuch  die  scheinbare  Ma^e  des 
thieriscben  Mi^netismus  aus  physiotogisdien 
und  physischen  Geseizen  ru  Erklaren'  (1816); 
'System  der  Moralphilosophie>  (1818)  ;  'Psy- 
choiogie  in  drei  Theilen,  als  empiriscbe,  reine, 
angewandte'  (2d  ed.,  1822)  ;  'Relienonsphilos- 
ophie>  (3  vols.,  1818-24)  ;  'Die  Hegelsche  Reli- 

?ons philosophic  verglicnen  mit  dem  christlicben 
rincip*  (1834);  *Der  Ischariodsmus  unserer 
Tage'  (1835)-  <Konftikt  zwischen  Himmel  und 
Holle,  an  dem  Damon  eines  bessessenen 
Madcbens  beobachtet*  (1837);  'Grundriss 
der  Naturphilosophie'  (18^);  "GnindrGge  der 
christlicben  Philosophie'  (1840);  'Betrachtun- 
gen  liber  idiysischen  Weltbau'    (1852). 

ESCHER,  esh'er,  ^hann  Heinrich  Alfred, 
Swiss  statesman :  b.  Zurich  1819  d.  there,  6 
Dec.  1882.  He  studied  law  at  Zurich,  Bonn, 
Paris  and  Berlin  and  in  1844  became  a  member 
of  the  Cantonal  Council  of  Zurich.  In  the  fol- 
lowing ^ear  he  issued  a  '  * 


for  a  general 
ss  and  ttaving 


be  held 
in  view  the  expulsion  of  the  Ji 
ber  of  the  Council  of  Education  to  which  he 
was  elected  in  1846  he  did  much  to  place  the 
educational  system  of  the  canton  of  Zurich  on 
a  truly  modem  basis.  In  1847  Escher  was 
made  president  of  the  Grand  Council  and  in 
1848  was  elected  to  the  Federal  Diet  In  1849 
he  became  president  of  the  National  Council 
and  in  18S6-S7  and  1861-62  he  served  as  vice- 
Dresident  and  was  later  president  of  the  Con- 
federation for  several  terms.  A  bronze  statue 
to  his  memory  was  erected  by  the  citicens  of 
Zurich.  Consult  Schcrr,  'Alfred  Escher' 
(1883). 

ESCHER  VON  DEK  LINTH,  Arnold, 
Swiss  geologist :  b.  Ziinch,  8  June  1807 ;  d,  12 
July  1872  He  was  the  son  of  Hans  Conrad 
Esoier  (q.v.).  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
geology  at  the  Ziirich  Polytechnic  School  hi 
185&  He  made  extensive  researdies  which 
have  caused  him  to  be  considered  one  of  the 


lished  the  first  detailed  geological  map  of  Swit- 
zerland. He  wrote  'Geologische  Bemetlcungen 
uber  das  nordliche  Yorarlberg  und  einige  an- 
grenzenden  Gegenden'  (1853). 

BSCHBR  VON  DER  LINTH,  Huu 
Conrad,  Swiss  statesman;  b.  Zurich,  1767;  d. 
1823.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Gottin- 
gen in  1786-B8  and  from  1798  to  1802  was  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Swit- 
zerland and  at  about  the  same  period  was  editor 
of  the  Schwtizerischer  Republikaiter.  He  re- 
tired from  politics  in  1802.  In  1807-22  he 
served  as  president  of  the  board  of  Inspection 
of  the  canalization  of  the  upper  Limmat,  known 
as  the  Linth.  The  improvement  reclaimed  hun- 
dreds of  acres  of  fertile  arable  lands.  Escher's 
popularity  was  at  its  height  and  his  family  re- 
ceived the  surname  of  Von  der  Linth  in  I8Z3 


E^CHERICH  — B8COBBDO 


as  a  rectmpcnse  and  recoKiiition  of  his 

to   Ihe   republic.     Consult   Holtinger,   'Life  of 

H.  K.   Escher  von   der  Linth>    (Zurich   1852). 

ESCHBRIQH,  ish'er-iH,  Karl  Leopold, 
German  entomologist :  b,  Schwandorf,  1871.  He 
received  his  education  at  the  universities  of 
Munich,  Wiiraburg.  Leioxig  and  Heidelberg, 
Beginning  in  1892  he  made  several  tours  includ- 
ing Tunis  (1892),  Asia  Minor  (189S),  Algeria 
(1898),  Abyssinia  (1906),  Ceylon  (1910).  and 
North  America  (1911).  At  Slrassburg  in 
1901-06  he  served  as  privatdoient  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  appointed  professor  at  Tharandt 
Forestry  Academy.  He  has  published  'System 
der  Lcpismatiden'  (190S)  ■  'Dcr  Ameise' 
(1906)  ;  'Ferienreise  nach  Erythrea'  (1908)  ; 
'Ke  Termiten  oder  wetssen  Ameisen'  (1509); 
'Termitenteben  au£  Ceylon'  (1910);  *Die  ange- 
wandte  Entomologie  in  den  Vereinigten  Staaten' 
(1913)  ;  'Die  Forstinsekten  Mitteleuropas' 
(Vol.  I,  1913). 

BSCHRICHT,  «sh'riHt,  Daniel  Frederik, 
Danish  zoologist:  b.  Copenhagen,  1798;  d.  1663. 
He  studied  medicine  in  his  native  city,  pracdsed 
his  profession  for  about  three  years,  alter  which 
he  studied  physiology  and  comparative  anatomy 
in  France  and  Germany.  After  1836  he  held  a 
chair  at  the  University  of  Copephagen.  He 
published  'Haandbog  i  Physiologie'  (1851)  and 
'Folkelige  Foredrag>  (18S9).  He  left  a  valu- 
able collection  which  now  rests  in  the  Zoological 
Museum, 

ESCHSCHOLTZ,  ish'6lt3,  Johum  Fried- 
rich,  Russian  naturalist :  b.  DoTpat,  government 
of  Riga,  12  Nov.  1793;  d.  there.  10  May  1831, 
He  studied  medicine  in  his  native  dtv,  and  in 
1819  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  director 
of  the  zoological  museum  of  the  University  of 
Dorpat.  In  lSlS-18  and  1823-^  he  accom- 
panied Otto  von  Kotzebue  in  the  latter's  explor- 
ing tours  around  tfae  world,  collected  a  large 
number  of  natural  history  specimens  and  made 
valuable  sdenti&c  studies  on  the  lower  organ- 
isms of  deep-sea  life.  The  results  of  his  stiidies 
were  published  in  Kotzebue's  account  of  tbe  ex- 
pedition (1821),  and  he  presented  faia  collections 
to  tbe  Univeraity  of  Dorpat  1826.  Mis  cata-i 
logue  of  over  2,000  animals  was  published  in 
Kotzebue's  <Neuc  Reise  um  die  Welt'  (Vol. 
n,  1830).  Adclbert  von  Chamisso,  another 
member  of  these  ex])editians,  named  a  botanieal 
species  EschsckolUta  in  his  honor,  and  Escli- 
scholtz  Bay,  on  the  Alaskan  coast,  is  also  named 
after  him.  He  published  'Ideen  zur  Aneinan- 
derrelhung  der  riickgratigen  Tiere  (1819)  ; 
'System  der  Altale^cn*  (1829);  'Zook^scher 
Atlas'  (5  parts,  1829-n33),  containing  plates  and 
distributions  of  new  species  of  animals. 

BSCHSCHOLTZIA,  5-sh61t'sI-a,  or  CAL- 
IFORNIA POPPY,  a  genus  of  annual  and 
perennial  herbs  of  the  natural  order  Papor 
tr^racfd  natives  of  the  "Pacific  slope  of  the 
United  States,  The  spedes,  of  which  there  are 
about  a  dozen,  are  distinguished  by  much  dis- 
sected alternate  leaves,  yellow  or  white,  showy 
flowers  (the  sepals  umted  to  form  a  deciduous 
hood),  and  a  long  capsular  fruit  resembling  a 
silic|ue.  The  best-known  spedes  is  probably  E. 
californica,  a  perennial  which  is  widely  culti- 
vated as  an  annual  in  flower  gardens,  and  is  a 
beautiful  orange-colored  flower,  one  of  tbe  most 
showy  in  the  whole  floral  kingdom.    It  is  gre- 


Srious  in  habit,  and  in  California  it  covers 
■ge  areas  with  an  almost  unbroken  orange- 
yellow  bloom  of  striking  beauty  when  seen  <m 
the  gray-^een  slope  of  a  treeless  hillside.  It  is 
easily  raised,  espedalty  if  the  seed  be  sown 
soon  after  gathering  in  the  fall,  and  the  young 
plants  protected  in  cold  climates. 


the  Werra,  26  miles  east -southeast  of  Cassel. 
It  is  a  walled  and  well-built  town,  with  a  castle, 
dating  back  to  1386,  and  long  the  residence  of 
the  landgraves  of  Hessen-Rotenberg.  but  now 
used  as  a  public  building.  It  is  an  important 
industrial  centre  and  has  manufactures  of 
woolen  and  linen  cloth,  several  large  tanneries, 
glue-works,  oil  and  other  mills,  and  a  trade  in 
meal,  fruit,  lard,  ham  and  sausages.  Pop.  about 
13,000. 

BSCHWEILER,  esh'vI-Ur,  Germany,  town 
in  the  Prussian  Rhineprovince,  nine  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Aix-la- Chapel! e,  at  the  conHuence 
of  the  Inde  and  Dente.  It  has  manufactures 
of  artides  in  iron  and  tin-plate,  zinc  and  copper, 
machinery,  boilers,  railway  plant,  needles,  wirt 
rolling-mills,  smelting  "furnaces,  belting  and 
other  leather  goods,  beer  and  birches.  Calamine 
and  lead,  as  well  as  productive  coal-mines,  are 
worked  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  25,(XX). 

KSCHYNITE.    See  .SIschynite. 


brated  as  a  preacher  and  writer.  At  his  death 
he  left  more  than  40  volumes  in  folio,  mostly 
in  theology  and  morality,  the  prindpal  being  the 
casuistical  'Liber  Theologi*  Horalis'  (1646), 
which  has  several  times  been  printed,  and 
'Summula  Casuutn  Moralis'  ( 1626) ,  He 
seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  ejccmplary 
moral  character,  but  his  writings  unfortunately 
drew  to  themsdves  the  ridicule  of  La  Fontaine, 
UoK&re,  Boileau,  Pascal  and  other  witty  French 
writers,  who  represented  him  as  a  person  of 
extreme  mor^  laxity,  of  which  the  French  word 
*Kcobarderie*  became  a  strong  and  appealing 
syn^l.  They  represented  him  as  advancing  the 
doctrine  that  the  moral  value  of  an  action  is  to 
be  found  in  the  intention  lying  behind  it,  and 
that  purity  of  purpose,  may  justify  others  con- 
trary to  the  commonly  accepted  moral  code. 
His  writings  were  censured  by  the  papal 
authority. 

BSCOBEDO,  Hiriuto,  ma-re-&'nO  is-ka- 
bi-dB,  Mexican  soldier,  popnlariy  known  as 
■orejones,'  big  lugs,  on  accoom  of  his  enor- 
mous ears :  b.  Dos  Arroyos,  New  Leon,  12  Jan. 
1827;  d.  Tacubaya,  22  May  1902,  When  the 
war  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States 
broke  out  he  was  a  muleteer  in  charge  of  a 
string  of  pack  mules  belonging  to  his  father. 
He  converted  his  muleteers  into  a  band  of  guer- 
rillas, attacked  small  detachments  of  the  Ameri- 
can troops  wherever  he  found  them  and  took 
part  in  the  battles  of  Palo  Alio  and  Resaca. 

{uirez  commissioned  him  colonel  in  1859,  In 
861,  upon  the  establishment  of  JuSrez'  govern- 
ment in  the  City  of  Mexico,  Escobedo  was  made 
a  brigadier-general  and  sent  in  pursuit  of  the 
Clerical  forces  under  Miirquez  and  Mejia,  but 
was  surprised,  taken  prisoner  after  an  heroic 


,5le 


ESCOIQUIZ  —  XSCO&T 


defense,  senteneed  to  be  shot,  but  esuped  and 
returned  to  Juarez.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  war  against  the  French  which  followed 
the  intervention  of  Napoleon  111  in  Mexican 
affairs.  He  repulsed  them  at  Puebla,  5  May 
1862,  took  part  in  the  long  siege  of  that  place 
and  when  it  was  captured  by  the  French,  17 
May  1863,  was  taken  prisoner,  but  succeeded  in 
escaping.  When  Maximilian's  empire  was  es- 
labiished,  Escobedo  took  up  his  headquarters  in 
Texas,  secretly  purchased  arms  and  ammunition 
in  New  Orleans,  1865,  organized  and  equipped 
a  force  of  Mexican  refugees,  American  negroes 
and  ex- Con  federate  soldiers,  led  them  into 
Mexico-,  captured  the  Imperial  garrison  at  Mon- 
terey, November  1865,  and  swept  everything  be- 
fore aim.  Juirez  appointed  him  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Army  of  the  North;  he  continued 
his  victorious  course  until  all  the  chief  cities 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  republicans  and  finally 
besieged  and  defeated  the  Emperor  ;.t  Queretaro, 
IS  May  1866.  It  is  said  that  Maximilian  offered 
his  word  of  honor  to  Escobedo,  on  surrender- 
ing his  sword,  to  leave  the  country  at  once  if 
conducted  to  the  nearest  port ;  but  Escobedo 
refused,  probably  on  orders  from  Juirer,  who 
ordered  a  court-inartial,  and  the  Emperor  was 
condemned  and  executed.     In  1874  Escobedo 

Suelled  an  uprising  against  the  government  of 
uirez,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  putting  down  the 
revolution  started  by  General  Porfirio  Diaz.  He 
fled  to  Texas,  issued  a  manifesto  against  Diaz, 
of  whom  he  became  a  dose  friend  and  strong 
supporter  later,  and.  later  during  his  administra- 
tion, president  of  the  supreme  military  court 
of  justice  1882-83.  He  also  held  other  import- 
ant offices  of  trust  under  Diaz. 

ESCOIQUIZ,  es'ka-£-keth',  Joatl,  Spanish 
ecclesiastic  and  politician:  b.  Navarre,  1762;  d. 
Ronda,  27  Nov.  1820.  He  began  life  as  a  page 
at  court  in  the  reign  of  Charles  III.  He  took 
holy  orders  and  held  a  prebend  at  Saragassa. 
Through  Godoy  he  advanced  himself  to  the 
position  of  tutor  to  Ferdinand,  the  heir- 
apparent  His  efforts  in  literature  at  this  time 
consisted  of  a  translation  of  Young's  'Night 
Thoughts'  (1797)  and  a  worthless  epic  on  the 
conquest  of  Mexico  <I798).  He  ^ned  an 
ascendancy  over  his  pupil,  afterward  Ferdinand 
VII,  and  he  led  the  opposition  to  Godoy's  plans 
for  a  French  alliance.  He  was  banished  from 
court  but  maintained  correspondence  with  Fear- 
dinand.  In  1807  he  was  implicated  in  the  con- 
spiracy of  the  Escoiial,  was  imprisoned  but  later 
released  with  the  other  conspirators.  After 
1808  he  became  the  trusted  adviser  of  Fer- 
dinand and  prevailed  on  the  latter  to  meet 
Napoleon  at  Bayonne,  of  which  meeting  he 
gives  a  vivid  account  in  'Idea  Sencilla  de  lai 
razoncs  que  motivaron  el  viage  del  Rey  Fer- 
nando VII  4  Baj-ona*  (1814).  When  the 
Spanish  royal  family  was  imprisoned  by  Na- 
poleon, Escoiquiz  accompanied  Ferdinand.  At 
the  Restoration  he  was  minister  for  a  short 
period,  but  Ferdinand  had  tired  of  him,  he  soon 
fell  into  disgrace,  was  imprisoned  in  Murcia, 
recalled  for  a  time  and  later  exiled  to  Ronda. 
ESCORIAL.  or  EfiCURIAL,  a  royal  pal- 
ace of  Spain,  distant  from  Madrid  about  24 
miles  (by  rail  32  miles)  in  a  northwesterly 
predion   and   situated   on   the  acclivity  of   the 


which   divide    New    from    Oldf  Castile.     The 


^corial  combines  a  monastery,  a  church  and 
a  mausoleum  with  a  royal  palace.  Evemhing 
about  the  Escorial  —  situation,  plan  and  pur- 
poses—  bears  the  stamp  of  the  sombre  tempera- 
ment and  unpractical  mind  of  its  originator, 
Philip  II.  Not  the  least  remarkable  of  its- 
peculiarities  b  its  site.  Away  from  cities,  amid 
the  seclusion  of  mountain  scenery,  it  stands  31 
a  height  of  2,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
It  was  built  in  commemoration  of  the  battle  of 
Saint  Quentin,  which  was  fought  on  Saint  Law- 
rence's Day  (10  August)  1557  and  to  whom  it 
is  dedicated  The  building  is  a  rectangular 
parallelogram  measuring  ^44  feet  in  lengtn  by 
580  in  breadth.  The  ttiterior  is  divided  into  13 
courts,  the  plan  supposedly  in  outline  of  the 
gridiron  on  which  Saint  Lawrence  was  broiled, 
while  a  projection  460  feet  in  length  contains 
the  chapel  and  the  royal  palace.  The  building, 
which  is  in  the  Greco-Roman  style,  was  be- 
gun in  1563  by  Juan  Bautista  de  Toledo,  a 
Toledan  architect,  and  finished  in  1584  by  his 
pupil,  Joan  de  Herrcra.  It  is  irregular  in  its 
proportions  and  thus  loses  much  oi  the  effect 
which,  from  its  great  ma^itude,  it  ought  to 
have.  The  innmnerable  windows  (said  to  be 
11,000  in  honor  of  the  Cologne  virgins)  give  it 
the  aspect  of  a  large  mill  or  barrack,  llie  doors 
are  also  numerous.    The  material  of  the  build- 


_..  preserves  its  fresh  and  clean  appearance. 
The  church,  which  dominates  the  entire  design, 
fronts  on  a  central  court,  which  was  formerly 
opened  only  to  admit  the  king  on  his  first  visit 
and  a  second  time  to  receive  his  dead  body  for 
burial.  The  characteristic  is  majestic  simplic- 
ity. It  is  340  feet  long  by  234  wide ;  the  cen- 
tral dome.  70  feet  in  diameter,  ia  320  feet  high 
externally.  Under  the  high  altar  is  the  Pan- 
theon or  burying-place  of  the  kings  of  Spain- 
Its  interior  is  Imed  with  dark  marble  beauti- 
fully veined.  One  of  the  tnost  interestii^  parts 
of  the  building  is  the  cell  of  Philip  II,  from 
which  the  king  in  his  last  illness  was  enabled 
to  wiuiess  the  cedebration  of  mass.  The  mon- 
aiterial  part  of  the  building  contains  a  valuable 
library,  especially  rich  in  Greek  and  Arabic 
manuscripts,  and  there  was  formerly  a  superb 
ooUection  of  piBCtures  scattered  through  various 
parts  of  the  building.  During  the  French  occu- 
pation the  boolcs,  M,000  b  number,  were  re- 
moved to  Madrid,  but  were  sent  back  by  Ferdi- 
nand minus  10.000  volumes.  The  Escorial  was 
partly  bamed  in  1671,  when  many  MSS.  were 
destroyed.  It  was  pillaged  by  the  French  in 
I80S  (when  the  books  were  removed)  and  in 
1813.  It  was  restored  by  Ferdinand  Vil,  but 
the  monks,  with  their  revenues  which  supported 
it,  have  long  since  disappeared,  and  the  budding 
which  from  its  situation  requires  to  be  kept  in 
repair  at  considerable  expense,  .has  fallen  into 
some  decay,  though  repairs  are  executed  from 
time  to  time.  On  2  OcL  1872  it  was  struck  by 
lightning  and  was  in  consequence  seriously 
injured  by  fire.  The  monastery  portion  of  it 
is  now  a  seminary  in  which  youths  receive  a 
secular  education.  Consult  Calvertj  A.  F.,  'The 
Escorial ;  a  Historical  and  Descriptive  Account' 
(New  York  1907)  ;  Hay,  John,  'Castilian  Days* 
(New  York  1875). 

ESCORT  (French  escorte),  a  guard,  * 
body  of  armed  men  which  attends  an  officer  or 
baggage,  provisi<tiis  or  manitioiu,  ooaveyti  br 


BSC08UKA — &8DRAJSL0N 


land  from  place  ta  jAact  to  protect  them. 
This  word  is  sometimes  used  for  tiavaJ  pro- 
tectors; but  the  proper  word  in  this  c»se  is 
convoy.  In  tfae  United  States  escorts  are  of 
two  kinds,  funeral  escorts  tmd  escorts  of  honor. 
The  troops  assigned  for  escort  duty  may  con- 
sist of  infantry,  cavalry  or  artillery  or  ail  of 
ihem.  The  army  regulations  fix  the  character 
and  sin  of  escorts  according  to  the  military 
prominence  or  title  of  the  individual.  Accortf- 
ing  to  the  United  States  Army  Regulations  of 
1913.  the  funeral  escort  of  a  general  of  the 
army  or  the  Secretary  of  War  shall  consist  of 
a  regrment  of  infantry,  a  squadron  of  cavalry 
and  one  battalion  of  field  artillery;  that  of  a 
lieutenant-general  or  the  assistant  Secretary  of 
War,  a  regiment  of  infantry,  a  squadron  of 
cavalry  anda  battery  of  field  artillery;  that  of 
a  major-general,  a  regiment  of  infantiv,  two 
troops  of  cavalry  and  a  battery  of  field  artil- 
lery; that  of  a  brigadier- general,  a  regiment  of 
infantry,  a  troop  of  cavalry  and  a  platoon  of 
field  artillery;  tnat  of  a  colonel,  a  regiment;  a 
lieu  tenant- colon  el  or  major,  a  battalion  or 
squadron ;  a  captain,  one  company ;  a  subaltern, 

BSCOSURA,  «s-kd-soo'r3,  Patricio  de  la, 
Snanish  novelist  and  poet:  b.  Uadnd,  S  Nov. 
1807;  d.  there.  22  Jan.  187a  After  various  |m- 
tittcal  and  military  ups  and  downs  and  being 
twice  exiled,  in  1855  he  was  sent  as  a  special 
envoy  to  the  Portuguese  court,  became  Under- 
Secretary  of  State,  Minister  of  the  Interior  and 
afterward  Ambassador  to  Germany,  1872.  He 
wrote  the  historical  novels  'The  Count  de 
Candespina'  (1832)  ;  'Neither  King  nor  Pawn' 
(1835);  and  'The  Patriarch  of  Qie  Valley'; 
the  epics  'The  Bust  in  Black  Cloak'  and  'Her- 
nan  Cortis  at  Cholula' ;  several  dramas,  the 
most  successful  of  which  was  'Meman  Cortes' 
Debaticheries' ;  and  several  historical  work^ 
among  them  a  'Constitutional  History  of  Eng- 
land' (18S9), 

ESCROW,  in  taw,  a  ivritten  document 
sealed  and  delivered  to  the  keeping  of  a  third 
party  to  be  bdd  by  him  pending  the  fulfilmeni 
of  certain  conditions.  Such  an  instrument  is 
not  a  perfect  deed  and  usually  docs  not  take 


ESCUAGE,  islcu-aj.    See  Scutage. 

BSCUBRZO,  a  Spanish  term  for  toad, 
specifically  applied  in  the  vallev  of  La  Plata  to 
a  large  local  toad-like  frt^  iCtroiopkryt  or- 
nofa)  noted  for  jts  varied  colors,  laid  on  like 
those  of  a  Persian  carpet  This  patchwork  thor- 
ou^ty  conceals  the  toads  as  they  lie  half-buried 
in  the  ground.  *If  there  is  not  enou^  green 
vesfctation,*  says  Gadow,  *they  throw,  with 
their  feet,  Httle  lumps  of  earth  upon  their  baclcs, 
the  skin  of  which  becomes  at  the  same  time 
more  wrinlded  and  assumes  duller  tones.  There 
the  creature  lies,  ^rfectly  concealed,  betrayed 
only  by  the  metallic,  glittering  eyes,  waiting  for 
some  unfortunate  creature  to  pass  into  the  trap 
represented  by  the  enormous  month,  which 
opens  and  shuts  with  lightning  rapidity  and  an 
audible  tnap.*  Thesf:  frogs  are  of  the  Cystig- 
tuthine  group  (see  Fkog)  and  closely  allied  to 


the  monstrous  *homed  toads*  of  Brazil.  Tbey' 
live  chiefly  on  frogs  and  are  sometimes  can- 
nibals. 

BSCUINTLA,  es-ken'tla,  Guatemala,  one  of 
the  southern  departments  of  that  republic ;  chief 
products,  sugar  cane  cacao  and  coffee.  Its 
chief  town,  also  called  Escuintia,  situated  at  an 
altitude  of  1.269  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
on  the  line  of  the  Central  Railroad  30  miles 
southwest  of  Guatemala,  has  good  hotels  and 
apartment  houses,  and,  owing  to  its  baths,  is  a 
favorite  winter  resort.  Pop.  of  ^cuintla  city 
18,000, 

ESCULAPIANS,  a  Catholic  order,  founded 
at  Rome  in  1614  ana  devoted  to  the  education 
of  poor  and  neglected  children.  At  present  it 
nuinbers  about  2,000  members  and  has  charge  of 
150  schools.    See  Orders,  Religious. 

BSCULBNT  SWALLOW.     See  Saiah- 

GANB. 

ESCULIN,  BSCULINE.    See  ^scuun. 
BSCUKIAL.   SeeEscoRiAi. 
ESCUTCHEON,  «s-kfich'dn,   in   heraldry, 
is    derived »  from    the    Old    French    tscMSSon, 

French  icusson,  and  that  from  the  Latin  sen- 
ium, a  shield.  It  signifies  the  shield  whereon 
coats  of  arms  are  represented.  See  HDtALDRV. 
ESDRAELOH,  i$-dra-e'16n  or  es-dra-c-15n 
(Merdj-lbn-Amer),  the  famous  and  beautiful 
plain  in  Palestine,  situated  between  the  moun- 
tains forming  the  western  watershed  of  the 
Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  In  the  Old 
Testament  it  is  called  Jezreel,  valley  of  Megiddo, 
the  Great  Plain;  in  the  New  Testament,  Arma- 
geddon. It  is  triangular  in  form,  36  miles 
in  length,  with  an  average  width  of  15  miles. 
On  its  botmdary  are:  on 'the  northeast  Monnt 
Tabor,  the  southeast  Mount  Gilboa,  and  on 
the  southwest  Mount  Carmel.  The  princioal 
streams  are  Nahr-el-Djalood,  which  flows  into 
the  Jordan,  and  the  Kishon  (Nahr-el-Moukataa)  ■ 
which  flows  into  the  Bay  of  Acre  just  north  of 
Mount  Carmel.  Other  streams  traverse  Ae 
plain,  but  are  chiefly  branches  of  the  two 
streams  mentioned.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
when  cultivated  with  care  yields  good  crops. 
When  Esdraelon  was  traversed  1^  caravans 
crossing  Palestine  from  the  rich  countries  cast 
and  west,  grains,  vegetables  and  fruits  were 
raised  in  abundance.  Agriculture  is  again  re- 
ceiving attention.  Some  of  the  noted  places  on 
this  plain  are  Djeneen  (probably  the  old  town 
of  Engannin),  at  the  entrance  to  the  plain  and 
984  feet  above  the  sea.  Tradition  says  this  is 
where  the  10  lepers  were  cured  (Luke  xvii) ; 
Zerlin,  known  Dy  the  residents  as  Zeraeen, 
called  by  the  Crusaders  Petit-Gufrin,  is  now  a 
large  village.  Near  it  is  the  fountain,  Ain- 
Maeeteh,  supposed  to  be  where  Saul  camped 
when  at  war  with  the  Philistines  (1  Sam,  xxxi). 
Ain-Djalood,  said  to  be  the  place  where  Gideon 
selected  the  300  men  who  fought  and  defeated 
the  Midianites  (Judges  vii).  On  the  south  side 
of  the  Kishon  are  the  villages  of  Afooleh,  B- 
Fooleh  and  Zerin.  Afooleh  is  the  old  town  of 
Aphec,  one  of  the  places  where  the  Assyrians 
and  Egyptians  met  in  battle.  At  El-Fooleh  was 
once  a  fortress  built  by  the  Templars,  but  de- 
stroyed by  Saladin  in  1187.  Here  in  1799  a  bat- 
tle between  French  troons  under  Napolirin, 
4/)00  ia  number,  and  the  Mohammedans,  35,000 


8l^ 


408 


ESDRA8  — BSKIMO 


in  number,  left  the  French  the  victory. 
Ruins  of  the  fort  exist.  For  the  ancient  his- 
tory of  Esdraelon  consult  the  Old  Testament; 
many  of  the  important  places  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament  are. in  a  ifood  state  of  preser^ 
vatton.  Nazareth,  Nain  and  all  the  surrounding 
section  west  of  Mount  Tabor  are  usually  in- 
cluded in  the  plain,  and  must  be  so  considered 
if  Uount  Tabor  is  accepted  as  on  the  northeast 
boundary.  Consult  Costello,  'The  Gospel 
Story';  Thomas,  'Two  Years  in  Palestine*; 
Sayce,  'Patriarchal  Palestine*;  Smith,  'Hisior- 
ical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land.  See 
Akmagesdon. 

ESDRAS,  Books  of,  two  apocryphal  books, 
which,  in  the  Vuleate  and  other  editions,  are 
incorporated  with  the  canonical  books  of  Scrip- 
ture. In  the  Vulgate  the  canonical  books  of 
Ezra  and  NehemijJi  are  called  the  first  and  sec- 
ond, and  the  apocr^hal  books  the  third  and 
fourth  books  of  ^dras.  The  Geneva  Bible 
(1560)  first  adopted  the  present  nomenclature, 
callins  the  two  apocryphal  books  first  and  sec- 
ond Esdras.  The  subject  of  the  first  book  of 
Esdras  is  the  same  as  that  of  Ez^  and  Nehe- 
miab,  and  in  general  it  appears  to  be  copied 
from  the  canonical  Scriptures.  The  second 
book  of  Esdras  is  supposed  to  have  been  tither 
of  much  later  date,  or  to  have  been  interpolated 
by  Christian  writers.  This  book  takes  its  name 
from  the  supposed  writer,  a  priest  and  doctor 
of  the  law,  called  Eira  by  the  Hebrews. 

ESBEINE,  or  PHYSOSTIGMIN,  a  drug 
obtained  from  Calabar-bean,  the  active  prindfJe 
of  this  plant,  used  as  a  remedy  in  cases  of 
tetanus  (lockjaw) .  A  solution  of  eserine 
dropped  into  the  eye  causes  contraction  of  the 
pupil,  and  hence  itj  use  in  some  eye  ailments, 
as,  for  instance,  glaucoma. 

ESHER,  RcEinald  Baliol  Brett,  2d  Vis- 
count, English  writer;  b.  London,  30  June  1852. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  and 
was  private  secretary  to  the  Marquis  of  Hart- 
.  ington  1878-a5.  He  was  member  of  Parliament 
for  Falmouth  1880-85;  from  1895  to  1902  was 
secretary  to  H.  M.  Office  of  Works;  and  was 
chairman  of  the  Territorial  Forces  Association, 
county  of  London,  1909-13,  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  viscount  in  1899.  He  has  written 
'Footprinu  of  Statesmen'  (1892) ;  'The  Cor- 
respondence of  Queen  Victoria'  (1907) ;  'To- 
day and  To-raorrow'  (1910)  ;  'The  Girlhood  of 
Queen  Victoria'  (1912);  'Influence  of  King 
Edward:  Essays'  (1914). 

ESHER,  William  BaHol  Brett,  1st  Vis- 
count, English  jurist :  b.  Chelsea,  13  Aug. 
1817;  d  London,  24  May  1899.  He  received  his 
education  at  Westminster  and  at  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1840, 
He  entered  Parliament  in  1866  as  a  Conservative 
and  two  ^cars  later  was  made  solicitor- general 
and  withm  a  few  months  was  appointed  justice 
of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  He  was  made 
lord  justice  in  1876  and  in  1883  succeeded  Jessel 
as  master  of  the  rolls.  In  188S  he  entered  the 
House  of  Lords  as  Baron  Esher.  In  1897  he 
retired  from  the  bench  and  a  viscounty  was 
bestowed  on  him.  Several  of  his  decisions  were 
severely  criticized  and  while  an  able  lawyer  he 
was  on  the  whole  reactionary  and  his  judgments 
belong  to  an  earlier  and  more  conservative  age. 


B8HSR,  England,  village  m  Surrey^  15 
miles  southwest  of  London.  Qaremont  Park, 
where  the  Princess  Charlotte  resided  and  died, 
and  the  ruins  of  Esher  Palace,  built  in  the  I5th 
century,  are  in  the  nei^borhood.  Pop.  of  parish 
2,609. 

BSK  (Celtic  for  water),  the  name  of  two 
smalt  rivers  in  England,  one  in  Cumbertand  and 
one  in  Yorkshire ;  and  of  several  in  Scotland, 
the  chief  being  the  Esk  in  Dumfriesshire;  the 
North  Esk  and  South  Esk  in  Forfarshire;  and 
the  North  Esk  and  South  Esk  in  FUlinburgh- 

ESKER,  a  narrow  winding  ridge  of  strati- 
fied glacio- fluvial  sand  and  gravel,  frequenti^ 
extending  across  the  country  for  miles  with 
little  regard  for  hills  and  valleys.  Elskers  are 
believed  to  have  been  formed  by  deposition  from 
subglacial  streams  in  tunnels  under  the  ice. 
They  are  also  known  as  osars  or  sometimes  as 
Serpentine  kames. 

ESKI-SAGRA,     eslcl-sa'sra.     or     EZKI 

ZAGHRA,  Bulgaria,  a  town  in  eastern  Rumelia, 

the   south  slope  of  the  Balkans,  about   100 


advantageous  location  is  favorable  to  its  trade. 
The  mineral  springs  and  extensive  rose  gardens 
nearby  are  sources  of  wealth  for  the  town. 
Some  of  the  manufactures  are  carpets,  coarse 
linen,  leather  and  rose  oil.  It  was  one  of  the 
South  Balkan  strongholds  of  the  Turks  whidi 
repelled  the  Russians  in  1877.    Pop.  22,003. 

BSKI-SHBHR,  is'kl-shehr'  (ancient  Dory- 
l.£um),  Turkey,  town  90  miles  southeast  of  the 
sea  of  Marmora.  It  has  warm  mineral  springs, 
and  manufactures  of  meerschaum  pipes  from 
the  deposits  of  meerschaum  in  the  neighborhood. 


medans  and  the  remainder  are  Christians. 
Pop.  20,000. 

SSKI-ZAGRA.   See  Staba-Zacora. 

E8KILSTUNA,  £sk'il-stoo-na,  Sweden, 
city  57  miles  west  of  Stockholm,  on  the  river 
of  Eskitstuna,  connecting  Lake  Maelar  with 
Lake  Hjelmar.  It  has  daily  communication  with 
Stockholm,  both  by  steamer  and  rail.  On  an 
island  in  the  river  it  a  large  gun  factory,  and 
its  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  products  are 
so  great  that  it  is  called  the  Sheffield  of 
Sweden.*  The  place  takes  its  name  from  Saint 
Eskill,  an  English  missionary  of  die  1 1th 
ceutury,  who,  it  is  said,   suffered  martyrdom 


ccuLury, 

here.    P( 

ESKIMO  DOG,  sledge  dog,  the  dr^uiAt 
animal  of  the  Arctic  regions.  It  is  a  wolfish- 
looking  dog,  largely  or  sometimes  wholly  de- 
rived from  the  wolf,  tinged  with  yellow  or  with 
a  ^ayish  color,  having  an  outer  ooat  of  long 
bair.  and  an  undercoat  of  soft  wool  its  short 
pricked  ears  and  bushy  tail  add  to  its  wolf- 
like appearance.  Its  cry  is  not  a  bark,  but  a 
long  melancholy  wail.  This  dog  b  trained  to 
hunt  the  polar  beer  and  to  drag  the  Elmo's 
burdens  over  the  rough  ice,  when  harnessed  in 
trains  to  sledges,  and  is  highly  priced  in  the 
frozen  North. 

BSKIHO,  ESKIMOS  (Abnald,  EsMnon- 
tsic:  Oiibwav,  Askldmey,  eaters  of  raw  flesh), 
or  ESQUIMAUX,  eslci-mO,  the  name  of  the 


inhabitants  of  the  northern  coast  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent  down  to  lat.  60°  N.  on  the  west, 
.  and  55°  on  the  east,  and  of  the  Arctic  islands, 
Gnenland,  and  about  400  miles  of  the  nearest 
Asiatic  coast.  They  prefer  the  vicinity  of 
the  seashore,  from  which  they  rarely  withdraw 
more  than  from  20  to  80  miles.  Their  number 
scarcely  amounts  to  40,000.  Nevertheless  they 
are  scattered  as  the  sole  native  occupants  of 
regions  stretching:  3,200  miles  in  a  straight 
line  east  and  west,  to  travel  between  the  ex- 
treme points  of  which  would  necessitate  a 
journey  of  no  less  than  5,000  miles.  This  dis~ 
tance,  taken  in  connection  with  their  homo- 
geneous nature  and  manners,  makes  their  small 


iiculties  they  have  had  to  face  in  procur- 
ing subsistence.  They  call  themselves  Innmt 
Yuit,  You-K<mk  (the  people). 

Race. —  They  used  to  be  classed  among  na- 
tions of  the  Mongolian  stock;  but  now  thn[  are 
considered  as  alan  to  the  American  Indians. 
Their  height  is  from  five  feet  two  inches  to  five 
feel  six  inches.  They  appear  comparatively 
taller  sitting  than  standing.  Their  hands  and 
feet  are  small,  their  faces  aval,  but  rather  broad 
in  the  lower  part;  their  skin  is  only  slightly 
brown;  they  have  coarse  black  hair  and  very 
little  beard.    The  skull  is  hi^. 

Habits.— The  Eskimos  get  their  subsistence 
mostly  from  himting  by  sea,  nsing  for  this  pur- 
pose skin  boats  where  the  sea  is  open,  and  dog 
skdges  on  the  ice.  From  the  sldn,  blubber,  and 
flesh  of  the  seal  and  the  cetaceous  animals,  they 
procure  clothes,  fuel,  light  and  food.  Their 
most  interesting  as  well  as  important  invention 
for  hunting  is  the  well-known  small  skin  boat 
for  one  man,  called  the  kayak.  It  is  formed  of  a 
framework  covered  with  skin,  and,  together 
with  his  waterproof  jacket,  it  completely  pro- 
tects the  man  against  the  waves,  so  that  he  is 
^le  to  rise  unhurt  by  means  of  his  paddle, 
even  should  he  capsize.  In  winter  the  Eskimos 
are  stationary.  But,  during  the  summer,  when 
sufficient  open  water  is  found,  they  roam  about 
in  their  large  sldn  boats.  Their  winter  dwell- 
ings vary  with  regard  to  die  materials  of 
which  they  are  built,  as  well  as  in  their  form. 
In  the  farthest  west  they  are  constructed  mostly 
of  planka,  covered  only  with  a  layer  of  turf  or 
sod;  in  Greenhmd  the  walls  consist  of  stones 
and  sod;  in  the  central  regions  the  houses  are 
formed  merely  out  of  snow.  In  Alaska  the 
interior  is  a  square  room,  surrounded  by  the 
sleeping  places,  with  the  entrance  on  one  side, 
while  a  hearth  with  wood  as  fuel  occupies  the 
middle  of  die  floor.  The  number  of  inhabitants 
at  an  Eskimo  station  or  village  is  generally 
under  40,  but  in  rare  cases  more  than  200  are 
found.  A  funnel-shaped,  half -underground 
passa^  forms  the  entrance  of  the  narrow 
dwellings. 

Dr«s».^The  dress  of  the  Eskimos  is  al- 
most the  same  for  the  women  as  for  the  men, 
consisting  of  trousers  or  breeches  and  a  tunic 
or  coat  fitting  close  to  the  body,  and  covering 
also  the  head  by  a  prolongation  that  forms  the 
hood.  For  women  with  children  to  carry,  this 
hood  is  widened  so  as  to  make  it  an  excellent 
cradle,  the  atnaut.  Tattooing  has  been  general 
among  all  the  tribes.    The  ordinary  materials 


of  which  clothes  are  made  are  die  skins  of 
seals,  land  animals  and  birds. 

LahKUXSC. —  The  language  is  characterized 
by  the  power  of  expressing  in  one  word  a  whole 
sentence  in  which  are  embodied  a  number  of 
ideas  which  in  other  languages  require  separate 
words.  The  Greenland  dictionary  contains  1,370 
radicals  and  about  200  affixes.  A  radical  may 
be  made  the  foundation  of  thousands  of  deriva- 
tives, and  a  word  can  be  composed  which  ex- 
presses with  perfect  distinctness  what  in  our 
civilized  languages  might  require  20  words.  In 
Greenland  and  Labrador  the  missionaries  have 
adopted  the  Roman  letters  for  reducing  the 
native  language  to  writing.  The  printed  Green- 
land literature,  including  what  has  been  pulj- 
lished  by  Che  Moravian  Brethren,  amounts,  with 
pamphlets  and  the  like,  to  what  mig^t  make 
70  to  80  ordinary  volumes. 

Sociology.— It  is  doubtful  whether  an 
organization  like  that  of  the  Indian  'families* 
has  been  discovered  among  the  Eskimos.  But 
a  division  into  tribes,  each  with  their  separate 
territories,  actually  exists.  The  tribe  again  b 
divided  into  groups  constituting  the  inhabitants 
of  the  different  wintering  places.  Finally,  in 
the  same  station,  the  inhabitants  of  the  same 
hou.se  are  closely  united  with  regard  to  common 
housekeeping. 

Religion.— The  inhabitants  of  Danish  West 
Greenland,  numberino  about  10,000,  the  greater 
part  of  die  Labradorians,  and  the  southern 
Alaskan  Eskimos  are  christianized.  As  for  the 
rest,  the  reli^on  of  the  Eskimos  is  what  is 
generally   designated   as   Shamanism. 

The  Eskimos  arc  believed  by  some  to  have 
come  from  the  interior  ot  America,  and,  follow- 
ing the  river  courses,  to  have  arrived  at  the 
Arctic  sea,  where-  they  have  developed  thdr 
abilities  as  an  Arctic  coast  people.  The  Eskimos 
may  be  divided  into  the  following  groups:  (1) 
The  Western  Eskimos,  inhabiting  the  Alaska 
territory  and  the  Asiatic  side  of  Bering  Strait; 
(2)  the  Mackenzie  Eskimos,  or  Tchiglils,  from 
Barter  Island  to  Cape  Bathurst;  (3)  the  in- 
habitants of  the  central  regions,  including  the 
Arctic  Archipelago;  (4)  the  Labradorians;  (S) 
the  Greenlanders ;  a  side  branch  inhabiting  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  speak  a  dialect  considerably 
different  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  Eskimo 

The  Christianized  natives  still  preserve  their 
ancient  folklore.  It  represents  at  the  same  time 
their  original  poetry,  religious  ideas  and  his- 
tory, praising  the  deeds  of  their  great  men 
in  oraving  the  dangers  to  which  their  race  has 


collection  of  150  tales  founded  on  versions  sap- 
plied  by  about  50  narrators  from  different  paiis 
of  Greenland,  and  a  few  from  Labrador.  A 
valuable  collection  has  since  been  acquired  from 
East  Greenland,  some  tales  from  Baffin  Land, 
and  a  number  of  the  simplest  fragments  of  the 
same  from  Bering  Strait.  See  Alaska;  Polab 
Research  ;    Ethnouky  ;    Greenland  ;    Labra- 

Bibliognphy. — Boas,  'The  Central  Eskimo' 
(Bureau  of  Ethnology  6th  Annual  Report)  ; 
McLean,  'Notes  on  the  Hudson  Bay  Territory' 
(1846)  ;  Hall.  <Life  widi  the  Eskimos'  (1864) ; 
Rink,  'The  Eskimo  Tribes'  <1887)  ;  'Tradi- 
tions of  the  Eskimos'  (London  1875) ;  'Danish 
Greenland'    (London  1887) ;  PilHng,  'BiUiog* 


■8l^ 


BSLA— B8NSH 


rapiv  of  the  EaUino  LEmeuage'  (1888)  :  Peary, 
*My  Arctic  Journal*  (1893) ;  Nansen,  'Eskimo 
Life'  <I894);  Thalbitier,  'A  Phonetical  Study 
of  the  Eskimo  Language'  (Copenhagen  1914)  ; 
Stefanasou,  'My  Life  with  the  Eskimo'  (Lon- 
don 1913);  Morillol,  'Mythologic  et  Ligendes 
dcs    Esquimaux    de    Greenland'    (Actes    de    la 

Socift*  Philolog*         —  .      . 

Regions'  (1861) 

BSLA,  a  river  in  Spain,  which  rises  in  the 
Cantabrian  Mountains  and  flows  south  for  150 
miles  through  Le6n  and  Zamora  and  empties 
into  the  Duero,  20  miles  below  Ciudad  Zamora. 

ESLAVA,  Miguel  Hilarion,  Spanish  com- 
poser: b.  Burlada,  1807;  d.  1878.  He  was  ap- 
pointed msestro  in  Ossuita  cathedral  at  the  age 


>  Seville.     Queen  "Isabella  apt 

t  ma:stro  at  Madrid  in  18+4.     He  pi 


ted 

^ 'Us 

treguas  de  Tolemaida'  (1842);  'Pietro  el  cm- 
dele'  n843);  the  collections  'Museo  organico 
espafiol' :  "Lira  sacro-hispaila'  (18H>);  also 
ISO  masses,  psalms,  etc. 

ESLAVA,  Sebagtifin  de,  Spanish  soldier: 
b.  Navarre,  1714;  d.  Madrid.  1789.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  graduates  of  the  Real  Academia 
MiUtar  of   Barcelona.      He   wondistinctio 


later  viceroy  of  New  Granada,  the  present 
public  of  Colombia,  South  America.  iic 
strengthened  the  fort  at  Cartagena  and  de- 
fended it  successfully  against  the  English  under 
Sir  Edward  Vernon  in  1741,  He  returned  to 
Spain  in  1748,  was  advanced  to  the  grade  of 
caplain-^eneral  and  in  1750  made  governor  of 
Andalusia.  Four  years  later  he  was  made  War 
Minister  and  retired  from  public  life  on  the 
accession  of  Charles  HL 

ESMANN,  es'man,  GostaT  Frederik,  Dan- 
ish  dramatist;  b.  Copenhagen,  17  Aug.  I860;  d. 
1904.  After  a  short  period  of  legal  study,  he 
abandoned  law  for  literature  and  his  first  work 
was    a   volume   containing   two  short   stories, 


and  a  notable  series  of  plays,  which  have  been 
acted  with  great  success  throughout  the  Scandi- 
navian countries,  have  come  from  his  pen. 
They  are:  <I  Sti£telsen>  (1886);  "Enkemjend' ; 
'For  Bryllupet';  *!  Provinsen'  (1890);  'Den 
Kxre  Familie'  (1892);  'Magdakne-  (1893); 
<Den  Store  Maskerade'  (185S)  ;  'Vandrefal- 
ken'  (1898);  <Det  Gamlc  Hjem>  (1899); 
'Sangerinden'    (1901). 

ESHARCH,  JohanneB  Priedrich  Angnst, 
y6-han'nis  fred'rin  ow'goost  Ss'marH,  German 
military  surgeon ;  b.  Tonning,  Schleswig-Hol- 
Stein,  9  Jan.  1823;  d.  23  Feb.  1906.  He  received 
his  medical  and  surgical  education  in  the  uni- 
versities of  fCiel  and  Gottingen,  and  in  1860  was 
apl>ointed  director  of  the  Kiel  Hospital.  In 
1870  he  was  a  member  of  (he  hospital  commis- 
sion of  the  Prussian  army,  physician-gen- 
eral and  consulting  surgeon  of  the  army  and 
introduced  a  system  of  bloodless  operations 
and  originated  noteivorthy  improvements  in 
ambulances  and  barrack  hospitals.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1888  he  made  a  trip  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  an  authority  on  gunshot 
wounds.  Amon^  his  published  works  are 
'Ucber     Resektionca      nach      Schusswundcn* 


(1853-^);  "UeEer  chronische  Geletikentiun- 
dungen'  (1867);  'Ueber  den  fCampf  der  Hu-  . 
man  I  tat  gegen  die  Schrecken  des  Kregcs' 
(1869);  'Der  erste  Verband  auf  dem 
Schlachtfelde'  (1899,  3d  ed.) ;  'VerbandpUti 
und  Feldlazaretl'  (1671);  Ueber  kiinstliche 
Blutleere  bei  Operationen'  (1S73) ;  <Hand- 
buch  der  kriegchirurgischen  Technik'  (1877); 
'  Die  erste  Hilf e  bei  plotilichen  Unglucks- 
fallen'  (1901). 

ESHENARD,  JoMPh  AlpbouM,  French 
editor  and  poet :  d.  PiLssane,  Bouches  du 
Rhone,  1769;  d.  1811.  He  came  to  Paris  about 
1797  and  became  coeditor  of  La  Quotidietine 
and  in  the  following  year  of  Le  Mercure  de 
France.  He  was  secretary  to  Villa ret-Joyeusc, 
governor  of  Martinique  under  the  Consulate, 
and  in  1804  was  consul  in  the  island  of  Saint 
Thomas.  In  1805  he  published  'La  oavigatioD,' 
3  poem  inspired  bv  his  early  travels  in  America. 
In  1810  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy.  Soon 
afterward  a  caustic  article  on  Kus^  in  Lt 
Journal  de  VEmlirt  so  annoyed  Napoleon 
that  he  banished  Esmenard  from  France. 

ESMERALDAN,  a  linguistic  stock  of 
aborigines  of  South  America,  who  formerly 
dwelt  along  the  Esmeraldas  River  in  northern 
Ecuador.  Consult  Rivet  (in  L'Annie  lingnis- 
lique,  1908-10)  and  Seler.  'Oschichte  Abh. 
ziir  amerikanischen  Sprach-und  Altertums- 
kunde>  (Vol.  I,  pp.  49-64,.  Berlin  1902). 

ESMOND,  Henrr  V.,  (real  name.  Jack), 
English  actor  and  dramatic  author:  b.  Hamp- 
ton Court,  1869.  He  was  educated  by  private 
tutors,  went  on  the  stage  in  1885  but  after  10 
years  abandoned  it  for  ttie  dramatic  field.  He 
produced  'Rest';  'Bogev' .and  'The  Divided 
Way* ;  'One  Summer's  Day'  (1897) ;  'Crier- 
son's  Way'  (1899):  'The  WUdemess*  (1901); 
'When  We  were  Twenty-onB>*  (1901);  'The 
Sentimentalist';  'My  Lady  Virtue'  (I9nz>; 
'BiUy's  Little  Love  Affair*  (1903);  'The 
O'Grindles'  (1907)  ;  'Under  the  Greenwood 
Tree'  (1907)  ;  <A  Young  Man's  Fancy*  (1912). 
Consult  Winter,  W,  'The  Wallet  of  Time' 
(2  vols..  New  Yoric  1913). 

BSNAMBUC,  Pierre  Bdain  d*.  Prendi 
navigator:  b.  Allonville.  1S8S;  d.  1636l  While 
commanding  a  vessel  in  the  Carild>ean  he 
seized  the  island  of  Saint  Chris) opher  and  so 
established  his  title  as  founder  of  the  French 
settlements  in  that  region.  He  suggested  a 
plan  for  dividing  the  island  between  France  and 
England  which  was  aM>roved.  He  brought  ^MUt 
500  immigrants  there  in  1626  and  in  the  i<e- 
maining  years  of  hii  life  founded  colonies  «i 
Marlimque  and  other  islands  of  the  .\ntiUeu 
group.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  toyra  and 
fort  of  Saint  Pierre,  which  was  annihilated  by 
a  volcanic  eruption  on  8  May  190;£. 

ESNBH,  (s'n(.  or  B8NB.  a  town  in  upiwr 
Egypt,  about  30  miles  above  Thebes  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile.  It  is  a  seat  of  manufactures, 
produces  blue  cotton  cloth  and  pottery  and  is  a 
depot  of  caravans  from  Abyssinia  and  Scn- 
naar.  The  town  was  anciently  called  Latopolis; 
and  was  the  centre  of  worship  of  the  fish  latns, 
a  species  of  carp.  Among  the  ruins  of  this 
once  populous  ci^  is  the  temple,  whose  portico 
is  in  good  preservation,  having  24  beautiful  col- 
umns and  a  lodiac  on  the  ceilitig.  Coptic  re- 
mains  are  in  the  nei^iborhood.    Ilie  ChristiaDi 


BSOCIDS— BSPERANTO    lANGUAGB 


BSOCID£,  e-sds1-dE.    See  Luanix. 
BSOP.    See  .£sof. 

BSOPUS  FORMATION.  See  Caud*- 
Galli  Grit. 

BSOPUS  WAR,  a.  long-continued  uid 
desultory  conflict  between  the  Dutch  and  U»e 
Indians  at  a  place  in  Ulster  County,  N.  Y., 
known  to  the  Indians  as  Esopus,  but  now 
called  King^lon.    This  series  of  stdrmiihes  be- 

Ea  in  1658,  when  the  Dutch  filed  upon  some 
dian  fann  hands,  who  were  drunk  and  riot' 
ous.  Esopus,  which  the  Dutch  called  Wiltwyck, 
was  at  last  destroyed  by  the  aborigines,  who 
carried  ofl  40  women  and  children  and  Idlled 
21  men.  Governor  Stuyvesant  sent  out  a  strong 
force  to  punish  the  Indians,  and  in  Uay  16M 
a  treaty  of  friendship  was  ratified. 

ESOTERIC,  fis-o-t<SrTk  ([Gr.  iaurcpui!, 
•inner'),  a  term  used  in  opposition  to  exoteric. 
Id  reference  to  the  teaching  of  Pythagoras, 
Aristotle,  and  other  anctenC  philosophers,  it  re- 
fers to  those  doctrines  whidi  they  expounded 
to  their  select  disciples,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  which  they  published  to'  all  the  world 
(exoteric).  The  distinction  does  not  necessarily 
imply  that  the  esoteric  doctrines  were  kept  se- 
cret as  a  mystery,  but  only  that  tfaey  were  of  a 
higher  and  more  difficult  order.  (See  Amsro- 
TL£ ;  Pythagoras)  .  Consult  Christ-Schmid, 
'Gcschichte  der  Grieschischen  Utteratur*  (Uu- 
nich  1908). 

BSPALIBR,  <>s-p&l'y«r.  in  gardening,  a 
sort  of  trellis-work  on  which  the  branches  of 
fruit-trees  or  bushes  are  extended  horiion- 
tftlly,  with  the  object  of  securiog  for  the  plant 
»  freer  circulation  of  air  as  well  as  a  full  ex- 
posure to  the  sun.  Trees  thus  trained  are  not 
subjected  to  such  marked  nor  so  rapid  varia- 
tions  of  temperature  as  wall-trees.  The  term 
is  most  commonly  used  in  France,  where  it  is 
applied  to  a  row  of  trees  planted  along  a  wall. 
Sec  Trellis. 

BSPARSBTTB.    See  Sainfoin. 

B5PARTERO,  Baldomero,  bal'dd-mi'rS 
ia-par-t&'ro,  Duke  of  Vitohia,  Spanish  states- 
man-, b.  CranatuJa,  27  Feb.  1792;  d,  Logrono,  9 
Jan.  1879,  The  son  of  a  wheelwright,  he  was 
educated  for  the  priesthood,  but  joined  the 
army  as  a  volunteer  in  1808  and  continued  with 
it  fishting  against  Napoleon  until  1814. 
Shortly  afterward  he  went  to  South  America 
ivbere  he  served  in  the  army  of  Spain  against 
the  revolting  colonists.  He  returned  in  1824 
and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  conflict  with  the 
Carlists  and  was  otte  of  the  most  prominent 
men  in  Spain  during  several  decades  of  the 
I9th  century.  He  was  lieutenant-general  and  com- 
mander-in-tjiief  on  two  separate  occasions.  In 
this  capacity  he  twice  held  Madrid  against  the 
Carlbts  (in  1836  and  1837) ;  and  by  the  Agree- 
ment of  Vergara  (1839)  entered  into  with 
Maroto.  he  forced  Don  Carlos  to  withdraw 
from  Spain.  In  reward  for  these  services  to 
the  Crown  he  was  granted  the  titles  of  Duke 
of  Vitoria,  r>uke  of  Morelia  and  grandee  of 
Spain.  In  1841,  on  the  resignation  of  the  re- 
geticy  by  the  Queen  Mother,  Maria  Christina, 
he  became  rei[ent.  Two  years  later  he  was 
farced  into  exile,  which  he  spent  in  England. 


HI 

He  returned  to  Spain  in  I&IS  and  became  s^n 
head  of  the  government  in  1854-^  In  1868 
his  name  was  put  forward  in  the  Cortes  as  a 
candidate  for  the  throne,  but  the  proposal  was 
unsuccessful  and  the  closing  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  in  retirement. 

ESPARTO  (Gr.  airaproi;  Lat.  tparhim), 
a  grass,  the  Stipa  tenaciisima,  ^{^owing  in  Spain 
and  Africa,  known  to  tbe  anctcnts  and  applied 
by  them  to  the  manufacture  of  cordage,  matting, 
etc,,  and  still  more  extensively  used  a  I  the 
present  day.  Numerous  species  of  Stipa  are' 
found  in  North  America,  chiefly  in  the  western 
part.  Esparto  ^rows  in  tufts  and  bunches,  like 
rushes,  to  a  heigh)  of  from  two  to  four  feet, 
and  has  a  long  flat  blade,  which  becomes  cylin- 
drical when  the  ripened  plant  bc^ns  to  dry.  It 
is  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  dried  in  the  sun  and 
packed  in  bundles  for  exportation.  Besides 
the  various  uses  already  indicated,  esparto  has 
e  been  applied  to  the  manufacture 


closely  allied  fibre  called  alfa  {Stipa  a  .  _, 
is  now  obtained  in  still  larger  quantity  from 
Algeria,  while  a  third  fibre,  dis  (Festuca  pa- 
iHia),  is  imported  for  the  same  purpose  from 
Tripoli  and  Tunis.    See  FEATHEk  Bunch-oass: 

FiBBE. 

BSPATOLINO.    See  Sab  ck  Esfatouno. 

ESPERANTO  LANGUAGE.  'Esper- 
anto,* successor  to  'Volapnk*  in  the  effort  to 
establish  an  international  language,  has  made 
considerable  progress.  The  latest  reports  show- 
that  a  substantial  and  lasting  interest  in  this, 
lii^uistic  enterprise  now  exists.  In  1887  Dr. 
Zamenhof,  a  Russian  phjrsician,  issued  his  first 
pami^et  concerning  a  su^rested  new  interna- 
tional language,  to  be  called  'Esperanto.*  Only 
small  progress  was  made  during  tbe  first  10 
years  of  the  movement.  The  idea  first  took 
root  in  the  originator's  native  country.  Rus- 
sian educators  and  other  men  of  culture  looked 
Upon  the  innovation  with  favor.  After  the 
lapse  of  a  decade,  a  start  was  made  to  intro- 
duce the  Zamenhof  idea  among  the  Norwe- 
gians and  Swedes.  They,  too,  showed  a 
friendly  attitude.  Then  France  manifested 
great  mtcrest,  and  almost  immediately  became 
prominent  as  a  stronghold  of  Esperantism. 
From  France  the  movement  extended  to  Ger- 
many, thence  to  Austria,  Switzerland.  Italy  and 
England  In  the  latter  country  30  societies  of 
Esperanfists  were  oi^aniied  within  a  year  of 
the  system's  introduction.  During  the  past 
years,  active  missionary  work  has  been  under- 
taken in  the  United  States  looking  toward  the 
promulgation  of  the  Zamenhof  plan  for  use  in 
commercial,  educational  and  other  fields.  There 
is  little  doubt  as  to  the  success  of  the  outcome,.  - 
indorsed  as  it  is  by  some  of  the  greatest  philol- 
ogists in  Germany.  Austria,  England.  France, 
Russia  and  the  United  States.  Advocata*  of  att 
international  language  have  in  the  past  in^ 
eluded  numerous  philosophers  and  scientists,  in- 
cluding Roger  Bacon,  Descartes,  Pascal,  Leib- 
nitz, Locke,  Condillac,  Voltaire,  Diderot,  and, 
more  recently,  Tolstoi,  who  unqualifiedly  sup- 
ported the  Esperanto  movement  and  learned 
Its  grammar  rules  in  an  hour.  Only  of  late 
years  have  the  linguistic  theories  of  these  fa- 
mous thinkers  been  molded  into  anything  like 
practical  shape. 


joogle 


BSPBRANTO    LANOUAOB 


Occasions  Calliac  for  the  Use  of  an  Inter- 
natioiial  Languace>— One  of  the  prindpal 
reasons  for  renew^  of  interest  in  the  direction 
of  one  universal  language  is  the  necessity  for 
producing  a  vehicle  of  common  expressioa 
among  delegates  representing  various  countries 
at  congresses  and  on  similar  occasions.  It  has 
been  found  diificult  for  individuals,  acting  for 
their  respective  nations,  to  keep  in  touch  with 
the  proceedings  from  day  to  day.  The  ex- 
tended use  of  Elsperanto  and  the  widespread 
appreciation  manifested  in  its  development  indi- 
cates that  the  method  of  Dr.  Zamennof  offers  a 
feasible  solution  of  what  has,  hitherto,  been  an 
unsolved  problem.  In  addition  to  the  advan- 
tages of  having  a  common  language  for  cos- 
mopolitan assemblages,  ihe  transaction  of 
voluminous  mercantile  affairs  between  nations 
and  merchants  of  various  nations,  requires  some 
such  system  to  facilitate  the  making  of  purchases 
and  adjustment  of  mercantile  accounts.  For 
educational  purposes,  as  in  other  ways,  the 
availability  of  a  means  whereby  educators  can 
compare    systems    and    processes    without 


PreMnt  Umi  of  the  Esperanto  Language 
—  From  a  recently  published  review  it  is 
learned  that  among  tbe  books  in  the  Esperanto 
language,  are  translations  from  every  known 
national  tongue  in  common  use,  and  many  orig- 
inal novels.  The  number  of  periodicals,  mclud' 
iiu  national  propaganda  journals,  scientific  and 
^cial  organs  of  various  international  socie- 
ties, EUch  as  the  Good  Templars,  the  Free 
Uasons,  die  Roman  Catholics,  Peace  Associa- 
tions, etc,  printed  in  the  international  language; 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  ex- 
ceeded 200.  Since  August  1914  many  of  the 
magazines  in  the  smaller  countries  —  notably, 
Belgium,  Poland,  Bulgaria,  Roumania,  etc— 
have  been  forced  temporanly  to  suspend  pub- 
lication, although  the  official  organs  are  still  a.p- 
nearing  regularly  in  En^and,  France,  Russia, 
Germany,  Holland,  Norway,  Sweden,  Italy, 
Spain,  United  States  and  several  of  the-  South 
Amencan  countries.  On  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope and  in  the  United  States  representative 
dady  and  weekly  newspapers  regularly  publish 
articles  in  Elsperanto,  many  courses  ot  study 
have  been  furnished  by  the  press  and  editorial 
endorsements  are  most  frequent  Esperantist 
clubs  and  societies  are  operating  in  practically 
all  of  the  European  cities  and  have  large  mem- 
bership. Amonsthe  most  important  are  those 
of  Paris,  with  3,000  memben,  Marseilles,  Lyons, 
Bordeaux,  Havre,  Lille,  London,  Moscow,  Ber- 
lin and  Dresden.  The  Esperanto  Association  of 
North  America  reports  affiliated  clubs  in  nearly 
all  of  the  large  cities  and  in  many  of  the  smaller 
ones  in  both  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Several  French,  En^^ish  and  American  pub- 
lishers have  undertaken  in  an  extensive  way  to 
publish  Esperanto  works,  conditional  on  the 
possession  of  exclusive  ri^ts,  while  the  various 
national  Esperanto  publishing  houses  turn  out 
many  books  annually.  A  library  of  over  5,000 
volumes — constantly  increasing — including  text- 
books, translated  and  original  works,  is  now 
found  listed  in  the  Esperanto  catalogues. 
Quite  a  number  of  large  commercial  concerns 
are  using  the  system  for  cable  and  telegraphic 
purposes.  Courses  of  study  in  Esperanto  form 
an   attractive    feature   in    commercial    schools. 


dubs  and  public  institutions,  some  of  which 
make  a  special  feature  of  teaching  tbe  blind  to 
read  by  the  new  system.  Several. of  the  stand- 
ard typewriters  are  equipped  with  Esperanto 
keyboards,  and  in  that  connection  many  stenog- 
raphers are  learning  the  use  of  the  language  for 
shorthand  purposes. 

In  the  colleges  and  schools,  Esperanto  is 
commanding  considerable  attention.  One  of  the 
Esperantist  triumphs  was  the  delivery  of  an 
address  in  the  Esperanto  language  by  Mr.  Moch, 
the  famous  peace  advocate,  at  Uie  Intemationai 
Peace  Congress,  Lucerne.  At  the  Boulogne 
Universal  Esperanto  Congress,  1,200  delegates 
from  22  countries  spoke  tbe  Elsperanio  lan- 
guage freely  and  understood  each  other  thor- 
oughly. A  complete  test  was  made  by  means 
of  speeches,  discussions,  concerts,  dramatic 
performances  and  religious  services.  During 
that  congress  the  work  of  Dr.  Zamenhof  was 
officially  noticed  by  the  French  govemmenL 
The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  extended 
thanks  in  behalf  of  the  president  of  the  repub- 
lic and  of  the  people  of  France.  In  the  course 
of  the  proceedings  a  reception  was  tendered  to 
the  creator  of  Esperanto>at  tbe  Hotel  de  Ville, 
Paris.  If  further  proof  were  needed  that  the 
Esperanto  language  is  a  practical  spoken  tongue 
— 11  universal  congresses  have  been  sched- 
uled—  two  having  taken  place  in  the  United 
States.  The  largest  on  record  was  arranged 
for  Paris,  in  August  1914,  at  which  over  5,000 
delegates  representing  every  nation  on  the 
globe  had  already  enrolled.     A  lar^  majority,  , 

including   a   number   from   the   United    States,  j 

had  arrived  in  Paris  for  the  Congreis  week, 
when  the  declaration  of  war  was  made  known 
—  U  universal  congresses  have  been  sched- 
meeting  of  one  .of  the  largest  and  most  unique 
international  gatherings  ever  known.  The  11th 
Universal  Congress  was  held  in  San  Francisco, 
August  1915,  in  conjunction  with  the  Eighth  Na- 
tional Convention  of  the  Esneranto  Association 
of  North  America.  The  value  and  use  of  Es- 
peranto  in  the  war. have  been  attested  in  many 
ways.  Striking  instances  of  the  use  of  the  in- 
ternational tongue  between  Austrian  prisoner; 
and  their  Russian  captors;  between  Russian 
captives  of  the  Austnans  and  Germans,  etc, 
have  been  made  known.  Esperantists  have  sent 
several  fully  equipped  Red  Cross  Esperanto 
ambulances  into  the  field  with  jwrsonnel.    Es-  | 

peranto  is  being  taught  in  the  prison  and  intern- 
ment camps,  so  that  there  may  be  a  common 
language.  There  is  an  Esperanto  repatria- 
tion bureau  maintained  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  . 
through  which  disrupted  families  are  brought 
together,  correspondence  forwarded,  and  much  ' 
ouer  good  of  like  nature  accomplished.  State- 
ments relating  to  justification  for  the  war 
were  issued  in  Esperanto  by  governments,  no-  | 
tably  the  French  and  German  —  the  latter  also 
issumg  official  war  bulletins  in  Esperanto  for  | 
international  distribution,  Key^  weighing  but 
five  grams,  though  containing  the  elements  of 
the  language  and  vocabulary  of  more  than  2,000 
words,  are  published  in  practically  all  languages, 
for  intemationai  conversational  and  correspond- 
ence purposes.  A  similar  series  of  Esperanto 
Red  Cross  booklets  is  published,  and  much  other 
work  is  being  accomplished  along  these  lines. 
In  short,  Esperanto  is  proving  its  great  value 
for  its  intended  purposes  and  it  is  the  best  pass- 
port in  warring  countries  that  one  may  p6ssess. 


ESP^RSON  —  ESPINOSA 


fiO0 


Method  of  the  Esperanto  Language— In 

the  general  plan  of  Dr.  Zamenhof  the  aim  is  to 
omit  all  accidental  words  in  the  language  of 
each  nation,  retaining  only  such 
common  to  aJI  n    '  -•        • 

one  language  a:  

and  w,  appearing  in  En^iih  words,  but 
those  of  the  French  or  German  languages,  are, 
therefore,  according  to  the  rule  of  ihe  origina- 
tor of  Esperanto,  dropped.  The  French  «,  the 
German  u  and  the  French  nasals  not  used  in 
English  are  left  out,  also  the  Spanish  n  and  j, 
ana  the  German  th.  The  pursuance  of  this 
(>lan  removes  all  diflici^Ities  as  to  pronuncia- 
tion. Phonetic  spelling  is  ihe  Esperanto  rulq,  a 
certain  letter  having  the  same  sound  always. 
Mute  and  double  letters  are  cut  out.  The  letter 
X  beconws  ki,  ph  becomes  /,  ch  becomes  k  for 
the  guttural  sound  and  f  —  c  remaining  for 
the   ordinary  sound  in  words  like  cigar.     The 


age.  New  signs  inlroducetf  are  t  and  S-  But 
these  are  for  sounds  already  recognized.  A 
third  sign  takes  the  place  of  a  double  letter, 
vii.,  f  for  ih  (Up  equals  skip  and  H  equals 
she).  Further  details  regarding  the  vocabulary, 
prefixes  and  suffixes  —  in  fact,  the  whole  gram- 
mar —  have  been  issued  in  separate  form  and 
can  be  readily  obtained  by  students.  It  will 
suffice  to  say  here  that  the  Esperanto  vocabu- 
lary is  much  smaller  than  that  of  any  other  lan- 
guage, containing  only  about  3,000  root  words, 
exclusive  of  scientific  and  technical  words,  as 
compared  with  32,000  in  the  French  language,  a 
considerably  larger  number  in  the  German  lan- 
guage, and  over  100,000  in  English.  The  sim- 
plicity of  the  Esperanto  grammar,  comprising 
16  fundamental  rules,  with  no  exceptions,  is 
quite  remarkable.  The  majority  of  those  who 
tmdenake  the  study  of  Esperanto,  diligently, 
with  the  proper  textbooks  or  instruction,  master 
it  in  a  short  time.  See  Universal  Language; 
Science  of  Language. 

ESFERSON.  Pietro.  Italian  jurist :  b. 
Sassari,  Sardinia,  1833.  He  was  educated  at 
the  universi^  of  his  native  place  and  in  1860-65 
was  instructor  in  law  there.  In  1865  he  be- 
came professor  of  international  law  at  Pavia. 
He  published  'Rapporti  giuridici  tra  i  belli- 
gcranti  e  i  neutrali'  (1865) ;  'La  questione 
Anglo-American  o  del  "Alabama,"  discussa 
secondo  i  principii  del  diritto  internazionale' 
(18691 ;  'Giurisdizione  internaaionale  maritima' 
CIS77)  ;  'L'Angleterre  et  les  capiluiations  dans 
rile  de  Chypre  au  point  de  vue  du  droit  inter- 
national' (1879)  ;  'Le  legge  sulla  naturalizza- 
lione  in  Italia>  (1886);  'De'  dritti  di  autore 
sulle  opera  dell'  mgegno  ne'  rapporti  interna- 
«ionali>   (1899). 

BSPINAL,  Colombia,  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Tolima,  about  70  miles  south  of  the 
capital,  Bogota.  It  has  industries  of  tobacco 
and  pottery.    Pop.  about  8,000. 

ESPINAS,  Alfred  Victor,  al-fri  vek-lor 
&>spe-na,  French  sociologist ;  b.  Saint  Florentin. 
Yonne,   France,  23  May   1844.     After  teaching 

fbilosoi^y  in  the  lyc^s  of  Bastia,  Chaumont. 
lavre  and  Dijon,  he  became  successively  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  the  universities  of 
DoUai,  Lille  and  Bordeaux  and  in  the  latter  was 
dean  of  the  faculty  of  letters  1887-90.  Since 
1894  he  has  been  professor  of  the  history  of 


social  economy  on  the  Chambmn  foundation, 
in  the  faculty  of  letters  of  tht  University  of 
Paris.  Besides  contributing  largely  to  the 
Revue  Pkilosophique,  he  has  translated  (with 
Ribot)  Herbert  Spencer's  'Psychology'  (liff4), 
and  written  'Des  societes  animales'  (1877-78); 
'La  philosophic  experimentale  en  Ilalie' 
(1880);  'Histoire  des  doctrines  economiques' 
(1893)  ;  'Les  origines  de  la  technologic* 
(1897) ;  'La  philosophic  sociale  du  XVDie 
sieclc  et  la  revolution'   0898). 

ESPINASSB.    See  L'Espinasse. 

BSPINASSE,  Esprit  Charles  Marie, 
French  soldier ;  b.  (.astelnaudary  1815 ;  d. 
Magenta  1859.  He  invaded  the  National  As- 
sembly at  ni^t  and  seized  the  quxstors  which 
enabled  Louis  Napoleon  to  effect  his  coup  d'itat 
of  2  Dec.  1851.  For  this  service  he  was  made 
general  and  aide-de-camp  to  the  emperor.  He 
fought  in  the  Crimean  War,  was  Minister  of 
Ihe  Interior  in  February-June  1858,  and  in  this  . 
oSice  presented  to  the  chamber  the  "Law  of 
Public  Safety".  Later  he  was  appointed  sena- 
tor.    He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Magenta. 

ESPIHEL,  Vicente  Martinez,  Spanish 
novelist  and  poet;  b.  Ronda,  December  1551; 
d.  1624.  He  studied  at  Salamanca,  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  university  there  in  1572,  served 
m  the  army  in  Flanders  and  ^bout  1584  re- 
turned to  Spain.  In  1587  he  took  holy  orders, 
in  1591  was  appointed  chaplain  at  Ronda.  He 
lost  this  charge  through  absenting  himself  with- 
out permission,  but  his  musical  ability  secured 
for  nim  the  position  of  choirmaster  at  Plasen- 
cia.  In  1591  appeared  his  'Diversas  Rimas,' 
which  showed  considerable  ability.  He  revived 
the  metre  known  as  dicimas  —  a  stanza  of  1() 
octosyllabic  lines  —  and  since  popularly  known 
as  espinelas.  He  is  said  to  have  added  a  6fth 
string  to  the  guitar,  but  this  is  disputed,  al- 
though the  evidence  against  it  is  far  from 
conclusive.  Espinel  is  best  remembered,  how- 
ever, for  his  picaresque  novel,  'Relaciones  de  la 
vida  del  Escudero  Marcos  de  Obreg6n'  n618). 
This  work  is  an  autobiography  with  considerable 
emboli ishment.  From  it,  all  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding,  Le  Sage  borrowed  about  one- 
fifth  of  his  'Gil  Bias.'  Many  poems  of  Espinel 
have  remained  unpublished  owing  to  their  licen< 
tious  character.  Consult  Perez  de  Guzman's 
edition  of  'Marcos  de  Obregon*  (Barcelona 
1881);  Claretie.  Leo.  <Le  sage  romancier' 
(Paris  1890). 

ESPINOSA,  Aurelio  Macedooio,  Ameri- 
can educator:  b.  Camero,  Colo.,  12  Sept.  1880. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  at 
Veteran  and  Del  Norte,  Colo.,  at  the  University 
of  Colorado  and  the  University  of  Chicj^o.  Id 
1901-02  he  was  assistant  in  Romance  languages 
at  the  University  of  Colorado,  and  from  1902  to 
1910  was  professor  of  Spanish  and  French  at 
the  University  of  New  Mexico.  In  1910  he  was 
appointed  associate  professor  of  Spanish  at 
Leland  Stanford  University.  He  was  founder 
and  special  collaborator  of  the  Society  Inter- 
nationale de  Dialectologie  Romaine  and  is 
honorary  member  of  the  Chile  Folklore  Society. 
He  is  the  author  of  'Metipsimus  in  Spanish  and 
French*  (1911);  'La  cosecha  humana'  (Span- 
ish trans,  of  Jordan's  'Human  Harvest,' 
1912);  'El  Imperio  Invisible'  (Spanish  trans, 
of    Jordan's     'Unseen    Empire'     1915),      He 


V.Google 


ESPIONAOE   ACT   OP   1917 


edited  Echegarqy's  <EI  gran  galeoto'  (1903)  ; 
and  'El  Poder  de  la  impotencia'  (1906); 
AyaUs'  'Consuelo'  (1911);  Sierra's  'Tealro  de 
EnsueiSo'  t!9I7):  and 'Canci6nde  Cuna'  (1918;; 
Benaventes  'El  princ'pe  que  todo  lo  aprendio 
en  !os  libros>  (1918);  with  C.  G.  Allen,  'Ele- 
mentary Spanish  Grammar'  (10  eds.,  1915-17)  ; 
'Elementary  Spanish  Reader*  (1916)  ;  'Ad- 
vanced Spanish  Composition  and  Conversation' 
(1917);  FUdin's  'Folklore  de  Oaxaca>  (1916). 
He  is  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Revue  His- 
panigue,  Journal  of  American  Folklore,  Re- 
tnsla  Ilustrada,  Kevista  Positiva,  the  Moitiior, 

.  ESPIONAGE  ACT  OP  1917.    When  tbe 

Utt'ted  States  entered  the  European  War  in 
1917  it  immediate^  became  apparent  that  ex- 
traordinary legisUtion  was  needed  to  keep  in 
cbcck  treasonous  action  by  certain  citizens, 
but  more  especially  by  sympathizers  with  the 
enemy,  resident  in  the  country.  To  this  end  the 
Espionage  Act  was  passed,  15  June  1917.  The 
first  provision  was  that  whoever  was  in  any 
way  instrumental  in  tbe  gatheiing  of  informa' 
tion,  pictures,  sketches,  etc,  on  governmem 
property  with  Ae  intent  of  using  them  in  a  way 
detrimental  to  the  interests-of  the  United  Slates 
was  liable  to  a  line  of  $10,000  and  to  imprison- 
ment for  two  years.  This  was,  of  course, 
designed  to  check  enemy  aliens  who  had  access 
to  navy  yards,  wireless  stations  or  places  where 
iiction  work  was  ^oing  on.  The  trans- 
n  of  such  information  to  a  foreign  coun- 
try, or  its  representative,  in  time  of  war,  was 
made  punishable  by  death,  or  30  years'  impris- 
onment, and  this  applied  \o  any  sort  of  informa- 
tion that  m'ght  be  useful  to  an  enemy.  The  cir- 
culation of  false  reports  for  tbe  puijKise  of 
causing  insubordination,  disloyalty,  mutiny,  etc., 
including  obstruction  of  enlistment,  was  made 
punishable  by  not  over  $10,000  fine  and  20  years' 
imprisonment  Conspiracy  with  a  view  to  doing 
any  of  these  things  carried  the  same  punishment 
to  all  conspirators,  whether  or  not  the  things 
were  accomplished.  The  harboring  or  conceal- 
ing of  any  one  guilty  of  such  treasonable  of- 
fense involved  a  possible  fine  of  $10,000  and  two 

The  Espionage  Act  also  gave  power  to  the 
President,  m  case  of  emergency,  to  regulate  the 
anchorage  and  movements  of  vessels  in  United 
States  waters,  and  provided  not  over  $10,000 
fine  and  two  years'  imprisonment  for  any  one 
failing;  to  comply  with  or  interfering  wirti  the 
carrying  out  of  such  regulations.  A  similar 
firovision  was  made  with  reference  to  the  har- 
boring of  enemies  on  vessels  in  United  States 
waters.  The  injury  of  vessels  engaged  in  for- 
*ign  commerce,  as  by  setting  fire  to  them  or 
placing  hombs,  carried  a  fine  not  exceeding  $10,- 
OOOand  20  years'  imprisonment.  Any  other  form 
of  violent  obstruction  of  exportation  called  for 
ftot  over  $10,000  fine  and  10  years'  imprison- 
ment. 

For  the  enforcement  of  neutrality  the 
Espion^e  Act  carried  a  long  list  of  prohibi- 
tions. On  reasonable  cause  any  vessel  might  be 
detained  in  port,  to  prevent  the  unlawful  ship- 
ment of  supplies  or  dispatches.  "The  sending 
out  of  armed  vessels  without  permission  was 
strictly  rirohibited.  Very  careful  regulations 
were  n>ade  to  nrevent  anv  sending  of  goods 
where  they  might  be  transshipped  to  an  enemy, 


and  statements  had  to  be  filed  with  the  col- 
lector of  customs  to  aid  in  carrying  out  such 
orders.  The  taking  of  a  vessel  out  of  port  in 
violation  of  the  rules  laid  down  involved  a  fine 
of  not  over  $10,000,  plus  five  years'  imprison- 
ment, and  forfeiture  of  the  vessel  and  goods. 
Any  interned  alien  escaping  or  attempting  to 
escape  was  liable  to  $1,000  fine  and  a  year  in 

Srison.  Being  engaged  in  any  unauthorized  or 
libustering  military  expedition  carried  a  possi- 
ble fine  of  $3,000  and  three  years  in  prison.  Tbe 
President  was  authorized  to  use  tbe  anuy  or 
navy  as  necessary  to  carry  out  any  of  the  pro- 
visions specified 

■The  seizure  of  arms  and  other  articles  in- 
tended for  export  was  provided  for,  and  the 
same  forfeited  to  the  United  States,  and  the 
method  of  crying  such  a  case  before  a  compe- 
tent court  was  set  fortk  The  President  was 
also  given  power,  during  .the  war,  to  declare 
certain  exports  unlawful,  such  as  in  his  discre- 
tion might  be  harmful  to  the  United  States, 
and  the  penalty  was  placed  at  not  over  $10,000 
fine  ana  two  years  in  jaiL  Directors  and 
officials  of  transportation  companies  were  made 
personally  liable.  The  disturbance  of  foreign 
relations  was  provided  against  by  making 
criminal  any  harmful  statements  to  or  about 
foreign  officials,  under  certain  conditions,  or  the 
impersonation  of  a  foreign  official,  or  the  actitig 
as  an  agent  of  a  foreign  government  except  as 
a  regularly  appointed  consul  or  attach^  was 
punishable.  Conspiracy  in  this  country  to 
destroy  property  in  a  foreign  country  was  cov- 
ered under  this  clause,  and  carried  not  over  five 
years'  imprisonment  and  $5,000  5ne.  All  abuses 
of  the  passport  privilege  were  severely  dealt 
with.  The  counterfeiting  of  the  govermnent 
seal,  or  mutilation  or  alteration  oiany  docu- 
ment bearing  such  seal,  involved  a  possible 
$5,000  fine  and  10  years'  imprisonment. 

■Ttie  act  included  a  very  long  section  as  to 
the  issuing  of  search  warrants.  Th's  per- 
mitted judges  of  District  Courts  as  well  as  of 
State  and  Territorial  courts  to  issue  sear-h 
warrants  for  either  property  or  papers  em- 
bezzled contrary  to  a  law  of  the  United  S'ate!> 
Probable  cause  had  to  be  shown,  supported  by 
affidavits,  the  rights  of  citizens  beinf[  carefully 
protected,  but  when  the  warrant  was  issued  aid 
tn  the  bands  of  the  proper  officer  he  had  the 
right  to  break  and  enter  as  mirfit  be  necessary 
to  carry  out  the  search.  Such  officer  had  to  give 
a  receipt  and  inventory  of  the  property  so  taken, 
under  oath,  and  a  cotiy  must  be  placed  with  th" 
person  from  wbom  the  property  or  papers  were 
taken.  Restoration  of  the  property  in  case  of 
error  was  provided  for.  Obstruction  of  such 
search  warrant  officers  in  their  duty  involved  a 
line  of  not  over  $1,000  and  a  year's  imprison- 
ment 

The  use  of  the  mails  was  pivhibited  for  anv 
papers,  etc.,  in  violations  of  the  provisions  of 
the  Espionage  .^ct,  but  only  a  search  warrant 
authorized  the  opening  of  a  sealed  letter  ad- 
dressed to  another.  All  treasonable  matter  was 
declared  non-mailahle,  and  the  mailing  or  ai- 
temnting  to  mail  such  carried  a  possible  fine  of 
$5,000  and  five  years'  imprisonment 

The  Espionage  Act  was  framed  so  as  to  in- 
clude not  only  the  United  States  proper  b«f  a'l 
its  territories,  as  the  Philippine  Islands  and  th- 
Canal  Zone,  and  all  its  waters,  conttnenUl  or 


jOOgIc 


KEPINOBA — EBPSONC^A 


iatnlar.  The  act  is  a  docunent  of  over  10,000 
words,  imder  13  titles,  and  yna  modeled  more 
or  le&9  on  the  expenences  of  Great  Britain  in 
dealing  with  the  same  sort  of  difficulties  during 
the  earlier  years  of  the  war.  It  proved  quite 
efFective  in  checking  the  evils  at  which  it  was 
aimed,  and  after  the  first  year  of  the  war  there 
was  very  little  enemj;  activity  in  the  United 
States  Aod  all  surreptitious  treason  was  efiec- 
tively  stamped  out  except,  of  course,  that  urftich 
occurred  sporadically  and  not  as  the  result  of 
organized  bands  of  conspirators. 

BSPINOSA,  Qaspar  de,  Spanish  soldier: 
b.  Medina  del  Campo,  about  1484;  d.  1S37.  He 
studied  law  and  entered  into  practice  in  Spaia 
In  1514  he  came  to  America  with  Pedrarias 
Davila  and  was  made  chief  justice  at  Darien. 
He  presided  over  the  tribunal  which  condemned 
Baiboa  to  death,  but  only  passed  sentence  on  the 
latter  at  the  express  command  of  Davila.  He 
resigned  his  judicial  ofRce  and  led  several  expe- 
ditions against  the  aborigines,  whom  he  treated 
most  inhumanely.  He  founded  Panama  in  1518, 
returned  to  Spain  a  few  years  afterward  and 
was  sent  out  soon  %ain  as  a  Crown  officer  in 
Santo  Domingo.  He  backed  Pizarro  in  his 
second  expedition  against  Peru  and  accom- 
panied him  to  the  latter  country,  where  he  died 

ESPIRITO-SANTO,  «s-p«'r«  too-san'tfi, 
Brazil,  a  state  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  state 
of  Bahia,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on 
the  south  and  west  1^  the  states  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Minas  Geraes.  Area  17,312  si)nare 
miles.  The  coast  lands  are  swampy,  but  in  the 
interior  mountains  rise  to  a  height  of  7,000  feet; 
the  higheal  of  these,  Mesire  Alvares,  is  one  of 
the  most  con^icuous  landmarks  on  the  Brazilian 
coast  The  temperature,  which  is  tropical,  is 
moderated  by  the  stale's  proximity  to  the  sea. 
The  state  has  immense  forests,  and  is  noted 
for  the  valuable  woods  found  in  tbem  and  the 
rare  drugs  which  are  distilled.  The  Doce  River 
flows  through  some  of  the  richest  of  the  hinter- 
lands, but  is  navigable  only  for  very  small  craft 
Sao  Matheus,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state, 
is  surrounded  by  coffee  and  mandioea  plants' 
tions,  the  products  of  which  are  shipped  from 
this  port,  oBiaally  known  as  Conceicio  de 
Barra.  A  number  of  small  ports  intervene  be- 
tween the  Doce  River  and  the  spacious  bay  of 
'  Espiri to- Santo,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the 
Slate.  Coffee,  the  chief  agricultural  product,  is 
largely  exported.  Other  exports  are  sugar, 
tapioca,  cotton,  cocoa,  hides  and  skins,  and 
woods.  There  are.  valuable  marble  deposits, 
wh'ch  are  not  mined.  A  railway  is  being  built 
lo  connect  Ouro  Preto,  on  the  upper  wafers  of 
the  Doce,  with  the  coast.  Cotton  goods  are 
manufactured  in  the  town  of  Pessanha.  The 
population  of  the  state,  which  was  135,997  in 
1890.  increased  to  430000  in  1913,  this  growth 
being  due  to  European  'mmi^ration.  A  few 
years  ago  the  city  of  Victona  (pop.  15,000) 
had  almost  no  maritime  trade,  as  its  port  was 
too  shallow  to  admit  large  vessels.  Recently 
improvements  have  been  made  in  the  harbor, 
which  now  accommodates  transatlantic  steam- 
ers, and  both  trade  and  immigrants  have  sot^ht 
it  !t  was  first  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1535.  Colonies  of  Germans,  Poles,  Swedes, 
Tvrolesc,  Portuguese  and  Italians  are  estab- 
lished   near    Anchieta,    Alfredo    Chaves,    Ita- 


pemirim  and  Cachoeiro  —  chiefly  in  the  south- 
em  part  of  the  state.  Some  of  these  colonies 
are  under  gDvemment  protection,  receiving  an- 
nual subsidies  of  seed  and  cattle;  but  the  ma- 
jority of  the  colonists  already  own  lands  which 
they  work  without  government  aid.  Education, 
though  well  subsidized  by  the  government,  is,  so 
far  as  the  native  population  is  concerned,  in  a 
very  backward  cond  tion.  The  state  returns  four 
representatives  to  die  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

ESPLANADE,  fs-pli-nad',  in  fortification 
the  wide  open  space  left  between  a  citadel  and 
the  nearest  house  of  the  city,  to  prevent  an 
enemy  from  being  able  to  assail  it  under  cover 
of  these  houses.  The  term  is  also  frequently 
applied  to  a  kind  of  terrace,  especially  along  the 
seaside,  for  public  walks  or  dnves  and  also  to  a 
wide  city  street 

ESPOUSAL  (SPONSALIA),  or  BE- 
TROTHAL, according  to  Church  law  con- 
sists of  a  deliberate  mutual  promise  of  mar- 
riage, expressed  by  outward  signs,  between  two 
persons,  both  of  whom  may  lawfully  and  validly 
enter  into  such  an  engagement.  \\'hen  such 
promise  is  made  and  accepted  on  both  sides, 
neither  party  can  lawfully  withdraw  from  it 
without  the  other's  consent  or  unless  something 

which,  had  it  been  known  in  time,  would  have 
hindered  the  engagement.  Formerly  such  en- 
gagements used  to  be  made  with  some  solemnity 
coram  ecdesia  or  at  least  in  presence  of  wit- 
nesses; now  they  are  usually  made  without  cere- 
mony or  publicity.  See  Marriage.  Consult 
Mielziner,  'Tiie  Jewish  Law  of  Marriage  and 
Divorce'  (Cincinnati  1884). 

ESPRIT  DES  LOIS. .  See  Sfibit  of  the 

ESPRITS  FORTS  (bold  spirits),  the  name 
of  the  French  school  of  writers  better  known  as 
freethipkers,  which  included  D'Alemhert. 
Diderot.  Helvetius  and  Voltaire.  This  school 
aimed  not  to  establish  general  toleration  for 
all  forms  of  speculation,  out  sougfit  to  improve 
thdr  own  views  of  religion  and  philo'ophy. 
They  recognized  pure  reason  as  the  only  de- 
pendable guide ;  their  motto  might  have  been 
"L'esprit  prime  tout*  (Intellect  is  supreme). 
They  had  a  wide  influence  on  their  time,  and 
their  doctrines  have  borne  fruit  ever  sinec,  the 
quality  varying  greatlv  among  the  different 
races  and  peoples.  Their  extreme  radicalism 
may  be  said  to  have  oaved  the  way  to  socialism  • 
while  their  less  radical  principles  have  helpea 
build  the  democracies  of  our  day. 

BSPRONCEDA,  Josj  de,  Spanish  noet:  h. 
Almendraleio.  (Badaioe)  1810:  d.  Madrid.  23 
May  1842.  His  father  was  a  colonel  of  cavalry, 
and  the  boy  was  bom  in  the  army  for  his 
mother  insisted  on  following  her  husband  dur- 
ing his  campaigns.  At  the  dose  of  the  war 
young  Esnronceda  was  put  into  school  in  Mad- 
rid; and  there  he  soon  distinguished  himself  by 
his  precocity,  bis  love  of  poetry,  h's  enthusiasm 
and  his  good  literary  taste.  At  the  age  of  14 
he  was  already  known  as  a  poet  of  great 
promise.  He  was  filled  with  democratic  and 
revolntionary  ideas ;  and  he  was  arrested  for 
his  boldly  advocated  ideas  in  his  ISth  year,  and 
confined  in  a  convent  in  Guadalajara,  where 
his  parents  were  then  living.  There  he  began 
the   compositioii  of   his  celebrated   poem    *EI 


^^oogle 


XSPY  —  BSQUIUNS  HILL 


Pelayo.*  On  his  liberation  from  prison  he  went 
to  Madrid ;  but  feehng  that  his  every  movement 
was  watched  by  agents  of  the  government,  he 
went  to  Gibraltar,  and  from  there  to  Lisbon, 
London  and  Paris.  Later  he  fougjit  in  the 
revolutionary  ranks  in  Paris  (1S30).  He  then 
joined  an  e;ti)edition  sent  to  help  Poland.  After 
long  -wandering  and  exile  from  home,  often 
with  the  most  limited  means  of  subsisteoce,  he 
finally  look  advantage  of  the  act  of  amnesty  of 
1833  and  returned  to  Spain.  There  he  might 
have  lived  in  peace  ana  followed  his  poetical 
inclinations,  but  his  revolutionary  bent  kept  him 
in  constant  trouble.  Through  family  influence 
he  obtained  a  commission  in  the  Queen's 
Guards  (1833)  ;  bitt  he  was  soon  dismissed 
from  the  army  and  again  forced  into  exilcLoa 
account  of  his  interference  in  politics.  The 
following  year  he  was  permitted  to  return  to 
Madrid,  where  he  a^in  plunged  into  militant 
pohtics,  and  into  the  msurrectionary  movements 
of  183S-36.  From  this  on  he  became  the  most 
ardent  of  the  Spanish  advocates  of  republican- 
bm;  and  in  1840  his  was  the  most  listened  to 
voice  in  revolutionary  Spain.  In  December 
1841  he  -was  sent  as  secretary  of  legation  to  The 
Hague  by  the  Republicans  who  had  secured 
possession  of  the  government,  a  position  he 
retained  a  very  short  lime  because  of  his  elec- 
tion as  deputy  for  Almeria.  Already  ill  from 
his  residence  in  the  damp  and  cold  climate 
of  Holland,  he  hastened  back  to  Madrid  only 
to  die  of  a  severe  inflammation  of  the  throat. 

Espronceda  is  the  greatest  of  the  passionate, 
patriotic  poets  of  Spain.  With  him  patriptism 
was  a  passion  and  hatred  of  autocracy  an  ob- 
session which  mastered  him.  There  is  no  more 
passionate  and  compeJling  voice  in  all  Spanish 
literature  than  his.  He  runs  all  the  gamut  of 
feeling;  love  of  the  most  passionate  kind;  the 
fiercest  hatred  of  oppression  and  injustice;  the 
deepest  patriotism,  expressed  in  the  moat  com- 
pelhn^  words;  the  wildest  visional^  delight  in 
socialism ;  the  passion  of  great  aspirations  and 
pure  and  noble  purpose;  and  the  depths  of 
despair  of  atheism  and  of  vanished  hopes  and 
disappointed  aspirations.  On  account  of  his 
vivacity,  his  burning  imagery,  his  wonderful 
power  of  word  painting,  his  simple  direct  meth- 
ods in  literature  and  his  ever  youthful  mind, 
Espronceda  has  been  called  in  Spain  'the  poet 
of  youth  and  of  democraCT.*  No  other  writer 
in  Spanish  literature  or  Spanish  life  had,  at 
his  age,  at  his  death  (32),  such  a  hold  over  his 
followers  and  admirers  as  Jos^  Espronceda. 
His  companion  and  fellow  poet,  Enrique  Gil, 
who  paid  his  last  poetic  tribute  to  him  at  the 
graveside,  broke  down  and  sobbed  like  a  child; 
and  many  an  eye  was  wet  among  the  mourners 
for  the  bright  particular  light  of  democracy 
that  had  just  been  extinguished  in  Spain.  No 
definitive  edition  of  Espronceda's  works  has 
been  published  for  the  reason  that  his  efforts 
were  spread  over  such  a  wide  field  of  endeavor, 
and  his  writings  appeared  in  newspapers,  jour- 
nalSj  reviews  and  pamphlets.  Yet  numerous 
editions  of  the  best  known  of  his  literary  pro- 
ductions have  been  issued  in  Spain  and  in  several 
foreign  countries.  In  these  editions  the  follow- 
ing works  appear:  'El  Palayo' ;  'Don  San,cho 
Saldaiia'  (1834);  'El  Estudiante  de  Sala- 
manca' ;  the  drama  'N'i  el  Tie  ni  el  Sobrino.' 
written  in  collaboiation  with  Antonio  Ros  de 


Olano  (1834) ;  many  short  poems  of  a  social, 
political,  reflective  or  amatory  nature;  'El 
Diablo  Mundo>  (1841) ;  and  many  of  the  best 
lyrics  in  the  Spanish  language.  His  literary 
work  has  the  form  of  Hugo  and  the  spirit  of 
Byron  with  an  originality  that  is  Espronceda's 
alone.  The  first  edition  of  his  collected  writ- 
ings appeared  in  Paris  in  1840,  the  second  in 
Madrid  in  1846;  and  the  Hartzenbusch  edition, 
with  a  biography  by  Ferrer  del  Rio,  in  Paris 
two  years  later.  A  more  complete  edition  than 
any  of  these  was  published  by  Espronceda's  only 
daughter,  Blanche  Espronceda  ae  Escosura  in 
1874!  A  fairly  complete  edition  of  his  poetical 
works  also  appeared  in  Barcelona  in  1883.  See 
El  Estudiante  de  Salamanca. 

ESPY,  Jvnei  Pollard,  American  meteor- 
ologist, the  founder  of  modem  meteorology:  b. 
Washington  County,  Pa„  9  May  178S;  d.  Cin- 
cinnati, 24  Jan.  I860.  He  was  graduated  at 
Ttansylvania  University  1808.  The  name 
■storm-king"  was  given  to  him  for  his  ori^nat- 
ing  a  theory  of  storms  which  involved  him  in 
much  controversy.  He  studied  law  at  Xenia, 
Ohio,  and  was  principal  of  the  academy  at 
Cumberiand,  Md!,  for  five  years  (1812-17). 
From  there  he  went  to  the  Franklin  Institute, 
Philadelphia,  as  professor  of  classical  languages 
(18I7-S3).  In  1836  he  won  the  Magellanic 
prize  for  an  essay  on  the  theory  of  storms;  and 
four  years  later  he  visited  Elngland  and  France 
where  he  explained  at  length  ^  storm  theories 
before  the  chief  sdentittc  societies  of  both 
countries.  On  his  return  home  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  United  States  Congress  meteor- 
ol<^5t  to  the  War  Department,  and  later  to 
the  Navy  Department  also.  His  'Philosophy  of 
Storms'  which  was  published  in  1841  gained  him 
a  great  reputation  in  his  special  held.  His 
meteorolo^cal  doctrine  on  the  point  of  how 
atmosphenc  disturbances  commence  was  ap- 
proved by  the  French  Academy,  hut  his  mews 
as  to  the  mechanics  of  storm  are  contrary  to 
recnved  fact,  and  have  been  exploded.  His 
principal  contribution  to  practical  meteorology 
was  his  institution  of  a  system  of  telegraphic 
weather  bulletins,  which  should  converge  at  the 
capital  and  give  (laily  intelligence  of  the  weather 
in  different  widely  separated  pcunts,  and  it  may 
be  justly  claimed  that  he  thus  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  all  sound  theory  on  the  subject  of 
weather  prediction.  Consult  Monthly  Weather 
Review  (Vol.  XXXV,  Washington  1907)  ;  and 
Appletan's  PoptUar  Science  Monthly  (April 
1889). 

BSQUILACHB,  Don  Francisco  de  Borji 
7  Arag6n,  Prfacipe  de  (FitANasco  de  Borja  y 
AcEVEDo),  Spanish  poet:  b.  Madrid,  about  1S81; 
d.  there  1658.  From  1614  to  1621  he  was 
viceroy  of  Peru,  after  which  he  returned  to 
Spain  and  lived  at  the  court  of  Madrid  He 
wrote  'La  pasion  de  Nuestro  Sefior,'  a  sacred 
poem  (1638)  ;  'N&poles  recuperada,'  celebrating 
the  conquest  of  Naples  (1651) ;  a  translation  of 
Thomas  a  Kempis  (1661),  and  many  poems. 
Selections  of  his  works  are  included  in  ^Biblio- 
teca  de  Autores  Espaiiolcs.' 

BSQUILINE  HILL  (mom  Ej^wi/iinw), 
the  highest  of  the  seven  bills  of  Rome.  It  is 
between  the  Viminal  and  the  C^lian  hills,  is 
346  feet  in  height  and  under  At^n>attis  was  laid 
out  in  pleasure  gardens,  known  as  die  Gardens 


.lOOg  Ic 


ESQUIHALT— ES8AAD   EFFENDI 


BOT 


of  MKcenas.  Socm  after  it  was  the  fashion^ile 
residential  section  of  the  ciiy.  Virgil,  Horace, 
Mscenasand  Propertius  are  the  most  celebrated 
of  its  residents  at  this  period.  The  baths  of 
Titus  and  Nero't  golden  palace  were  on  the 
Esquilinus  and  many  of  the  ruins  have  been 
DDCovered  only  to  be  at  once  destroyed  in  the 
course  of  erecting  new  buildti^s.  lo  the  mod- 
em dty  the  Esquiline  is  a  new  modem  portion 
with  fine  streets  and  buildinKB.     Consult  Plat- 


BSQUIMALT.  es-twfmalt,  Canada,  naval 
base  in  British  Coltimbia,  on  the  southeast 
coast  of  Vancouver  Island,  and  on  the  Strait 
of  San  Juan  de  Fuca  and  the  Esquimah 
and  Nanaimo  Railway,  four  miles  from 
Victoria.  The  harbor  is  extensive  and  capa* 
ble   of   feceivins-  vessels   of   the   neatest   size. 


and  a  large  dry  dock  built  in  1888-  The  de- 
fenses were  greatly,  strengthened  by  the  British 
government!  and  a  British  garrison  was  sta- 
tioned here  until  in  1905,  on  the  Canadian  gov- 
ermncnt  undertaking  to  look  to  the  defenses 
of  Canada,  it  was  withdrawn.  The  drydock 
was  transferred  tc  the  Canadian  government  in 
1910. 

ESQUIMAUX.  See  Eskimo. 
BSQUIRB,  escityer,  old  French;  escudero, 
Spanish ;  a  shield'bearer  or  armor-bearer,  an 
attendant  on  a  knight;  hence,  in  modem  times 
a  title  of  dignity  neit  in  degree  below  a  knight. 
In  Great  Britain  this  title  is  given  properly  to 
the  younger  sons  of  noblemen,  to  officers  of 
the  Idng's  courts,  and  of  the  household,  to 
counsellors  at  law,  justices  of  the  peace  while 
in  commission,  sheriffs,  gentlemen  who  have 
held  commissions  in  the  army  and  navy,  and  in 
fact  to  anyone  save  tradesmen,  mechanics  and 
peasants.  It  is  ilaually  given  to  all  professional 
and  literary  men,  both  there  and  in  the  United 
States.  In  heraldry  the  helmet  of  an  esquire  is 
represented  sideways  with  the  visor  closed.  The 
title,  however,  no  longer  exists  as  a  creation  of 
letters  patent 

ESQUIROL,  Jean  Btienne  Dommlqtie, 
zkbii  a-tf-Sn  d6-me-nek  Ss-ke-rSl.  French  physi- 
cian: b.  Toulouse,  4  Jan.  1772;  d.  12  Dec.  1840. 
His  life  was  chiefly  given  to  improving  the 
methods  of  treating  the  insane,  and  he  contrib- 
uted greatly  toward  the  abolition  of  the  barba- 
rous methods  so  long  in  vogue.  In  1799  he 
founded  a  model  asylum  at  Paris;  visited  all 
the  asylums  in  France  1808;  was  appointed 
pl^ician  to  the  Saltpetriere  1811;  and  in  1826 
became  head  of  the  private  asylum  at  Charen- 
.  ton,  which  he  had  largely  planned.  In  1817  his 
public  revelations  of  the  abuses  current  in 
French  asylums  led  the  government  to  appoint 
an  investigating  commission.  His  studies  in- 
cluded the  architecture  and  construction  of 
asylums,  and  the  best  of  the  eariier  19th  cen- 
tury buildings  for  the  insane  in  France,  such 
as  those  at  Rouen,  Nantes  and  Montpeliei\ 
were  built  in  accordance  with  his  plans  and 
instmctions.  He  wrote  'Des  Illusions  cher  les 
Ali*n*s'  (1832;  English  trans.  1833);  <De3 
maladies  mentales'  (1838)  ;  and  articles  in  the 
'Dictionnairc  des  sciences  m*dicales,'  and  the 
'Encyclopedic  des  gens  du  monde.* 


BSQUIROS,   Henri  Prancoia  AlpbonM, 

6n-re  fran-swa  al-fons  !s-ke-ros,  French  poet 
and  miscellaneous  writer ;  b.  Paris,  23  May 
1812;  d.  Versailles,  12  May  1876.  His  first 
work,  a  volume  of  poetry,  'Les  Hirondclles,' 
appeared  in  1834.  This  was  followed  by  numer- 
ous romances,  and  a  socialistic  commentary  on 
the  life  of  Christ,  'L'Evangile  du  pcuple' 
(1840),  for  which  be  was  prosecuted  and  im- 
prisoned and  'Charlotte  Corday'  (1840).  He 
then   published    'Les   chants    d  un    prisonnier* 


'L'histoire  des  Monlagnards'  (1847).  Having 
to  leave  France  in  1851,  he  resided  for  years 
in  England,  and  wrote  a  series  of  essays  for 
the  'Hevttc  des  Deux  Mondes^  on  English  life 
and  character,  which  were  translated  under  the 
title  of  'The  English  af  Home,'  and  were  very 

gipular.  He  also  wrote  a  similar  work  on  the 
Litch.  Other  works  of  his  are  <Le  droit  au 
travail'  (1849);  'La  vie  future  au  point  de 
vuc  socialtste'  (1857)  ;  'Histoire  des  martyrs 
de  la  liberte*  (1851) ;  'La  Morale  Universelle' 
(1859);    'Religious    Life    in    England'     (1867, 


'Le  chateau  e 


'   (1877),  a  novel. 


ESQUIVEL,  Juan  de,  hoo-an'  da  «s-kg-ve1, 
Spanish  soldier;  b-  1470;  d.  1519.  He  was  the 
companion  of  Ovando  when  the  latter  went  to 
Hispaniola  to  succeed  Bobadilla  as  governor. 
Ovando  sent  him  as  leader  of  an  armed  expe- 
dition gainst  the  uprising  of  the  native  chief, 
Cotabanama,  in  Higuey  province  in  1504.  In 
1509.  at  the  instance  of  Die^o  Columbus,  he 
conquered  the  island  of  Jamaica  and  settled  it 
as  a  Spanish  possession.  The  colony  flourished 
under  his  administration,  and  he  founded  there 
the  city  of  Sevilla  Nueva. 

BS5,  Johanu  Hcinrich  von,  y&-han  hln'rlR 
fin  es  {better  known  by  his  Benedictine  name 
■Leander'),  German  theologian:  b.  Warburg, 
IS  Feb-  1772;  d.  Affolderbach  in  the  Odenwald. 
13  Oct.  1847.  He  entered  the  Benedictine  abbey 
of  Marienmiinster  as  a  novice  1790;  was  pastor 
at  Schvralenberg  1799-1812;  and  professor  of 
theolo^  at  the  seminary  in  Marburg  1812-22. 
In  18^,  with  his  cousin  Karl,  he  published  a 
German  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  the 
circulation  of  which  was  forbidden  by  the  Pope. 
The  following  year  he  published  a  defense  of 
his  views  as  to  Bible  reading  by  the  people,  a 
new  edition  of  which  was  issued  in  1816  entitled 
'Gedanken  uber  Bibel  und  Bibellehre.'  After 
16^  he  gave  his  whole  time  to  circulating  his 
Bible  versions  among  the  people,  to  spreading 
his  doctrines  and  to  the  composition  of  a  Ger- 
man version  of  the  entire  Scriptures,  which  he 
finished  in  1840.  Others  of  his  publications 
are  'Was  War  die  Bibel  den  Ersten  Christen?' 
(1816);  'Die  Bibel  Nicht  ein  fiuch  fiir 
Priester'  (1818)  ;  an  edition  of  the  Vulgate 
(Tubingen  1822-24);  of  the  Septuagint  (1824; 
new  ed.  1887)  and  of  the  Greek  New  Testament 
(1827).. 

BSSAAD  BFFBNDI,  Mohammed,  Turk- 
ish historian:  b.  Constantinople,  1790;  d.  1848L 
He  was  appointed  historiographer  of  the 
empire,  editor  of  the  official  state  journal,  and 
for  some  time  served  also  as  Ambassador  to 
Persia.  Caussin  de  Perceval  published  some  of 
his  work  under  the  title,  'PrScis  historiqne  de 


.lOogle 


E89AD— BSSAY 


la' destruction  du  corpa  des  JanJssaires*  (Paris 
1833). 

ES8AD,  Pasha,  Albaoian  soldier  and  adven- 
turer: b.  about  1865.  The  descendant  of  a 
powerful  and  wealthy  family — the  Topdani  — 
who  maintain  to  this  day  a  sort  of  feudal 
aulhorily  and  splendor,  Essad  began  his  varied 
career  in  the  Turkish  army.  His  elder  brother, 
Ghani,  became  a  secret  instrument  of  Abdul 
Hamid  11  for  the  no.seless  removal  of  ob- 
noxious personages.  A  relative  of  one  of  his 
victims  murdered  Ghani,  and  was  in  turn  shot 
down  by  Essad  on  Galata  bridge  in  broad  day- 
light. Combining  the  profession  of  a  bandit 
chief  with  that  of  a  soldier,  Essad  Pasha  had 
at  all  t.mes  a  host  of  Albanian  clansmen  at 
his  command.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Young  Turks  in  1908  and.  after  the  revival  of 
the  constitution,  was  sent  to  Constantinople  as 
a  deputy  from  Durazzo,  the  Alban.an  capital. 
It  was  Essad  Pasha  who  announced  to  the 
sultan  that  the  committee  had  decided  to  depose 
him.     On  the  outbreak  of  the  Balkan  Wars 

Jq.v.)  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  to 
efend  Albania  with  some  18,000  troops.  With 
the  garrison  of  Jan>na  he  defended  that  place 
for  three  months  when  he  surrendered  to  the 
Greeks  with  30,000  men  on  6  Manii  1913;  six 
weeks  later  he  surrendered  Scutari  to  the 
Montengrins.  It  appears  that  Essad  Pasha 
cherished  ambitions  to  create  Albania  an  inde- 
pendem  state  with  hjmself  as  ruler,  and  there 
were  strong  grounds  to  believe  that  the  two 
capitulations — of  janina  and  Scutar. — were  the 
price  he  paid  for  eventual  recognition,  in  addi- 
tion to  which  he  received  a  handsome  fee  from 
Kus&ia.  The  selection  by  the  powers  of  Prince 
William  of  Wied  to  be  king  of  Albania  nullified 
the  hopes  of  Essad  Pasha,  who  now  became 
Minister  of  War  under  the  new  r^me.  Before 
long,  however,  he  was  fomenting  an  insurrec- 
tion and  was  deported.  The  king  of  Albania 
had  soon  to  flee  from  che  country  himself,  and 
Essad  Pasha,  under  Italian  protection,  returned 
to  Durazzo  in  October  1914  in  the  role  of  dicta- 
tor. He  was  elected  president  of  the  Albanian 
provisional  government.  He  dismissed  the 
Austrian  Minister  ^  whose  government  had  sup- 
ported the  claims  of  Ismail  Kemal  Bey  for  the 
kingsh.p  —  and  strengthened  the  remnants  ol 
the  Serbian  army  with  his  own  forces  against 
the  Austrian s  and  Bulgarians.  In  1916  it 
was  reported  that  Essad  Pasha  had  fled  to 
luly. 

ESSAY.  The  term  essay  is  osed  in  various 
loosely  defined  ways,  but  usually  describes  a 
brief  prose  composition  of  an  expository 
character.  Originally  and  properly,  the  word 
implies  a  tentative  and  suggestive,  as  distin- 
guished from  a  formal  and  complete,  discus- 
sion ;  and  this  use  is  applicable  to  the  "familiar* 
essay,  the  most  purely  literary  of  all  the  types. 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  from  the  same  standpoint, 
detined  the  essay  as  *a  loose  sally  of  the  mind, 
an  irregular,  indigested  piece."  On  the  other 
hand,  the  term  is  equally  applicable,  in  modern 
use,  to  formal  expository  compositions,  and 
has  even  been  extended  to  cover  treatises  of 
an  extensive  character,  as  Locke's  'Essay  Con- 
cerning Human  Understanding'  (1690).  In  the 
18th  century  it  was  also  extended  to  comrrosi- 
tions  in  verse,  notably  Pope's  'Essay  on  Man' 
1734.    Essays  are  sometimes  classified,  for  con- 


venience, as  (1)  gnomic  or  aphoristic,  (2)  per- 
sonal or  familiar,  and  (3)  critical  or  didactic 
The  first  type,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
original  or  primitive,  represents  the  making  of 
an  essay  by  the  process  of  bringing  tog^ier 
gnomic  saying^  or  aphorisms  having  to  do  with 
the  same  subject,~a  process  well  exemplified 
by  certain  portions  of  the  biblical  book  of 
Proverbs.  Thus,  while  the  greater  part  of 
that  book  is  made  up  of  brief  separate  proverbs 


^^...  of  Wisdom  (chap.  1,  verses  26^) 
or  of  the  Virtuous  Woman  (chap  31,  10-31), 
The  second  type  represents  the  treatment  of 
a  particular  subject  from  a  distinctively  in- 
dividual standpomi,  and  at  times  reaches  a 
point  of  development  closely  analogous  to  the 
personal  lyric  in  poetry.  The  third  type  rep- 
resents a  more  utilitarian  purpose,  and  has 
been  most  fruitfully  developed  in  the  pursuit 
of  literary  criticism.  But  the  several  types  are 
not  infrequently  blended,  and  others  might  well 
enough  be  added  if  the  classification  were  made 

In  ancient  classical  literature  the  essay  was 
not  a  recognized  literary  form;  its  functions 
may  be  said  to  have  been  accomplished  largely 
by  the  epistle  and  the  dialogue.  Thus  Bacon 
said  that  "Seneca's  epistles  to  Lucilius,  if  one 
mark  them  well,  are  but  essays' ;  and  one 
might  say  that  certain  of  Plato's  Dialogues 
mark  the  highest  reach  of  the  method  of  the 
essay  in  any  language.  To  a  later  philosopher, 
Theophrastus,  were  attributed  the  'Ethicat 
Characters,"  descriptive  of  various  character 
types,  which  we  shall  see  gave  rise  in  mcd;m 
times  to  a  kind  of  essay  form.  The  closest 
approach  in  antiquity,  however,  to  what  we 
now  call  the  essay  is  to  be  found  in  the  late 
Greek  period,  when  the  biographer  and  i^ilos- 
opher  Plutarch  pst  centup;  a.D.)  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  compositions,  traditionally  called  Opera 
Moralia  fMoral  Works),  on  such  subjects  as 
•The  Right  Way  of  Listening,"  "How  a  Flat- 
terer may  be  Distinguished  from  a  Friend,* 
*On  Chance,*  "On  Superstition,*  and  "On 
Exile."  Analogous  to  these  writings,  in 
Latin  literature,  are  the  partly  phiksophic, 
partly  personal  "Tusculan  Disputations'  of 
Cicero,  the  epistles  and  other  moral  disquisi- 
tions of  Seneca,  and  —  closest  to  the  essay  in 
their  informal  discursiveness —^ the  'Medita- 
tions' of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius.  Some 
influence  on  later  types  of  essay  literature  may 
also  be  traced  to  the  miscellanies  —  anecdotal 
and  otherwise  —  of  Valerius  Maximus  and 
Aulus  Gellius ;  the  work  of  the  former  is  called 
'Books  of  Memorable  Deeds  and  Utterances,' 
that  of  the  latter  'Attic  Nights.' 

In  the  medieval  period  the  essay  cannot  be 
recognized  as  a  separate  type;  some  approxima- 
tion to  it  may  be  noted  in  the  successors  of 
the  miscellanies  just  mentioned,  and  in  various 
collections  of  wise  sayings  ('sententiK"  or  sen- 
tences). In  particular,  writers  in  the  service 
of  the  Church  made  a  practice  of  brining  to- 
gether incidents  and  utterances  illustrative  of 
particular  virtues,  vices  and  spiritual  truths, 
which,  though  they  were  more  likely  to  de- 
velop into  homily  or  sermon  than  into  essay, 
sometimes  furnished  method  or  materials  for 
later  essayists.  In  France  the  form  called 
Moral  Lesson  (/efon  morale)  has  been  thought 


to  form  a  link  between  these  mediteval  writiiiKS 
and  tltc  essays  of  Uonuigne. 

The  modera  conception  of  the  essay  as  a 
distinct  literary  form,  and  the  use  of  the  word 
•essay"  to  describe  it,  have  their  origia  with 
definiteness  in  the  work  of  Montaigne,  who  in 
1560  published  a  volume  of  essais  at  Bordeaux; 
a  second  edition,  with  important  additions,  fot' 
lowed  in  1588.  A  considerable  portion  of  these 
essays  of  Montaigne  is  in  the  classical  and 
im^diKval  tradition,^' discourse  on  moral  themes, 
illustrated  with  anecdotes  and  aphorisms  col- 
lected from  a  wide  range  of  reading.  But  from 
this  type  of  essay  Montaigne  developed  the 
more  personal  type,  discoursing  on  whatever 
subject  came  to  hand  from  the  standpinnt  of 
his  individual  experience  and  mood:  so  that  he 
could  say  in  his  address  "to  the  reader* :  I  have 
no  respect  or  consideration  at  all  either  to  thy 
service  or  to  my  glory.  .  .  .  Myself  am 
the  groundwork  of  my  book.  It  is  then  no 
reason  thon  shouldest  employ  thy  time  about 
i  frivolous  and  vain  a  subject*    To  this    ~  ' 


of  mood,  and  the  essays  that  represent  it,  the 
whole    later    development    of    the 
essay  is  universally  traced. 


"tamilUr" 


Montai gee's  essays  were,  translated  and 
widely  read  in  England,  and  the  new  form 
became  more  important  across  the  Channel  than 
in  its  native  land.  In  1597  Francis  Bacon 
borrowed  the  name  Essay  for  a  little  collection 
which  bore  the  subtitle  'Relig'ous  Mentations', 
—  only  10  in  all;  in  the  edition  of  1612  the 
number  was  increased  to  38,  in  that  of  1625  to 
58.  This  collection  also  became  popular,  and 
has  remained  a  classic;  but  Bacon  held  rather 
to  the  older  tradition  of  the  aphoristic  essay 
than  to  the  newer  type  of  Montaigne.  In  his 
later  writings  he  gives  more  uni^,  and  some- 
times more  personality,  to  the  form,  yet  never 
to  the  point  of  becoming  *familiar.* 

S'r  William  Comwallis,  a  contemporary  of 
Bacon's,  followed  his  work  with  a  succession 
of  essays  on  moral  themes  (1600,  1610^  etc.). 
The  chief  successors  of  Bacon  and  Comwallis. 
in  the  17th  century,  were  Felltham  (who  called 
his  essw's  Rtsolvts,  about  1620),  Cowley  (who 
included  11  essays  in  his  collected  worlis  of 
1668),  and  Sir  William  Temple  ('Miscellanea,' 
1680,  etc.).  In  the  Restoration  period  Dryden 
may  be  said  to  have  originated  the  modem 
critical  essay,  in  the  various  prefaces  on  literary 
subjects  which  he  was  fond  of  prefixing  to  his 
writings.  He  also  revived  the  dialogue  form 
for  the  same  purpose,  in  his  'Essay  of  Dra- 
matic Poe^'  <16W).  Near  the  close  of  the 
century  Defoe  began  to  develop  the  essay  form 
for  the  discussion  of  social,  political  and  edu- 
cational questions,  notably  in  the  *£ssay  on 
Projects'  (1697).  One  may  ako  note  two  other 
literary  types  which,  ^ing  bade  to  much  earlier 
periods,  were  highly  valued  in  the  17th  century 
and  contributed  to  the  art  of  the  essay.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  "character,*  originated,  as 
has  been  mentioned,  by  the  Greek,  Theophrastus, 
whose  quasi-essays  were  now  revived  and  imi- 
tated in  both  England  and  France — notably 
W  Joseph  Hall  ('Characters  of  Vices  and 
Virtues,'  1608),  John  Earle  (*Micro(»smog- 
raph^e,  or  a  Piece  of  the  World  Discovered 
in  Essays  and  C:haracter3,'  1628),  and  Jean 
La  Bmvere  ('Les  caracteres,  ou  les  mceurs 
de  ce  siicle,'  1688).  The  second  type  is  the 
qnstle,  also,  as  wc  have  seen,  of  long-standing 


importance,  and  newly  cultivated  in  the  Re* 
naissance  and  the  succeeding  age;  notable  ex- 
amples of  the  development  of  this  form  in 
the  direction  of  the  literary  essay  are  the 
Spanish  letters  of  Guevara  (d.  1545),  whidi 
were  translated  into  English  more  than  once, 
and  came  to  be  called  the  "Ciolden  Epistles*; 
the  French  letters  of  Jean  de  Batsac  (1624); 
and  James  Howell's  'Epistolx  Ho-Eliani^ 
Familiar  Letters  Domestic  and  Foreign'  (1645- 
55).  Finally,  for  the  17th  century  it  should 
be  observed  that  the  'Religio  Medici'  (1642) 
and  'Urn  Burial'  (1658)  of  Sir  Thomas 
Browne  exemplify  some  of  the  most  delightful 

SuaJities  of  the  familiar  essay,  in  expanded 
ora.  though  not  called  by  that  name, 
Tte  early  18th  century  saw  a  highly  im- 
portant development  of  the  essa^  in  connection 
with  the  growth  of  periodical  literature.  The 
beginnings  of  this  movement  may  be  observed 
in  the  work  of  Defoe  and  even  earlier,  but  its 
first  conspicuous  representatives  were  Steele 
and  Addison,  in  the  several  jxriodicals  which 
ihey  issued  singly  or  jointly;  indeed  one  mi^t 
say  that  the  new  periodical  essay  was  bom  in 
Steele's  Tatler,  which  began  to  appear  in  1709. 
Addison  presently  became  Steele  s  coadjutor, 
and  in  the  Spectator,  hegim  March  1711,  his 
influence  was  paramounL  The  type  of  essay 
developed  in  these  periodicals  was  of  fairly 
fixed  lenath,  suited  to  reading  at  the  breakfast 
table,  ana  combined  in  an  important  way  the 
qualities  of  the  familiar  and  didactic  essa^: 
inat  is,  its  purpose  was  the  serious  and  profit- 
able discussion  of  social,  ethical  and  literary 
topics,  but  the  point  of  view  was  distinctly 
personal,  bein^.  represented  as  that  of  a  saga- 
cious but  wfflmsical  character,  named  'Mr. 
Bickers  tafi*  in  the  earlier  periodical  and 
simply  The  Spectator"  in  the  later.  The  in- 
fluence of  these  periodical  essays  of  Addison 
and  Steele  can  scarcely  be  exaggerated,  and 
it  persisted  throughout  the  century,  not  only  in 
England  but  on  the  continent.  More  than  200 
English  journals  or  essay-series  of  the  Spec- 
tator type  have  been  counted  for  the  century 
1709-t8CS,  and  in  France,  Germany,  ItaK  and 
even  Russia  it  was  also  imitated.  In  France 
Marivaux  first  wrote  Addisonian  essays  for  the 
Mercure,  then  ( 1722)  issued  a  Speetateur 
frattfois.  In  Zurich  appeared  the  Discourse  der 
Maler  (1721),  essays  written  by  the  members 
of  a  club  beaded  by  Johann  Bodmer,  under 
pen-names  adopted  from  famous  artists ;  in 
Hamburg  an  essay- periodical  called  Der  Patriot 
appeared  in  1724,  and  at  Leipzig  in  172.'i  Gott- 
sched's  yernUnftige  Tadlerinnett  {'Sensible 
Fault-finders").  In  the  direction  of  literary 
criticism  perhaps  the  finest  results  of  the  move- 
ment in  Germany  are  to  be  found  in  certain 
essays  of  Lessing's,  such  as  the  series  called 


successors  of  Steele  and  Addisi 
Samuel  Johnson,  who  Issued  The  Rambler  in 
1750-52  and  later  wrote  various  series  of  essays 
for  other  periodicals,  and  Oliver  Goldsmitn, 
■who  contributed  essays  to  The  Bee,  The  Public 
Ledger,  etc.  (1759-61).  Goldsm'th's  work  in 
the  combined  familiar  and  didactic  essay  is 
the  only  rival  of  the  Spectator  at  its  best, 
whether  in  charm  of  manner  or  quality  of 
substance;  in  particular,  he  develooea  skilfully, 
in  a  series  of  essays  called  The  C^en  of  the 


010 


ESSAY  ON  CHRITICISH 


World,  an  amuaing  method  of  commenting  on 
contemporary  life  from  the  assumed  stand- 
point of  a  forei^er,  which  had  been  availed 
of  by  earlier  cntics,  notably  Montesquieu  in 
Ihe  Lettres  Persanes  (1721). 

The  development  of  the  essay  in  the  early 
19th  century  was  again  due  largeb'  to  the  evolu- 
tion of  periodical  typ«s,  and  in  English  litera- 
ture one  dis  tin  guides  dearly  two  of  these 
types,  the  magazine  and  the  critical  review, 
which  gave  new  opportunity  for  the  familiar 
and  the  critical  essay  respectively.  Most  im- 
portant of  the  former  were  Blackwood's  and 
the  London  Magasine,  founded  in  1817  and 
1820;  of  Blackwood's  John  Wilson  ("Chris- 
topher North")  soon  became  the  leading  essa_y- 
ist,  while  the  London  Magasine  had  ihe  dis- 
tinction of  printing  some  of  the  most  brilliant 
work  of  Lamb,  DeQuincey  and  Hazlitt.  The 
brothers  John  and  Leigh  Hunt  were  also  con- 
cerned in  the  publication  of  a  number  of 
periodicals,  some  (like  the  Exatttiner)  being 
of  a  newspaper  type,  but  offering  space  for 
literary  essays,  others  (like  the  Indicator)  con- 
tinuing the  Spectator  tradition.  For  all  these 
Leigh  Hunt  was  a  leading  writer,— with  the 
possible  exception  of  John  Wilson,  the  most 
prolific  of  the  !9th  century  essayists.  The  Elia 
essays  of  (Carles  Lamb,  which  appeared  in  the 
London  Magazine  1820-25,  are  by  universal  con- 
sent the  finest  examples  of  the  familiar  type 
produced  since  Montaigne's ;  some  of  Hazlitt's. 
nowevcr  (to  be  found  in  his  collections  callea 
The  Round  Table,  1817,  and  Table  Talk,  1822) 
are  not  far  beneath  them,  and  of  substantial 
literary  criticism  (as  in  the  papers  called 
Characters  of  Shakespeare's  Plays,  1817)  Ha«- 
litt  gives  us  far  more  than  Lamb.  Of  the 
second  newly  developed  type  of  periodical,  the 
critical,  the  leading  representatives  are  the 
Edinburgh  Review  and  the  Quarterly  Review, 
founded  in  1802  and  1809  respectively;  these 
gave  rise  to  a  new  form  of  literary  essay, 
called  a  "review,'  which  normally  took  its 
origin  in  an  account  of  some  recent  publica- 
tions, but  became  an  independent  discussion  of 
the  subject  suggested  bv  the  work  in  hand. 
The  typical  examples  of  this  form  are  to  be 
found  in  the  essay";  of  Francis  Jeffrey,  long 
editor  of  the  Edinburgh,  and  John  Gibson 
Lockhart,  long  editor  of  the  Quarterly;  but 
their  work,  important  as  it  seemed,  has  proved 
insigniBcant  in  comparison  with  that  of  Thomas 
Babmgton  Macaulay,  who  began  his  career  as 
reviewer  in  the  Edinburgh  with  his  famous 
article  on  Milton,  1825,  and  remains  the  most 
brilliant  and  prolific  of  English  critical 
essayists. 

We  cannot  here  follow  the  course  of  the 
essay  throughout  the  19th  century.  In  general, 
England  has  continued  to  produce  the  most 
distmguished  work  in  the  familiar  type ;  its 
best  representative  in  recent  times  was  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  ('Familiar  Sti]dics,>  1882.  and 
'Memories  and  Portraits,'  1887).  English 
writers  have  also  done  fine  work  in  the  critical 
essay,  notably  Matthew  Arnold  ('Essays  in 
Criticism.>  186S,  1888)  and  Leslie  Stephen 
('Hours  in  a  Library,>  1874-79);  but  here  the 
palm  must  be  yielded  to  the  French,  who  have 
used  the  essay  most  characteristically  for  this 
purpose,  notably  Sainte-Beuve  CCauseries  du 
Lundi,'  1851-72),  Bruneti*re  ('Questions  de 
Critique,  1889),  and  Anatole  France  ('La  Vie 


Littiraire,'  1907).  American  literature  in- 
cludes, for  the  early  period,  one  notable  r^ 
resentative  of  the  Addison  tradition,  Wash- 
ington Irving  ('Sketch  Book,>  1820).  By  far 
the  most  distinguished  American  essayist  is 
Ejnerson,  who  revived  to  some  extent  the 
method  of  the  aphoristic  essay,  emphasizing 
the  single  utterance  rather  more  than  the  whole 
composition  ('Essays,*  1841-44).  In  the  criti- 
cal type  the  work  of  James  Russell  Lowell  re- 
mains unexcelled  ('Among  my  Books,*  1870- 
76).  Other  noteworthy  American  essayists  of 
the  19th  century  are  E.  P.  Whipple,  Edgar  A. 
Foe,  Donald  G.  Mitchell  ("Ik  Marvel"). 
Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  George  Wil- 
liam Curtis  and  Charles  Dudley  Warner.  In 
the  'Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table'  (1858), 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  made  wise  and  wit^ 
use  of  the  method  of  the  familiar  essay,  thougn 
in  an  expanded  and  discursive  form  which 
belongs  to  no   definite  type. 

Bibliograpliy.— The  best  account  of  the 
familiar  essay  is  to  be  found  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  Bryan  and  Crane's  collection  called 
■The  English  Familiar  Essay'  (Boston  1916). 
For  the  English  essay  as  a  whole,  constilt 
Walker's  'The  English  Essay  and  Essayists' 
(London  1915)-  MacDonald,  W.  L.,  'Begin- 
nings of  the  English  Essay'  (University  of 
Toronto  Studies)  ;  Wytie,  Laura  T.,  'The  Eng- 
lish Essay'  (in  Social  Studies  in  English  Liter- 
ature,' Boston  1916).  For  the  reviews  and  the 
critical    essay,    consult    the    introductions 


of  English  Poets'  (Philadelphia  1904) ;  also 
Saintsbury's  'History  of  Criticism'  (Edin- 
burgh 1904).  For  the  character- writers,  con- 
sult Morley's  'Character  Writings  of  the  17tli 
Century'  (London  1891)  ;  for  the  letter- 
writers,  Hansche's  'English  Familiar  Letter- 
writers  and  their  Contribution  to  the  English 
Essay'  (Dissertation  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  1902).  For  the  Spectator  and  its 
influence,  consult  Beljame's  'Lc  public  et  les 
hommes  de  lettres  en  Angleterre  au  18e 
siJcle'  (Paris  1881).  There  is  a  convenient 
collection  of  essays  by  British  writers  in  the 
Everyman's  Library  series,  and  a  similar  col- 
lection of  American  essays  has  been  edited  by 
Brander  Matthews   (Oxford  Press  1914). 

Raymond  M.  Alden, 
Professor  of  English,  Leland  Stanford  Jumor 


Vni 


■stty. 


ESSAY  ON  CRITICISM,  An,  a  didactic 
poem  in  heroic  couplets  by  Alexander  Pope 
(q.v.)  in  which  he  explains  and  propounds  the 
canons  of  verse  structure,  poetic  taste  and 
criticism.  The  poem.  Pope's  first  really  origi- 
nal work,  was  written  either  in  1707  or  1709, 
more  likely  in  the  latter  year.  It  was  first 
published  anonymously  on  15  May  1711  and 
sold  SO  well  that  another  impression  was  made 

the  s  ~  

in  17 

Pope.*  Since  then  it  has  been  included  in 
practically  every  edition  of  Pope's  works.  The 
most  exhaustively  critical  and  most  carefully 
annotated    edition    is    that    edited    by    J.    W. 


ESSAY   ON    HUMAN   UHDBSBTANDING— SSSAYS  OF   BACON 


Ml 


PortuftBese,  Hun^rian,  .Polish  and  Russian. 
Opinions  concerning  the  merits  of  the  poem 
are  divided.  In  its'  own  days  it  vas  praised 
very  highly  by  stich  astute  critics  as  Addison 
and  Dr.  Johnson.  Of  the  next  generation  of 
critics,  Hazlitt  continues  to  sing  its  praises, 
bat  DeQmncey  criticiies  it  faaTsh^r. 

The  fact  remains,  however,  that,  though 
metrically  by  far  the  least  polished  of  Pope's 
poems,  it  was  a  remarkable  performance  for 
a  youth  of  21,  both  in  regard  to  its  poetical 
value  and  in  respect  to  its  contents.  Its 
imagery,  though  very  uneven,  at  points  reaches 
heights  which  were  never  surpassed  by  the 
author  and  many  of  its  striking  passages  have 
become  familiar  qaotatkins.  It  is  one  of  Pope's 
longer  works,  consisting^  of  744  verses,  divided 
into  three  parts.  With  it  beran  the  long  series 
of  literary  quarrels  in  which  Pope  was  involved 
throughout  his  entire  career  as  a  result  of  his 
biting  satire.  In  the  'Essay  on  Criticism'  he 
attadted  particularly  vigorously  and  outspoken- 
ly a  critic  and  playwright  of  that  day.  J. 
Dennis  (q.v.)  who  repued  in  a  pamphlet, 
called  'Reflections  upon  a  late  Rhapsodie,  catted 
"An  Essay  upon  Criticism"  in  which  he  in 
turn  criticized  very  sharply  and  in  places  with 
considerable  justice  Pope's  work.  Consult 
Graner,  K.,  ''Die  Ubersetzungen,  von  Pope's  Es- 
say on  Criticism,"  etc  (Aschaffenburg  1910). 
See  PoPt  AiEXANDHL 

B.  H,  Goldsmith. 

ESSAY  OH  THE  HUUAN  UNDER- 
STANDING, An.  John  Locke's  'Essay  on  the 
Human  Understanding'  is  the  classic  of  Eng- 
lish common  sense  empiricism.  Subsequent 
philosophy  and  psychology  and  English  thought, 
in  general  are  weighted  with  its  terminology 
and  opinions. 

Locke's  purpose,  so  he  tells  us,  was  °to  in- 
quire into  the  origin,  certainty  and  extent  of 
human  knowledge,  together  with  the  grounds 
and  degrees  of  belief,  opinion  and  assent.*  He 
would  determine  the  powers  of  the  understand- 
ing by  an  'historical'  method,  that  is,  b^  trac- 
ing the  growth  of  knowledge  in  the  individual. 
As  a  result  of  his  analysis  Locke  decided  that 
mind  is  conversant  only  with  'ideas*  and  their 
relations,  which  ideas  it  acquired  through  sen- 
sation and  through  reflection  on  its  own  oper- 
ations. These  ideas,  'whatever  is  the  object  of 
the  mind  when  a  man  thinks*  are  the  copies 


live  character  so  far  as  the  primary  qualitita, 
such  as  extension,  motion,  etc.,  are  concerned 
and  considered  them  sufficient  evidence  of  an 
external  world. 

Knowledge  is  the  perception  of  the  agree- 
ment or  disagreement  of  ideas  and  arises  in 
three  degrees ;  intuitive,  by  which  we  perceive 
immediately  the  relation  between  two  ideas; 
demonstrative,  i.e.,  a  chain  of  intuitions ;  sensi- 
tive, which  gives  us  knowledge  of  particular 
things.  The  limitation  thus  imposed  leaves  out- 
side the  realm  of  knowledge  most  of  the  mat- 
ters with  which  the  mind  is  generally  occupied 
in  the  conduct  of  life.  These  must  be  deter- 
mined by  probable  "judgment.* 

Locke  was  very  uncritical  and  avoided  the 
logical  extremes  to  which  his  argument  is  ob- 
viously subject  and  which  are  to  be  found  in 
the  idealism  of  Berkeley  and  the  sensationalism 


of  Condillac.  His  doctrine  of  representative 
ideas  as  the  ultimate  data  of  knowledge  clearly 
expresses  an  epistemoiogical  position  which  may 
lie  regarded  as  the  fundamental  principle  or 
fundamental  fallacy  of  subsequent  philosophy, 
according  to  Mie's  metaphysical  preferences. 

The  'Essay'  has  probably  run  to  more  edi- 
tions than  any  other  modem  philosopical  classic 
and  almost  every  subsequent  philosopher  has 
taken  it  at  one  time  or  another  as  a  topic.  Leib- 
niti's  'Nouveanx  Essais  sur  I'entendement  hu- 
fflain'  (1761)  is  a  mnnit^  commentary  on 
Locke.  The  best  critical  edition  is  that  by 
Prof.  C.  Eraser  {1894). 

Walteb  B.  Veazie. 

ESSAY  ON  MAN,  Tfae,  one  of  the  later 
works  <1733-34)  of  Alexander  Pope,  shares 
with  the  'Essay  on  Criticism,'  the  ^Rape  of  the 
Lock,'  the  'Dunciad,>  the  'Epistle  to  Dr.  Ar- 
buthnot'  and  a  few  other  poems  the  position 
of  foremost  place  among  his  original  works. 
It  is  a  didactic  poem  of  some  600  heroic  coup- 
lets grouped  into  four  epistles  and  dedicated 
to  Lord  Boiinphroke,  with  whose  brilliant  but 
somewhat  trivial  philosophy  it  is  in  substantial 
agreement.  There  is  probably  a  fixed  order 
in  the  universe  and  definite  gradations  among 
all  living  things,  including  man,  but  it  is  pre- 
sumption in  man  to  attempt  to  define  himself 
and  to  determine  his  place  in  the  universe;  he 
can  only  humbly  sutnnit  to  the  decrees  of 
Providence.  The  proper  study  therefore,  of 
mankind  is  man,  in  whom  the  outstanding 
characteristic  is  a  mixture  of  two  principles, 
selt-lbve  and  reason,  which  are  expressed  in 
varying  combinations  of  virtue  and  vice,  which 
by  giving  men  different  characters,  serve  the 
ends  of  Providence.  Reason  and  self-love  oper- 
ate in  the  formation  of  Society,  and  its  insti- 
tutions are  according  to  the  divine  purpose. 
This  universal  aim  is  human  happiness  which, 
though  obscured  by  false  notions  of  the  means 
of  attaining  i^  consists  in  the  acquisition  of 
virtue.  This  is  the  general  law,  which  it  is 
folly  to  think  will  be  altered  to  suit  man's  de- 
sires for  prosijerity,  honors  and  the  many  ob- 
jects of  ambition  of  men.  The  philosophy  is 
not  particularly  moving  or  consistent,  and  the 
poem  is  to-day  best  remembered  for  the  large 
number  of  familiar  quotations  that  it  has  con- 
tributed to  the  common  slock— 'Whatever  is, 
is  right,"  'Pleased  with  a  rattle,  tickled  with  a 
straw,*  'Order  is  heaven's  first  law,"  'An  honest 
man 's  thtf  noblest  work  of  God,*"  "The  wisest, 
brightest,  meanest  of  mankind,*  etc.  A  good 
account  is  to  be  found  in  Chapter  VII  of  Les- 
lie Stephen's  'Pope'  in  the  English  Men  of 
Letters.  William  T.  Brewster. 

ESSAYS  OF  BACON.  Bacon's  'Essays' 
were  praclirally  the  first  things  in  English  liter- 
ature to  be  called  by  the  name  "Essay.*  That 
word,  in  the  16th  century,  generally  car- 
ried the  idea  of  attempt  or  trial  and  it  was  in 
some  such  sense  that  Bacon  used  it.  In  the 
10  essays  first  published  he  gave,  not  finished 
treatments  but  rather  tentative  reflections.  He 
himself  calls  them  "certain  brief  notes  set  down 
rather  significantly  than  curiously  (i.e.,  sug- 
gestively rather  than  carefully),  which  I  have 
called  Essays.*  Montaigne  had  used  practi- 
cally the  same  word  in  French  a  few  years  be- 
fore and  almost  immediately  after  Bacon's  col- 
lection  it   began    to   be   common.     The   essay 


,5le 


sia 


ESSAYS  FROM  THE  BABY  CHAIR— ESSAYS  OF  ELIA 


developed  into  several  fonns  in  the  17th 
cemury,  but  in  the  earlier  essays  there  was 
somelhin^  of  the  experimental,  incomplete  char- 
acter which  we  do  not  generally  have  b  mind 
when  we  think  of  the  essay  at  present.  The 
subject  matter  of  Bacon's  'Essays'  was  also 
informal  and  familiar.  His  own  often-quoted 
words  are  that  the  'Eisays^  have  been  "the 
most  current"  of  his  works  because  "as  it  seems, 
they  come  home  to  men's  business  and  bosoms." 
The  'Essays'  are,  in  fact,  the  sincere  and  nat- 
ural thoughts  of  a  great  man,  not  elaborately 
molded  into  a  monumental  work,  but  set  down 
much  as  they  may  have  come  to  his  mind  when 
he  had  leisure  to  Chink  of  the  things  that  inter- 
ested him.  Bacon  was  a  great  ngure  in  the 
development  of  philosophy  and  science,  but  it 
is  not  for  such  reasons  that  his  'Essays'  have 
been  read.  The  subject  matter  of  the'*Essays' 
is  mostly  the  thoughts  and  ideas  that  come  to 
the  private  heart  of  man  as  he  thinks  of  him- 
self, of  how  he  gets  on  in  the  world,  and  how 
he  stands  with  eternity  and  with  God.  There 
is  in  them  much  that  belongs  especially  to  the 
private  thought  of  Bacon,  who  lived  the  life 
of  a  courtier  and  a  man  of  affairs  as  well  as 
that  of  a  scholar.  But  everyone  finds  something 
of  interest  in  the  'Essays,'  for  they  give  the 
natural  reflections  of  a  powerful  mind  as  it 
considered  the  things  that  are  likely  to  occur 
to  everybody.  In  style  the  'Essays'  are  gen- 
erally less  familiar  than  in  substance.  In  the 
matter  of  expression  they  are  concise  and  pol- 
ished, by  no  means  the  sort  of  thing  that  a  man 
could  write  offhand.  Though,  each  as  a  whole, 
they  do  not  make  complete  and  finished  treat- 
ments, yet  the  separate  sentences  are  condensed 
and  often  proverbial  and  seem  carefully  cor- 
rected, as  a  comparison  of  the  different  editions 
shows  they  are.  The  'Essays'  were  first  pub- 
lished in  1597,  when  10  only  appeared,  oedi- 
cated  to  his  brother.  In  1612  appeared  a  new 
edition  containing  38  essays,  nine  of  them  of 
the  earlier  collection.  In  1625  the  last  edition 
in  fiacon's  life  contained  19  essays  more. 
There  have  been  numberless  editions  since, 
among  which  are  E.  Arber's  'Harmony  '  and 
the  editions  with  annotation  by  R.  VVhately, 
W.  A,  Wright  and  J.  Spedding, 

Edwasd  E.  Hale. 


I  for  the  38  remaining 
years  of  his  life,  writing  approximatel.v  2,500  in 
alL  In  these  essays  he  dealt  with  every  sort 
of  imaginable  subject —"with  worthies  ancient 
and  modem,  with  early  impressions  and  striking 
contemporary  situations,  with  poets  and  novel- 
ists and  orators  and  actors  and  musicians,  with 
every  aspect  of  the  social  eomedj;  as  viewed  by 
the  most  genial  of  spectators,  with  all  matters 
that  seemed  to  lend  themselves  to  his  purpose 
of  unobtrusive  didacticism  —  a  purpose  so 
veiled  by  animated  and  fanciful  discourse  that 
the  reader  is  hardly  conscious  of  its  existence.* 
From  these  essays  three  volumes  of  representa- 
tive essaj^  were  selected  and  republished  after 
his  death.  They  not  only  throw  interesting 
side-lights  upon  his  owm  life  and  personality, 
but  together  they  constitute  a  series  of  invalu- 


made  of  the  personal  type  of  essay  one  of  the 
permanent  and  most  delightful  forms  of  litera- 
ture. The  light  touch,  personal  likes  and  dis- 
likes, character  sketches,  delicate  hiunor  and 
pathos,  suggestive  bits  of  wisdc«n,  are  all  found 
in  his  essays.  He  suifers  most  hy  contrast  with 
Lamb  in  his  lack  of  felicitous  literary  allusion 
and  in  hib  failure  to  secure  the  more  perma- 
nent effects  of  rhetoric,  in  the  better  sense  of 
that  word.  He  is  perhaps  more  like  Addison, 
or  Goldsmith,  or  Irving,  though  less  final  in  his 
power  of  expression  than  any  of  them. 

A  typical  volume  of  these  essays  gives  stane 
idea  of  the  range  of  his  topics.  He  has  reminis- 
cences of  Edward  Everett,  Emierson,  Dickens, 
Thoreau,  Wendell  Phillips,  Jeimy  Lind, 
Thackeray  and  Browning,  each  of  whom  is 
recalled  in  some  typical  lecture  or  conversation 
or  dinner.  The  theatre  fifpires  in  an  accoum 
of  Jefferson  as  Rip  Vao  Wmkle  and  in  reminis- 
cences of  Fanny  Konble  and  John  Gilbert 
That  be  was  fond  of  music  is  suggested  in 
«Thc  Opera  in  186*,»  "Thalberg  arid  Other 
Pianists*  and  'Cecilia  Playing.*  Typical 
sketches  of  social  life  and  of  various  aspects  of 
New  York  are  to  be  found  in  ^Shops  and 
Shopping,"  "Mrs,  Grundy  and  the  Cosmopoli- 
tan," •Easter  Bonnets*  and  "The  Town,* 

At  the  time  Curtis  was  writing  such  essays 
for  Harper's  Magazine  he  was  writing  ei- 
torials  for  Harper's  Weekly  and  delivering  ad- 
dresses throughout  the  country  of  an  entirely 
different  character.  It  is.  surprising  that  the  man 
who  was  a  leader  in  the  movement  for  civil 
service  reform,  who  helped  to  inaugurate  the 
independent  movement  m  American  politics, 
and  who  at  an  earlier  date  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  organization  of  the  Republican 
party,  should  have  been  able  to  detach  himself 
from  the  stream  of  affairs  as  he  did  in  his 
charming  essays.  In  this  respect,  as  in  maire 
others,  ne  was  like  his  friend  James  Russell 
Lowell,  who  wrote  to  him  words  that  best  give 
an  interpretation  of  his  personality : 

■'  Had  letten  kept  you,  every  urealh  wm  vquib: 
Hul  the  iforkltemined,  ftll  iti  chiHeit  doon 


Edwiw  Menus. 

ESSAYS  OF  ELIA.  Charles  Lamb's 
Essays,  the  most  famous  and  delightful  of  his 
WorkS[  were  written  in  the  spare  hours  of  his 
busy  life,  and  were  oririnally  published  chiefly 
as  contributions  to  the  Londott  Magazini  from 
1820  to  1833.  Tlje  first  collected  volume,  'The 
Essays  of  Elia,'  appeared  in  1823;  the  second, 
'Last  Essays  of  Elia,'  10  years  Jater,  "Hie 
signature  EJia,  which  Lamb  adopted  from  the 
name  of  a  former  clerk  in  the  South  Sea  House 
where  he  had  been  employed,  served  as  a  thin 
disguise,  under  the  cover  of  which  the  author 
revealed  in  an  intimate  way  his  own  experiences 
and  thoughts,  distorting  the  actual  facts  of  his 
life  only  so  much  as  was  necessary  to  preserve 
a  semblance  of  anonymity. 

The  substance  of  many  of  the  essays  consists 
in  reminiscences  of  Lamb's  early  years,  toward 
which  he  looked  back  with  a  tender  and  ro- 
tnantic  yearning.    He  descifbes,  for  example,  in 


BS8AYS  AND  RB VIEWS— KS8BNCB 


618 


the  essay  entitled  'Christ's  Hospital  Five-and- 
Thirty  Years  Ago,'  his  schoolboy  life  and  his 
first  association  with  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge; 

in  'Blakesmoor  in  H ahire,*  a  visit  with  his 

sister,  Bridget  Elia  (Mary  Lamb),  to  an  old 
mansion  in  the  country  in  his  childhood;  in 
■Uy  First  Play,*  his  earliest  sensations  in  the 
theatre ;    in  'Old  Benchers  of  the  Inner  Tem- 

iile,'  the  curious  personalities  of  the  antique 
awyers  with  whom  he  had  become  acquainted 
in  his  boyhood  home  in  London.  In  these 
essays  and  others  which  refer  to  the  circum- 
stances of  his  own  life,  Lamb  admits  us  freely 
to  the  inner  drde  of  his  thought.  He  frankly 
confesses  his  weaknesses  and  his  prejudices. 
He  pictures  in  °The  Superannuated  Man"  his 
sensations  on  finding  himself  at  last  free  from 
the  buriness  routine  of  a  hfetime;  he  even 
writes  the  •Confessions  of  a  Drunkard,"  speak- 
ing seriously  and  truthfully  of  his  own  experi- 
ence. Finally,  in  that  most  beautiful  of  all  the 
essays,  "Dream  Children,*  be  indulges  in  a 
vision,  regretful  but  not  unmanly,  of  what 
midit  have  been  had  the  circumstances  of  his 
sad  life  been  different.  In  all  this  Lamb  is 
lovable  and  charming.  If  a  tender  melancholy 
pervades  some  of  the  essays,  others,  like  the 
famous  "Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig.*  are  full  of 
hilarious  fun.  In  the  majorihr  of  his  sketches 
humor  and  pathos  go  hand  in  hand.  The  senti- 
ment is  relieved  by  orilliant  flashes  of  wit  which 
make  Lamb  rank  as  one  of  the  chief  of  English 
humorists;  the  lai^hter  is  tempered  by  kindly 
sympathy. 

Lamb's  romantic  love  of  bygone  things  is 
apparent  everywhere  in  the  essays.  He  com- 
plains of  'the  decay  of  beggars  in  the  me- 
tropolis,* writes  'the  praise  of  chimney- 
sweepers,'  describing  with  delightful  humor  the 
annual  dinner  given  in  their  honor  by  his  friend 
Jem  White.  He  confesses  to  an  almost  femi- 
nine delight  in  old  china,  prefers  the  sun-dial 
to  the  clock  and  the  old  type  of  schoolmaster 
to  the  new.  In  human  personality  Lamb  is 
most  interested  in  out-of  tfae-way  characters, 
with  some  peculiar  humor  or  bias,  "odd  fishes,* 
like  the  old-fashioned  clerks  of  die  South  Sea 
House  or  the  immortal,  whist-playing  Sarah 
Battle.  A  number  of  the  essays  deal  with 
literary  matters,  particulariy  with  the  drama,  in 
trfiich  he  was  much  interested,  and  with  those 
older  authors  like  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  toward 
whom  he  was  drawn  by  his  antiquarian  instinct 
and  by  his  lildn^  for  the  unusual  and  piquant 
in  literature  as  in  Ufe.  As  a  critic  Lamb  is 
appreciative  and  informal,  relishing  his  favorite 
authors  rather  than  judging  them.  He  is  the 
best  and  most  enthusiastic  of  all  book-lovers. 

Whatever  his  subject  Lamb  casts  upon  it  the 
magic  of  a  style  rich  in  personality,  pictur- 
esque, brilliantly  witty  and  singularly  respon- 
sive to  the  author's  mood.  Quaint  turns  of 
phrase  and  antiquated  words,  borrowed  from 
the  older  writers  of  whom  Lamb  was  fond, 
give  a  touch  of  oddity  to  his  language  which 
suits  his  highly  individual  type  of  humor. 

The  'Essays  of  Ella'  are  the  most  attractive 
example  in  our  tiieraiure  of  the  personal  or 
informal  essay,  compounded  of  wit  and  senti- 
ment, observation  and  reflection,  familiar  in 
tone,  whimsical  and  unexpected  in  idea,  but 
richly  human  and  often  touching  by  way  of 
intimation  and  suggestion  on  the  deepest  truths. 

VOL.  10—33 


Consult  'The  Works  of  Charies  and  Mary 
Lamb'  (ed.  E.  V.  Lucas,  1903-05)  ;  <The  Essays 
of  Elia>  (In  "Everyman's  Library'),  and  <The 
World's  Classics*  (Oxford)  ;  essays  on  Lamb 
in  Walter  Pater's  'Appreciations*;  A.  Birrell's 
'Obiter  Dicta'  (2d  series)  ;  G.  E.  Woodberry's 
'Makers  of  Literature,'  and  C.  T.  Winchester's 
'A  Group  of   English   Essayists.'      For  biblio- 

Eapl^f,  consult  'Cambridge  History  of  English 
terature'   (Vol.  XII), 

James  H.  Hanford. 
ESSAYS  AND  REVIEWS,  a  work  issued 
in  1860  by  seven  members  of  the  (Ihurdi  of 
England,  six  of  whom  were  laymen.  It  was 
severely  criticized  by  the  clerical  body  and 
in  1864  was  condemned  by  convocation.  Two 
of  the  seven  contribntors  were  sentenced  to 
suspension  of  one  year  by  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  but  the  Privy  Council  reversed  this 
sentence. 

See  EsZBC 

I,    Hani    Henrik,    Count,    Swedish 

statesman:  b.  Kails,  West  Gotland  1755;  d. 
1824.  He  received  his  education  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala  and  entered  the  army  in  the 
service  of  Gustavus  III.  In  IW5  he  was  made 
governor  of  Stockholm  and  five  years  later 
governor-general  of  Swedish- Pom erania  and 
Riigen.  In  1807  he  defended  Stralsund  against 
the  French  and  two  years  later  was  made  a 
count  and  a  councillor  of  state.  Charles  XIII 
made  him  Ambassador  to  France  in  1910  and 
he  was  successful  in  having  Napoleon  restore 
Pomerania  to  Sweden.  In  1811  he  was  made 
field  marshal,  campaigned  in  1813  against  Nor- 
way, of  which  he  was  governor  in  1814-16.  In 
1817  he  was  transferred  and  made  governor- 
general  of  Skine  Consult  the  life  by  Wiesel- 
gren   (Malmo  18SS). 

ESSEN,  Germany,  town  of  Rhenish  Prus- 
sia,  18  miles  northeast  of   Diisseldorf.     It  has 


century,  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  Germany.  It  i: 
celebrated  for  the  steel  and  iron  works  of  (he 
Krupps  (Q-^^'l^he  most  extensive  in  Europe, 
employing  70,000  workmen  in  their  various  un- 
dertakings. This  great  establishment  was 
started  in  1811,  with  only  two  workmen.  'The 
rifled  steel  cannon  made  here  were  supplied  to 
most  of  the  armies  of  the  world.  In  the  suburbs  . 
are  the  'colonies" —  cottages,  churches,  schools, 
stores,  libraries,  places  ot  amusement,  homes 
for  superannuated  and  disabled  workmen,  etc, 
established  by  the  Krupps  for  their  workmen 
who,  however,  on  pain  of  dismissal,  are  for- 
bidden to  become  associated  with  any  socialist 
or  trade  union  organisation.  During  the  Euro- 
pean War,  Essen  was  frequently  attacked  and 
bombed  by  allied  air  squadrons.  (See  War, 
European).  The  town  was  founded  in  the  9th 
century,  when  the  Benedictine  abbey  was  estab- 
lished here,  and  for  some  time  it  was  under 
the  control  of  the  Abbess  of  Essen.  In  the  10th 
century  the  Abbess  Hagona  gave  the  town  mu- 
nicipal privileges.  In  1803  it  was  incorporated 
into  Prussia.  The  town  of  Ruttenscheid  was 
annexed  to  Essen  in  190S  and  the  commune  of 
Huflrop  in  190a    Pop.  295,000. 

ESSENCE,  in  metaphysics,  originally  the 
same  as  substance.  Later,  substance  came  to  be 
used    for   the  undetermined   substratum  of  a 


jOOgIc 


BSSENCB  DB  PETIT  i:iRAlM>-fi&S&trnAL  OILS 


Ihjng,  essence  for  the  qualities  expressed  in  the 
definition'  of  a  thing;  or,  as  Locke  put  it, 
•Essence  may  be  taken  for  the  being  of  any- 
thing, whereby  il  is  what  it  is."  ('Essay  Con- 
cerning Human  Understanding,'  Book  III, 
Chapter  HI,  Seaion  IS).  It  is  now  used  in  a 
wider  sense,  to  desi^ate  the  intrinsic  nature 
of  a  thing.  In  chetnistry,  and  in  popular  par- 
lance, essences  are  solutions  of  the  essential  oils 
in  alcohol,  and  may  be  prepared  by  adding 
rectified  spirit  lo  the  odoriferous  pans  of  plants, 
or  to  the  essential  oils,  and  distillmg;  or  simply 
by  adding  the  essential  oil  to  the  rectified  spirit, 
and  agitating  till  a  uniform  mixmre  is  obtained. 
The  term  has,  however,  received  a  wider  sig- 
nificance, and  is  applied  lo  any  liquid  possess- 
ing the  propertiei  of  the  substance  of  which 
it  professes  to  be  the  essence.  Thus  essences 
of  cotTee  and  beef  contain  in  a  concentrated 
form  the  virtues  of  coffee  and  beef,  and  in 
some  circumstances  may  be  substituted  for  thenL 

ESSENCE  DE  PETIT  GRAIN  {essence 
of  small  grain),  a  perfume  produced  by  the 
distillation  of  small  oranges  while  in  an  un- 
ripe state.  The  oranges  for  this  purpose  ai% 
taken  when  about  the  size  of  a  cherry. 

BSSENES,  es-senz',  a  seel  or  society  of 
Hyper-Pharisaic  Jews,  in  existence  ISO  years 
B.C.,  and  which  existed  till  the  2d  century,  the 
remnant  then  returning  to  Pharisaic  or  orthodox 
Judaism  or  entering  Uie  Oiristian  communion. 
They  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible  or  rabbin- 
ical htcrature.  Joscphus  the  historian  (1st  cen- 
tury) describes  their  maimer  of  life  in  some 
detail;  Philo  Judaeus  has  a  notice  of  it,  so  too 
has  Plinv  in  his  'Historia  Naturalis.'  Josephus 
was  in  his  youth  a  probationer  of  the  society, 
but  lived  among  ihem  only  a  short  time  and 
was  uiuicquainted  with  the  details  of  their  sys- 
tem, which  were  strictly  withheld  from  novices ; 
but  his  narrative  has  the  marks  of  authenticity. 
In  essentials  Josephus  and  Philo  arc  in  accord, 
and  with  them  agrees  Pliny  in  the  one  peculiar- 
ity of  this  society  which  he  notices  —  their 
celibate  life.  The  Esscnes  were  stem  ascetics 
andin  that  respect  were  the  prototype  of  the 
Christian  Solitaries,  who  in  the  3d  and  4th 
centuries  peopled  the  Nid>ian  deserts ;  withal, 
they  were  both  in  name  and  in  deed  Friends  — 
for  such  was  one  of  the  appellations  of  the 
brethren.  Among  themselves  they  had  all 
things  in  common,  like  the  first  Christians,  and 
they  were  open-handed  and  hospitable  to 
strangers.  They  are  supposed  never  to  have 
numbered  more  than  4,000  souls.  There  were 
poups  of  Esscnes  in  all  the  towns  of  Judea. 
Dut  their  institute  had  opportunity  for  full  de- 
velopment only  in  their  communal  settlements 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where 
they  devoted  themselves  to  their  peculiar  reli- 
gious observances  and  to  agriculture  and  a  few 
simple  handicrafts.  Their  food  was  of  the 
simplest,  taken  at  the  conunon  board,  ihejr  only 
drink,  water;  their  attire  was  of  the  plainest 
while  linen  material.  None  pos.sfssed  more 
than  one  tunic  or  more  than  one  pair  of  shoes. 
They  rose  at  daybreak  for  prayer ;  after  prayer 
and  a  hymn  they  went  about  their  customary 
occupations.  (Here  we  are  reminded  of  what 
Pliny  wrote  to  Hadrian  concerning  usages  of 
the  Christians  in  Bilhjniia:  "They  met  on  a 
Mated  day  before  daybreak  and  chanted  a  h>*mn 


to  Christ  as  God.*)  At  the  Sth  hour  <11  a.m.) 
ihey  again  assembled  in  one  place  and  bathed 
their  faces  in  cold  water,  after  which  they  put 
on  pure  white  garments  and  repaired  to  the 
common  simple  meal,  which  was  preceded  by 
a  blessing,  a  prayer  and  a  hymn;  and  after  the 
repast  there  was  again  prayer  and  a  hymn. 
Then  the  brethren  put  off  the  ceremonial  garb 
oi  white  linen,  put  on  their  workday  attire,  and 
went  back  to  their  employments.  No  women 
were  admitted  to  the  order;  like  some  of  the 
modern  Shakers  they  adopted  young  boys  and 
brought  them  up  in  their  own  simple  way  of 
living;  on  attaining  maturity  they  might,  if 
willing,  be  admitted  to  membership  after  a 
term  of  probation;  or  they  were  free  to  return 
to  the  world.  But  they  also  received  accessions 
of  life-weary  grown  pe(q)le.  'Thus,*  says 
Pliny,  %ere  is  a  people  that  never  dies  out 
(atema  est)  yet  in  which  there  are  no  births : 
so  fruitful  for  them  is  others'  'disgust  of  life'  ' 
(Tarn  fec»nda  illii  aliorvm  vitir  pcenilentia 
frt).  They  were  opposed  to  trading  as  leading 
to  covetousness,  and  to  the  making  weapons  of 
offense,  and  rejected  animal  sacrifices.  Like 
the  Society  of  Friends  they  forbade  oaths;  and 
they  held  that  a  man  whose  word  needed  lo  be 
confirmed  by  oath  was  not  to  be  believed  at  all. 
Nevertheless  the  postulant  for  admission  into 
the  society  was  required  to  lake  *ternble 
oaths"  that  he  would  pay  worship  to  God,  be 
just  to  men.  injure  none,  hate  the  unjust,  be 
faithful  and  true  to  all,  especially  rulers,  for 
none  bears  rule  save  by  God's  will.  Pliny  writes 
of  a  similar  oath  taken  by  the  Christians. 

There  were  four  degrees  of  membership'  re- 
sembline  in  some  respects  the  castes  of  the  Hin- 
dus. If  a  person  in  a  higher  degree  so  much 
aa  touched  one  of  a  lower  grade,  he  was  thereto' 
defiled  and  was  bound  to  make  himself  clean 
in  cold  water.  Thdr  severely  abstemious  life, 
their  contempt  for  riches  and  honors,  their  deep 
conviction  of  the  immense  superiority  of  their 
religion  gave  them  all  the  heroic  courage  in  face 
of  persecution  and  torture  which  dtstinguished 
the  (3iristians  in  the  a^es  of  martyrdom.  So 
scrupulous  were  they  in  avoiding  everything 
like  idolatry,  that  some  of  them  would  never 
enter  any  ctty  because  of  the  images  erected  at 
the  f^tes ;  nor  would  they  touch  a  coin  that  bore 
the  likeness  of  any  ruler. 

Bibliosmpbv.—  Pliny,  'Historia  Naturalis' ; 
the  writings  of  Josephus  and  Philo  Judacus; 
also  PkUosopkumma,  or  '  Refutation  of  all 
Heresies,'  written  in  Greek  230  a.d.,  author  un- 
known; Lightfoot,  'Colossians  and  Philemon' 
(3d  ed.,  London  1879)  ;  Fairweather,  'The 
Background  of  the  Gospels'  (New  York  1908) ; 
Pfleiderer,  'Primitive  Christianity' (Eng.  trans. 
New  York  1912)  ;  and  Hastings,  'Encyclopedia 
of  Religion  and  Ethics,' 

ESSENTIAL  OILS  are  those  volaUle 
aromatic  consiiiuents  of  certain  flowers,  fruits, 
seeds,  etc.,  which  contain  their  specific  odors 
and  flavors  —  that  is,  the  properties  which  de- 
light the  senses  of  smell  and  taste.  The  object 
aimed  at  in  the  manufacture  of  these  essences 
is  that  they  may  be  transferred  to  other  combi- 
nations, through  which  the  pleasure  they  afford 
may  bi-  enjoyed  lo  a  far  greater  extent.  The 
delicacy  of  the  methods  to  be  employed  may 
he  heller  appreciated  when  it  is  remembered 
thai  these  oils  are  products  of  the  living  plants, 


BSSBNT  VKI  •  BSSBX 


SIC 


and  that  immediately  upon  harvesting  ihe  plant 
the  essences  begin  to  deteriorate,  the  loss  vary- 
ing with  the  period,  whitdi  elapses  between  the 
time  -when  the  life  of  the  iilant  is  baited  and 
the  time  when  the  essential  oil  is  finally  secured 
in  a  permanent  form.  Another  pcunt  to  be  care- 
fully attended  to  is  that  each  essence  is  at  its 
best  at  a  certain  time  in  the  growth  oi  the  plant, 
and  thai  it  must  be  taken  at  that  time —  neithet 
immature  nor  past  mattuiiy.  Other  conditions 
are  liable  to  affect  the  product  injuriously,  aad 
heat  is  one  of  these.  The  delicate  essence  of 
the  strawberry  is  qiiickly  dissipated  if  the  sun 
beats  down  hot  upon  it,  and  many  other  essen- 
tial oils  are  as  sensitive  to  heaL  And  this 
peculiar!^  of  course  prevents  die  use  of  the 
chief  refining  process  of  the  chemist,  that  of 
distillaiicn,  for  these  particular  oils.  An  ex- 
ample of  this  condition  is  presented  in  vanning 
the  oil  of  lemon  from  the  peel.  Any  attempt  to 
obtain  this  oil  by  heat  results  in  a  product  of 
low  Quality.  The  fine  flavor  has  to  he  gained 
b^  cold  pressing  of  the  raspings  of  the  surface. 
The  banana,  peach  and  pmeapple  are  in  the 
same  class  with  the  strawberry  and  the  lemon 
in  this  respect.  This  difliculiy  is  overcome  in 
large  measure  by  dissolving  out  the  essential 
oils  with  alcohol,  and  distilling  the  alcoholic 
solution  under  vacuum^ which  so  reduces  the 
degree  of  heat  needed  that  the  delicate  flavors 
are  preserved.  Another  condition  likely  to  in- 
jure these  sensitive  substances  is  undue  exposure 
of  the  plants  or  fruits  to  the  air  after  harvest- 
ing. Some  oils  quickly  become  rancid,  and  in 
Ihe  case  of  others  fermentation  of  the  source 
of  the  oil  completely  destroj^s  it  The  class  of 
flavors  and  odors  which  are  injured  by  fermen- 
tation is  practicallv  the  same  as  that  which  is 
supersensitive  to  heat.  In  the  ca.'^e  of  some 
other  essences,  as  of  the  apple  and  cherry,  fer- 
mentation of  the  fruit  serves  to  accentuate  its 
particular  flavor. 

Volatile  oils  consist  of  two  component  groups, 
the  taste-carriers  and  the  lerpenes.  In  addition 
to  these  there  may  be  varying  proportions  of 
waxy  and  resinous  matters.  The  aim  of  the 
manufacturing  processes-is  to  eliminate  all  but 
the  taste-carriers'  constituents,  for  it  is  solely 
upon  these  that  its  market  value  depends. 

The  methods  employed  in  making  essential 
oils  are  (1)  expression;  (2)  distillation;  (3> 
extraction.  The  first  makes  use  of  simple  press- 
ure ;  the  second  uses  distillation  with  water 
or  steam,  and  subsequent  rectification  to  remove 
the  water;  the  third  is  carried  on  by  dissolving 
out  the  desired  oil  with  a  solvent,  such  as  al- 
cohol, chloroform,  benzol,  etc,  these  solvents 
being  afterward  distilled  off  at  a  low  tempera- 
lure  under  vacuum.  The  terpenes  are  removed 
from  some  kinds  of  oil  by  the  vacuum  process, 
being  the  first  to  pass  over  on  the  rise  in  tem- 
perature. The  sesquiterpenes  follow.  At  a 
slightly  higher  degree  the  true  flavor  carrying 
oil  comes  over.  When  it  is  necessary  to  raise 
the  temperature  again,  the  fractions  which  then 
distil  over  are  gathered  separately,  as  not  of 
the  highest  quality.  Another  method  of  remov- 
ing the  terpenes  used  with  a  class  of  oils  which 
cannot  be  worked  by  the  first  process,  is  by 
alcoholic  distillation.  In  this  process  one  part 
of  the  oil  to  be  treated  b  mixed  with  five  parts 
of  43  per  cent  alcohol.  Upon  heating  this  mix- 
ture vapora  contaitnng  about  80  per  cent  alcohol 
and  20  per  cent  wster,  together  with  the  vapmrs 


of  the  oil,  pass  over  into  a  receiver  where  they 
are  condensed.  The  terpenes  separate  as  they 
are  insoluble  in  alcohol  of  that  strength.  The 
essential  oils  remain  in  solution  with  the  alcohoL 
The  process  is  continued  until  the  collecting 
terpenes  cease  to  increase  In  quantity.  The  oil 
thus  purified  is  dried  by  agitation  with  anhy- 
drous sodium  sulphate,  and  jHaced  in  lightproof 
and  airproof  bottles.  From  these  essential  oils 
are  made  the  so-called  "essences,*  tinctures, 
flavoring  extracts^  syrups  for  soda  water,  per- 
fumes, cordials,  liqueurs,  etc.  Many  of  the  es- 
sential oils  are  used  as  medicine^  or  in  medicinal 
preparations,  ointments  and  limments. 

The  United  States  Census  of  Manufactures 
for  1914  reported  105  establishments  enga^d 
in  the  manufacture  of  essential  oils,  employing 
435  persons,  of  whom  249  were  wage-earners 
receiving  annually  $133,272  in  wages.  The  capi- 
tal invested  totaled  $1,616^682,  and  the  year's 
output  was  valued  at  »,313,606;  of  this,  $748,- 
771  was  the  value  added  by  manufacture.  Two 
other  establishments  reported  making  essential 
oils  as  a  subsidiary  product,  but  the  value  of 
their  production  is  not  given.    See  Oil. 

ESSBNTUKI,  or  BSSBNTUKSKAYA, 
Russia,  a  health  resort  in  the  territory  of 
Terek,  northern  Caucasus,  10  miles  north  of 
Pyatigorsk.  It  is  2,000  feet  above  sea-level  and 
is  widely  known  for  its  cold  alkaline  springs. 
Pop.  8,000. 

ESSEQUIBO,  «s-ae^'bo,  the  largest  river 
of  British  Guiana,  draining  about  one-half  of 
the  area  of  the  colony.  It  rises  in  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Akarai  Mountaius,  which  marks 
the  watershed  between  it  and  the  Amaion,  takes 
an  irregular  northerly  course,  and  flows  into  the 
Atlantic  west  of  Georgetown  by  an  estuary  20 
miles  in  width.  Its  whole  length  is  about  600 
miles.  It  is  navigable  for  some  distance  from 
the  ocean.  The  district  or  division  of  Essc- 
qtiibo,  which  is  in  the  basin  of  the  Essequibo 
River,  is  well  cultivated  and  extremely  fertile^ 
producing  coSee,  cotton,  cocoa  and  sugar.  Its 
principle  tributaries  are  the  Idacaruni,  Cuyunl, 
Potaro,  Siparuni  and  Rupun.  A  portion  of  die 
basin  of  this  river  was  included  in  the  disputed 
territory  claimed  by  the  Venezuelan  and  the 
British  governments  in  1896.  The  claims  were 
settled  by  an  arbitration  of  treaty  2  Feb.  1897, 
and  the  award  made  3  OcL  1899.    Fop.  36,000. 

ESSEX,  Arthur  Capel,  1st  (Capel)  Eau. 
oy,  English  statesman:  b,  January  1632;  d.  13 
July  1683.  At  the  Restoration  he  was  created 
Viscount  Ualden  and  Earl  of  Essex.  He  be- 
came troublesome  to  Charlee  II  and  to  bt  rid 
of  him  the  latter  sent  him  as  Aml>assador  to 
Denmark.  His  conduct  in  E>enmark  restored 
him  to  favor  and  in  1672  he  was  made  privy 
councillor  and  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland.  His 
subsequent  administration  lasted  five  years  and 
was  most  successful  and  honest  He  kept  a 
just  balance  between  the  Catholics,  Presbyterians 
and  the  members  of  the  Church  of  Exialaad. 
His  opposition  to  corruption  in  the  administra- 
tion made  him  many  enemies,  who  through  in- 
trigue brought  about  his  recall.  He  joined  the 
so-called  Country  Parly  under  Lord  I&lifax 
and  again  became  noted  for  his  opposition  to 
the  Crown.    With  Shaftesbury  he  supported  the 

Eidus-—  °'"    -■—■ — •■   '-   ' ' ' 

He  thi.    .     _     .._. 

I  tlM  Tower.    His  spirits  a 


"81^ 


cast  down  and  about  a  month  after  his  arrest 
he  was  found  with  his  throat  cut.  Consult 
^Dictionary  of  National  Biography'  and  'Essex 
Papers'   (Camden  Society  1890). 

ESSEX,  Robert  Devcrcux,  2d  Eaw.  of, 
English  courtier :  b.  Netherwood.  Herefordshire 
19  Nov.  1566;  d.  London,  25  Feb.  1601.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  ap- 
peared at  Court  in  1577.  He  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  siege  of  Zutphen  in  1786. 
On  Leicester's  death  1588,  he  became  the  chief 
favorite  of  Elizabeth.  In  1590  he  married  the 
widow  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  in  1591  was 
sent  to  support  Henry ,  IV  ae:ainst  Spain,  but 
the  expedition  effected  nothing  ot  importance. 
About  this  time  Essex  was  on  terms  of  dose 
friendship    with    Francis    Bacon,    who 


cessful  expedition  to  the  Azores,  he,  with  How- 
ard and  Raleigh,  made  extensive  captures  of 
Spanish  ships.  He  became  earl  marshal  and 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
Next  year  he  quarreled  with  the  queen,  who 
struck  him  on  the  ear  and  bade  him  "go  and 
be  hanged.'  After  some  months  a  reconcilia- 
tion took  place,  and  he  was  appointed  lord-lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland  (1599),  then  in  a  slate  of  re- 
bellion. He  returned  to  England  in  September, 
having  been  entirety  unsuccessful  in  his  govern- 
ment and  made  a  humiliating  truce  with  the 
rebels;  was  made  a  prisoner  in  his  own  house, 
and  was  shortly  afterward  (June  1600)  tried 
hw  special  court.  The  charts  against  him  were 
that  he  had  exceeded  his  instructions  in  the 
Irish  campaign,  and  had  deserted  his  post  with- 
out leave;  and  he  was  deprived  of  all  his  otHces, 
and  sentenced  to  imprisonmenl,  but  not  long 
afterward  was  set  at  liberty.  He  now  conceived 
a  deep  resentment  against  the  queen's  councillors 

Kirticularly  Cecil  and  Raleigh,  who.  he  imagined, 
ad  biased  her  against  him.  Bein^  summoned 
before  the  council,  he  assembled  his  friends  in 
his  house,  and  proceeding  to  the  city,  endeavored 
to  enlist  the  citizens  to  enforce  dismissal  of 
the  queen's  ministers.  After  a  skirmish  with  a 
party  of  soldiers  he  teiumed  to  his  house,  but 
after  a  short  defense  was  compelled  to-  sur- 
render, and  sent  to  the  Tower.  He  was  tried  for 
treason  on  19  February  and  executed  on  36 
Feb.  1601.  Consult  Croxall,  'Memoirs  of  the 
Unhappy  Favorite'  (1729)  ;  Spedding,  'Bacon' 
(1881) ;  Abbott.  'Bacon  and  Essex'  (1877). 

ESSEX,  Robert  Derereaz,  3d  Earl  op. 
English  soldier:  b.  1591 ;  d.  14  Sept.  1646.  When 
11  years  old  he  was  restored  by  James  I  to  the 
rank  and  titles  held  by  his  father,  the  2d  earl. 
He  served  in  the  army  of  the  elector  palatine 
in  Holland  1620-23,  was  vice-admiral  of  an  un- 
successful naval  expedition  against  Cadii  in 
1625,  and  lieutenant-general  of  an  army  sent  by 
King  Charles  against  the  Scotch  Covenanters  in 
1639.  He,  however,  was  opposed  to  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  the  king,  refused  payment  of  the 
forced  loan  in  1626,  supported  the  Petition  of 
Right,  and  in  spite  of  attempts  to  detach  him, 
favored  the  execution  of  Strafford.  Espousing 
the  cause  of  the  Parliament  against  the  king,  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  parlia- 
mentary army  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
war,  was  victorious  over  Charles  at  Edgehill 


in  1642,  captured  Reading  in  1643,  and  relieved 

Gloucester,  but  his  invasion  of  Cornwall  tn  the 
following  year  was  a  failuje ;  the  greater  part 
of  his  army  surrendered  at  Lostwimiel,  and  he 
was  obliged  to  escape  by  sea.  He  dissented  from 
Cromwell's  measures  against  the  Scots  as  Hkely 
to  stir  up  ill  will  between  the  two  nations,  and 
resigned  in  anticipation  of  the  Self-Deoyiiw 
Ordinance  in  1645. 

ESSEX,  Tfaomu  Cromwell,  Earl  of.  See 
Cromwell,  Thomas. 

ESSEX,  Walter  Dcverenx,  1st  (Devereux) 
Earl  of,  English  soldier:  b.  1541;  d.  1576.  He 
served  as  high  marshal  under  Warwick  and 
Clinton  in  15W  and  rendered  valiant  service  in 
putting  down   the   rebellion  in  the  north.     In 

1572  he  was  created  Earl  of  Essex  as  a  reward 
for  his  zeal  in  the  queen's  service.  In  1573  he 
offered  to  subdue  and  coloniie  a  portion  of 
the  province  of  Ulster.  His  offer  was  accepted 
with  some  modifications  and  he  set  out  in  July 

1573  with  a  force  of  about  1,2(X)  men.  Storms 
delayed  the  expedition  and  sickness,  death  and 
desertions  cut  the  force  to  about  2(X)  men. 
Meanwhile  Essex  was  in  difficulty  with  the  lord 
deputy,  Fitzwilliam,  his  operations  consisted  of 
raids  and  brutal  assaults  on  the  O'Neills.  By 
treachery  he  captured  Sir  Brian  MacPhelim, 
leader  of  the  O'Neills,  slaughtered  his  attend- 
ants, and  executed  him,  his  wife  and  brother  at 
Dublin.  He  next  prepared  to  attack  the  Irish 
chief,  Tirlogh  Luineach,  defeated  him  and  mas- 
sacred several  hundreds  of  the  followers  of 
Sorley  Boy  McDonnell,  mostly  women  "and 
children  whom  he  found  hiding  on  Rathlin 
Island.  In  1575  he  was  recalled,  retired  from 
public  life,  but  returned  to  Ireland  the  year 
following  as  earl  marshal.  He  died  in  Dublin 
soon  after  his  arrival. 

ESSEX,  Canada,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Ontario,  on  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad.  15 
miles  southeast  of  Windsor.  Electric  tramways 
connect  it  with  Leamington,  Kingsville  and 
Windsor.  It  contains  flour  and  planing  mills, 
brick  and  tile  yards  and  a  large  canning  estab- 
lishment. Natural  gas  is  plentiful  in  the  district 
Pop.  1,353. 

ESSEX,  Conn.,  a  town  in  Middlesex  County, 
on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
Railroad,  and  on  the  Connecticut  River,  30  miles 
southeast  of  Hartford.  It  contains  a  large 
piano  factory,  a  tool  factory  and  a  pubuc 
library.     Pop.  2,745. 

ESSEX,  England,  a  maritime  county,  on 
the  southeastern  coast;  area,  1,530  square  miles, 
of  which  80  per  cent  is  under  cultivation.  In 
the  northwest  wheat  and  barley  are  the  prin- 
cipal crops;  fringing  the  coast  were  formcriy 
swamps,  now  turned  with  excellent  grazing 
land;  there  are  no  great  manufactures,  but  the 
fisheries  are  important  The  Stour,  Colite, 
Blackwater,  Lea  and  Thames  are  the  princitoi 
rivers.  The  chief  towns  are  Chelmsford,  the 
county  town,  Colchester,  Maldon  and  Harwidi. 
Essex  is  one  of  the  six  *Home  Counties,*  and 
took  its  name  from  the  Elast  Saxons,  whose 
monarchs  reigned  over  it  from  a.d.  617  to  823, 
when  the  kingdom  was  absorbed  by  the  West 
Saxons.  It  was  recogniied  as  Danish  terri- 
tory by  Alfred  the  Great  at  the  Peace  of  Wed- 
more  in  879,  but  was  reconquered  by  his  son, 
Edmund  the  Elder.  In  1045  it  was  a  part  of 
the  earldom  of   Harold,  but  passed  into   ifie 


SS8£X  — BSSBX,  PHCBBB  AND    CHXRUB 


bands  of  the  Nonuaa  conquerors.  Ttie  county 
was  rich  in  monastic  foundations,  of  which 
few  traces  remain ;  and  has  sonie  noteworthy 
ancient  churches  and  other  ecclesiastical  antiq- 
uities. The  county  for  jrarliamentary  purposes 
is  divided  into  eight  divisions,  each  returning 
one  member.    Pop.  1,350^1. 

ESSEX,  Vt.,  town  in  Chittenden  County,  on 
the  Central  Vermont  Railroad,  10  miles  north- 
east of  Burlinjgton.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Essex 
Qassical  Institute.  Agricukure  and  dairying 
are  the  only  industries.    Pop.  2,714. 

ESSEX  AND  ALBRT,  Naval  Action  Be- 
tween the,  in  the  War  of  1812.  On  3  July 
1812  the  American  frigate  Essex,  rated  as  a  32 
but  carrying  44  guns,  tinder  Capt.  David 
Porter  (q.v.)  and  widi  David  G.  Farn^ul 
(q.v.)  as  a  midshipman,  left  New  York-  and 
after  capturing  a  brigj  containing  197  soldiers 
on  10  July,  came  up  with  (30  August)  and  was 
chased'^  V  the  Briti^  sloop  of  war  Alert 
(rated  at  16  guns,  but  carrying  2  long  12's  and 
18  short  32'b),  under  Capt.  Thomas  L.  P. 
Langhame.  Deceived  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
Essex,  the  Alert  closed  up  and  opened  fire, 
whereupon  the  Essex  nearly  sank  her  with 
a  broadside  and  after  five  minutes  of  fighting 
compelled  her  to  strike  her  colors.  The  Alert 
was  then  converted  into  a  cartel  and  Porter's 
prisoners  were  sent  in  her  on  parole  to  Saint 
John's,  Newfoundland,  After  taking  a  few 
more  prizes  and  being  chased  by  two  British 
ships.  Porter  returned  to  port  7  September. 
Consult  Cooper,  J,  F.,  "Naval  History'  (Vol. 
11,  pp.  52-55)  ;  FarraKUt,  Loyall,  'Life  of 
Farragut'  (pp.  15-17) ;  James,  William,  'Naval 
Actions*  (pp.  5-6)  ;  Maclay,  E.  S.,  'History 
of  the  Navy*  (Vol.  I,  pp.  326-31);  Roosevelt, 
'Naval  War  of  1812>  (pp.  52-82)  ;  Spears, 
John  R.,  'Life  of  Farragut'  (pp.  47-51),  and 
'History  of   Our  Navy*    (pp.  33-50). 

BSSBX  HOO.    See  Hogs. 

ESSEX  JUNCTION,  Vt.,  village  in  Chit- 
tenden County,  seven  miles  east  of  Burlington, 
oa  the  Central  Vermont  Railroad.  It  contains 
Fort  Elhan  Allen  and  a  national  army  post. 
Il  has  also  grain  and  lumber  mills,  brickyards, 
a  com-canning  factory  and  a  butter  factory. 
Its  agricultural  interests  are  extensive.  The 
village  owns  its  water  plant.    Pop,  1,245. 

BSSBX  JUNTO,  a  name  applied  about 
1778  by  John  Hancock  to  the  group  of  Mas- 
sachusetts political  leaders  resident  m  or  con- 
nected with  Essex  County,  Mass.— the  north- 
eastern county,  from  just  north  of  Boston'  to 
the  New'  Hampshire  boundary.  Its  coast  was 
a  line  of  commercial  and  iishmg  towns  and  its 
interests  therefore  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  a 
strong  national  government  to  protect  them 
from  foreign  countries  and  iheir  sister  states. 
This  made  its  leaders,  whose  great  ability  gave 
them  powerful  influence,  the  vanguard  of  the 
ultra  Federalists  and  adherents  of  Hamilton, 
whom  thrv  followed  in  his  s^l  with  John 
Adams.  The  latter  revived  the  old  nickname 
charged  them  with  being  a  "British  faction" 
and  forcing  on  a  war  with  France  and  for 
years  after  his  retirement  assailed  them  iu  the 
press.  When  the  embargo  (q.v.)  and  the  later 
war  solidified  all  New  England  Federalism  in 
a  common  self-defense,  all  the  opposition  and 
the  suspected  treason  were  attributed  by  out- 


(jeorge  Cabot,  Timothy  Pickering,  Theoph- 
ilus  Parsons  (State  chief  justice),  the  Lowell 
family,  Stephen  Higginson  and  Benjamin  Good- 
hue. The  "Junto"  disappeared  with  the  War 
of  1812  as  far  as  its  influence  on  national  af- 
fairs was  concerned.  It  held  on  for  a  few  more 
years  in  some  New  England  Stales,  but  by 
1823  its  candidates  were  defeated  even  in  Es- 
sex County.  Consult  Brown,  C.  R.,  'The 
Northern  Confederacy  according  to  the  Plans 
of  the  Essex-Junto'  (Princeton  1915). 

ESSEX,  PHCEBE  AND  CHERUB,  Battle 
of  the,  in  the  War  of  1812.  On  28  Oct.  1812, 
the  Essex,  under  Capt.  David  Porter  (q.v.), 
passed  the  Delaware  Capes  and  ran  souUi  to 
meet  the  CoastilMtiOK,  but  failing  in  tfiis  contin- 
ued her  voyage  and  on  12  December,  a  little 
south  of  the  equator,  captured  the  British  frigate 
Norton,  which  was  dispatched  to  the  nearest 
American  port  but  which  on  the  way  was  recap- 
tured by  the  Belvidere.  Porter  then  sailed 
around  Cape  Horn,  arrived  at  Valparaiso, 
Chile,  14  March  1813,  supplied  his  ship  and  in 
the  next  few  months  cleared  the  seas  of  British 
whalers  and  warships,  one  of  which  he  turned 
into  a  2C^ttun  ship  and  renamed  the  Essex 
Junior.  After  numerous  adventures  the  two 
ships  put  in  at  Valparaiso,  where  on  8  Feb.  1814, 
they  were  found  and  blockaded  by  the  British 
frigates  Phxbe  (13  long  18's.  1  long  12,  i  long 
9,  7  short  32's  and  1  short  18).  Capt.  James 
Hillyar,  and  Cherub  (2  long  9's,  2  short 
18's  and  9  short  32's).  The  Essex  was  armed 
with  17  short  32's  and  5  long  12's  so  that  while 
she  could  overpower  the  Phisbe  at  short  range, 
the  latter's  long  range  18  pounders  would  en- 
able her  completely  to  destroy  the  Essex  from 
a  position  beyond  reach  of  the  latter's  guns. 
For  a  month  Porter  lay  practically  idle,  but, 
on  learning  of  the  approach  of  several  other 
ships,  had  decided  to  run  the  blockade  when  on 
28  March  1814,  the  Essex  parted  her  port  cable; 
he  thereupon  attempted  to  escape  but  a  mishap 
compelled  him  to  return.  As  he  was  anchored 
in  a  small  bay  a  short  distance  from  shore. 
Porter  supposed  the  British  would  rcipect  the 
neutrality  of  the  port  and  had  begun  to  make 
repairs  when  the  Phcebe  and  Cherub  bore  down 
on  bim  and  a  few  minutes  before  4  o'clock 
opened  fire.  As  the  Phahe  was  on  her  stern 
and  the  Cherub  off  her  starboard  bow,  the 
Essex  could  not  reply  ettectively  with  her 
broadside,  but  Porter  ran  two  long  12's  out  of 
the  stem  ports  and  at  4.30  compelled  the 
Phrrbe  to  haul  off  to  repair  damages.  Since 
Porter's  long  guns  could  not  be  brought  to  bear 
and  his  carronades  could  not  reach  them,  the 
British  ships  then  proceeded  teisurelv  to  pound 
the  Essex  to  pieces,  the  Phabe  ancnoring  and 


way  and  threw  solid  shot  from  her  bow 

guns.  Porter  then  attempted  to  run  his  ves- 
sel ashore  but  was  prevented  by  a  shift  of  the 
wind;  accordingly  he  let  an  andior  go,  brought 
the  head  of  his  vessel  arotmd  and  gave  the 
Pkiebe  a  broadside  that  crippled  her  and  caused 
her  to  drift  away  with  the  tide.  Unfortunately 
at  this  moment  the  hawser  of  the  Essex  parted 
and,  a  helpless  wreck,  she  aimlessly  floated 
toward  her  antagonist;  twice  she  took  fire,  part 
of  her  powder  exploded,  she  had  been  hulled 


by  Google 


XSSBX   SKULL— E8TAIHO 


at  almost  evefy  shot,  and  at  6.10  her  colors  were 
haaled  down,  tiiough  the  British  did  not  cease 
firing  until  6.20.  The  Essex  lost  58  killed  and 
66  wounded  and  28  drowned  or  missing  out  of 
her  crrw  of  255,  while  the  British  loss  was  only 
five  lolled  and  10  wounded  The  Esstx  Junior 
was  converted  into  a  cartel  and  Porier  and  the 
survivors  were  sent  to  New  York^  arriving  in 
tnly  1814.  Consult  Adams,  'United  States^ 
{Vol.  VIII.  pp.  17-H81 ) ;  Bames.  James,  'Naval 
Actions  of  the  War  of  1812'  (pp.  171-87)  ; 
Cooper,  J.  F.,  'Naval  History'  (Vol.  11,  pp.  76- 
97) ;  James,  Williani,  'Naval  Actions'  (pp.  78- 
82)  ;  MacW,  E.  S.,  'History  of  the  Navy'  (Vol 
1,  pp.  S+f7S);  Mahan.  A.  T..  'War  of  18I2> 
(Vol.  II.  pp.  244-52)  ;  Porter,  'Journal  of  a 
Cruise  made  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  Capt.  David 
Porter  in  (he  United  States  Fngate  Essex> 
(2  vols.,  181S);  Porter,  David  D.,  'Life  of 
Porter>;  Roosevelt,  <Naval  War  of  1812'   (pp. 


United  States'  (Vol.  V,  pp.  486-93) . 
Uographies  of  D.  G,  Farragut,  fay  Loyall  Far- 
ragui,  I.  R.  Spears,  A.  T.  Mahan,  James  Bames 
and  P.  C.  Headley. 

ESSEX  SKULL.  See  Man,  Prehistouc 
Types  of. 

ESSIPOFF,  Annette,  Russian  pianist:  b. 
Saint  Petersburg  1851.  She  studied  under 
Leschetitiky,  of  whom  she  was  the  most  bril- 
liant pupil.  In  1874  she  began  her  career  in 
Saint  Petersburg,  made  successful  tours  in 
Europe,  and  in  1876  visited-  the  United  States, 
where  she  also  achieved  a  large  measure  ot 
success.  She  married  Leschetitzky  in  1880.  but 
the  pair  soon  separated  and  were  divorced. 
She  taught  piano  at  the  Saint  Petersburg  Con- 
servatory from  1893  to  1908. 

ESSLINGEN,  or  BSSLING,  Austria,  a 
village  about  six  miles  east  of  Vienna,  famous 
as  the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the  French 
and  Austrians  on  21-22  May  1809.  It  is  somc- 
times  known  as  the  battle  of  Aspern. 

ESSLINGEN,  dsling-^en,  Germany,  town  in 
WiirtemberK  on  the  Neckar,  seven  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Stuttgart.  It  was  founded  in  the 
8th  century  and  was  long  a  fortified,  Imperial 
free  town.  There  are  three  noteworthy 
churches  of  the  12th,  13th  and  15th  centuries 
reapeclively.  Originally  Esslingen  belonged  to 
the  duchy  of  Swabia  and  the  Swabian  League 
of  Swabian  cities  and  governments  was  formed 
here  in  1488.  There  are  great  railway  work- 
shops, manufactories  of  machinery,  cutlery,  cot- 
ton, dye-works,  paper  and  beer.    Fop.  32364. 

ESSON,  Wiliiam,  British  mathematician: 
b,  1836.  He  received  his  education  at  the  Inver- 
ness Royal  Academy  and  at  Oxford,  In  1860- 
97  he  was  Fellow  of  Merlon  College  and  also  of 
New  College.  In  1894-97  he  served  as  deputy 
Szvilian  professor  and  after  the  latter  year 
was  full  profesBor  at  Oxford.  He  was  elected 
member  of  the  Royal  Society,  in  whose  'Trans- 
actions' appeared  his  'Laws  of  Connection  be- 
tween the  Conditions  of  Chemical  (Hiange  and 
its  Amounts'  (1864,  1866,  1895)  and  •Varia- 
tions with  Temperature  of  Rate  of  Cbemical 
Change*   (1912). 

ESSONITE,  or  HESSONITB,  a  variety 
of  garnet  {q.v),  also  often  called  Cinnamon- 
Stone    (q.v.). 


ESSONNBS.  es'son,  FratKe.  town  in  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  20  miles  southeast 
of  Paris.  Its  industries  comprise  iron  foun- 
dries, linen  and  paper  manufactories  and  ma- 
chinery.   Pop.   (commune)  9,348. 

ESTABLISHMENTS,  EcdesiMtical,  re- 
ligious bodies  having  prescribed  relations  to  the 
state  in  return  for  which  they  enjoy  various 
privileges  and  are  obligated  to  certain  duties. 
The  origin  of  the  custom  harks  back  to  the 
period  when  the  religious  belief  of  a  nation 
was  unanimous  and  there  existed  much  less  of 
a  mixture  of  faiths  such  as  we  witness  to-day 
among  practically  all  modem  nations.  In  Eng- 
land, thecconnection  between  Church  and  State 
grew  up  prior  to  any  formal  legislation  on  the 
subject,  and  at  the  Reformation,  as  in  other 
countries  which  then  changed  their  spiritual 
affiliation,  passed  to  the  new  denominatioiis. 
In  Ireland  the  Protestant  Church,  though  in  a 
minority,  enjoyed  all  the  privileges  of  an  es- 
tablished church  until  1870.  The  usual  con- 
nection between  an  established  religion  and  the 
state  Is  seen  in  the  appointment  of  higher 
church  ofiicials  by  the  secular  power,  by  tax- 
ation for  the  support  of  the  clergy,  by  regula- 
tion of  reli^ouG  propertyi  by  the  maintenance 
of  ecclesiastical  courts  in  which  the  canon  law 
is  enforced,  and  by  the  founding  of  a  system  of 
education  under  the  general  supervision  of  the 
clergy.  Eneland,  Greece,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Prussia  and  other  German  states,  and  unttl 
1917  Russia,  have  established  churches.  In  cer- 
tain republics  of  L.atin  America  the  Catholic 
Chuch  enjoys  specia]  privileges,  but  the  nearest 
approach  to  an  esublished  church  in  America 
is  to  be  found  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  For 
the  particular  relations  existing  between  the 
church   and   these  states  see  articles    on   the 


arnw  and  navy  officer:  b,  Auvergnt  17^;  d. 
Pans,  28  April  1734.  He  entered  the  French 
army  as  colonel  of  infantry;  was  promoted  to 
brigadier-general  in  1757,  and  in  1777  became 
vice-admiral  in  the  French  navy.  In  1778,  in 
accordance  with  the  treaty  between  France  and 
the  United  States,  France  fitud  out  a  fleet  of 
12  ships  of  the  line  and  four  frigates  to  aid  the 
latter  in  the  struggle  against  Great  Britain  and 
Estaing  was  placed  in  command.  He  sailed  13 
April,  reached  Delaware  Bay  in  Ju^,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  New  York,  He  captured  some  priies 
off  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  agreed  to  assist  in 
a  land  and  sea  attack  on  Newport  to  expd 
die  Sritish  from  Rhode  Island;  reached  the  har- 
bor tate  in  July;  and  hearing  of  the  approach 
of  a  fleet,  put  to  sea  to  meet  it  He  was  over- 
taken by  a  severe  storm,  which  caused  him 
to  put  into  Boston  for  repairs  and  the  pro- 
jected attack  failed.  Subsequently  he  captured 
Saint  Vincent  and  Grenada,  West  Indies,  and  in 
1779  co-operated  with  General  Lincoln  in  an  in- 
effectual attempt  to  capture  Savannah.  Gi.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1780.  He  commanded  the 
allied  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  in  1783;  Vfas 
chosen  admiral  of  the  navy  in  1792.  He  was 
in  favor  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  was  one 
of  the  Assembly  of  Notables.  In  1789  he  was 
commander  of  the  National  Guard,  and  three 
years  later  admiral  by  the  selection  of  the 
Legislatire  Assembly.     Two  years  later,  prob- 


.lOOg  Ic 


SSTAUPXS— E9TATB  ' 


ablyi  became  be  had  tried  to  sav«  the  life  of 
Marie  Antoinette,  despite  his  eminent  mitiury 
and  naval  services  to  France  he  was  con- 
demned as  a  royalist  and  gtullolined,  Estainr 
had  ambition  to  shine  as  a.  literary  man  and 
he  wrote  poetry,  a  dr&ma  and  a  work  on  the 
Colonies. 

ESTAMPBS,  or  BTAHPES,  Anne  de 
Piflseleo,  Dochesse  t>',  French  adventuress, 
mistress, Of  Francis  I:  b.  1S08;  d.  1585.  She 
was  maid  of  honor  to  Louise  of  Savoy,  the 
mother  of  Francis,  who  fell  under  her  charms 
in  1526  soon  aft^r  his  reti?m  from  Spain.  At 
the  age  of  28  she  was  married  formally  to  Jean 
de  Brosse  and  received  the  title  of  Duchesse 
d'Esiampes.  Sht  wielded  a  powerful  influence 
over  Francis,  but  there  soon  arose  a  rival  in 
the  person  of  Diane  de  Poitiers,  the  mistress 
of  the  Dauphin.  Political  parties  gathered  about 
these  two  courtesans  but  the  accession  of  Henry 
in  1547  totally  eclipsed  the  Duchesse  d'Esiampes 
who  retired  to  her  estates.  She  embraced 
Protestantism  and  was  a  staunch  supporter  of 
the  Huguenot  cause.  Consult  Paris,  Paulin, 
•Eludes  sur  Francois  Ier>    (Paris  1885). 

ESTANCIA,  Ss-tanthe-a,  Philippines,  a 
pueblo  of  the  province  of  Iloilo,  situated  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  island  of  Panay,  66  miles 
north  of  the  town  of  Iloilo.  The  main  por- 
tion of  Estancia  is  one  mile  inland,  connected 
by  a  Kood  road  with  the  coast  and  anchorage 
ground.    Pop.  12,700. 

ESTATE,  a  term  sometimes  used  to  indicate 


in  law  the  interest  which  a  person  may  have 
in  property.  It  denotes  the  time  duiing  which 
ownership  may  exist,  as  for  a  year,  for  Ufe  or 
forever.  At  common  law  estates  in  land  are  di- 
vided, as  regards  the  quantity  of  interest,  into 
two  kinds,  (1)  freehold  estates,  and  (2)  estates 
lus  than  freehold.  A  freehold  is  an  estate 
which  may  last  for  life  or  longer.  An  estate 
which  is  circumscribed  within  a  certain  number 
of  years,  or  one  in  which  the  possessor  has  no 
Axed  right  of  enjoyment,  is  less  than  freehold, 
and  although  in  fact  it  m^  last  longer  than  thu 
hfe  of  its  first  possessor,  still  the  Taw  regards 
it  as  a  lower  estate  than  a  freehold;  it  is  per- 
sonal property  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  and  does 
not  descend  to  heirs,  although  it  may  pa&s  to 


Freehold  estates  are  divided  into  estates  of 
inheritance,  which  pass  to  heirs,  and  estates  not 
of  inheritance;  the  former  are  again  divided'into 
estates  in  fee  simple  and  estates  in  fee  tail.  An 
estate  in  fee  simple  is  the  estate  which  a  man 
has  where  lands  are  given  to  him  and  hia  heirs 
absolutely  without  any  end  or  limit  put  to  his 
estate,  and  it  is  the  most  extensive  and  tlie 
highest  interest  a  man  can  have  in  land.  If  not 
aliened  or  devised,  it  passes  to  heirs  generally. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  fee  tail  is  an  estate  which 
is  limited  to  certain  particular  hdrs  or  H>  a 
certain  class  of  heirs,  to  the  esclusion  of  the 
others;  as  to  the  heirs  of  one's  body,  which 
excludes  collateral  heirs,  or  to  the  heirs  male 
of  one's  body,  which  excludes  females. 

In  the  United  Slates  fee  tails  have  had  only 
a  limited  existence,  and  are  now  in  general 
abolished.  They  were  changed  into  estates  in 
fee  simple  in  New  York  as  early  as  1782.  Free- 
holds not  of  inheritance  are  for  life  oi^v,  either 


for  the  fife  of  the  tenant  or  of  some  (rther  per- 
son or  persons ;  when  the  estate  is  called  an 
estate  pour  autre  vie.  Life  estates  are  created  by 
operation  of  law,  or  by  the  act  of  the  parties. 
An  example  of  an  estate  created  by  act  of  the 
parties  is  where  A  conveys  land  to  B  for  the 
term  of  his  natural  life,  or  where  A  conveys 
land  to  B  without  mentioning  the  duration  of 
the  term.  Here  under  the  common  law  B  would 
take  only  a  life  estate ;  but  by  statute  in  many 
of  the  Stales  —  among  them  New  York  —  a 
^lant  or  devile  of  real  estate  possesses  all  of  the 
mterest  of  the  grantor  or  testator,  unle»s  the 
intent  to  pass  a  less  estate  or  interest  appears 
by  express  terms  or  by  necessary  implication. 

Dower  and  curtesy  are  estates  created  by 
operation  of  law.  An  estate  by  the  curtesy  is 
that  estate  to  which  a  husband  is  entitled  upon 
the  death  ofhia  wife  in  the  landl  or  tenements  of 
which  she  was  seized  in  possession  in  fee  simple 
or  fee  tail,. during  their  coverture,  provided  thty 
have  had  lawful  issue  bom  alive,  and  possibly 
capable  of  inheriting  her  estate.  An  estate  in 
dower  is  an  estate  which  a  widow  has  for  her 
life  in  some  portion  of  die  lands  of  which  her 
husband  was  seized  at  any  time  during  cover- 
ture, and  which  her  issue  might  have  inherited 
if  she  had  any,  and  which  is  to  take  eSect  in 
possession  from  the  death  of  her  husband. 

Estates  less  than  freehold  are  divided  into 
estates  for  years,  at  will  »nd  hy  sufferance.  An 
estate  for  years  is  an  intere^  in  lands  by  virtue 
of  a  contract  for  the  possession  of  them  for  a 
definite  and  limited  period  of  time.  Such  estates- 
are  ordinarily  called  terms.  "The  length  of  time 
for  which  the  estate  is  to  endure  is  of  no  im-^ 
portaiKe  in  ascertaining  its  character,  unless 
otherwise  declared'by  statute.  An  estate  at  will 
is  where  one  man  lets  land  to  another  to  hold 
at  his  will,  as  well  as  that  of  the  lessee.  An 
estate  of  this  kind  is  terminated  by  either  party 
on  notice.  Out  of  estates  at  wilt  a  class  of 
estates  has  ^own  up  called  estates  from  year 
to  year,  which  can  be  terminated  only  by  six 
months'  notice,  expiring  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
An  important  element  in  creating  this  estate  is 
the  payment  of  rent.  An  estate  at  sufferance  is 
the  mterest  of  a  tenant  who  has  come  rightfully 
into  possession  of  lands  by  permission  of  the 
owner,  and  continues  to  occupy  the  same  after 
the  period  for  which  he  is  entitled  to  hold  by 
iuch  perniissior.  This  estate  is  not  of  frequent 
occurrence,  but  is  recognized  as  so  far  an  estate 
that  the  landlord  muEt  enter  before  he  can  bring 
ejectment  against  the  tenant.  If  the  tenant  has 
personally  left  the  house,  the  landlord  may  break 
m  the  doors,  and  the  modern  rules  seems  to  be 
that  the.  landlord  may  use  force  to  regain  pos- 
session, subject  only  to  indictment  if  any  injury 
is  committed  against  the  public  p^ce. 

Estates  may  depend  upon  condition ;  that  is, 
their  existence  may  depend  on  the  happening 
or  not  happening  of  some  event  whereby  the 
estate  may  be  created,  enlarged  or  defeated.  A 
term  for  years,  a  freehold  or  a  fee  may  thus  be 
upon  condition.  The  condition  must  either  be 
precedent,  that  is,  must  happen  before  the  estate 
can  vest  or  be  enlarged  ;■  or  must  be  subsequent, 
when  it  will  defeat  an  estate  already  vested. 

Estates  may  also  be  divided  into  estates  which 
are  legal  and  those  which  are  equitable.    Estates 
:d  equitable  when  the  formal  ownership 
crson,  while  the  beneficial  ownershijp 
-'     In  another  form  of  expression  it 


;.x" 


joogle 


ESTATE   DUTIES  — E8TS 


t  is  extinguished,  and  the 
Where  an  estate  ii 


may  be  said  that  a  trust  is  created.  The  na- 
ture of  the  estate  is  not  affected  by  this  distinc- 
tion. For  example,  a  trust  estate  may  be  an 
estate  for  life  or  a  fee,  and  in  the  latter  case  is 
transmissible  to  heirs  as  thougtt  it  were  a  legal 

Estates  are  divided  into  estates  in  possession 
and  estates  in  expectancy,  in  regard  to  the  time 
of  enjoyment.  An  estate  in  possession  is  one 
in  which  there  is  a  present  rirfit  of  enjoyment. 
Estates  in  expectancy  are  those  which  give 
either  a  vested  or  contingent  right  of  future 
enjoyment.  Estates  are  also  divided,  in  regard 
to  the  number  .of  owners,  into  estates  in  sever- 
alty, in  joint  tenancy,  in  common  and  in  co- 
Enrcenary,  An  estate  in  severalty  is  one  which 
as  only  a  smgle  owner.  An  estate  in  joint 
tenancy  is  an  estate  owned  jointly  by  two  or 
more  persons,  whose  title  is  created  by  the  same 
instrument.  The  rtg^t  of  survivorship  is  the 
distin^shlng  characteristic. 
dies  his  !"•"-"*  ■"  ■»*;nm^;  el- 
goes  to  A. - 

veyed  to  two  or  more  persons,  at  common  law, 
without  indicating  how  it  is  to  be  held,  it  is 
construed  to  be  in  joint  tenancy.  In  most  of  the 
"United  States,  however,  this  rule  has  been 
changed  by  statute,  and  persons  to  whom  an 
estate  is  conveyed  or  gnven  take  as  tenants  in 
common,  unless  they  hold  as  trustees.  An  estate 
in  common  is  an  estate  held  in  joint  possession 
by  two  or,  more  owners  at  the  same  time  by 
several  and  distinct  titles.  An  estate  in  copar- 
cenary is  an  estate  which  several  persons  hold 
as  one  heir,  whether  male  or  female.  This 
estate  has  the  three  unities  of  time,  title  and 
possession.  The  interests,  however,  of  the  co- 
parceners may  be  unequal.  In  the  United  States 
this  estate  is  essentially  extinguished,  and  heirs 

ESTATE  DUTIES.    See  Death  Duties. 

ESTB,  Ss-ta,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  and 
ancient  Italian  family.  Albett  Azzo  II  is  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  the  greatness  of  his 
house.  He  inherited  or  acquired  Este,  Rovigo, 
Montagnana,  Casal  Maggiore  and  other  places 
in  Italy;  and  was  made  governor  of  Milan  by 
Henry  III  in  1045.  One  of  his  sons  became 
Duke  of  Bavaria  in  lOTl,  by  the  title  of  Welf  I. 
He  was  the  ancestor  of  the  German  braiKh  of 
the  house  of  Este,  the  dukes  of  Brunswick  and 
Hanover  from  whom  the  roya!  house  of  Great 
Britain,  also  called  Este-Guelphs,  trace  their 
descent.  Albert  Aizo  died  1097,  having  pre- 
viousjy  resigned  his  Italian  possessions  to  his 
son  Fulk,  and  retired  to  Burgundy.  Ftn.K  I 
was  attacked  by  his  brother  Welf,  who  com- 
pelled him  to  become  tributary  to  him  to  the 
extent  of  a  third  of  his  revenues.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded (\137)  by  his  son  Obizzo  I,  who  joined 
the  Lombard  league  against  Frederick  Barlrarossa 
in  1167.  He  lE  1193,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  w4io  in  the  annals  of  the  family  is  called 
Azzo  V.  Either  he  or  Oberto  acquired  by  mar- 
riage Ferrara,  with  its  dependencies  in  Romagna, 
and  with  a  feud  which  became  hereditary  with 
the  house  of  Torello,  tor  a  member  of  which 
house  the  bride,  violently  carried  away  by  the 
Estes,  was  intended.  The  house  of  Esle  thus 
became  vassals  of  the  Church  as  well  as  of  the 
Empire.  He  was  succeeded  by  Azzo  VI  (d.  1212). 
He  was  constantly.engaged  in  war  with  the  To- 
relli,    by    whom    he    was    thrice    driven    from 


Ferrara.  ALDOBRANDtNO,  his  son,  died  young, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brodier  Azzo  VII,  a 
minor,  in  1215.  He  was  engaged  in  protracleil 
wars  with  the  Ghibelline  party,  Honorius  VII 
invested  him  with  the  marquisate  of  Ancona. 
He  d.  1264,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson, 
Obizzo  II,  who  was  chosen  lord  of  Modena 
and  Rcggio.  We  may  pass  over  his  successors 
to  NiccoLO  III,  who  succeeded  in  1393  ai  the 
age  of  nine.  During  his  reign,  and  those  of  some 
of  his  predecessors,  the  house  of  Este  became 
patrons  of  literature.  Niccolo  died  at  Milan 
26  Dec.  1441.  Lionh,  his  son  (1441-50),  re- 
ceives a  high  character  from  Muratori  for  jus- 
tice and  piety,  and  for  his  patronage  of  letters. 
He  mediated  a  peace  in  1450  between  the  Vene- 
tians and  Alfonso,  king  of  Sicily,  and  died  in 
November  of  the  same  year.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  Borso  (d.  20  Au^.  1471),  who 
received  new  accessions  of  dignity  from  the 
emperor,  and  was  created  Dulte  of  Ferrara  by 
Pope  Paul  II.  His  reipn  was  peaceable  and 
prosperous.  Ekcole  I,  his  brother  (d.  25  Jan. 
1505),  succeeded,  to  the  prejudice  of  his  son 
Niccolo.  His  usuipation  caused  a  war,  which 
was  unsuccessful  in  deposing  him.  He  had 
Milan  and  Florence  for  allies,  the  Pope  and 
Venice  for  adversaries.  After  the  conclusion  of 
peace  in  1484  he  maintained  neutrality  in  his 
estates  for  the  remainder  of  his  reign,  while 
the  rest  of  Italy  was  convulsed  with  wars'and 
revolutions.  He  had  for  his  minister  Boiardo, 
the  famous  author  of  the  'Orlando  Innamorato' ; 
and  Ariosto,  borti  near  the  commencement  of 
his  reign,  grew  up  under  his  patronage.  Al- 
fonso I,  his  son,  d.  31  Oct.  1534.  His  reign 
was  a  contrast  to  the  peaceable  one  of  his 
father.  In  1509  he  joined  the  League  of  Cam- 
brai,  and  commanded  the  Papal  army  as  gon- 
falonier. While  conducting  the  operations  of 
the  allies  elsewhere,  his  estates  were  ravaged 
by  the  mercenary  troops  of  Venice,  whose  atroc- 
ities are  described  in  the  36th  canto  of  the 
'Orlando  Furioso.'  Alfonso  continued  in  the 
French  alliance  after  the  Pope  had  joined  the 
Venetians.  He  assisted  in  the  battle  of  Ravenna, 
and  took  prisoner  Fabririo  Colonna,  the  general 
of  the  Pope.  After  the  French  had  been  driven 
from  Italy  he  endeavored  to  make  peace  with 
the  Pope ;  but  Julius  continued  implacable.  Leo 
X  restored  him  to  his  possessions,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Modena  and  Re^o,  but  afterward 
excommunicated  him.  He  joined  in  the  wars 
between  Francis  I  and  Charles  V  on  the  side 
of  the  French  king,  but  was  afterward  recon- 
ciled with  the  emperor,  who  confirmed  him  in 
his  possessions,  apinst  Pope  Clement  VII 
(1530).  He  married  as  his  second  wife  the 
famous  Lucrezia  Borgia  (q.v,).  His  brother, 
the  Cardinal  Ippolito,  was  the  patron  of  Ariosto. 
Alfonso  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Ercoix  II, 
who  died  3  Oct.  1559.  He  married  Renec  of 
France  (daughter  of  Louis  XII)  in  1528.  She 
favored  the  Reformation,  and  made  the  court 
of  Ferrara  the  resort  of  the  few  advocates  of 
that  cause  in  Italy.  Calvin  visited  it  in  1535. 
Ercole  at  iirst  adhered  to  the  imperial  party, 
but  in  1556  joined  the  league  of  Paul  IV  and 
Heniy  II  of  France  against  Spain,  and  was 
made  general  of  the  allied  forces-  but  did  not 
push  the  war  with  vigor,  and  made  peace  with 
Spain  in  1558.  Leonora,  his  daughter  bv  Renw; 
was  the  object  of  the  unfortunate  attachment  of 
Tasso.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Altohso 


.r  at  Taaso,  who 
_     _  _  succeeded  by  his 

„jsiti  Cesak  (A  11  Dec  1628).  whom  by  bii 
testament  he  had  made  his  heir;  but  this  dis- 
position was  annulled  by  the  Pope,  Oement 
VIII,  who  exconnnunicatcd  Cewre  and  de- 
prived him  of  Ferrara,  with  the  dependencies  of 
flie  Church.  Cesarc  was  obli^d  to  content  hint- 
self  with  Modens  and  Re^o,  which  depended 
on  the  empire.  From  this  period  the  politick 
importance  of  the  house  of  Este  greatly  dimin- 
ishes. Alfonso  IV,  who  lived  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  17th  century,  was  distingfuished  for  his  pat- 
rtmage  of  the  fine  arts.  His  daus^ter,  Maty  of 
Modcna,  was  married  to  lames  II  of  England. 
RlMAtJO  (165^-1737')  by  his  marriage  with  the 
daughter  of  the  I.)iike  of  Bninswick-Luneburg, 
reunited  the  German  and  Italian  branches  of 
the  house.  By  the  death  of  his  grandson  in 
1803  the  male  line  became  extinct  His  only 
dai^ter  was  married*  to  the  Archduke 
Ferdinand  of  Austria,  third  son  of  Francis  I, 
wlio  founded  the  Austrian  brandi  of  the  family 
which  existed  until  1875.  The  last  sovereign 
of  the  house  was  Fkakcesoo  V,  who  succeeded 
in  1846.  In  1859,  ihe  dynasty  was  deposed  by 
the  National  Assembly,  the  duchy  was  annexed 
to  Sardinia  by  the  Treaty  of  Ziiricb,  10  Nov. 
1859.  and  has  consequently  been  incorporated 
with  the  kingdom  gf  Italy.  Consult  Browning, 
'GndfsandGhibellines'  (1893) ;  Gardner, 'Prin- 
ces and  Poets  of  Ferrara'  (1904)  ;  Noyes,  "The 
Story  of  Ferrara>  (190i)  ;  Sismondi,  Italian 
Republics'  (Eng.  trans..  1832)  ;  Symonds,  'The 
Renaissance  in  Italy*  (1875-76). 

ESTB,  Italy,  town  in  the  province  of 
Padua,  17  miles  southwest  of  Padua;  the  an- 
dent  Adesfe.  Its  chief  industries  centre  in  pot- 
tery, cordage  and  ironware  products.  The  lean- 
kig  lower,  or  campanile,  is  an  interesting  feature 
ofthe  town,  as  is  the  battlemcntcd  medixval  for- 
tress, known  as  the  Rocca.  Here  once  ruled  the 
Este  fatnily,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  illus- 
trious fatmlies  of  Italy.  In  the  11th  century  the 
house  of  Este  became  connected  by  marriage 
with  the  German  Weifs,  or  Guelphs,  and 
founded  the  German  branch  of  the  house  of 
Este,  the  dukes  of  Brunswick  and  Hanover. 
The  reining  house  in  Great  Britain  descends 
from  this  family.  The  sovereigns  of  FerrSra 
and  Modena  were  also  of  this  family,  severe 
of  them  being  famous  as  patrons  of  letters. 
The  lives  of  Boiardo,  the  author  of  'Orlando 
Innamorato.'  Ariosto  and  Tasso  were  closely 
connected  with  members  of  this  house.  The 
last  male  representative  of  the  Estes  died  in 
1798.  His  daughter  married  a  son  of  the 
Emperor  Frauds  I  of  Austria,  who  founded 
the  Austrian  branch  of  the  house  of  Este,  of 
which  the  male  line  became  extinct  in  1875, 
his  title  then  passing  to  the  Archduke  Frands 
Ferdinand,  heir  to  the  Austrian  throne.  Pop. 
11,700. 

ESTEBANEZ,  Caldertm,  Don  SctmBn, 
Spanish  author,  best  known  as  "El  SoKtario*; 
b.  Malaga,  27  Sept.  1799;  d.  Madrid,  5  Feb. 
1867.  He  studied  tor  the  legal  profession  at 
the  University  of  Granada,  was  c^led  to  the 
bar  and  settled  for  some  time  in  Madrid  In 
1822  he  was  appointed  professor  of  poetry  and 
rhetoric  at  the  University  of  Granada,  and  in 
1831  under  his  pseudonym  of  "El  Solitario*  he 
published  a  volume  of  verses.   He  wrote  several 


articles  on  AndKlusian  customs  'for  Cartai 
EipaHoltt,  and  in  1834  became  auditor-geoeral 
of  the  Legitimatist  army  of  the  north.  Two 
years  later  he  was  made  mayor  Ueft-potilico) 
oi  Logrono,  but  before  entering  on  his  new 
duties  an  acddeni  obliged  him  to  retire  to 
Utidrid  where  be  set  about  collecting  manu- 
scripts of  the  national  literature  of  Spain.  In 
1838  he  was  made  iefe-politico  of  Seville  and 
thereafter  served  several  terms  as  deputy.  In 
1856  he  was  elected  to  the  Council  of  State.  In 
1847  appeared  his  greatest  original  work, 
'Escenas  andaluzas,'  inimitable  as  records  of  a 
life  most  of  wbich  has  now  gone.  His  manu- 
script collections  are  now  the  properiy  of  the 
Spanish  government.  Consult  C^ovas  del  Cas- 
tillo, 'El  soUtario  y  su  tiempo'  (2  vols., 
Madrid  1833). 

ESTELLA,  Spain,  town  in  the  province  of 
Navarre,  20  miles  southwest  of  Pamplona.  It 
is  a  well-built  city  with  fine  streets  and  many 
interesting  churches,  some  of  which  are  many 
centuries  old.  Its  trade  and  manufactures  are 
also  considerable  and  it  is  a  place  of  military 
importance.  The  town  was  taken  by  the  Car- 
lists  in  1835,  and  in  1839  was  executed  here  the 
Carlist  leader,  Maroto,  with  five  other  generals 
of  that  party.  Again  in  the  seventies  it  was  the 
scene  of  spirited  conflicts  and  the  stronghold 
of  Don  Carlos.  When  the  latter  lost  the  town 
in  1876  his  cause  suffered  a  complete  collapse. 
Pop.  5,638. 

ESTEPA,  Spain,  town  in  the  province  of 
Seville,  60  miles  east  of  the  city  of  that  name, 
and  situated  in  a  hilly  region.  It  contains  a 
famous  old  Moorish  castle  and  has  fine  broad 
streets.  Agricuhute  and  slockraising  are  its 
principal  interests  but  it  has  also  manufactures 
of  oil  soap.  Jasper  quarries  in  the  neighbor- 
hood give  emplo>Tncnt  to  a  targe  number  of 
persons.  Estepa  is  the  ancient  Astapa,  which 
came  into  prominence  during  the  Second  Punic 
War  for  the  heroic  resistance  of  its  dtiiens  who 
chose  to  die  by  fire  rather  than  surrender  to  the 
Roman  besiegers.  Later  it  was  a  flouri^ing 
Roman  colony,  Ferdinand  III  took  it  from  the 
Moors  in  1240.     Pop.  8,234. 

BSTEPONA,  Spain,  seaport  in  the  province 
of  Malaga,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  25 
miles  northeast  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  situated  in  a 
fertile  region  which  produces  fruits,  graiti, 
vegetables  and  wine.  Its  coast  trade  is  haniT 
pered  by  the  lack  of  adequate  harbor  facilities 
but  its  fishing  interests  are  considerable  and  it 
has  distilleries,  leather-curing  establishments, 
rope  and  cork  works  and  brick  and  tile  yards. 
Pop.  9,613. 

ESTERHAZY.    See  Eszterhazy. 

E8TERIPICATION.    See  Esters. 

ESTERS  (an  arbitrary  modification  of 
ether).  Compound  ethers,  or  ethereal  salts, 
are  compounds  in  which  one  or  more  alcdsol 
or  basic  radicals  are  united  to  one  or  mote 
acid  radicals.  They  are  analogous  to  the 
salts  of  the  metals.  Thus  CH.CX)O.H  is  aceltc 
acid  and  if  the  typical  hydrogen  of  this  acid 
is  replaced  t^  the  monad  radical  ethyl,  the 
resulting  compound,  CHtCOO.CiHi,  is  known 
as  ethyl  acetic  ester.  Chemically,  this  sub- 
stance is  analogous  to  potassium  acetate, 
CH.COO.K,  obtained  by  replacing  the  hydrogen 
of   the  acetic  add  by  potassium.     The  word 


8l^ 


ester  w&a  orifpnally  applied  by  Gmeltn  to 
compounds  of  the  alcobolic  radicali  with  oxy- 
genated adds;  but  it  has  now  been  extended  so 
as  to  include  all  the  salts  of  the  alcohoUc  radi- 
cals. Ethyl  bromide,  CiH(.Br,  for  example,  is 
now  included  among  the  esters.  Some  of  the 
eaters  are  prepared  bv  the  direct  action  of  the 
add  iq>on  ibe  alcohol.  In  other  cases  a  mix- 
ture of  the  add  and  the  alcohol  is  distilled  with 
the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  zinc,  chloride  or 
other  dehydrating  agent.  The  esters  may  also 
be  prepared  by  treating  the  iodide  of  the  alct^ol 
ratucal  with  the  silver  salt  of  the  add,  the 
iodine  and  silver  combining  to  form  iodide  of 
diver,  while  the  liberated  alcoholic  and  add 
radicals  combine  to  produce  the  desired  ester. 
The  esters  of  the  organic  acids  occur  in  fruits 
and  flowers  and  arc  also  prepared  artificially  for 
flavoring  purposes  and  for  improving  the 
bouquet  of  wmes.  The  fats  and  oils  which 
contain  glycerine  in  combination  with  oldc, 
tnargaric  and  other  acids  may  be  regarded  ai 
esters,  since  glycerine  is  a  triatomic  alcohol. 
Much  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  esters  in 
connection  with  theoretical  chemistry,  since 
they  are  well  adapted  for  the  study  of  the  laws 
of  mass-action.  See  Eouiubrium,  Chemical; 
Ethex. 

ESTES,  Dana,  American  publisher :  b. 
Gorham,  Me.,  1840:  d.  1909.  He  received  his 
education  in  the  puolic  schools,  for  many  yean 
was  engaged  in  mercantile  affairs  and  served  in 
the  Union  army  in  the  Civil  War.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  publishing  firm  of  Degen,  Estes 
and  Company,  and  afterward  that  of  Lee  and 
Shcpard.  In  1872  he  became  a  partner  in  the 
firm  of  Estes  and  Lauriat,  which  in  1898  be- 
came known  as  Dana  Estes  and  Company.  He 
was  also  a  traveler  of  note,  being  the  first 
American  to  explore  the  region  of  me  Nile  as 
far  as  Uganda  and  the  Kongo.  He  also  helped 
organize  the  International  Copyright  Assoda- 
tion,  of  which  he  became  the  first  secretary. 
He  wroU  'Chimes  for  Childhood'  (1868): 
'Spectrum  Analysis  Examined'  (1872);  and 
was  the  editor  of  'Half-Hour  Recreations  in 
Popular  Sdence'    (2d  ed.,   1879). 

BSTEVAN,  Canada,  town  in  Assiniboia 
District,  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  and 
on  the  Souris  River  145  miles  southeast  of 
Moosejaw.  Flour  mills,  lumber  and  brick  yards, 
grain  elevators  are  its  principal  industries.     It 

i   also   a  government   coal-testing   pla   '         ' 


Pop.  4,000. 

ESTHER,  or  HADASSAH  (Heb.  myrtle; 
Babylonian,  Ishtar),  the  name  of  a  Jewish 
maiden,  chosen  by  Xerxes  to  be  his  queen.  She 
was  one  of  the  heroines  of  Hebrew  history  and 
maintained  the  rights  of  her  nation  at  the  court 
of  the  Idng  of  Persia.  Esther  gave  her  name  to 
Uk  'Book  of  Esther,'  one  of  the  books  of  the 
Bible.  According  to  the  accotmt  given  in  the 
latter,  Esther  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 
Much  controversy  has  been  expended  over  the 
character  of  Esther  whom  the  more  radical 
Biblical  critics  have  been  indined  to  look  upon 
as  a  purely  mythical  personage  evolved  from  the 

Jewish  knowledge  of  the  Babylonian  goddess, 
shtar,  a  name  which,  in  later  Babylonian,  be- 
comes Esira.  The  Jewish  account  of  the  life 
of  Esther  states  that  she  vras  the  daughter  of 


Abifaail  nbo  died  iriule  abe  was  quit*  yotmg, 
leaving  her  to  the  care  of  her  cousm  U»rdecai 
in  Susa,  tfacn  the  capital  of  Persia.  Whai  sbe 
had  grown  to  be  a  young  woman,  Xerxes 
(Ahasuerus)  divorced  his  queen,  Vashti,  and 
made  Esther  queen  in  her  place.  But  accordii^ 
to  Herodotus  Xerxes  had  only  one  <]ueen, 
Amestris,  whose  character  and  histo^  m  no 
manner  resemble  those  of  Esther.  Moreover, 
it  has  been  pointed  out  by  critics  that  the 
Peraan  sovereigns  were  bound  by  a  certain 
court  etiquette,  and  by  Penian  custom,  to  seleU 
their  legal  wives  from  the  Persian  royal 
family  or  from  the  dau^ters  of  foreign  royal 
famuics  in  order  to  mam  tain  the  piiriw  of  tbc 
blood  of  the  Persian  sovereign.  This  was 
looked  upon  as  of  great  importance  in  an  Me 
when  the  royal  famdy  was  believed  to  be  the 
direct  blood  descendants  of  the  gods.  Vasbti 
is  said  to  have  been  divorced  because  she  re- 
fused to  unveil  herself  publidy  at  a  banquet 
It  has  been  suggested  that  there  is  some  con- 
nection between  this  statement  and  the  fact  | 
that  I^tar  (Estra)  was  called  the  naked  god- 
dess, and  was  looked  upon  as  the  great  mother 
deity  and  the  "queen  of  heaven.'  As  the  Per- 
sian king  was  the  earthly  representative  of 
heaven,  his  dueen  was  also  styled  the  queen  of 
heaven  and  thus  probably  represented  Uie  deity 
of  the  same  title.  Hence  tiie  more  advanced  I 
Biblical  scholars  have  conduded  that  Esther 
was  never  the  queen  of  Xerxes;  and  that  she  | 
rould  have  been  nothing  more  than  the  diief 
favorite  of  his  harem,  if  she  ever  bad  any 
real  existence. 

Notwithstanding  this   attitude    of    modem 
critics,  the  Jews  never  had  any  doubt  as  to  the  i 

truth  of  the  Biblical  account  of  the  life  and  { 

doings  of  Esther,  who  is  credited  with  ddiver- 
iog  the  Jewish  people  from  the  exactions  and 


. .  Id  by  Esther  is  still  celebrated  in 
the  Feast  of  Purim.  Consult  the  Biblical 
'Book  of  Esther';  Isthar;  Pukim;  and  Es- 
THEg,  Book  of. 

Bibliography,— Cheyne,  'Pounders  of  Old 
Testament  Criticism'  (London  1893)  ;  Debaez^ 


(Goit 


Esther' ;  de  Lagarde,  'Purim' 
__..-  1887);  Gunkel,  "^Schopfung  und 
IS'  (Ciottinfren  1895)  ;  Hughes,  'Esther  and 
her  People'  (London  1846) ;  Jampcl,  'Das 
Buch  Esther';  Nowack,  'Archiologie' ;  Sayce, 
'Introduction  to  Esther'  (London  1885);  Toy, 
'New  World'  (Vol.  5.  1837)  ■  Tyrwhitt,  'Esther 
and  Ahasuerus'   (London  1868). 

ESTHER,  Indian  chief tainess.     See  Uoic- 

BSTHER.  (1)  Drama  on  the  life  of  Esther, 
the  personage  of  the  Old  Testament,  written  by 
Racme  at  the  instance  of  Madame  de  Main- 


by  Handd  based  oa  the  drama  of 
Racine,  first  performed  in  1720.  The  words 
were  by  Humphreys. 


ESTHER.  Book  of.  The  book  of  Esther 
was  written  for  the  primary  purpose  of  ^ving 
ail  account  of  the  supposed  drcumstances  of 


.lOOg  Ic 


BfftflBRIA— BSTHOHIA 


Hm 


Ae  orisin  of  the  teast  of  Purim.  This  was 
put  in  tfae  reign  of  the  Persian  IdtiK  Ahasuertts, 
»  certainly  to  be  identified  with  Xentcs,  who 
reJKned  from  487  to  466  B.C. 

The  first  question  is  concerning  the  historical 
character  of  the  book.  The  author  had  a  Ken- 
eral  acquaintance  with  Persian  customs,  and 
some  of  the  statements  made  are  confirmed 
from  other  sources.  But  some  of  the  details 
of  the  book  are  certainly  inaccurate,  and  manj' 
others  probably  so.  Xerxes'  queen  frorti  the 
seventh  to  the  twelfth  jear  of  his  reign  was  not 
Esther,  as  represented  in  the  book,  but  Amestris, 
a  Persian;  no  captive  of  Nebuchadreziar's  was 
chief  minister  of  Xerxes;  and  the  chronology 
ia  incorrect.  The  book,  therefore,  is  not  ac- 
curate history;  it  is  probable  that  there  b  no 
historical  element  in  the  book.  This  appears 
especially  from  a  consideration  of  the  feast  of 
Purim.  Thia  is  stated  in  Ix,  26,  see  iii,  7,  to. 
have  been  derived  from  the  presumabljr  Persian 
word  Pur,  meaning  lot.  No  such  Persian  word 
is  Imown.  The  feast  of  Purim  is  first  men- 
tioned, under  the  name  of  the  day  of  lifordecai, 
in  2  Maccabees  xv,  36,  2  Maccabees  being  writ- 
ten in  the  1st  century  B.C.  This  makes  it  un- 
likely that  the  feast  was  established  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Xerxes,  and  hence  makes  im- 
probable any  historical  basis  for  the  book.' 
The  bool^  therefore,  is  of  the  natutt  of  a 
romance,  giving  a  current  story  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  feast. 

The  actual  origin  of  the  feast  would  seem, 
therefore,  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  writer 
and  his  time.  This  gives  a  presumption  that  it 
was  of  foreign  origin.  The  indications  are 
that  the  origin  was  in  Babylonia.  The  name 
Mordecal  is  quite  evidently  a  form  of  Uardul^ 
the  name  of  the  head  of  the  Babylonian 
pantheon,  and  Esther  is  Ishtar,  the  principal 
Babylonian  goddess.  Haman,  further,  is  Hum- 
man  or  Humban,  the  chief  Elamite  god,  and 
Vashti  is  i«obably  to  be  identified  with  Uashii, 
a  vaguely  known  Elamite  deity.  Originally, 
therefore,  the  story  seems  to  have  l>een  a  myth, 
giving  an  account  of  a  contlict  between  die 
principal  deities  of  Babylonia  end  Elam.  It  is 
not  possible,  however,  to  find  any  pcolrable  iden- 
tification of  the  feast  of  Purim  with  any  known 
Babylonian  feast  The  Babylonian  account  of 
the  feast  has  here  been  put  into  a  Jewish  form. 
It  is,  of  course,  quite  possible  that  the  mythical 
nature  of  the  story  bad  been  obscured  before  it 
reached  the  writer. 

The  indications  point  to  a  late  writing  of  the 
book.  The  author  was  living  in  the  time  of  the 
observance  of  the  feast  of  Purim,  which  was 
probably  late,  as  has  been  indicated.  The  omis- 
sion of  Esther  and  Mordecai  from  the  long  list 
of  Hebrew  worthies  in  Ecd.  jcliv^xlix,  wnttett 
about  180  B.C,  strongly  suggests  that  the  book 
had. not  then  been  written.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  attitude  of  hostility  to  &e 
Gentiles  which  appears  in  the  book  might  be 
due  to  the  experienccB  of  persecution  by  Ando- 
cfaus  Epiphanes.  But  the  absence  of  any  specific 
references  to  the  Maccabean  period  makes  it 
probable  that  Hie  date  was  before  168  B.C.  The 
language  of  the  book  is  late,  although  there 
arc  tio  word*  which  are  certainly  to  be  identi- 
fied as  Greek.  The  author  speaks  of  the  reign 
of  Xerxes  in  a  way  which  indicates  diat  it  was 
long  past.  It  is  probable  that  the  book  was 
written  after  180  b.c.  «nd  before  168. 


The  absence  of  tfce  name  of  Gttd  front  the 
book  has  been  the  occanon  of  much  perplexity. 
The  explanation  has  been  suggested  mat  it  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  book  was  designed  to 
be  read  at  the  celebration  of  the  feast  of  Purim, 
this  being  a  festival  of  such  mirth,  due  prin- 
cipally to  drinking,  that  there  would  be  danger 
ot  the  profanation  of  the  name  of  God  if  it 
occurred  in  the  reading.  The  principal  reti- 
rious  teaching  of  the  book  is  that  of  the  provi- 
oence  of  God  over  his  people,  which  is  con- 
ceived, however,  in  a  —:-'-'  — •- — >  >---- 
The  interest  of  the  . 
religious  but  national. 

The  moral  tone  of  the  book  is  not  high.  No 
character  oortrayed  in  the  book  is  an  soninble 
one.  Esther  and  Mordecai  have  the  desire  for 
revenge,  as  well  as  other  qualities  rather 
ignoble  than  exalted.  The  book  in  its  general 
spirit  is  below  the  level  of  most  of  the  Old 


BibIiograph]r.r- Adeney,     W.     F.,     'Ezra, 


Esther'  ('International  Critical  Commentaiy,> 
New  York  1908);  Streane,  A.  W.,  'Esther' 
('Cambridge  Bible,'    Cambridge  1907). 

Geosge  R.  Beiry, 
Professor  of  Old  Teilament  Interpretation  and 
Semitic  Languages,  Colgate  Unwersity. 
ESTHERIA,  bivalve  crustacean  of  the 
order  of  Brachiopods,  found  as  a  fossil  in  fresh 
water  deposits  dating  from  the  Devonian  to 
the  Pleistocene  periods.  There  are  about  24 
living -species  and  about  the  same  number  of 
fossil  species.  In  the  former  the  shell  is  from 
one~eighth  to  one  inch  in  length  and  is  rounded 
and  flat  with  beaks  near  the  hinge.  The  sur- 
face is  marked  with  folds  .and  ridges  which 
serve  to.  distinguish  it  from  the  small  pelecypods. 
Consult  Jones,    'A  Monograph   of   the   Fossil 


Monograph, 
ographs  of 


the 


K8THERVILLE,  Iowa,  dty  and  coun^- 
seat  of  Emmet  County,  140  miles  northwest  ot 
Efes  Moines,  on  the  Des  Moines  River,  and  on 
the  Minneapolis  and  Saint  Louis  and  the  Chi- 
cago, Rock  Island  and  Pacific  railroads.  It 
has  extensive  agricultural  And  stock  raising  in- 
terests and  contains  flour  mills,  grain  elevators, 
railroad  repair  shops,  machine  idiops,  tub  fac- 
tories and  cement  works.  It  has  also  a  Carnegie 
library  and  a  fine  school  building  and  own;  the 
waterworks  and  electric-lighting  plants.  Pop. 
3,4(H. 

B6TH0NIA,  «s-th6'ni-a,  Russia,  a  maritime 

eiveniment,  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
nd  and  the  Baltic.  On  [he  east  is  the  gov- 
ernment of  Petrograd;  on  the  south  Lake 
Peipus  and  the  government  of  Livonia.  Most 
of  the  territory  included  in  Esthonia  is  low 
and  swampy  or  cut  up  by  streams  and'  lakes; 
and  cdd,  raw  winters  and  hot  summers  are  the 
nile.  Live  stock  raising  and  i^riculture  are 
the  chief  occupations  of  me  inhabitants,  who  are 
industrious,  enterprisii^  and  given-  to  the  us« 
of  modem  methods  of  farming  and  stock  rais~ 
ing.  Among  the  growing  industries  of  Es* 
thonia  are  machinery,  iron  and  steel,  liquors 
and  cotton.  Coii^idcrable  trade  is  also  carried 
on   with  neighboring   countries  and  with  the 


by  Google 


NM 


BSTH8 — SSTOPPBL 


interior  of  Russia.  It  includes  several  islands 
o{  which  tijc  most  important  are  Dagoe  and 
Oescl;  area,  about  7,818  square  miles.  The 
peasantry  are  almost  all  of  Finnish  orie:in  and 
speak  a  Finnish  dialect.  In  the  lOth  and  12th 
centuries  it  belonged  to  Deomark:  it  was  after- 
ward annexed  by  Sweden  and  in  1710  was  seized 
by  Russia,  The  chief  seaport,  Reval,  which  is 
connected  by  rail  with  Pelrograd,  has  exten- 
sive shipping,  (See  Reval).  Pop.  416,580. 
Consult  Vincent,  'Norsk,  I^pp,  and  Finn' ; 
Toribn.  'Beitrage  zur  Geographie  und  Statistik 
Esthlands. ' 

£STHS.    See  Estbonia. 

BSTIENNE,  a-te-Sn,  or  ETIBNNB  (Lat. 
Stefhanus),  Henri,  Sh-rS,  French  painter  and 
scholar:  b.  Paris,  1528;  d.  Lyons,  March  1S98. 
He  was  a  son  of  Robert  Estienne  (q.v.)  and 
continued  his  work.  Besides  compiling  the  noted 
'Thesaurus  linguse  Gratoe*  (1572),  he  wrote 
'Apolo^e  pour  Hirodote'  (1566);  'Traiti  de 
la  conformite  du  Francais  evec  le  Grec',  etc. 

ESTIENNE,  or  ETIEHNB  (Lat.  Stepra- 
Nus),  Robert,  ro-bar,  French  printer  and 
scholar;  b.  Paris,  1503;  d.  Geneva,  7  S<^t.  1559. 
In  1526  he  established  a  printing  house  m  Parii 


works.  His  son  Henri  took  up  his  father's  work 
on  the  death  of  the  latter  and  was  also  a  writer 
of  note.    He  died  in  Lyons  in  1598. 

ESTIVATION,  the  dormancy  or  *sununer- 
sleep,"  induced  in  some  of  the  lower  plants  and 
animals  by  heat  and  drou^t,  and  the  means  by 
which  in  summer  they  resist  these  unfavorable 
conditions,  as  they  do  others  in  winter  by  hiber- 
nation.  The  two  slates  are  comparable,  thou^ 
induced  by  opposite  conditions.  In  summer  the 
principal  danger  to  which  such  organisms  are 
exposed  is  the  deprivation  of  water.  Some  of 
the  lowest  are  able  to  endure  this  to  an  extreme 
degree.  Certain  bacteria  and  other  low  plants 
and  various  animalcules  will  survive  prolonged 
baking  and  may  blow  about  in  the  dust  of 
dried-up  ponds  for  a  long  period,  ready  to  revive 
when  dampened.  Among  tand-snails  estivation 
is  a  common  phenomenon,  the  snails  protecting 
themselves  from  excessive  loss  of  moisture,  not 
only  by  burrowing  into  the  ground,  but  by 
throwing  one  or  several  epiphragms  of  hard- 
ened, sometimes  chalky,  mucus  across  the  aper- 
ture of  the  shell,  thus  shutting  themselves  into 
an  air-tight  case,  where  they  remain  inactive 
until  better  conditions  arrive.  In  a  similar  man- 
ner certain  fishes  and  amphibians  bury  them- 
selves in  the  muddy  bottom  of  ponds  or  river- 
pools  evaporated  fay  drought,  where  they 
preserve  sufiicient  dampness  about  them  to  keep 
alive.  Turtles,  on  the  other  hand,  are  often 
compelled  to  leave  their  pools  in  the  tropics, 
because  the  water  becomes  so  hot  and  full  of 
fermentation  and  seek  cool  spots  under  rocks, 
and  the  like,  where  Ihey  sleep  torpidly  until 
autumn.  Even  a  few  mammah  of  extremely 
hot  regions,  such  as  the  deserts  of  Australia, 

Kinto  a  summer-slee^  during  the  height  of  the 
it  season,  substantially  as  their  congeners 
hibernate  in  the  midwinter  of  northern  climates. 
See  HiBEBNATioH. 


BSTLANDER,  Cul  Qattu,  Finnidi 
author:  b.  1834;  d.  1910.  In  1868  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  authetics  in  the  University 
of  Helsingfors  and  in  1876  founded  the  the 
FirUtmd  Review  of  which  he  became  the  editor. 
His  many  works  were  of  great  importance  to 
the  artistic  literature  of  his  country:  th^  in- 
clude 'The  History  of  the  Plastic  Aru  from 
the  Middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  to  our 
own  Time*  (1867)  ;  'The  Development  Past  and 
Future  of  the  Art  and  Industry  of  Finland' 
(1871);  'Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  in  History 
and  Poetry>  (1858) ;  'The  Robin  Hood  Balbds* 
(1889);  and  researches  into  the  Tristan  ro- 
mance, published  in  French  (1866). 

ESTOC,  a  small  dagger,  known  in  the  16th 
century  as  a  "tuckle*  and  usually  worn  at  the 
girdle. 

E8TOILE,  or  STAR,  a  bearing  in  heraldrf, 
differing  from  the  mullet  in  that  it  has  six  wavy 
rays  instead  of  the  five  plain  waves  of  the  latter. 
See  Heraldhy. 

ESTON,  England,  town  in  the  North  Riduig 
of  Yorkshire,  four  miles  east  of  Middlebor- 
ough.  It  has  large  manufactories  of  steel  rails. 
Pop.  12,026. 

ESTOPFSI^  the  preclusion  of  a  person 
from  asserting  a  fact  bv  previous  conduct,  in- 
consistent therewith,  on  his  own  part  or  the  part 
of  those  under  whom  be  clainis,  or  by  an  ad- 
judication upon  his  rights  which  he  cannot  be 
allowed  to  call  in  question;  a  preclusion,  in  law, 
which  prevents  a  man  from  alleging  or  denying 
a  fact,  in  consequence  of  his  own  previous  act, 
allegation  or  denial  of  a  contrary  tenor;  a  plea 
which  neither  admits  nor  denies  the  facts  alleged 
by  the  plaintifi,  but  denies  his  ri^C  to  allege 
them.  According  to  Blackstone,  it  is  a  special 
plea  in  bar,  which  happens  where  a  man  has 
done  some  act  or  executed  some  deed  which 
precludes  him  from  averring  arQrlhing  to  the 
contrary.  Where  a  fact  has  been  asserted  or 
admitted  for  the  purpose  of  influencing  the  con- 
duct or  deriving  a  benefit  from  another,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  denied  without  s  breach  of  good 
faith,  the  law  enforces  the  rule  of  good  moiali 
as  a  rule  of  policy  and  precludes  the  liart;r  front 
repudiatitig  his  representations  or  denying  his 
admissions.     (Rawle,  Cor.  407.) 

This  doctrine  of  law  gives  rise  to  a  kind  of 
pleading  Chat  is  neither  by  way  of  traverse  nor 
of  confession  and  avoidance;  that  is,  a  pleading 
which,  waiving  any  question  of  fact,  relies 
merely  upon  the  estoppel,  and,  after  stating  the 
previous  act,  allegation  or  denial  of  the  appo- 
site party,  prays  judgment  if  he  shall  be  re- 
ceived or  admitted  to  aver  contrary  to  what  he 
before  said  or  did.  This  pleading  is  called  a 
pleading  by  way  of  estoppel.  Until  a  recent 
period  questions  regarding  estOM>el  arose  almost 
mtirely  in  relation  to  transfers  of  real  estate 
and  the  rules  in  regard  to  cme  kind  of  estoppel 
were  quite  fully  elaborated.  The  prindple  is 
now  applied  to  all  cases  where  one  by  words  or 
conduct  wilfully  causes  another  to  believe  in 
the  existence  or  a  certain  state  of  things,  and 
induces  him  to  act  on  that  belief  or  to  change 
his  own  previous  situation. 

Estoppels  operate  not  only  on  present  in- 
terests, but  on  ri^ts  subsequently  acquired. 
They  operate,  however,  ontv  between  parties 
and  privies  and  the  party  who  pleads  the  es- 
toppel must  be  one  wbo  wu  Mnerady  affected 


,y  Google 


B8T0TILAND — B8TKAT 


by  die  act  which  comtitates  the  estoppel  An 
estoppel  may  be  by  record,  and  by  record  in 
this  coDDcction  i^  meant  the  record  of  a  tribunal 
of  a  jadidal  character.  An  admission  made  in 
a  jdeachng  in  a  judicial  proceeding  cannot  be 
contradicted  by  the  person  malfJHg  it  So,  ordi- 
narily, the  judgment  of  a  court  of  competent 
jtiriadiction  cannot  be  impeached.  If  it  deter- 
mines the  status  of  a  pencci  or  thing,  it  is 
binding  on  all  persons,  whether  rendered  by  a 
domestic  or  a  foreign  court  Judgments  of  this 
character  are  judgments  in  rem.  If  the  judg- 
ment is  in  personam,  it  is  condusive  if  rendered 
by  a  domestic  tribunal,  and  is  conclusive  in  some 
instances  if  rendered  by  a  foreign  tribunal. 
Legislature  records  also  import  absolute  verity. 
(Blgelow  on  Estop.  33.) 

An  estoppel  by  deed  is  such  asarises  from 
die  provisions  of  a  deed.  It  is  a  general  rule 
that  3  party  to  a  deed  is  estopped  to  deny  any- 
thing stated  therein  which  has  operated  upon 
the  other  party,  as  the  inducement  to  accept  and 
act  under  such  deed,  including  a  deed  made  with 
covenant  of  warranty,  which  estops  even  as  to 
a  subsequently  accjuired  title.  The  deed  must 
be  good  and  valid  m  its  form  and  execution  to 
create  an  estoppel,  and  must  convey  no  title 
upon  which  the  warranty  can  operate  in  case 


Estoppels  must  be  reciprocal.  An  estoppel 
m  pais,  or  equitable  estoppel,  occurs  when  a 
party  to  an  action  has  by  his  act  or  declaration 
induced  the  other  party  to  do  some  act  or  acts 
which  otherwise  would  not  have  been  done,  or 
to  omit  to  do  some  act  or  acts  which  he  would 
have  done,  and  by  means  of  which  he  has  been 
injured.  The  principle  underlying  such  estop- 
pels is,  that  it  would  be  a  fraud  in  a  party  to 
assert  what  his  previous  conduct  and  admission 
have  denied,  when,  on  the  faith  of  that  denial, 
others  have  changed  their  situation.  There 
must,  however,  as  a  rule,  be  some  intended  de- 
ception in  the  conduct  or  declarations  of  the 
party  to  be  estopped,  or  such  gross  negligence 
on  his  part  as  to  amount  to  constructive  fraud, 
1^  which  another  has  been  misled  to  his  injury. 

KSTOTJLAND,  a  mythical  land,  placed  by 
the  old  geographers  where  are  now  portions  of 
Newfoundland,  Labrador,  and  that  part  of 
British  America  bordering  on  Hudson  Bay.^  It 
vas  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  two  Fries- 
land  fishermen  driven  out  of  their  course  by  a 
storm,  two  centuries  before  the  time  of  Colum- 
bus. In  1497  the  Cabots  set  sail  from  &ieland 
for  Estotiland,  but  discovered  instead  New- 
foundland. 

ESTOURNBLLES  DB  CONSTANT, 
Fanl  Henri  Benjamin,  Bason  d*,  French 
author:  b.  La  Flcche,  Safthe,  165^  He  was 
educated  at  the  Louis -le-Grand  Lyceum,  Paris, 
and  at  the  School  of  Oriental  Lan^^uages, 
jmned  the  diplomatic  service,  in  which  he 
aetrved  as  secretary  to  the  commission  for  the 
boundaries  of  Montenegro,  afterward  becom- 
ing chaiv^d'aff aires  in  that  country.  He 
served  also  at  The  Ham>e  and  in  Tunis  and 
London.  In  189S-1904  he  was  deputy  from 
Sarthc  and  in  the  latter  year  was  elected  sen- 
ator. He  become  conspicuous  for  his  advocacy 
of  international  peace,  was  elected  member  to 
The  Hague  conferences  and  of  the  international 
court.  Mis  efforts  to  biing  about  a  better  feel- 
ing between  Fiance  and  Germany  were  untir- 


ing and  in  1909  be  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize 
for  peace.  He  has  published  frequently  in  re- 
views in  England,  France  and  America,  has 
written  on  modem  Greece  and  made  transla- 
tions  from  the  modem  Greek  tongue,  published 
reports  of  The  Hague  conferences  and  prepared 
papers  for  the  Parliamentary  Union,  etc.  Other 
WoHcs  are  <Lcs  congregations  reli|^uses  chec 
les  Arabes'  (188?)  ;  'La  politique  fran^aise  <a 
Tunisie'  (1891) ;  and  <Les  Etats-Unls 
d'Amerique'  (1913),  an  account  of  his  impres- 
sions during  his  visits  to  America  in  1902,  1907, 
1911  and  19iZ 

KSTOVBHS,  in  law,  (1)  wood  which  a  ten- 
ant may  legally  use,  as  for  repairs  or  firewood. 
It  is  a  principle  of  both  Engluh  and  American 
law.  It  includes  to-day,  in  the  absence  of  ex- 
press covenants  to  the  contrary,  any  wood  which 
a  tenant  for  life,  for  years,  from  year  to  year, 
or  at  will  may  use  from  the  estate  to  repair  the 
house,  fences,  implements,  etc,  thereon,  in  addi- 
tion to  that  which  he  uses  for  fuel.  (2)  For- 
merly, alimony  allowed  a  divorced  wife;  also, 
a  widow's  allowance. 

a  the  province  of 

t  of  Saatiago  de 

Gimpostela,  on  the  Ulla.  It  has  extensive 
a^cultural  and  stock  raising  interests  and  con- 
tains lumber  yards  and  manufactories  of  linens 
and  woolens.  Uineial  springs  are  in  the  neigh- 
borhood.    Pop.  (commune)  27,898. 

ESTRADA  CABRERA.  Manuel,  Guate- 
malan statesman  :  b.  Quezaltenago,  1857.  At 
first  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  law 
and  philosophy  and  practised  his  profession. 
He  was  appointed  district  judge  and  finally  at- 
tained the  suDreme  bench.  About  1885  he  be- 
gan to  take  an  active  interest  in  politics  and 
was  elected  to  the  National  Assembly;  he  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State  in  18^  and  six 
years  later,  on  the  assassination  of  Presidmt 
Barrios,  became  acting  President  Within  a 
few  months  he  was  elected  to  a  full  presidential 
term  and  secured  re-election  for  a  second  term 
in  1905.  His  admitustration  was  very  progres- 
sive ;  he  did  much  to  place  the  finances  on  a 


feneral  the  well-bdng  of  his  country.  Sev- 
attempts  were  made  on  his  life  by  the  bitter 
enemies  h^  had  made.  For  the  third  time  he 
was  elected  to  the  presidential  chair  in  1911. 

ESTRADES,  Godefroi,  Coute  n",  French 
soldier:  b.  Agen,  1607;  A.  1686.  He  served  as 
a  page  at  the  court  of  Lonii  XIII  and  in  1646 
was  sent  to  Holland  on  a  special  mission.  He 
was  commissioned  a  colonel  of  infantry  and  in 
1647  was  made  field  marshal  He  was  sent  as 
Ambassador  Extraordinary  to  England  in  1661 
to  negotiate  the  cession  of  Dunkiric  to  France: 
he  also  served  as  ambassador  to  Holland  and 
distineuished  himself  at  Wesel  and  Liege.  In 
1678  he  represented  France  at  the  Peace  of 
Nymwegen.  His  'Lettres,  Memoires  ct  nego- 
tiations' (9  vols.,  Paris  17S8  and  a  tenth  vol- 
ume, London  1763)  were  published  after  deaili. 
Consult  Lauiim,  Philippe,  'Le  Uareschal 
d'Estrades'    (Agen  1896). 

ESTRAY,  in  law,  any  animal  not  fera 
naiura  and  uie  subject  of  property  whiui  is 
foimd  at  large  without  ostensible  owner  in  any 
place  other  dum  the  land  of  the  owner^    If 


■8l^ 


BSTSBAT^  SSTUART 


found  on  private  land  such  anitml  in  most  ju- 
risdictions may  be  impounded  »t  the  cost  oi  the 
owner.  In  England  an  estray  becomes  subject 
to  the  lord  of  the  manor  who  acquires  a  nght 
therein  which  becomes  absolute  in  case  the  ani- 
mal is  not  reclaimed  by  the  owner  after  due 
proclamation  by  the  lord  of  the  manor.  In 
some  States  the  finder  of  an  estray  may  after 
due  advertisement  sell  same  at  public  or  private 
sale  and  the  purchaser  will  acquire  a  good  title 
therein.  The  proceeds  o£  the  sale  after  the 
iinder's  expenses  have  hem  deducted  are  as  a 
general  rule  paid  into  the  town  treasurv.-  Con- 
sult Bum,  'Justice  of  the  Peace  and  Parish 
Officer*   (30lfi  ed.,  London  1869). 

ESTREAT,  in  law,  a  copy  or  extract  of  aa 
original  record,  particularly  of  6nes;  common 
in  the  phrase  estreat  of  a  rtcognvsanee,  or  the 
removing  of  such  recogniiance  from  among  the 

"e  ex- 

-  .  if  a 
recognizance  is  forfeited  by  violation  of  a  con- 
dition, it  is  estrated,  whereupon  the  parties  be- 
come indebted  to  the  Crown  to  die  amotuit 
named  in  the  recoimiHUice. 

B8TREES,  GtibiieUe  d',  French  court 
favorite  and  mistress  of  Heniy  IV:  b.  about 
1573;  d.  1599.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the 
Marquis  Antoine  d'Estrees,  Governor  of  L'lsle 
de  France,  In  1590  she  met  Henry  IV  at  her 
father's  castle  and  he  fell  a  slave  to  her  charms. 
Her  father,  having  learned  of  the  Idng's  infat- 
uation and  fearing  a  scandal,  forced  Gabrielle 
into  a  marriage  with  M.  d'Amerval  de  LJan- 
court  but  Uie  Icing  annulled  the  marriage  and 
called  her  to  court.  Henry  made  her  Mar- 
chioness de  Monceaux  and  Duchess  of  Bcan- 
forl.  She  had  several  children  by  Henry  and 
was  the  recipient  of  the  greatest  favors  at  his 
band.  To  make  her  queen  he  even  had  in 
mind  to  divorce  Margaret  of  Valois  and  was 
only  hindered  from  so  doing  by  the  sudden 
death  of  Gabrielle.  Consult  Descloieaux, 
'Gabrielle  d'Estrees*  (Paris  1889). 

BSTRELLA  DE  SEVILLA,  a  comedy  of 
Lope  de  Vega,  which  by  many  critics  is  con- 
sidered  his  best  work. 

ESTREMADURA,  «sh-tra-ma-doo'ra.  Por- 
tugal, maritime  province  divided  by  the  Tagus 
into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  of  which  the  north 
is  the  more  mountainous.  Wines  and  olives  are 
the  principal  products.  The  chief  city  is  Lis- 
bon.   Area,  6,876  square  miles.     Pop.  1,438,726. 

ESTREMADURA,  S-stri-ma-doo'ri,  a  di- 
vision of  southwestern  Spain,  consisting  of  two 
provinces.  Badaioi  and  CSeeres.  The  northern 
part  has  targe  forests,  and  in  the  central  and 
southern  parts  are  some  good  agricultural  lands. 
Deposits  of  coal,  copper  and  silver  are  found 
in  the  moimtains;  but  the  mines  are  not  well 
developed.  Area,  16,162  square  miles.  Pop. 
990,9«f 

ESTREMOZ,  Portugal,  town  in  Alemtejo 
Bfovince,  30  miles  northeast  of  Avora.  It  Is 
1^00  feel  above  sea-level  and  contains  the  ruins 
of  two  ancient  forts.  The  porows  clay  of  the 
district  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  ihe 
earthenware  which  has  made  Estremoz  famous 
throughout  the  peninsula.  Wool  is  exported  in 
Urge  quantities  from  here  and  marble  of  varied 
color  is  quarried  nearby.    Pop,  73J7. 


ESTREPEHENT.  the  waste  of  lands  com- 
mitted by  a  tenant,  in  wfaicfa  sensr  the  word 
has  been  su{^lanted  by  die  t^nn  Sraste.*  It 
i,  however,  as  the  nxme  of  an  andent 


of  waste.  In  most  modem  jurisdictions  the  v 
has  become  obsolete  throtii^  the  devdopment 
of  the  functions  of  the  courts  of  equity,  but  it 
still  exists  in  Pennsylvania,  where  there  are  no 
courts  of  equity,  as  a  remedy  for  the  prevention 

SSTRUP,  Jacob  Bronnom,  Danish  states- 
man: b.  Soro.  1823  ;  d.  1913.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Landsthing  in  1864  and  in  due  time  became 
leader  of  the  Agrarians,  and  also  was  active  in 
the  preparation  of  the  new  constitution  of  1866. 
He  served  as  Minister  of  the  Interior  in 
186S-69  and  did  much  to  improve  the  railwu' 
service  of  the  country.  He  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  council  in  1875  and  at  the  same  time 
accepted  the  portfolio  of  Minister  of  Finance. 
After  1877  he  acted  very  arbitrarily  in  issuing 
provisional  acts  and  for  several  years,  from 
1885  to  1894,  financed  the  covemment  throi^ 
provisional  budgets.  All  mis  involved  him  m 
difficulties  with  the  Folkething  and  his  resig- 
nation in  1894  may  be  said  to  mark  the  passing 
ot  power  from  the  upper  house  to  the  lower. 
He  soon  lost  his  inBoence  and  his  opposition  to 
the  sale  of  the  Danish  West  Indies  m  1902  and 
later  to  eleaoral  and  tax  reforms  were  little 

ESTSAnATLBHI,  the  ever-self- renewing 
goddess  of  the  Navajos,  wife  of  the  sun  and 
mother  of  the  two  war  gods.    See  Nahouma. 

ESTUARINE  deposits,  sediments  laid 
down  in  estuaries  along  a  coast  They  are 
frequently  formed  on  great  mud  flats  or  lidsJ 
flats  that  arc  above  the  ocean  water  part  of  the 
time  and  part  of  the  time  submeiBed.  As  a 
result  they  often  partite  both  of  the  nature 
of  marine  sediments  (q.v.)  and  of  terrestrial 
sediments   (q.v.). 

ESTUARY.  Where  a  shore-line  is  sinking 
or  has  been  recently  depressed,  the  rivers,  un- 
less large  and  heavily  charged  with  sediments, 
have  their  valleys  drained  hy  the  encroaching 
sea,  forming  roughly  funnel-snaped  bays.  Such 
bays  are  called  estuaries  and  are  common  along 
the  sinking  Atlantic  Coast  of  North  America. 
Ulustralions  are  seen  in  Passamacnioddy  and 
Narragansett  bays,  the  mouth  of  tiie  Hudson 
River,  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays.  Owing 
to  their  shape,  estuaries  frequently  have  strong 
tidal  currents,  due  to  the  hel^t  of  the  tides,  and 
the  rising  tide  rushes  in  as  waves,  the  most 
remarkable  examples  of  such  surf-like  tidal 
waves,  or  bores,  being  found  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  The  rivers  entering  estuaries  drop 
much  of  their  tine  sediment  there  because  of  the 
chedcinff  of  their  currents  and  the  precipitating 
effect  of  salt  water.  The  strong  tidal  currents 
sweep  away  and  rearrange  these  scdbnents. 
Hence  conditions  on  the  bottoms  of  estuaries 
are  often  unfavoraUe  for  die  growth  of  organ- 
isms, and  the  estuary  deposits  of  past  ages  are 
seldom  ridt  in  fossils,  but  may  oontain  remains 
of  land  organisms  broiwlit  down  by  >  the  old 
river ;  and  the  tidal  Bud-fttts  have  prestrved  Ihe 
prints  of  raindroos,  tba  traces  or  WOnn»  and 
tbe  tracks  of  birds  and  reptika.    See  Rnnas. 


BSZBK— ETAUPES 


es'sek,  or  BSSBO,  Austria-Hun- 

garjr,  royal  free  dty  in  Croatia  and  Slavonic, 
capital  of  the  county  of  Virovitica,  on  the 
Drave,  about  63  miles  west-northwest  of  Peter- 
wardein.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper,  par- 
tially fortified,  and  three  suburbs,  and  is  the 
seat  of  an  appeal  court  for  three  centuries.  lis 
public  buildings  of  note  are  the  Capuchin  and 
Franciscan  monasteries,  the  town  tull,  county 
court  building:,  and  commandant's  residence,  a 
gymnasium,  and  training  school  for  teachers. 
It  haa  manufactures  of  flour,  silk  goods,  leather, 
glass,  etc.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in 
grain  and  meat  and  other  jiroducts  of  the  dis- 
trict. The  four  annual  fairs,  chiefly  for  com, 
cattle  and  hides,  are  important.  As  a  Roman 
colony,  founded  by  the  Emperor  Adrian,  under 
the  name  of  Mursia,  it  became  the  capital  of 
Lower  Pannonia,  and  in  33S  was  made  a  bishop's 
see   by   Constantine.     In   1848  the   Hungarians 


Pop,  31,388,  mostly  Germans, 

BS2TERG0U,  Hungan,;,  royal  free  town 
and  capital  of  the  county  of  E^tergom,  25  miles 
northwest  of  Budapest,  on  the  Danube.  Agri- 
culture is  the  principal  industry;  of  the  inhaott- 
ants  and  there  is  a  large  trade  In  wine.  It  has 
manufactures  of  brick  and  ironware  and  hot 
medicioal  springs  have  made  it  a  health  resort 
The  town  is  the  seat  of  the  Prince  Primate  of 
Hungary;  its  handsome  cathedral  has  a  dome 
like:  Saint  Peter's,  Rome,  and  is  an  imposing 
structure  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style. 
Another  noteworthy  church  is  Saint  Anne's  and 
the  primate's  palaces,  the  ecclesiastical  seminary, 
the  museum,  gynmasiuffl  and  town  hall  are  wdl 
deserving  of  notice.  In  the  cathedral  is  a 
library  of  113,000  volumes  and  many  mantt- 
scripts,  some  of  which  are  invaltiable.  The 
town  IS  one  of  the  oldest  in  Hnnganr;  here 
was  borne  Saint  Stephen,  the  first  fcing  of 
Hungary,  who  established  a  bishop's  see  here 
soon  after  his  conversion  in  the  year  1000.  It 
was  long  of  importance  as  a  commercial  centre, 
bnt  its  destruction  by  the  Tatars  in  1241  caused 
its  decline  and  it  never  regained  its  former 
splendor.  From  IS43  to  1M3  it  was  in  pos- 
session of  the  Turks.     Pop.  17.881. 

ESZTERHAZY.  as-lSr-a-ie,  or  Ss'tSr-ha-iI, 
Marie  Charles  Ferdinand  Walshi,  forger:  b. 
Austria,  16  Dec.  1847.  He  served  in  a  regiment 
of  Papal  Zouaves  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
French  Empire;  was  promoted  commander,  a 
rank  equivalent  to  major  in  other  armies,  in 
1892.  In  the  early  part  of  1897  he  was  retired 
from  the  army.  He  became  notorious  through 
his  connection  with  the  trial  of  Capt.  Alfred 
Dreyfus  (q.v.),  whom  he  accused  as  being  the 
writer  of  tiie  famous  'bordereau,*  alleged  to 
have  been  sent  to  certain  German  military  officers 
revealing  French  militan"  secrets.  In  December 
1894  Dreyfus  was  tried  by  court-martial  and 
convicted  as  the  author  of  the  document,  and  on 
5  Jan.  1895  was  publicly  degraded  and  a  little 
later  sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Devil's  Island.  In 
1856  Colonel  Picquart,  the  head  of  the  intel- 
ligencf  bureau  of  the  war  office,  made  certain 
discoveries  which  pointed  to  Major  Esiterhazy 
as  the  author  of  the  ''bordereau."  These  dis- 
coveries led  to  further  investi^tion  and  Drey- 
fus was  hrourfM  from  his  pnson  and  given  a 
new  trial  in  1899,  bnt  was  again  convicted,  al- 


though much  of  the  evidence  rathered  pointed 
to  Esiterhazy  as  the  forger  of  Dreyfus's  hand- 
writing and  as  the  real  traitor.  So  strong  did 
this  opinion  become  that  Eszterhazy  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  France. 

KSZTKRHAZY      VON      OALANTHA, 

£s'ter-h3-ii  f5n  git-lan'ti,  a  family  of  Hungarian 
magnates,  afterward  princes  of  the  German 
Empire,  whose  authentic  genealogy  goes  back 
to  the  first  half  of  the  13th  century.  They 
were  zealous  partisans  of  the  House  of  Haps- 
burg,  to  whom,  during  the  reigns  of  Frederick 


Estoras,  divided  their  father's  inheritance.  "The 
former  obtained  Zerhaz,  the  latter  Illyeshaza, 
and  thus  became  the  founders  of  two  principal 
hnes,  the  tatter  of  which  became  extinct  in  the 
male  line  in  183S,  with  Count  Stephen  Itlyeshazy. 
Peter's  descendants  took  from  their  domain  the 
name  of  Zerhazy,  till  Francis  Zerhaiy  {b.  1563; 
4  1S9S),  vice-regent  of  the  County  of  Presburg, 
changed  his  name  into  Esrterhaiy  in  1584,  on 
the  occasion  of  his  being  named  Lord  of  Ga- 
lantha.  Among  noted  modem  inheritors  of  the 
name  are  Paul  IV,  Pbiwce  EszTEBHArv,  a  gen- 
eral antl  literary  savant  (1635-1713).  His  grand- 
son, Nicholas  Joseph,  a  great  patron  of  arts 
and  music,  founder  of  the  school  in  which 
Haydn  and  Pleyel,  among  others,  were  formed 
(1714-90) ;  Nicholas,  Prince  Eszterhazy,  dis- 
tinguished as  a  field  marshal  and  foreign  am- 
bassador (1765-1833);  Prince  Paul  Anthony, 
a  distinguished  and  able  diplomatist  (1786- 
1866),  successively  Austrian  ambassador  at 
Dresden,  Rome,  and  Britain,  and  a  supporter 
of  the  National  Hungarian  movement. 
ETA,  or  AETA.    See  Negbitps. 


ite:  b,  aboit  1508;  4  I^.  She  became  the 
mistress  of  Francis  I  to  whose  mother  she  had 
been  maid  of  honor,  but  to  save  appearances 
he  gave  her  for  a  nominal  husband  Jean  de 
Brosse,  afterward  Duke  d'Etampes.  'The  new 
duchess  wielded  a  paramount  influence  in  the 
affairs  of  the  nation.  Upon  the  fine  arts  and 
in  some  other  directions  she  exerted  a  good 
influence,  but  the  jealousy  between  her  and 
Uana  of  Poitiers,  the  mistress  of  the  Dauphin 
Henry,  became  a  source  of  calamity  for  France. 
It  was  chiedy  under  the  influence  of  this  feel- 
ing that  she  betrayed  to  Charles  V  the  move- 
ments of  the  French  army;  and  the  disadvan- 
tageous treaty  of  Cricy  in  1544  was  due  to  the 
intrigues  of  Anne  and  of  Diana.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Dauphin  Henry  to  the  throne  in 
1547  the  Duchesse  d'Etampes  was  banished 
from  court.  She  retired  to  her  extensive  estates 
where  she  became  interested  in  the  Protestant 
cause  and  greatly  aided  the  Huguenots.  She 
is  said  to  have  been  very  beautiful,  highly  edu- 
cated, and  to  have  been  possesssed  of  more 
than  ordinary  intelligence. 

ETAMPBS  (ancient  Stamp*),  France,  a 
town  in  the  department  of  the  Seine-et-Oise, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Etampes  qnd  Juine,  32 
miles  southwest  of  Paris.  Il  has  four  Gothic 
churches,  one  of  them  a  remarkable  structure  of 
the  13th  century;  tanneries  and  bleacheries,  and 
a  considerable  trade  in  corn,  flour  and  prepared 
wool  and  garden  produce.    Pop.  9,454. 


oogle 


BTANG  — ETCHING:  ITS  l^CHNIQUE  AND  GREAT  BUSTERS 


ETANG,  a-taii,  a  French  geographical  term 
apptied  la  the  remarkable  salt  lagoons  and 
marshes  on  the  south  and  west  coasts  of  France. 
The  stagnant  seawater  is  generally  utilized,  as 
in  Brittany  and  in  the  department  of  Bouches- 
de-Rhone  for  the  manufacture  of  salt.  The 
principal  lagoons  of  this  character  in  France  are 
the  Etangs  de  Berre,  de  Sigean,  de  la  Palme, 
and  de  Leucate  on  the  souQi,  and  de  Heurtin, 
de  Caian  and  de  Parentes  on  the  west  coast. 

ETAWAH,  etaVa,  India,  town  in  the 
northwest  provinces,  70  miles  southeast  of  Agra, 
capital  of  the  district  of  Etawah,  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Jurona  River.  It  was  once  the 
residence  of  many  of  the  Mogul  grandees,  and 
it  is  now  an  important  trade  centre.  Pop. 
4S,3S0, 

ETCHEMIN.    See  Malecite, 

ETCHING:  ITS  TECHNIQUE  AND 
GREAT  MASTERS.  An  etching  is  the  proof 
or  picture  an  artist  obtains  b}[  pnnting  from  a 
prepared  plate  of  capper  or  zinc  on  which  the 
lines  and  forms  of  a  subject  had  been  scratched 
by  him  and  then  bittrn-w  by  the  action  of  an 
acid.  It  is  evident  that  to  produce  satisfactory 
work,  the  etcher  must  be  a  good  draughtsman, 
must  have  an  active  imagination,  and 'a  keen 
knowledge  of  the  technique  of  etching  and  print- 
ing. He  must,  moreover,  be  acquainted  with 
the  works  of  the  masters  of  the  art  In  this 
article,  therefore,  the  various  processes  used 
in  producing  an  etching  will  first  be  described, 
and  Chen  the  works  of  the  master-etchers  win 
be  reviewed. 

I,  Technique  or  Etching 
Materials    Employed    in    Etching. —  The 

following  articles  which  can  he  procured  at 
any  artists'  supplies  store  arc  now  generally 
used  in  the  practice  of  the  art : 


bS',XS™"" 

pi%"— 

^^ 

wl^pen 

BoUn 

Cha«:X^ 

Hand-viK 

Crocus  powdir 

PorccUin  tiayi 

Tisdng  paper 

E«tt7p£lS^ 

Plate-wirmer 

WhitenSg 

The  Processes  of  Btchins.— The  several 
steps  taken  in  the  production  of  an  etching-  em- 
brace: grounding  and  smoking  the  plate;  mark^ 
ing  the  outline;  biting-in  by  means  of  an  add; 
and  printing. 

Method  of  Grounding  and  Smoking  the 
Plate. —  After  thoroughly  cleaning  (he  plate  — 
first  with  turpentine  and  a  soft  clean  rag,  and 
then  with  a  little  whitening~-a  handvise  is 
firmly  screwed  on  to  the  middle  of  one  of  its 
long  edges.  To  nrevent  the  jaws  of  the  vise 
from  scratching  the  surface  of  the  plate,  a  piece 
of  thin  cardboard  is  inserted  between  them  and 
the  elate. 

The  plate  is  then  unifonnly  heated  througif' 
out  over  the  flame  of  a  small  gas  jet  or  spirit' 
lam^  and  is  covered  with  what  is  known  as 
eiching-ground  —  i  gummy  preparation  in  the 
form  of  a  ball,  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  silk,  and 
composed  of  mastic  gum  30  parts;  white  wax 
30  parts;  and  asphaltum  15  parts. 

As  it  is  desirable  that  the  ground  be  spread 
over  the  plate  in  an  even  and  thin  film,  it  is 
dabbed  all  over  with  the  dabber.  This  tool  con- 
sists of  a  circular  pad  of  horse-hair  with  card- 


board baddi^,  enveloped  in  two  wrappers,  an 
inner  one  of  cotton-wool,  and  an  outer  one  of 
silk  fabric,  the  latter  stretched  tight,  gathered 
and  tied  in  the  back  to  form  a  handle. 

The  next  step  is  to  smoke  the  ground.  The 
plate  is  again  evenly  heated  and  then  held  over 
a  flame  of  three  or  four  wax  tapers  twisted 
together.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have  only  the 
tip  of  the  flame  touch  the  ground,  while  the 
plate  is  kept  constantly  in  motion,  until  ihf 
whole  ground  is  blackened.  The  etcher  must 
also  see  to  it  that  the  flame  is  not  playing  loo 
long  on  the  same  spot  of  the  ground  or  it  will 
be  Dumt,  When  an  area  of  the  ground,  no 
matter  how  small,  does  get  scorched,  the  whole 
ground  becomes  useless.  After  the  process  of 
smoking  is  completed,  the  back  of  the  plate  is 
coverea  with  some  stopping-out  varnish,  to  pro- 
tect it  against  the  action  of  the  acid  during  the 
subsequent  process  of  etching.  When  the  plate 
has  been  prepared  in  the  manner  described,  it 
is   ready  to   receive  the  outline. 

Method  of  Marking  the  Oullint  oh  the 
Ground. — A  careful  drawing  of  the  subject,  the 
size  of  the  plate,  is  first  made  on  ordinary 
paper,  from  which  a  tracing  is  made  on  tracine 
paper.  After  rubbing  some  lead  on  the  back 
of  this  tracing,  it  is  fastened,  face  upward,  to 
the  smoked  eround  of  the  plate;  and  with  a 
hard  pencil  tne  outline  is  gone  over,  pressing 
lightly.  Upon  removing  the  paper  from  the 
plate,  the  lines  wilt  be  found  transferred  to  its 
surface.  On  this  pencil  impression  as  a  guide, 
the  etcher  next  freely  redraws  the  subject  with 
an  etching  needle,  putting  into  it  all  the  art  at 
his  command  as  regards  beauty  of  line,  form 
and  composition  generally. 

The  needles  tised  to  etdi  with  are  generallj 
made  for  the  purpose,  and  may  be  held  in  a 
handle  specially  contrived.  A  needle  with  a  hne 
oval-shaped  point  is  used  for  putting  in  the 
delicate  lines,  such  as  are  required  in  the  treat- 
ment of  skies  or  distances;  and  one  with  a  blunt 
point  for  the  deeper  lines.  The  point  is  nsei 
with  sufficient  pressure  to  remove  the  ground, 
expose  and  faintly  scratch  the  bare  copper  along 
its  track.  This  faint  outline,  made  by  the 
needle,  is  then  billen-in  to  the  required  depth 
by  immersing  the  plate  in  a  porcdain  tray  ccm- 
taining  an  acid  solution,  called  a  mordant. 

The  Mordants  Used  in  Etching.— The  two 
mordants  now  generally  used  are  the  nitric  and 
the  hydrochloric  acid  lalhs.  The  nitric  mor- 
dant IS  composed  of  nitric  add  equally  diluted 
with  water.  The  hj^drochloric  bath,  known  as 
the  Dutch  mordant,  is  composed  of  chlorate  of 
potash,  2  parts;  hyarochloric  acid,  ID  parts;  and 
pure  water,  88  parts.  The  nitric  mordant  it 
more  liable  to  vary  in  its  action  than  the  hvdn>- 
chloric;  but  it  has  the  great  advantage  of  being 
deddedly  more  rapid,  thus  affording  the  artist 
die  opportunity  of  watching  the  process  of  bit- 
ing and  checking  it  when  neces&ary.  For  this 
reason,  it  is  preferred  by  many  etchers. 

The  action  of  either  mordant  may  be  re- 
tarded or  accelerated  by  the  varying  conditions 
of  the  weather;  it  is  advisable,  therefere,  to  keep 
it  at  a  uniform  temperature  (about  60°  Fahren- 
heit) throughout  the  biting.  This  is  best  regu- 
lated by  performing  the  etching  on  a  plait- 
warmer —  an  iron  box  vjilh  gas-jets  beneath. 

Method  of  Bitiug-m  the  Sketch.— There  are 
two  methods  now  used  in  etching  the  plate.  One 
way  is  by  the  process  of  stoppittg-out.     The 


.yGooi^le 


.yGooi^le 


BTCHING:  ITS  l^CEQtlQUB  AND  QRBAT  UA8TXRS 


plate  is  unmersed  in  the  acid  bath  for  about  Sve 
minutes,  if  in  the  nitric  mordant  and  three 
times  as  Iook  in  the  hydrochloric.  Thia  will 
suffice  for  the  lightest  tints  to  be  bitten-in. 
After  withdrawing  the  plate  from  the  bath,  it  is 
washed,  and  dried  between  blotters,  and  the 
light  lines  are  painted  over  with  t topping-out 
varnish  —  a  combination  of  resin  dissolved  in 
turpentine  to  which  a  little  lamp-black  had  been 

When  dry,  the  plate  is  returned  to  the  bath 
and  kept  there  for  about  10  minutes.  As  after 
the  first  biting,  the  plate  is  again  taken  out, 
washed,  dried  and  the  next  deeper  tones 
stopped-out.  The  process  is  repeated  tour  or 
five  times  until  the  darkest  tints  have  been  pro- 
duced. ^Abotit  30  minutes  in  the  nitric  mordant 
is  sufficient  to  bite-tn  the  deepest  lines. 

A  more  satisfactory  way  of  etching  the  plate 
consists  in  taking  several  different  proofs  dar- 
ing the  process  of  biting.  This  method  is  as 
follows :  The  etcher  makes  his  drawing  on  the 
grounded  plate  with  the  needle,  putting  in  only 
the  lines  representing  the  middle  and  dark  tones, 
and  leaving  the  light  lines  for  subseqwent  treat- 
ment. The  plate  is  immersed  in  the  mordant 
tor  about  IS  minutes- — just  long  enough  to  bite- 
in  the  middle  tint.  After  removing  the  ground 
with  turpentine  and  thoroughly  cleaning  it,  a 
proof  is  taken  and  the  parts  intended  to  be 
darker  are  rebitten  in  the  same  lines.  This  of 
course  necessitates  the  regrounding  of  the  plate 
without  .filling  up  the  hnes  already  bitten-in. 
To  accomplish  this,  a  very  thin  film  of  grounij 
b  spread  upon  another  heated  plate,  and  the 
roller,  thinly  charged  with  it,  is  lightly  passed 
over  the  etched  plate,  also  warmed  for  the  pur- 
pose. When  the  plate  has  been  rebitten,  another 
proof  is  taken,  and  if  the  middle  tint  then  proves 
to  be  satisfactory,  successive  bilings  are  made] 
and  proofs  taken  to  obtain  the  dark  tones.  The 
middle  and  dark  tones  settled,  the  etcher  next 
completely  covers  the  plate  with  transparent 
etching-ground  or  stopping-out  varnish  so  as  to 
fill  up  the  lines  and  protect  the  spaces  between 
them,  and  draws  in  the  delicate  lines  intended  to 
represent  the  pale  tints.  These  are  bitten-in  and 
the  final  proofs  taken. 

Correcting  Proceises. — Light  lines  that  have 
Seen  over-bitten  may  be  reduced  by  rubbing 
with  a  piece  of  charcoal  moistened  with  olive 
oil.  Deep  erasures  are  made  with  Ae  scraper 
—  a  kind  ot  a  knife,  triangular  in  section,  and 
coming  to  a  point.  The  polished  surface  in  an 
erased  area  is  resained  by  the  use  of  the  bur- 
nisher—  a  polished  tool,  made  of  steel  and 
tapering  to  a  point.  The  burnisher  is  also  used 
to  slightly  reduce  an  over-bitten  passage  by 
rubbing  it  on  the  plate,  pressing,  thereby,  the 
copper  more  together  into  the  lines. 

Auxiliary  Processes. —  Etched  plates  are 
frecjuently  finished  and  enriched  with  what  are 
known  as  dry-point  and  soft  ground  etching. 
Dry-point  is  the  name  given  to  a  form  of  en- 
graving in  which  the  lines  are  cut  directly  into 
the  dry  plate  by  means  of  the  needle,  and  with- 
out the  use  of  a  mordant.  It  is  remarkable  for 
yielding  rich  and  velvehr  proofs,  which  is  due 
to  the  ftwrr  or  rough  ed^e  of  the  copper,  pro- 
produced  by  the  point  as  it  cuts  the  plate.  Dry- 
point  is  employed  to  deepen  foreground  tones, 
and  with  the  burr  removed  by  means  of  the 
scraper)  it  is  also  useful  for  patting  in  the 
delicate  maridngs  in  a  composition.    Prints  are 

VtJt.  10—34 


often  made  of  plates  produced  entirely  by  dry- 
point.  In  soft  ground  etching,  the  plate  is 
covered  with  etching-ground  mixed  with  tal- 
low, to  prevent  it  from  hardening,  and  a  piece 
of  slightly  rough  ps^r  is  laid  over  it  on  which 
the  artist  makes  his  drawing  with  a  lead  pencil. 
When  the  paper  is  removed  it  brings  off  with 
it  etching-ground,  exposing  the  copper  in  such 
a  manner  that  when  bitten-in  and  printed,  the 
plate  will  yield  a  proof  having  much  of  the 
quality  of  a  pencil  drawing. 

Method  of  Printing.— The  apparatus  and 
articles  necessary  for  printing  include : 


Prm^na  i^  , 

A  printer's  dabber  Paper 

A  palette  Imifs  Pririier'i  blanlteti 

Proofs  are  made  from  the  etched  plate  in 
the  following  manner :  After  thoroughly  clean- 
ing it,  first  with  turpentine  and  then  with  a 
little  olive  oil,  the  printer,  by  means  of  the 
dabber,  covers  the  whole  plate  with  thick  oily 
ink,  usually  of  a  brownish  tint,  taking  care  to 
fill  up  the  lines.  With  coarse  canvas  he  then 
wipes  out  the  superfluous  ink  from  the  surface. 
In  that  portion  of  the  sketch  where  a  sombre 
and  mysterious  effect  is  desired,  he  allows  a 
thin  film  of  the  ink  to  remain  on  the  surface 
of  the  plate;  in  another  part  which  should  be 
light,  sharp  and  vivid,  he  wipes  the  surface  of 
the  plate  dry  and  clean  until  it  shines.  In  an 
area  where  the  lines  should  be  soft  and  velvety, 
he  draws  the  ink  out  of  the  lines  and  over  their 
edges  by  means  of  a  piece  of  soft  old  mnslin. 
When  the  plate  has  been  inked  and  wiped  it  is 
laid  face  upwards  on  the  platform  of  the  press 
upon  which  had  been  first  spread  several  print- 
ing blankets  of  soft  woolen  clotK  A  dampened 
piece  of  Japan  paper  or  vellum  is  then  laid  over 
the  plate  and  covered  with  more  blankets.  The 
press  is  slowly  set  in  motion,  and  the  plate,  cov- 
ered by  the  paper  and  blankets,  passes  under  the 
heavy  revolving  roller.  The  pressure  causes 
tfie  inked  lines  and  tones  in  the  plate  to  be 
transferred  to  the  paper. 

II.  The  Great  Masters  of  ErcHiNa 
Of  all  the  graphic  and  plastic  arts,  the  art 
of  etching  has  always  had  a  profound  fascina- 
tion for  the  true  artist,  painter  or  sculptor. 
When  weary  of  the  more  exacting  arts  of  paint- 
ing or  sculpture,  he  frequently  finds  diversion  in 
the  joys  of  handling  the  copper  plate  and  etch- 
ing needle.  Since  the  early  part  of  the  16th 
centuty  when  etching  was  originated,  wt  has 
steadily  risen  into  high  artistic  favor,  so  that 
now  some  of  the  very  greatest  names  in  thf 
art  history  of  England,  France,  Germany,  Hol- 
land, Spam  and  the  United  States  appear  in  the 
list  of  those  who  have  enriched  the  world  with 
improvisations  in  this  medium. 

EtchiniT  in  England. —  England  has  pro- 
duced many  great  painter-etchers.  The  most 
significant  are  Turner,  Haden  and  Brangwyn. 
In  the  etchings  of  J.  M.  W.  Turner  (1775- 
1851)  which  were  published  in  his  'Uber 
Studiorum,'  he  makes  the  same  appeal  to  the 
imagination  as  in  his  famous  paintings,  by  cast- 
ing an  indefinable  glamor  over  the  bits  of  nature 
he  interpreted.  Technically,  he  was  remark- 
able for  having  the  power  of  selecting  the  main 
lines  of  a  subject  which  he  rendered  boldly, 
depending  upon  mezzotinting  for  the  deticate 


.lOOg  Ic 


sao 


BTCmNO:  ITS  TECHNIQUE  AStti    ORKAT  MASTERS 


tonies.  Sir  Frailds  SeymoDr  Haden  (1818- 
1913),  who  was  a  London  physician  profes- 
sionally, practised  the  art  ai  etching  merely  as  a 
pastime.  Nevertheless,  he  ranks  as  one  of  the 
greatest  of  modern  landscape  etchers.  He  was 
very  skilful  in  depicting  the  poetry  of  still 
waters,  the  movement  of  clouds,  and  the  beauty 
of  trees,  silhouetted  agiainst  the  sky.  On  purely 
technical  grounds  "he  is  incomparable,  having  in- 
vented several  processes  which  he  employed  in 
the  production  of  his  worfe.  His  masterpieces 
for  which  he  was  knighted  by  his  sovereign  are 
'The  Agamemnon,'  'Whistler's  House'  and 
'Harlech.'  Frank  Brangwyn,  although  still  a 
young  man,  has  already  won  for  himself  first 
rank  among  the  British  contemporary  painters 
and  etchers.  His  prints  of  Italian,  French  and 
English  subjects  are  famous  for  vigor  of 
handling,  ricn  blacks,  and  clever  adjustment  of 

Etching:  in  France.— France  has  given  the 
world  a  legion  of  etchers,  including  Qaude  Lor- 
rain,  Delacroix,  Daubigny,  Jacque,  Millet, 
Jacquemarl,  Meryon  and  Legros.  Bui  all  of 
these  have  attained  greater  fame  in  painting, 
with  the  exception  of  Meryon  and  Legros,  who 
rank  very  high  as  etchers  pure  and  simple. 
Oiarles  Miryon  (1821-68)  etched  for  the 
most  part  the  quaint  old  buildings  and  streets 
of  Old  Paris,  depicting  them  with  such  depth  of 
poetic  feeling  that  they  give  one  the  same  over- 
whelming sensation  that  he  experiences  in  list- 


one  day,  in  a  moment  of  despair,  he  destroyed, 
some  of  his  most  magnificent  plates.  Finally, 
through  adverse  fortune,  he  became  mentally 
unbalanced  and  died  in  an  insane  asylum.  And 
now  tiiat  the  master  ie  at  rest,  some  of  his 
proofs  sell  for  thousands  of  dollars  each, 
Alphonse  Legros  (1837)  has  produced  etchings 


Le  P«it  Ponl  (M«ry<n4 

ening  to  Beethoven's  'Heroic  Symphony'  or  in 
viewing  Michael  Angelo's  'Day.'  His  etchings 
are  indeed  the  sublime  exnression  of  a  great  and 
inspired  loul.  And  yet.  this  rare  Kenins  was  so 
little  appreciated  during  his  lifetime  that  his 
finest  nroofs  sold  for  only  30  cent?  each.  He 
took  this  public  JndifFerence  much  to  heart,  aiid 


RntnM  et  D«loa  (L«v<w) 

which  are  austere  and  gloomy  in 
simple  in  execution.  His  portrait  of  the  sciJp- 
tor  Dalou  and  "The  Deatli  of  the  Vagabond* 
are  considered  his  best  prints. 

Diirer    and    Etching    in    GermMny. —  The 

Beat  pictorial  genius  of  Germany  is  Albredu 
iirer  (1471-1528)  who  excelled  in  painting, 
engraving  and  etching.  He  was  among  the  first 
to  practise  the  art  of  etching  in  which,  as  in 
the  other  arts,  he  shows  himself  a  man  of  in- 
tense seriousness,  of  powerful  but  sDme^vbat 
.»^..k:j     :»_»:»...>!»-.      „-j     „r     _     — f-:i ^-f-:^^i 


of 


!  t' 


n  ihTs 


British  I 

Etching  ii 
land  who  also 


n  the 


I  Hollands  The  painters  of  Hol- 
1  practiced  the  art  of  etching  are 
Ostade,  Paul  Potter,  Ruysdiel,  Everdingen  and 
Rembrandt  Van  Ryn  (1606-^),  the  greatest 
painter  and  etcher  who  has  ever  livecC  It  is 
common  knowledge  thai  he  was  a  great  painter, 
but  many  are  the  critics  who  are  of  the  opinion 
that  he  is  even  greater  as  an  etcher.  This 
"Wizard  of  the  North,"  as  Rembrandt  has  been 
called,  was  a  robust  and  versatile  genius,  hav- 
ing 9uch  keen  powers  of  observation  and  great 
technical  skill,  that  with  ■  few  lines  he  could 


.Google 


STCHMIADSIN-ETHAME 


iaffi  range  from  tbe  humble  and  lowly  to  the 
majestic  and  sublime ;  from  'A  Group  of  Beg- 
gars' to  'Christ  Healing  the  Sick* ;  but  in  all 
we  feel  the  same  master  hand  and  mind. 

Etching  in  Spun The  one  artist  in  die 

bisiory  of  SpaniEn  art  who  has  especially  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  an  etcher  is  Francisco 
de  Goya  (1746-1828).  He  was  a  man  of  great 
physical  energy  and  courage,  and  an  open  revo- 
lutionary in  religion  and  politics;  but  possessed 
of  a  morbid  imagination.  All  these  personal 
characteristics  found  expression  in  his  etchings 
which  he  produced  in  several  series.  The  most 
noted  are  'The  Caprices'  (80  plates),  which 
have  an  importaj:!  philosophical  bearing;  and 
'Disasters  of  War>  (80  plates)^  with  which  he 
tried  to  make  men  disgusted  with  war. 

Etching  in  the  United  States.— The  art  of 
etching  in  the  United  Slates  was  first  practised 
by  Wiffiam  Dunlap  about  1830.  Since  then  very 
many  painter- etchers  have  appeared,  including 
Peter  Moran,  Farrer,  Falconer,  Gilford,  Smilie, 
Parish,  Church,  Bach er.  Whistler  and  Pennell, 
Of  these.  Whistler  and  Pennell  have  won  inter- 
national fame.  James  A.  McNeill  Whistler 
(183*-1903)  as  an  etcher  is  ranked  with  Rem- 
brandt and  Meryon.  His  subj  ects  include 
figure  compositions,  Holland,  Venetian  and 
Paris  street  scenes  and  London  wharves,  which 
he  etched  with  consummate  skill  and  refinement. 
Of  his  street  scenes,  his  most  famous  are  'A 
Street  at  Savem'  and  'The  Unsafe  Tenement.' 
His  'La  Vieille  aux  Loques'  is  considered  his 
best  figure  print.  Joseph  Pennell  (1860—)  has 
etched  a  series  of  plates  of  Spanish,  Italian, 
London,  Philadelphia  and  New  York  subjects, 
which  are  remarkable  for  spontatiaty  and  spir- 
ited execution.  His  proofs  of  the  New  Vork 
'sky-scrapers'  are  particnlarty  famous.  See 
EnotAviKCL 

A,    G.    SCHtJLMAN, 

Department  of  Art,  College  Cily  of  New  York. 

ETCHMIADSIN,  a  celebrated  Armenian 
monastery  in  the  Transcaucasian  province  of 
Erivan,  10  miles  west  of  Erivan.  It  consists  of 
three  groups  of  buildings,  surrounded  by  a 
high  brick  wall  and  from  a  distance  has  the 
at^nrance  of  a  fortress.  It  contains  a  the- 
olof^cal  seminary,  a  library,  with  Armenian 
manuscripts,  and  several  churches,  of  which  the 
Sho^iakath  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Saint  Gregory.  It  has  a  Byzantine  cupola  and 
its  walls  are  decotatcd  in  Persian  style.  The 
monastery  is  the  seat  of  the  Armenian  primate 
and  since  the  Russian  occupation  also  of  the 
Armenian  Holy  Synod,  The  monastery  was 
founded  in  the  6th  century  and  was  ceded  to 
Russia  after  the  Russo-Persian  War  of  1827. 

ETEOCLES,  «-ti'o-klgz,  and  POLY- 
NIC  ES,  pdl-i-nt's£z.  two  heroes  of  ancient 
Greek  legend,  sons  of  CBdipus,  king  of  Thebes. 
After  their  father's  banishment  from  Thebes, 
Eteodet  usurped  the  thrcMe  to  the  exclusion  of 
his  bnother.  whom  he  drove  from  Thebes,  an 
act  wfaicfa  led  to  what  was  known  as  «The  Ex- 
pedition of  the  Seven  Against  Thebes,"  Poly- 
nices  being  one  of  the  seven  leaders.  Poljmices 
went  to  the  court  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos. 
There  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  latter 
and  induced  his  father-in-law  to  help  him 
against  Thebes.  The  two  brothers  fell  by  each 
other's  hand.  The  intennent  of  Polynices  was 
forbidden  under  petialty  «f  death,  but  Antigone 


(q.v.),  his  sister,  braved  the  doom  decreed. 
Racine  has  dramatired  this  story  with  some 
poetical  variations  in  his  'Freres  Ennemis,'  but 
the  story  was  famous  long  before  he  took  it  up, 


lus  used  it  in  his  'The  Seven  Against  Thebes,' 
and  Euripides  in  his  'Phunissce*  while  it  enters 
into  the  story  plot  of  other  Greek  writings. 
Consuh  Bel  he,  'Thebanische  Heldenlieder' 
(Leipzig  1891).     See  Adrastus, 

ETERNAL  CITY,  The.  Rome,  the  capital 
of  Italy,  Legend  states  that  it  was  raiatid 
hv  or  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the 
immortal  gods.  The  term  is  frequently  to  be 
met  in  classic  literature.  'Ave,  Roma  Immor- 
talis'  is  the  thle  of  a  historical  work  on  the 
Italian  capital,  by  Francis  Marion  Crawford. 
'The  Eternal  Gty'  is  the  title'  of  a  novel  by 
Hall  Caine.  published  in  1901,  the  scene  of 
which  is  laid  in  Rome.  It  was  dramatized  and 
produced  simultaneously  in  England  aod  in  the 
United  States  in  1902.  (See  Rome).  Consult 
Moore,  F.  G„  'Urbs  /Eterna  and  Urbs  Sacra* 
(Trantaclioni  of  the  American  Phiiosophical 
Association,  Vol.  25,  1894). 

ETERNITY,  Cape,  headland  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Sagticnay  lUver,  Canada,  about  40 
miles  up  the  river.  It  has  an  elevation  of  about 
1300  feet  and  is  a  prominent  feature  of  tlu 
landscape. 

ETESIAN  WINDS,  winds  blowing  at 
stated  times  of  the  year;  applied  especially  to 
north  and  northeast  winds  which  prevail  at 
certain  seasons  in  the  Mediterranean  regions; 
They  are  due  to  the  heat  of  the  African  Sahara; 
which  causes  a  huge  displacement  of  air  due 
to  superheating.  This  is  supplied  by  the  cooler 
air  from  Southern  Europe. 

ETEX,  Antoine,  afi-twan  S'tSks,  French 
sculptor,  painter,  architect,  engraver  and  writer: 
b.  Paris,  20  March  1808;  d.  Chaville,  16  July 
1888.  He  studied  under  Ingres,  Dupaty,  Pradier 
tmd  Duban.    He  took  the^  second  grand  prize  of 


(1841).  Among  bis  other  works  in  sculpture 
are  'Cain  and  His  Cursed  Race>  (1833)  ;  'Re- 
sistance of  France  to  Coalition  of  1814,'  and 
'Peace,'  for  the  Arc  de  I'Etoile;  group,  'Cirt 
of  Paris  Imploring  God  for  Victims  of  Chol- 
era' ;  'Charlemagne' ;  equestrian  statue  of  Char- 
les I.  Among  his  paintings  are  'Romeo  and 
Juliet';  'Faust  and  Marguerite';  'Allegorical 
Glory  of  the  United  States,'  for  City  Hall, 
New  York  (1853).  Among  his  literary  works 
are  'Notes  on  Paul  Delaroche'  (1857) ;  'Study 
of  Life  and  Works  of  Ary  SchxfFer'  (1859): 
'Textbook  for  the  Polytechnicat  Asaodadon, 
for  Students  and  Workmen'  (1861). 

ETHANE,  CiHt,  a  gaseous  hydrocarbon  be- 
longing to  the  paraffin  series  and  constituting 
its  second  member  (the  first  being  methane,  or 
marsh-gas).  It  occurs  in  the  gases  that  are 
given  off  by  crude  petroleum,  and  it  may  be 
prepared  by  heating  methyl  iodide  with  metallic 
zinc  in  closed  tubes  at  300°  F. ;  the  iodide  of 
methyl  that  is  required  being  obtained  by  acting 
upon  methyl  alcohol  (see  Alcohol)  with 
iodine,  in  the  presence  of  phosphorus.  Ethane 
is  also  liberated  at  the  anode,  together  with 
carbon  dioxide  in  the  electrolysis  of  a  concen- 


.ogle 


BTHE  — BTMELRBD   II 


trated  Miction  of  sodium  acetate.  It  is  a  color- 
less ^,  which  bums  with  a  pale  flame  and 
combines  with  water,  under  pressure,  lo  form  a 
Ctvstalline  hydrate.  Chlorine  combines  with 
ethane  rapidly,  in  diffuse  daylight,  with  the 
fonnation  of  ethyl  chlorid,  C.H,Ci ;  but  if 
excess  of  chlorine  is  present,  higher  substitution 
products  are  also  formed,  terminating  with 
hexachlorethane,  CJZU.  Ethane  is  also  known 
as  'ethyl  hydrid." 

ETHE,  (Karl)  Hermann,  German  Oriental 
scholar:  b.  Stralsund  1844.  He  received  his 
education  at  the  universities  of  Greifswald  and 
Leipzig.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  privatdozent 
in  Arabic,  Persian  and  Turkish  in  Munich, 
Five  years  later  he  visited  Oxford  for  the 
purpose  of  cataloguing  the  Oriental  manu- 
scripts in  the  Bodleian  Library  there,  the  first 
volume  of  his  catalogue  making  its  appearance 
in  1889.  He  was  made  professor  of  German 
and  Oriental  languages  at  University  College, 
Aberystwyth,  Wales,  in  187S.  His  varied 
labors  include  a  catalogue  of  the  Persian  docu- 
ments in  the  India  ofRce  library,  a  critical  text 
of  *Ytisuf  and  Zalikhi'  (1908) ;  'Gnmdriss  . 
der  ivanischen  Philologie,'  and  articles  on  pro- 
fessional topics  in  the  Atheiueum,  etc 

ETHELBALD,  or  JETHEL6ALD,  king 
of  Mercia:  b.  date  unknown;  d.  757.  He  was 
the  son  of  Alweo  and  succeeded  to  the  throne 
after  the  death  of  Ceolred  in  516.  Within  IS 
years  he  succeeded  in  making  subject  to  him 
all  the  princes  and  peoples  of  the  southern  and 
central  parts  of  England  as  far  as  the  Mumber. 
In  740  he  invaded  Northumbria  and  two  years 
later  led  a  successful  campaign  against  the 
Welsh.  In  752  he  was  vanquisHed  at  Burford 
by  Cuthred,  king  of  the  West  Saxons.  It  is 
supposed  that  Ethelbald  was  murdered  by  his 
gtiards.  Consult  Green,  'Conquest  of  England' 
(New  York  1884). 

ETHELBALD,  king  of  Wessex:  d.  860. 
He  was  a  son  of  Ethelwulf,  king  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons;  was  present  with  his  father  at  the 
victory  over  the  Danes  at  Ockley  in  851,  and 
obtained  the  throne  of  Wessex  in  856.  While 
Ethelwulf  was  making  a  journey  to  Rome, 
Ethelbald  formed  the  project  of  seizing  the 
throne.  A  civil  war  was  prevented  only  by 
the  moderation  of  Ethelwulf,  who  resigned  to 
his  son  the  dominion  of  Wessex  and  confirmed 
that  portion  of  the  kingdom  to  him  in  his  will. 
The  reign  of  Ethelbald  was  peaceful,  but  he 
excited  general  disapprobation  by  marrying, 
contrary  to  the  canonical  law,  his  stepmother, 
Judith. 

ETHELBERT,  king  of  Kent :  b.  about  552 ; 
d.  616.  He  married  Bertha,  the  daughter  of 
Charibert,  king  of  the  Franks,  and  a  Christian 
princess,  who,  stipulating  for  free  exercise  of 
her  religion,  brought  over  with  her  a  Prankish 
bishop.  Her  conduct  was  so  exemplary  as  lo 
prepossess  the  king  and  his  court  in  favor  of 
the  Christian  religion.  In  consequence,  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great  sent  a  mission  of  40  monks, 
headed  by  Augustine,  to  preach  the  gospel  to 
die  Saxons  (597).  They  were  well  received 
and  nimibers  were  converted ;  and  the  king  him- 
self at  length  submitted  to  be  baptized.  Civi- 
lization and  knowledge  followed  Christianity, 
and  Ethelbert.  about  600,  enacted  a  body  of 
laws,  which  was  the  first  written  code  promul- 


gated by  the  northern  conquerors.    At  the  time 


Humbcr.  Ethelbert  founded  the  see  of  Rodi- 
ester  in  604  and  built  the  first  cathedral,  and 
afterward  that  of  London,  and  built  the  church 
of  Saint  Paul.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  soil 
Eadbald. 

ETHELBERT,  king  of  Kent  and  Wessex: 
d.  866.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Ethelwulf 
and  succeeded  to  the  government  of  Kent  about 
855.  and  in  860,  on  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Ethelbald,  became  king  of  Wessex.  His  reign 
was  much  disturbed  by  the  inroads  of  the  Danes 
and  Gaulisl^  pirates,  whom  he  repulsed  with 
vigor,  but  without  permanent  success  as,  when- 
ever they  were  driven  from  one  part  of  the 
country,  they  ravaged  another, 

BTHELFLEDA,  or  AETHELFLA'  ED, 
eldest  daughter  of  Alfred  the  Great,  king  of 
England,  and  often  referred  to  as  the  Lady  of 
the  Mercians.  She  was  bom  about  870;  d. 
Tamworth,  12  June  918.  In  886  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Aethelred,  Earl  of  Mercia,  and  with 
him  she  held  Mercia  when  her  brother  Edward 
ascended  the  throne.  They  fortified  Chester  in 
907  and  with  the  Danes  held  off  the  Norwegians 
when  the  latter  besieged  Chester  in  909.  Later, 
with  the  Scots  (Irish)  and  Welsh,  she  formed 
an  alliance  to  resist  the  barbarians  from  the 
north.  Her  husband  died  about  911  and  Ethd- 
fleda  lost  Middlesex  and  Oxfordshire  to  her 
brother  but  managed  to  hold  the  rest  of  her 
territory.  In  916  she  led  an  expedition  gainst 
the  Welsh,  look  Derby  in  917  from  the  Danes 
and  Leicester  and  York  in  918.  She  was  buried 
in  Saint  Peter's,  Gloucester.  Having  wielded 
almost  royal  authority  the  title  of  queen  is 
frequently  given  her  by  the  chroniclers.  Con- 
sult 'Saxon  Chronicle'  ;  'Fragments  of  Irish 
Annals,'  edited  by  D.  O'Conor, 

ETHELRSD  I,  king  of  England:  d  871. 
He  was  the  fourth  son  of  Ethelvirulf  and  suc- 
ceeded, his  brother,  Ethelbert,  in  866.  Assisted 
by  his  brother,  Alfred  the  Great  (by  whom  he 
was  succeeded),  Ethelred  drove  the  Danes  from 
the  centre  of  Merda,  where  they  bad  pene- 
trated, but  the  Mercians  refusing  to  act  with 
him,  he  was  obliged  to  trust  to  the  West  Sax- 
ons alone,  his  hereditary  subjects.  Notwith- 
standing various  successes,  especially  a  great 
victory  at  Ashdown,  the  menace  of  the  invaders 
continually  increased. 

ETHELRED  II,  king  of  England:  h.  968; 
d.  London,  23  April  1016.  He  succeeded  his 
brother,  Edward  the  Martyr,  in  978,  and,  for 
want  of  sound  judgment  and  sagacin-,  was  sur- 
named  the  "Unready'  (without  rede  or  coun- 
sel). Abouf981  the  Danes,  who  had  for  some 
time  ceased  their  inroads,   renewed  them  with 

Ereat  fury.  In  his  reign  began  the  practice  of 
uying  them  off  with  ever-increasing  presents 
of  money.  After  repeated  parents  of  tribute 
(see  DanoxU))  he  effected,  in  1002,  a  general 
massacre  of  the  Danes  in  England.  Such 
revenge  only  rendered  his  enemies  more  violent; 
and  in  1003  Sweyn  and  his  Danes  carried  fire 
and  sword  through  the  country.  They  were 
again  bribed  to  o^>art;  but,  upon  a  new  in- 
vasion, Sweyn  obUged  the  notiles  to  swear 
allegiance  to  him  as  king  of  En^and;  while 
Ethelred,  in  1013,  fled  to  Normandy  with  Us 


BTHBLRXD  A — KSTHBR 


fasiily.  On  the  death  of  Sweyn,  in  1013,  he  was 
invited  by  the  national  council  to  resume  the 
government  Ethelred,  in  1002,  married,  as  his 
second  wife,  Emma,  sister  o£  the  Norman  Duke 
Richard  II,  by  whom  he  was  father  of  Edward 
the  Confessor.  His  reign  is  described  by 
Freeman  as  the  worst  and  most  shameful  in 
English  annals. 

ETHELRBDA,  Saint,  East  Anglian  prin- 
cess: b.  Exrving,  Suffolk;  d.  Ely,  23  June  679. 
Although  twice  married  she  never  lived  in  wed- 
lock with  either  of  her  husbands  but  kept  her 
monastic  vow.  She  finally  became  abbess  of 
Dy,  and  the  county  fair  held  in  the  Isle  of  Ely 
on  her  day,  after  her  canonization  as  Saint 
Ethelreda  or  Audrey,  gave  rise  to  the  expres- 
sion "tawdry,*  as  mdicating  something  cheap 
and  fine,  such  as  would  be  ofFered  for  sale  in  a 
village  booth. 

ETHKLWULF.  king  of  England:  d.  858. 
He  succeded  bis  father,  Egbert,  in  839,  and  soon 
after  his  accession  associated  ms  son  Athelstan 
with  him,  giving  him  the  sovereisnty  over 
Essex,  Kent  and  Sussex.  In  851  the  Danes 
poured  into  the  country  in  such  numbers  that 
they  threalcned  to  subdue  it;  and  though  op- 
posed with  great  vigor  by  Athelstan,  they  fixed 
their  winter  quarters  in  England,  ajid  next  year 
burned  Canterbury  and  London.  After  inflict- 
ing a  great  defeat  on  the  Danes  at  Ockley,  he 
went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Kome,  and  on  his  re- 
turn found  his  son  Cthelbald  in  revolt  against 
him.  In  order  to  avoid  a  civil  war,  he  gave  up 
the  western  division  of  ^e  kingdom  to  his  son, 
retaining  Kent  for  himself.  The  youngest  of 
his  childrcD  was  Alfred  the  Great, 

BTHENDUN,  Battle  of,  the  victory  which 
Alfred  the  Great  g^ned  over  the  Danes  (S^S), 
and  which  led  to  the  treaty  with  Guthrum,  the 
Danish  king  of  East  England.  The  locality 
where  the  battle  was  fought  is  sammsed  to  be  at 
Edington,  in  Wiltshire. 

ETHER,  ETHYL  ETHER,  DIETHYL 
ETHER,  or  SULPHURIC  ETHER.  When 
the  term  ether  is  used  without  qualifica- 
tion, diethyl  ether  (CHO.O,  is  universally 
understood  to  be  meant,  just  as  ethyl  alcohol 
is  understood,  when  alcohol  is  mentioned 
without  qualification.  Ether  is  prepared  by 
distilling  a  mixture  of  five  parts  of  90  per 
cent  alcohol  and  nine  parts  of  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  at  a  temperature  of  285°  F., 
alcohol  being  fed  continuously  into  the  retort 
during  the  operation.  The  distillate  is  treated 
with  lime  to  remove  traces  of  sulphuric  acid, 
and  dried  with  calcium  chloride,  and  is  then 
redistilled.  The  substance  so  obtained  is  a 
mobile,  colorless,  inflammable  liquid  of  agree- 
able odor,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  about  0.72 
at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  volatilizes  rapidly 
with  the  production  of  great  cold.  Its  vapor 
mixed  with  air  is  highly  explosive.  It  will  not 
mix  with  water  to  any  great  extent,  but  will 
mix  readily  with  many  organic  fluids,  and  also 
with  liquid  carbon  dioxide.  It  dissolves 
bromine  and  iodine,  sulphur  and  phosphorus 
sparingly,  guncotlon,  rubber,  most  of  the  resins 
and  fats,  and  many  of  the  alkaloids.  It  boils 
at  95°  F.,  under  a  pressure  of  one  atmosphere, 
and  at  200°  P.  below  lero  it  freezes  into  a 
crystalline  solid,  which  melts  again  at  about 
180°  F.  below  zero.    A  hydrate  of  ether  is  ob- 


tained by  evaporating  aqueous  ether  on  blot- 

tingpaper.    It  becomes  solid  at  26°  F. 

The  inhalation  of  the  vapor  of  ether  pro- 
duces insensibility  and  it  is  used  for  this  pur- 
pose in  surgical  operations.  Ether  is  also  used 
anEBsthetically  in  the  form  of  a  spray  produc- 
ing an  intense  cold  with  inhibition  of  pain 
locally.     See  Etcieks. 

ETHER,  The,  or  COSMICAL  ETHER, 
in  physics  and  astronomy,  postulated  material 
substance,  which  is  assumed  to  fill  all  space, 
and  to  penetrate  freely  among  the  ultimate 
particles  of  which  all  matter  is  composed.  It 
IS  not  in  any  way  related  to  the  substance  known 
as  "ether"  to  the  chemist,  and  the  identity  in 
name  is  unfortunate.  The  physicist  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  priority,  however,  and  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  change  the  name  because  the  chemist 
subsequently  appropriated  it  for  something  else. 
Although  it  has  not  been  possible  to  determine 
the  properties  of  the  ether  of  physics,  the  ad- 
mission of  its  existence  seemed  a  necessity  of 
scientific  reasoning.  For  we  know  that  light  ij 
some  kind  of  a  periodic  disturbance,  and  we 
know  that  it  travels  through  interstellar  space 
with  a  definite,-  finite  speed.  It  appears  absurd 
to  suppose  that  a  motion  of  any  kind  could  take 
place  in  a  void,  in  which  there  was  nothing  to  be 
moved ;  and  hence,  as  has  been  said,  it  appears 
to  be  a  logical  necessity  to  assume  the  existence 
of  some  kind  of  a  lumintferous  (light-bearing) 
ether  throughout  space.  As  soon  as  we  begin 
to  inquire  closely  into  its  nature,  however,  we 
encounter  difficulties  that  have  proved  insuper- 
able. Obviously  our  conclusions  in  this  respect 
depended  to  a  large  extent  upon  a  study  of  the 
phenomena  of  light  and,  later,  of  electricity, 
and  of  the  kind  of  motion  that  would  be  com- 
petent to  produce  those  phenomena.  Naturally 
the  assumption  was  first  made  that  the  ether, 
when  submitted  to  stress,  conforms  to  the  same 
laws  of  elasticity  that  hold  true  in  ordinary  mat- 
ter. (See  ELASTiciry).  In  that  case  the  full 
mathematical  theory  of  the  motion  of  the  ether 
would  involve  no  less  than  21  numerical  coeffi- 
cients, if  the  ether  were  anisotropic  And  it  is 
as  reasonable  to  believe  that,  whatever  its 
nature  may  be,  it  is  the  same  in  all  its  parts, 
and  that  its  properties,  whatever  they  may  be, 
are  the  same  in  all  directions.  If  these  two 
facts  are  admitted  —  that  is,  if  the  ether  be  ad- 
mitted to  be  isotropic — then  the  number  of  con- 
stants involved  in  the  theory  reduces  to  two. 
These,  as  is  explained  in  the  article  Ei.asticitv, 
are  (1)  the  modulus  of  compressibility,  and  (2) 
the  modulus  of  rigidity.  If  the  ether  were 
analogous  to  a  liquid  or  a  gas,  its  modulus  of 
rigidity  would  be  zero.  It  is  found,  however, 
that  the  equations  of  motion  that  are  obtained 
by  making  the  modulus  of  rigidity  zero  are  not 
at  ail  competent  to  explain  the  acual  phenom- 
ena of  light;  for  in  this  case  the  ether-waves 
would  be  merely  waves  of  alternate  compres- 
sion and  rarefaction,  like  those  of  sound  in  the 
air,  and  there  could  be  no  such  phenomenon  as 
polarization.  It  must  therefore  be  admitted  that 
the  modulus  of  rigidity  of  the  ether  has  a  defi- 
nite, finite  value,  if  the  ether  itself  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  analogous  to  other  kinds  of  matter, 
so  far  as  its  general  mechanical  deportment  is 
concerned.  If  it  be  also  admitted  that  the 
modulus  of  compressibility  of  the  ether  has  ft 
definite,  finite  value,  the  conclusion  is  reached 


jOOgIc 


that  the  ether  can  transmit  two  essentially  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  waves,  one  of  which  involves 
distortions  of  its  parts,  while  the  other  involves 
changes  in  its  density.  Of  these  the  first  would 
admit  of  polarization,  while  the  second  would 
not.  Moreover,  the  two  kinds  of  waves  would 
have,  in  general,  different  velocities  of  propa- 
gation; and  the  fact  that  al!  ether-disturbances 
appear  to  be  propagated  at  the  same  speed  indi- 
cates that  only  one  kind  exists,  and  that  we 
must  therefore  make  one  of  the  three  following 
assumptions  with  regard  to  the  compressibility 
of  the  ether:  (O  The  modulus  of  compressibil- 
y  of  the  ether  is  infinite;  or  (2)  it  is  zero;  or 
i  under  which   the 


admit  that  the  npAity  of  the  ether  in  a  doubly 
refracting  body  is  different  in  different  direc- 
nd  hence  we  conclude  that  the  rigiditj 


ity  of 

(3)   1 


,._■  their  component  electrons)  impress  their 
motions  upon  the  ether  are  such  that  the  modu- 
lus of  compressibility  is  not  involved  in  any 
way.  The  first  of  these  alternatives  implies  that 
the  ether  is  absolutely  incompressible,  and  this 
is  the  one  that  has  been  most  favorably  re- 
earded  by  physicists  in  general.  The  second 
mipltes  that  the  ether  yields  indefinitely,  even 
to  the  smallest  compressive  forces,  so  that  it  is 
essentially  unstable.  This  view  has  been  de- 
veloped in  recent  years  by  Lord  Kelvin,  but  it  is 
hard  to  regard  it  as  more  than  a  mathematical 
possibility.  The  mind  cannot  be  brought  lo  ad- 
mil  that  it  corresponds  to  the  actual  state  of 
affairs  in  space.  The  third  of  the  suggested 
alternatives  must  also  be  regarded  as  improb- 
able, although,  tor  lack  of  exact  knowledfre, 
we  can  hardly  pronoimce  it  impossible.  On 
the  whole,  therefore,  it  is  plain  that  if  the  elastic 
behavior  of  the  ether  is  analogous  to  that  of 
ordinary  bodies,  we  have  to  admit  (tenta- 
tively, at  least)  that  so  far  as  elastic  properties 
are  concerned,  the  ether  resembles  an  absolutely 
incompressible  solid. 

According  to  the  elastic-solid  theory  of  the 
ether,  light  consists  of  a  periodic  or  wave-like 
disturbance  in  a  ielly-like  medium,  the  waves 
traveling  in  straight  lines  with  a  uniform  veloc- 
ity of  about  186,000  miles  per  second,  and  the  di- 
rection of  oscillation  of  the  ether  being  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  wave  pro- 
gresses, just  as  the  direction  of  oscillation  of  the 
various  points  of  a  rope  along  which  a  wave  is 
passing  IS  at  right  angles  lo  the  rope.  This 
view  of  the  case  accords  very  well  with  most  of 
the  observed  phenomena,  but  there  are  some 
that  do  not  appear  to  be  reconcilable  with  it 
We  assume  that  the  ether  penetrates  all  bodies, 
and  fills  up  the  spaces  between  their  molecules 
(or  electrons)  ;  and  as  the  phenomena  of  re- 
fraction show  that  the  velocity  of  light  is  less 
in  a  transparent  solid  (say  in  glass)  than  it  is 
in  a  vacuum,  it  follows  that  the  ether  in  the 
glass  has  either  a  j[reater  density  or  a  less 
nudity  than  it  has  in  free  space.  Either  of 
these  suppositions  will  fit  this  simple  case 
equally  well;  but  there  are  other  phenomena 
that  will   not  be  satisfied  so  easily,  and  it  has 


die  the  "elastic-solid"  theory  of  the  ether  with 
all  the  known  facts.  For  example,  when  we 
come  to  investigate  certain  problems  in  partial 
reflection  from  transparent  media,  and  others 
relating  to  diffraction  from  small  particles,  we 
are  obliged  to  conclude  that  it  is  the  density  of 
the  ether  that,  varies,  the  rigidity  remaining 
practically  constant.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
phenomena  of  double  refraction  require  us  to 


that  previously  reached  by  considering  the 
[phenomena  of  diffraction  and  partial  reflec- 
tion. Other  difficulties  have  been  encountered 
in  the  application  of  the  elastic-solid  theoty  of 
the  ether  to  the  phenomena  of  light,  and  al- 
though reference  to  it  is  common,  because  it  is 
definite  enough  to  present  a  dear  image  to  the 
mind,  and  so  is  helpful  in  many  ways,  the  gen- 
eral opinion  among  physicists  of  the  present 
day  is  that  it  is  no  longer  tenable  as  an  accurate 
description  of  the  real  propertiea  of  the  ether. 
It  has  been  abandoned  in  favor  of  the  "electro- 
magnetic^ theory  of  Maxwell,  and  in  abandon- 
ing it  we  also  abandon  his  method  of  estimating 
the  density  and  rigidity  of  the  ether. 

Faraday  was  convinced,  many  years  ago,  that 
there  is  some  mechanism  hy  which  magnetic  and 
electric  forces  are  enabled  to  make  themselves 
felt  through  a  space  apparently  vacuous.  'Such 
an  action,*  he  said,  'may  be  a  function  of  the 
ether;  for  it  is  not  unlikely  that,  if  there  be  an 
ether,  it  should  have  other  uses  than  simply  tlte 
conveyance  of  radiation.*  Maxwell,  after  read- 
ing Faraday's  writings,  became  so  impressed  by 
the  ideas  which  they  advanced  that  he  applied 
his  own  ingenious  and  powerful  mind  to  the 
problems  whose  solution  Faraday  had  dimly 
glimpsed,  and  succeeded  in  completely  revolu- 
tionizing our  ideas  with  rward  to  li^t  and  the 
ether.  His  now  famous  'electro-magnetic  the- 
ory" is  ^ven  in  his  masterly  but  exceedingly 
difficult  'Treatise  on  Electricity  and  Magnetism* 
and  a  popularized  account  of  it  may  be  found  in 
Oliver  J.  Lodge's  '  Modem  Views  of  Eiectrici^.' 
He  agrees  with  previous  writers  that  light  is 
some  sort  of  a  periodic  disturbance  in  some 
sort  of  an  ether,  and  that  die  displacements  that 
occur  are  indeed  perpendicular  to  the  direction 
in  which  the  light -wave  travels;  but  he  teaches 
us  that  these  displacements  are  not  analogous  to 
those  that  are  produced  in  an  elastic  solid  when 
that  solid  is  deformed.  He  considers  that  they 
arc  of  an  electrical  nature,  and  that  we  must 
learn  about  them  not  by  oiiserving  the  behavior 
of  elastic  bodies  under  stress,  but  by  observing 
the  phenomena  exhibited  by  electrified  Ixidies. 
Maxwell  has  given  us  the  fundamental  dona- 
tions that  must  be  satisfied  when  an  dcctncal 
disturbance  is  propagated  through  the  ether, 
and  by  means  of  these  equations  the  entire 
theory  of  light  can  be  constructed  on  the  new 
basis.  The  theory  thus  constructed  agrees  well 
with  the  facts  of  observation,  and  it  is  free 
from  the  objections  that  beset  the  old  elastic- 
solid  theory.  Moreover,  it  successfully  with- 
stood the  searching  experimental  tests  devised 
and  executed  by  Hert»  and  his  followers,  whose 
labors  have  shown  us  that  electrical  radiations 
arc  propagated  with  the  same  speed  as  light, 
and  that  they  can  be  reflected,  refracted,  dif- 
fracted, polarized,  and  made  to  interfere;  so 
that  we  are  no#  quite  ready  to  admit  that  lifjht 
consists  in  a  rapid  succession  of  such  radia- 
tions. It  is  not  at  all  essential  to  Maxwell's 
theory  that  we  should  know  precisely  what  an 
"electrical  displacement*  really  is,  and  hence  it 
does  not  teach  us  so  much  about  tiie  nature  of 
the  ether  as  we  might  desire.  It  does  teach 
that  the  elastic-solid  analogy  is  probably  not 


correct,  and  it  strongly  suggests  that  the  ether  is 
incompressible,  and  that  there  is  some  kind  of 
an  ethereal  rotation  going  on  in  a  magnetic 
field;  but  it  has  not  yet  been  made  to  Cumish 
K  means  of  estimating  the  density  of  the  ether, 
nor  of  obtaining  any  of  its  other  constants. 

We  do  not  even  certainly  know  whether  the 
ether  is  continuous,  or  whether  it  is  molecular 
in  structure.  Some  writers  find  it  difficult  to 
think  of  a  displacement  of  any  kind,  in  a  space 
that  is  entirely  filled  with  matter,  especially  if 
the  matter  is  Incompresiible,  Others  hold  that 
this  objection  Is  without  weight. 

Faraday's  Idea  that  magnetic  and  electric 
induction  are  propagated  by  the  same  medium 
as  light  proved  to  be  exceedin^y  fruitful,  and 
it  is  by  no  means  unlikely  that  the  ether  pos- 
sesses Still  other  functions,  which  will  throw 
further  light  upon  its  nature,  when  they  are 
understood.  The  various  kinds  of  radiations 
that  Imvc  been  discovered  in  recent  years 
("cathode  rays,"  "Beequerel  rays,*  "X-rays," 
snd  the  like)  were  at  first  believed  by  mairr  au- 
thorities to  consist  in  ethereal  motions  different 
from  those  constituting  light,  and  it  was  even 
thought  that  some  of  them  might  correspond 
to  the  waves  of  ethereal  compression  that  had 
been  so  earriestly  sought.  Some  of  these  radia- 
tions, however,  are  now  believed  to  be  nothing 
but  ordinary  light  of  exceedingly  short  wave- 
length, and  others  are  beiievetf  at  least  tenta- 
tively, to  connst  in  the  actual  emission  of  storms 
of  corpuscles,  or  "electrons,'  from  the  bodies 
from  which  they  proceed.  (See  Electron; 
RAMtJU;  Radiation).  Gravitative  action  has 
also  been  attributed  to  e&er  stresses,  and  it  is 
not  impossible  that  this  is  its  real  nature.  No 
mechanical  explanation  of  gravitation,  as  an 
ether-phenomenon,  has  yet  been  oSered,  how- 
«ver,  to  Which  serious  objections  cannot  be 
urged.  In  Uaxwetl's  theory  of  gravitation  it  is 
assumed  that  bodies  produce  a  stress  in  the 
ether  about  them,  of  such  a  nature  that  there  is 
a  pressure  along  the  lines  of  gravitative  force, 
combined  with  an  equal  tension  in  al)  directions 
at  right  angles  to  those  lines.  "Such  a  state  of 
stress,*  says  Maxwell,  'would  no  doubt  account 


:  for  such  a  state  of 

___    .  tiiat    to    produce    the 

actual  effects  o£  gravity,  as  observed  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  the  ether  would  have  to  be 
subject  to  a  pressure  of  37,000  tons  per  square 
inch  in  a  vertical  direction,  and  a  tension  of  the 
same  numerical  magnitude  in  all  horizontal 
directions. 

One  of  the  most  obvious  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  the  ether-theory  is  that  the  planets,  and 
even  the  atoms,  move  through  space  as  though 
it  were  absolutely  empty.  According  to  modem 
ideas,  however,  the  atom  may  be  only  an  aggre- 
gate of  smaller  'electrons,'  each  of  which  may 
transpire  to  be  nothing  but  a  stale  of  strain  in 
the  ether;  and  if  this  proves  to  be  the  case,  we 
are  certainly  not  in  position  at  present  to  say 
that  the  ether  would  oppose  in  the  slightest  de- 

See  the  transmission  of  such  a  state  of  strain 
rough  its  own  substance.  The  difficulty  wth 
the  theory  of  aberration  is  more  formidable. 
If  a  shower  of  rain  is  falling  vertically,  the 
drops  will  appear  to  an  observer  to  descend  ver- 
tically 80  long  as  be  remains  stationary.  If  he 
moves  forward,  however,  the  drops  will  strike 


him  in  the  face  and  will  therefore  appear,  to 
him,  to  come  from  some  point  slightly  in  ad- 
vance of  the  zenith,  rather  than  from  the  zenith 
itself.  A  similar  phenomenon  is  observed  in 
connection  with  light  and  is  known  as  aberra- 
tion. Every  star  is  seen  in  its  true  position 
when  the  earth  is  moving  directly  toward  it; 
but  three  months  later,  when  the  earth  is  mov- 
ing at  right  angles  to  this  direction,  the  observ- 
ers telescope  will  have  to  be  inclined  slightly 
toward  the  direction  in  which  the  earth  is  mov- 
ing, in  order  that  the  light  from  the  star  may 
come  down  through  the  instrument  centrally. 
The  maximum  displacement  that  a  star  can 
have,  from  this  cause,  is  known  by  observation 
to  be  about  20.47  seconds  of  arc  on  the  heavens. 
If  the  ether  were  motionless,  the  analogy  with 
the  raindrops  would  be  perfect,  and  the  'con- 
stant of  aberration,*  whose  value  has  just  been 
given,  could  be  calculated  from  the  known  ve- 
locity of  light,  and  the  known  velocity  of  the 
earth's  orbital  motion.  It  is  found,  however, 
that  the  theory  of  aberration  is  exceeding^ 
complicated  when  the  possibility  of  currents  in 
the  ether  is  admitted,  and  hence  physicists  have 
been  much  concerned  to  know  whether  or  not 
the  earth  drags  the  adjacent  ether  along  with  it, 
in  its  motion  around  the  sun.  As  long  ago  as 
1859  Fireau  showed,  by  a  justly  celebrated  ex- 
periment, that  the  ether  is  apparently  dragged 
along  by  a  current  of  water  flowing  throu|[h  a 
tube;  and  Michelson  and  Morley  have  since 
shown,  by  an  even  more  ingenious  experiment, 
that  there  is  evidence  that  the  ether  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  earth  participates  in 
the  earth's  motion  to  such  an  extent  that  any 
difference  that  may  exist  does  not  amount  to  the 
twentieth  part  of  the  whole  motion.  Lodge,  on 
the  other  hand,  found  no  evidence  of  any  'ether 
drag"  in  the  space  between  two  rapidly  whirled 
sted  plates  that  were  separated  by  an  interval 
of  ore  inch.  (Consult  Preston,  'Theory  of 
Light').  The  whole  subject  of  the  "drag*  of 
the  ether  is  still  unsettled;  but  the  observed 
value  of  die  constant  of  aberration  appears  to 
require  that  the  ether  is' not  disturbed  by  the 
motion  of  the  earth  through  it 

As  indicative  of  confused  condition  of 
thought  in  regard  to  the  ether,  even  among  the 
most  illustrious  scientific  minds,  the  following 
quotations  are  appended.  Sir  William  Thomp- 
son (Lord  Kelvin)  says;  'The  luminiferoiB 
ether  is  an  elastic  solid,  for  which  the  nearest 
analogy  I  can  give  you  is  this  jelly  which  you 
see."  Fitzgerald  remarks  upon  this,  'I  cannot 
conclude  without  protesting  strongly  against 
Sir  William  Thompson's  speaking  of  the  ether 
as  like  a  jelly.*  Alfred  Sang  remarks,  "Some 
of  the  most  eminent  physicists  have  adopted  the 
view  that  ihe  universal  medium  must  be  solid. 
We  are  asked  to  conceive  our  planet  moving  at 
the  rate  of  18  miles  per  second  through  it,  and, 
what  is  still  more  incredible,  that  this  takes 
place  without  any  friction.*  Sir  William  Ram- 
sey says,  "It  is  almost  universally  held  that  all 
phenomena  are  'mechanical,'  that  is,  they  are 
the  result  of  matter  in  motion,  and  can  be  pic- 
tured to  the  mind  in  a  concrete  form;  that 
some  kind  of  'machine'  can  be  imagined  whidi, 
if  it  existed,  would  reproduce  the  phenomena 
in  question.*  And,  further,  "It  has  not  yet  been 
found  possible  to  think  out  a  structure  and 
mode  o?  motion  of  the  ether  which  will  explain 
or  make  it  possible  to  realite  as  a  kind  o( 


8l^ 


ETHEREAL;  SALTS  — ETHERS 


macbinc,  all  the  pbenomenft  in  which  the  ether 
appears  to  play  a  part*  J.  Clerk  Uaxwell 
offers  the  hypothesis  thai  the  constitution  of 
ether  is  maae  up  of  elastic  centres  or  vortices 
in  close  proximity,  but  goes  on  to  say,  "No  the- 
ory of  the  constitution  of  the  ether  has  yet  been 
invented  which  will  account  for  such  a  system 
of  molecular  vortices  being  maintained  for  an 
indefinite  time* 

It  has  more  recently  been  postulated  of  the 
ether  (Erwin  1916},  tt^t  it  is  structureless,  in- 
compressible, motionless,  but  capable  of  taking 
on  motion,  non-elastic,  and  capable  of  indefinite 
subdivision,  and  that  the  subdivided  parts  can 
be  moved  over  each  other  without  friction.  On 
the  other  hand  such  eniinent  physicists  as  Ein- 
stein, Ritz  and  Poincare  deny  the  necessity  for 
any  such  suppositional  substance  as  the  ether. 
It  is  a  fact  that  scientific  inquiry  is  attacking 
this  and  similar  problems  along  quite  a  differ- 
ent line,  upon  the  hypothesis  that  matter  hu 
no  existence  otherwise  than  as  a  mode  of  niO' 


__..,   S.  J., 
1875). 

Richard  Feutis. 

ETHEREAL  SALTS.    See  ESTUts. 

ETHEREGE,  Sir  George,  English  dram- 
atist; b.  Oxfordshire,  about  1635;  4  Paris, 
probably-  late  in  1691.  He  is  said  to  have  spent 
some  time  at  Cambridge,  but  this  is  probably 
not  the  case,  since  we  have  it  on  high  authority 
fDennis)  that  he  was  unacquainted  with  either 
Latin  or  Greek.    He  traveled  much  abroad  and 

Sent  some  time  in  Paris,  where  it  is  probable 
at  he  saw  the  performance  of  the  early  come- 
dies of  Moli^re.  Returning  to  England  he 
studied  law  for  some  time.  After  1660  he 
wrote  'The  Comical  Revenge  or  Love  in  a 
Tub,'  which  was  produced  m  1664  at  the 
Duke's  theatre.  It  was  very  successful  and 
brought  the  author  the  patronage  of  the  court 
In  1668  he  produced  <She  Would  it  She  Could,> 
a  rather  fnvolous  and  immoral  worl^  but  which 
attained  a  great  success.  For  many  years 
Etherege  neglected  literature  but  returned  in 
1676  with  '-nie  Man  of  Mode,  or  Sir  Fopling 
Flutter,'  a  splendid  comedy  of  intrigue.  It 
added  to  the  author's  fame  and  fortune,  but 
his  dissolute,  mode  of  life  soon  dissipated  the 
latter.  He  was  knighted  about  1680  and  soon 
afterward  married  a  rich  widow,  Charles  IT 
sent  him  on  a  mission  to  The  Hague  and  in  1685 
he  was  Minister  at  Regcnsbutg,  He  remained 
there  for  three  and  one-half  yearSj  but  never 
liked  Germany,  Consult  the  edition  of  his 
works  by  Verity  (1888)  and  Gosse,  "Seven- 
teenth Century  Studies*  (London  1895)  ;  'Cam- 

■  bridge  History  of  English  Literature'  (ib. 
1907-13). 

ETHERIDGE,  EmerBon,  American  states- 

,  man :  b.  Carrituck  County,  N.  C„  28  Sept.  I8I9 ; 

d. .     When  13  years  of  age  he  removed  to 

Tennessee,  received  a  public  school  education, 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1840.  He  was  a  member  of  the  legislature  in 
1845-47,  and  a  candidate  for  speaker,  and  was 
then  sent  to  Congress  as  a  Whig  and  re-elected 
W  Ac  'American"  party,  serving  from  1853  to 
J85/.    He  was  defeated  for  the  next  Congress 


bat  was  re-elected  in  1S58  and  served  again  in 
1859-61,  in  which  session  he  was  chairman  of 
the  Committee  on  IniUan  Afiairs.  He  was 
then  elected  derit  of  the  House  of  Representa' 
tives  and  served  from  4  July  1861  to  8  Dec 
1863.  On  his  return  to  Tennessee  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  practice  of  his  profession  and  the 
study  of  philosophy.  He  served  in  the  Tennes- 
see Senate  in  1669-70  and  was  twice  nominated 
for  the  governorship  of  his  State,  being  de- 
feated once  and  declining  the  second  nominatioo. 
He  was  the  last  Whig  mat  served  in  Congress. 
He  published  'Speeches  in  Congress'  (Wash- 
ington 1857). 

ETHERIDGE,  John  Wedey,  English  non- 
conformist clergyman :  b,  near  Nevnwrt.  Isle  of 
Wight,  24  Feb.  1804;  d.  Camborne,  24  May  1866i 
He  was   educated  tw  his   father  and   later  ac- 

C'.red  a  thorough  knowledee  of  Hebrew,  Greek, 
tin,  Syriac,  German  and  French.  In  1826  he 
attetnpted  to  enter  the  ministry  and  after  a 
period  of  probation  was  received  in  full  con- 
nection at  the  conference  of  1831.  Thereafter 
he  spent  two  years  at  Brigfaton,  when  he  re- 
moved to  ComwalL  In  1838  his  health  began 
to  fail  and  he  was  pensioned  and  went  to  live 
at  Caen  and  Paris.  His  health  improving,  be 
accepted  the  pastorship  of  a  MethcKUst  church 
at  Boulogne  in  1842.  Four  years  later  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  land  and  was  successively 
on  the  circuits  of  Isliiq{ton,  Bristol,  Leeds,  Pen- 
zance, Peniyn,  Truro  and  Saint  Auatell  in  Corn- 
wall. Heidelberg  conferred  on  him  the  degree 
of  Ph,D.  He  published  <The  Apostolic  Mmis- 
try  and  the  Question  of  Its  Restoration  Consid- 
ered' (1836);  'Misericordia.' or  Contemplations 
of  the  Mercy  of  God'  (1842) :  'Horse  Aramai- 
e«>  (1843)  ;  'The  Syrian  Churches :  Their  Early 
History,  Liturgies  and  Literature'  (18^6) ; 
'The  Apostcdical  Acts  and  EiHstles  from  the 
Peschitto,  or  Ancient  Syriac,  to  wbidi  are 
Added  the  Remaining  Epistles  and  Book  of 
Revelation  from  a  later  Syriac  Text'  (1849); 
'The  Targums  of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  ben 
Uzziel  on  the  Pentateuch,  with  the  Fragments 
of  the  Jerusalem  Targum'  (2  vols..  18631; 
'Life  of  Rev.  Adam  Oarice'  (1858).  Consult 
memoir  by  T  Smith   (London  1871). 


London,  18  Dec.  1903.  He  engaged  i: 
tile  pursuits  and  devoted  his  spare  time  to  nat- 
ural history  study.  He  became  curator  of  the 
museum  attached  to  the  Bristol  Philosojihical 
Institution,  was  made  assistant  paleontologist  in 
18S7  and  paleontologist  six  years  later  of  the 
(geological  Survey.  In  1881  he  was  transferred 
to  the  geological  department  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum, where  he  was  assistant  ctirator  for  10 
years.  He  published  'Catalogue  of  Fossils  in 
the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,'  in  collabo- 
ration with  Huxley  (186S);  'Fossils  of  the 
British  Islands,  Stratigrapfaically  and  Zoologi- 
cally Arranged'   (Vol.  I,  1888), 

ETHERS,  in  chemistry,  "those  compounds 
which  may  be  regarded  as  derived  from  water 
by  the  replacement  of  each  of  the  hydrogen 
atoms  by  a  basic  or  alcoholic  radical.  The 
ether  is  'simple'  if  the  basic  radicals  that  are 
so  substituted  are  alike,  and  it  is  'mixed*  if 
they  are  unlike.  The  fortoation  of  a  simple 
ether  may  be  conveniently  illustrated  by  the 
•diethyl'  ether,  (C^)JO. 


ETHICAL    DBTBRIUNXSM  — BTHICAL    HOVBHBNT    IN    AMERICA       «8T 


Thii  nuy  be  prepared  in  various  way^  but  the 
sulphuric-acid  method  wiU  serve  best  to  illus- 
(rate  the  nature  of  the  compound.  When 
alcohol,  CHm-OH,  is  heated  to  285°  F.  with 
sulphuric  acid,  H^O^  one  of  the  hydrogen 
atoms  of  the  acid,  is  replaced  by  the  alcohol 
radical  ethyl  CiHh  according  U)  the  equation 
CJUOH  +  H.Sa=  (CHTlHSa-f  H,0,  the 
compound  (C^Ht)HSOt  being  known  as  bydro- 

Snethy I- sulphate,  or  'sulphovinic  acid."  When 
c  hydrogen- ethyl-sulphate  comes  in  contact 
with  another  molecule  of  the  alcohol,  it  under- 
goes a  second  trans foiroation,  by  which  another 


equation  (CH.)HSO.  +  CJI^OH  ==  (CJI.).O 
+  HiSOt.  It  will  be  seen  that  although  a  mole- 
cule of  sulphuric  acid  is  used  up  in  the  £rst 
part  of  the  process,  it  is  regenerated  in  the 
second  part,  so  that  on  the  whole  there  has  been 
no  change  in  the  quantity  of  acid  present.  The 
water  produced  in  the  first  stage,  and  the  ether, 
(C)H>)iO,  produced  in  the  second  stage,  pass 
o£  in  the  state  of  vapor,  and  the  apparatus  is 
ready  for  the  admission  of  a  new  suwiy  of 
alcohol.  The  process  by  which  an  ether  is 
formed,  as  here  illustrated,  is  called  etherifica' 
tion;  and  the  etherification  is  said  to  be  "con- 
tinuous* if  it  can  go  on,  as  in  this  case,  tv 
merely  passing  a  stream  of  the  alcohol  into  one 
end  of  the  apparatus,  and  withdrawing  the 
vapor  of  ether  and  water  at  the  other  end 
Methyl  ether,  for  exaIT^l^  can  be  formed  by 
the  action  of  sulphunc  acid  upon  methyl 
alcohol  in  a  manner  precisely  analogous  to  that 
explained  above.  The  equations  in  this  case 
are  CH^OH  -1-  H.SO."  H.0  +  (CH.)  HSO.; 
CCH,)HSa  +  CHtOH  =  H.SO.  +(CH.>,q; 


methyl- sulphate. 

As  an  illustration  of  a  mixed  ether,  the  case 
of  methyl-ethyl  ether  may  be  cited.  If  ethy! 
alcohol  be  heated  with  iodme  in  the  prwence  of 
phosphorus,  a  substance  known  as  ethyl  iodine  is 
formed.  Thus:  SCJI^OH -)-SH- P  =  5aH^I 
+  H,PO.  +  H,0.  On  the  right  of  this  equa- 
tion, HJ'O.,  is  phosphoric  acid,  and  CH^l  is 
ethyl  iodide,  which  is  a  liquid  boiling  at  152°  F., 
readily  separable  from  the  phosphoric  acid  by 
distillation.  Now  if  ethyl  iodide  be  mixed  with 
potassium  ethyl  ate  (obtained  by  dissolving 
metallic  potassium  in  absolute  ethyl  alcohol), 
the  following  reaction  occurs,  and  ethyl  ether 
is  formed :  C.Htl  +  C,H..OK  —  KI  -I- (dH,).0. 
But  if  the  ethyl  iodide  is  mixed  with  potassium 
mrtkylatc,  CILOK,  which  is  obtained  by  dissolv- 
ing metallic  potassium  in  absolute  methyl  alco- 
hol, then  the  ether  that  is  formed  contains 
the  radical  methyl,  CHi,  and  also  the  radical 
ethyl  CH.,  and  hence  is  a  mixed  ether; 
CH^I  +  CH..OK  — KI  +  GTUO.CH..  The 
mixed  ether,  CiHt.O.CHi,  is  known  as 
methyJ-elhyl  ether.  The  reactions  thai  have  here 
beien  given  at  some  lenglh  are  typical  of  similar 
ones  that  hold  true  very  generally  of  the  alco- 
hols and  ethers.  In  all  the  more  familiar  cases 
the  iodide  of  a  ^ven  alcohol  radical  can  be 
prepared  by  treabng  the  corresponding  alcohol 
with  iodine,  and  {Aiosphorus;  and  a  potassium 
'alcoholate*  can  be  formed  by  dissolving  metal- 
lic potassium  in  the  correipondii^  (anhydrous) 
Akohtd,  ;  Then  if  m  wish  to  prepare  a  pcopowd 


mixed  ether,  we  have  only  to  treat  the  iodide  of 
one  of  its  radicals  with  the  potassium  compound 
of  the  other  one,  as  indicated  above.  The  com- 
moner ethers,  both  simple  and  mixed,  strongly 
reseipble  one  another  in  their  general  properties. 
Thus  they  will  not  mix  with  water,  nor  combine 
with  ammoikia  nor  other  alkalies,  nor  with  me- 
tallic sodium,  nor  with  dilute  acids.  The  resem- 
blance is  also  close  in  other  respects.  For 
"compound  ethers"  see  Estess. 

ETHICAL  DETERMINISM.   See  Deter- 

UINISU. 

ETHICAL  MOVEMENT  AND  ETH- 
ICAL SOCIETIES  IN  AMERICA  AND 
ABROAD.  The  first  Ethical  Society  was 
established  and  the  Ethical  Movement  inaugU' 
rated  in  1876  in  New  York  by  Felix  Adler, 
then  a  lecturer  at  Cornell  University.  In  re- 
sponse to  a  call,  several  hundred  persons  met  in 
May  at  Standard  Hall  and  at  the  conclusion  of 
Professor  Adler's  address,  outlining  the  purpose 
and  spirit  of  the  proposed  organization,  the 
Society  for  Ethical  Culture  of  New  York  was 
constituted.  In  this  address  he  appealed  to  his 
auditors  to  unfurl  a  new  flag  of  peace  and  con- 
ciliation over  the  bloody  battlegrounds  where 
religions  had  fought  in  Uie  past ;  he  laid  stress 
upon  the  urgent  need  of  a  higher  and  sterner 
morality  to  cope  with  the  moral  perils  of  the 
hour,  especially  noting  the  growing  laxity  that 
accompanied  the  decline  of  discredited  forms  of 
religions  belief;  and  he  placed  peculiar  emphasis 
tipon  the  duty  of  caring  for  the  moral  education 
of  the  young.  The  sodety  thus  initiated  grew 
rapidly,  and  soon  gave  practical  effect  to  his 
program.  Within  a  few  years  it  had  established 
a  free  kindei^rten  for  the  children  of  the  poor, 
the  first  of  its  land  in  New  York;  and  this  de- 
veloped into  a  workingman's  school,  based  upon 
the  Froefaelian  pedagogy,  which  was  the  first 
school  to  introduce  manual  training  and  system- 
atic ethical  instruction  iirto  the  curriculum.  It 
also  inaugurated  a  system  of  trained  nurses  for 
the  poor,  which  has  since  become  an  adjunct  of 
dispensary  out-door  relief  in  the  city.  Nor  were 
the  lai^r  social  and  political  applications  of 
morality  to  contemporary  life  neglected :  its 
leader  devoting  special  attention  in  his  platform 
ntterances  to  the  labor  problem  and  specific 
social  reforms,  as  being  at  bottom  great  moral 
issues.  His  vigorous  exposure  of  the  evils  of 
the  tenement  houses  bore  fruit  in  the  creation 
of  the  Tenement  House  Commission  of  1884,  of 
which  he  was  appointed  a  member.  He  also 
was  among  the  first  advocates  of  small  parks 
in  the  congested  districts,  of  public  playgrounds 
and  public  baths;  and,  above  all,  of  greater  jus< 
tice  and  humani^  in  the  relations  between  labor 
and  capital,  employer  and  employed.  The  Labor 
party  here  found  a  new  type  of  advocate; 
and  reformers  and  politicians  a  platform 
from  which  the  issues ,  of  the  hour  were 
brought  to  the  touchstone  of  ethical  'first- 
principles. 

Meanwhile,  the  society  filled  more  and  mor« 
the  place  of  a  diurch  in  the  lives  of  its  hitherto 
tmchurched  members.  It  did  not  ne^ect  die 
problems  of  the  personal  life,  but  aimed  to 
ilhitninate  and  inspire  its  members  in  their 
dealings  with  the  problems  of  the  home  and 
the  vocation,  family   relations,  marriage,   die 


3^' 


ETHICAL    MOVBUBNT   IN    AHSiaCA    AND    ABROAD 


training  of  the  young,  etc.  Its  poiition  as  a 
distinctive  religious  or^niKation  became  better 
understood  and  its  religious  appeal  more  for- 
cibly felt,  while  its  practical  educational  and 
philanthropic  activities  continued  to  multiply. 
Its  schools,  testifj^ng  to  its  conviction  that 
moral  improvement  must  begin  with  the  care 
and  education  of  the  young,  expanded  until 
kindergarten  normal  and  high  sdiool  depart- 
ments were  added.  These  expansions  necessi- 
tated greatly  enlarged  quarters ;  the  society 
therefore  erected  at  Central  Park  West  and 
63d  Street  a  thoroughly  modernized  school  build- 
ing, next  to  which  an  appropriately  digniSed 
meeting  place  and  society-house  were  later  on 
added.  This  thoroughly  equipped  schoolhouse 
has  enabled  the  society  to  fulfil  its  cherished 
aim  of  having  a  model  and  experimental  school, 
standing  for  the  highest  ideals  of  non-sectarian 
education  and  the  most  efhcient  pedagogical 
method  of  realizing  them.  Many  significant 
developments  have  taken  place  including  unique 
Arts  High  School  What  distinguishes  these 
from  many  other  similar  schools  is  their  demo- 


well-to-do  and  of  the  poor,  a  generous  pro- 
portion of  free  pupils  being  admitted  under  a 
system  of   free   scholarships   endowed  by  the 

To  give  further  effect  to  its  concn>tion  of  a 
religious  society  as  a  body  of  workers,  bent 
upon  learning  by  doing  and  promoting  piety  by 
service,  the  society  opens  to  its  menders  many 
other  fields  of  education  and  philanthropic 
activity.  Here  the  women  of  the  society  take  a 
prominent  part.  Most  of  the  philanthropies 
are  afiiliated  under  a  general  representative 
body,  known  as  the  Women's  Conference. 
Fortunate  in  drawing  an  unusual  number  of 
young  men  to  its  ranks,  the  society  has  a  strong 
Young  Men's  Union  which  contributes  largely  to 
the  support  of  two  neighborhood  houses :  the 
Hudson  Guild  on  the  West  Side,  of  which  Dr. 
John  Lovejoy  Elliott,  one  of  Professor  Adler's 
associate  lecturers,  is  the  head  worker ;  and  the 
Down~Town  Ethical  Society,  on  the  lower  East 
Side.  The  Union  also  owns  and  supports  a 
summer  home  on  its  farm  of  70  acres  at  Moun- 
tainville,  N.  Y.,  where  a  farm  school  is  held, 
and  a  summer  holiday  is  given  to  groups  of  the 
boys  and  girls  who  belong  to  the  Neighborhood 
clubs.  The  larger  policies  and  relations  of  all 
the  'working  bodies  of  the  society  are  considered 
and  shaped  by  a  Council  of  Fifty,  composed  of 
representatives  from  all  of  them.  One  other 
event  in  the  history  of  the  society  that  calls  for 
mention  is  the  recent  appointment  of  Professor 
Adler  to  the  newly  created  chair  of  political 
and  social  ethics  at  Columbia  University.  As 
the  chair  was  endowed  with  a  view  to  Professor 
Adler's  tenure  of  it  at  the  instigation  of  some 
members  of  ihe  well-known  Committee  of  Fif- 
teen appointed  by  the  chamber  of  commerce  to 
deal  with  the  social  evil  in  New  York,  of  which 
committee  Professor  Adler  was  an  active  mem- 
ber, this  appointment  is  a  remarkable  public 
tribute  to  the  lar^e  public  place  which  the 
founder  of  the  ethical  movement  has  won  for 
himself  and  for  it. 

Early  in  the  history  of  the  society, 
a  number  of  yoaag  men,  including  William 
M.   Salter  and  Walter  L.  Sheldon,  were  at- 


trarted  to  it,  and,  after  a  period  of  apprentice- 
ship in  New  York,  went  forth  to  found 
societies  in  Chicago,  Philadelphia  and  Saint 
Louis,  and  across  the  seas  to  London.  To  these 
have  been  added  organizations  in  Brooklyn, 
Newark,  the  Bronx  and  Wilmington,  Del.,  the 
heads  and  lecturers  of  these  being  in  New 
York,  Dr.  Felix  Adler,  Dr.  John  Lovejoy 
Elliott,  Dr.  David  Saulle  Muriey  and  Mr. 
Alfred  Martin;  in  Philadelphia,  Mr,  E.  Bums 
Weston;  in  Saint  Louis,  Mr.  Percival  Chubb; 
in  Chicago,  Mr.  Horace  J.  Bridges;  in  Brook- 
Uti,  Dr.  Henry  Neumann ;  in  Newark  Mr. 
George  E.  O'Dell.  These  American  societies, 
while  loosely  federated  in  a  union,  maintain  an 
individuality  of  their  own,  and  have  developed 
different  fonns  of  activity  according  to  load 
needs  and  circumstances.  Local  settlement  work 
was  done  in  Saint  Louis  as  early  as  1889,  when 
'Wage  Earners'  Self  Culture  Clubs"  were 
established  in  four  sections  of  the  city.  They 
all  hold  Sunday  exercises,  which  consist  for 
the  most  part  of  music,  readings  and  an  ad- 
dress. All  admit  to  membership  on  a  simple 
declaration  of  devotion  to  the  ethical  ends.  All 
attach  great  importance  to  the  moral  and  reli- 
gious education  of  the  young,  and  maintain 
well-organized  Sunday  schools  and  assodatiofls 
and  clubs  of  young  men  and  young  women 
devoted  to  the  same  end  and  to  varions 
kinds  of  practical  work.  From  the  pub- 
lishing  and  literary  headquarters  of  the  Ethi- 
cal Union  in  New  York  is  issued  monthly. 
The  SlanHard,  the  organ  of  the  movement. 
Among  (he  literary  products  of  the  American 
societies  arc  Professor  Adler's  *The  Religion  of 
Duty,'  'Moral  Instruction  of  Children'  and 
'Life  and  Destiny,'  etc.  Mr.  Salter's  'Ethical 
Religion' ;  Mr.  Sheldon's  'An  Ethical  Move- 
ment' ;  'An  Ethical  Sunday  School'  ■  'Old 
Testament  Bible  Stories  as  a  Basis  for  Ethical 
Instruction  of  the  Yotmg,'  etc.,  several  volumes 
by  Mr.  Martin  and  others. 

That  the  movement  initialed  in  America  ex- 
pressed no  merely  local  phase  of  religious  de- 
velopment is  evident  by  its  still  more  rapid 
spread  in  Europe.  American  influences  led  to 
the  establishment  in  I8S6  of  the  London  Ethical 
Society  with  which  Professors  Muirhead, 
Bosanquel,  Bonar  and  others,  upon  whom  the 
ethical  influence  of  Thomas  Hill  Green  of 
Oxford  had  been  profound,  were  identified ; 
and  under  its  auspices  lectures  were  given  at 
Toynbee  Hall  and  elsewhere  by  many  men  at 
the  universities  and  in  public  life  who  felt  the 
importance  of  the  new  ethical  propaganda,  such 
as  Seeley,  Caird,  Leslie  Stephen,  etc  About 
the  same  lime  Dr.  Stanton  Coit  went  over  from 
New  York  to  assume  (vice  Mr.  Moncure  D, 
Conway)  the  leadership  of  the  congregation  at 
South  Place  Chapel,  ttien  renamed  the  South 
Place  Ethical  Society,  which,  after  a  brief 
pastorate,  he  resigned  to  push  the  ethical  cause 
in  other  ways. 

Under  his  leadership  ethical  societies  multi- 
plied rapidly  in  London  and  in  the  provinces. 
A  union  of  ethical  societies  (14  or  niore), 
and  a  moral  instruction  league  (to  introduce 
systematic  non-theological,  moral  instruction 
into  all  schools),  since  become  a  separate  ar- 
ganixation,  were  established.  There  has  also 
Been  a  considerable  output  of  literature. 
Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  vahi> 


ETHICAL    HOVBUBNT   IN    AMERICA    AND    ABROAD 


able  series  of  books  of  ethical  instruction  by 
Mr.  F.  J.  Gould. 

The  new  movement  was  finding,  meanwhile, 
favorable  soil  on  the  Continent.  A  centre  of 
activity  was  established  at  Berlin,  where  Pro- 
fessor GzycW,  Prof.  William  Foerster,  and 
othera  identified  themselves  with  the  cause. 
Other  societies  were  in  time  established  in 
Germany,  and  in  Austria  at  Vienna,  in  Italy  at 
Venice  and  Rome,  in  Switzerlaad  and  Zurich 
and  Lausanne;  and  in  France  through  the  Union 
pour  L' Action  Morale  (1891)  which  found 
spokesmen  in  M.  Emil  Desjardins  (notably  in 
his 'stirring  brochure  'Le  Devoir  Present'),  and 
in  other  well-known  writers.     In  Germany  the 


The  early  activity  of  these  European  centres 
led  to  the  establishment  of  an  international  or- 
ganization with  a  central  station  at  Zurich 
where  in  September  1896  an  International  Con- 
gress was  held  which  issued  a  representative 
manifesto.  It  is  largely  colored  by  a  continental 
sense  of  the  urgency  of  applying  ethical  prin- 
ciples in  the  domain  of  social  and  [lolitical 
affairs.  It  announced  its  sympathy  with  the 
efforts  of  the  populace  to  obtain  a  more  human 
existence;  but  recognized  as  an  evil  hardly  less 
serious  than  Ihc  material  need  of  the  poor,  the 
moral  need  which  exists  among  the  wealthy, 
whose  integrity  is  often  deeply  imperiled  by 
the  discords  in  which  the  defects  of  the  present 
industrial  system  icfvolve  them.  It  demanded 
that  the  social  conflict  should  be  carried  on 
witliin  the  linea  prescribed  by  morality,  in  the 
interest  of  society  as  a  whole,  and  with  a  view 
to  the  final  establishment  of  social  i>eace.  It 
declared  for  universal  peace,  and  against  mili- 
tarism and  the  national  egotism  and  jealously 
which  precipitate  war.  Finally,  it  urged  upon 
all  ethical  sodeiies  not  simply  to  concern  them- 
selves with  these  practical  issues,  but  to  devote 
their  utmost  energy  to  the  building  up  of  a  new 
ideal  of  life  in  harmony  with  the  demands  of 
modem  enlightenment.  This  first  international 
manifesto  is  still  significant  because  it  expresses 
the  almost  universal  interest  of  ethicists  in  the 
social  question,  and  their  desire  to  bring 
theories,  policies  and  measures  of  reform  to 
the  test  of  ethical  principle ;  it  expresses  also 
their  interest  in  promoting  peace  and  an  educa- 
tion animated  and  unified  by  an  ethical  pur- 
pose. It  does  not,  however,  lay  the  stress 
which  would  to-day  be  laid  upon  the  relation 
of  the  movement  to  modem  liberalism,  its  frank 
acceptance  of  the  spirit  and  results  of  modem 
science,  and  its  repudiation  of  the  supernatural, 
miraculous  and  priestly  elements  in  reli^on; 
nor  does  it  voice  the  deeper  religious  senous- 
ness  and  spirituality  of  the  movement.  By 
some  of  the  leaders  this  latter  is  very  stron^y 
emphasized;  and  some  of  the  ethical  societies 
are  primarily  churches  for  inspiration  and 
guidance  in  the  difiicult  effort  to  lead  the  good 
life.  What  effect  the  Great  War  will  have  on 
the  international  movement  it  is  impossible  to 
predict.  So  far  it  has  crippled  or  handicapped 
the  smaller  societies.  In  England  there  has 
been  a  brave  struggle  to  maintain  them.  Per- 
haps after  the  war  their  great  opportimity  will 


come.    In  America  fhey  continue  to  move  for- 

While  the  inception  of  the  ethical  movemettl 
was  due  to  the  insight  and  prevision  of  Felix 
Adier,  and  its  first  powerful  impact  due  to  his 
attractive  eloquence  and  personal  power,  its 
slow  but  slea^  growth  is  evidence  that  it  met 
a  deep  and  widespread  need.  It  was  filly  born 
on  American  soil ;  for  a  new  ethical  religion 
and  ethical  church  for  America  had  been  defi- 
nitely prophesied  and  sketched  by  Emerson  in 
his  latter  essays  on  'Worship'  and  'The  Sov- 
ereignty of  Ethics.'  He  had  saidr  "The  prog- 
ress of  religion  is  steadily  to  its  identity  with 
morals.  ...  It  accuses  us  that  pure  ethics 
is  not  now  formulated  and  concreted  into  a 
cultus,  a  fraternity  with  assemblings,  and  ho^ 
days,  with  song  and  book,  with  brick  and 
stone.  .  .  .  America  shall  introduce  a  pure 
religion.  .  .  .  There  will  be  a  new  church 
founded  on  moral  science;  at  first  cold  and 
naked,  a  babe  in  a  manger  again,  the  algebra 
and  mathematics  of  etirical  law,  the  church  of 
men  lo  come,  without  shawms,  or  psaltery,  or 
sackbut ;  but  it  will  have  heaven  and  earth  for 
its  beams  and  rafters,  science  for  symbol  Srd 
illustration;  it  will  fast  enough  gather  beamy, 
music,  picture,  poetry,"  The  development  of  ad- 
vanced Unita nanism  through  Channing  and 
Parker  had  been  in  this  direction.  It  had  two 
practical  outcomes  —  the  Free  Religious  Asso- 
ciation, which  still  holds  annual  sessions ;  and 
the  Ethical  Movement.  As  distinguished  from 
the  Free  Religious  Association,  which  ex- 
pressed vaguely  the  libertarian  ,  tendencies 
of  Emerson's  thought,  the  Ethical  Move- 
ment gave  effect  to  the  positive  and  con- 
strictive tendency  which  found  clear 
utterance  in  his  prophecy.  Although  this 
positive  spirit  was  present  in  the  religious 
society  conducted  in  New  Vork  by  Octavius  B. 
Frothingham  — who  was  wont  to  say,  after  he 
had  retired  and  it  had  disbanded,  that  its  legiti- 
mate successor  -was  .the  Society  for  Ethical 
Culture  — it  was  not  until  FeHx  Adler  brou^t 
to  the  new  movement  at  once  an  ethical  out- 
look and  philosophy  learned  chiefly  in  the 
school  of  Kantj  an  impassioned  Hebraic  sense 
of  religion  as  nghteousness  of  life,  and  a  prac- 
tical sense  of  the  urgency  and  ethical  import 
of  the  great  impending  moral  issues  in  the 
social,  industrial  and  political  world,  that  con- 
ditions existed  for  the  full  birth  of  the  new 
clhical  religion. 

The  most  distinctive  feature  of  this  new 
phase  of  religious  development  was  that  it  did 
not  propose  to  add  to  the  religions  of  the  past, 
in  the  way  in  which  these  had  multiplied, 
namely,  on  the  basis  of  differences  of  specula- 
tive belief.  Instead,  it  announced  the  basic  im- 
portance and  the  priority  of  the  ethical  factor 
in  religion.  It  approached  religion,  not  from 
the  credal,  but  from  the  practical  moral  stand- 
point ;  and  it  saw,  in  a  common  affirmation  of 
this  priority  and  supremacy  of  virtue  and  the 
good  life,  a  ground  of  union  for  people  of  vary^ 
ing  philosophical  convictions,  or  none.  Following 
Emerson,  it  asserted  that  character  and  conduct 
condition  creed  and  thought ;  and  that  it  is  only 
by  sowing  a  worthy^  character  that  men  can  reap 
a  vital  and  meaningful  creed.  It  contended 
that  no  certain  and  lasting  basis  of  union  can 
be  found  in  anydung  so  variable  and  personal 


■8l^ 


MO  BTI 

as  one's  philosophical  view  of  the  world ;  and 
that  no  one  should  pledge  his  intellectual  future 
by  subscribing  to-day  to  a  creed  which  to- 
morrow he  may-  outgrow.  What  a  man  thinks 
is  the  result  of  what  he  is  —  the  outcome,  there- 
fore, of  his  action,  his  experience,  his  effort  and 
his  love,  far  more  than  ii  is  the  ouicome  of 
his  deliberate  thought  and  accumulated  knowl- 
edge. This  position  differed  from  that  of  the 
Comtian  Positivists  because  theirs  assumed  a 
final,  definite,  and  in  some  respects,  very  nega- 
tive philosophy.  The  new  movement  allowed 
for  the  greatest  individual  differences  in  men's 
philosophical  interpretation  of  life,  save  in  the 
one  tenet  that  alt  must  acknowledge  the  sacred 
obligation  imposed  by  man's  moral  nature  to 
live  the  good  life  and  to  follow  without  swerv- 
ing the  dictates  of  duty  according  to  the  belt 
light  that  is  in  each. 

On  the  basis  of  this  moral  earnestness  and 
this  attitude  of  moral  resolve  men  ma^  safely 
and  hopefully^  work  backward  into  a  philosophy 
and  forward  into  a  faith.  Thetr  philosophy  and 
their  theory  of  moral  sanction  may  be  what  it 
will,  theistic  or  pantheistic,  materialistic  or  ideal- 
istic; it  may  or  may  not  issue  in  a  faith  in 
immortality,  conditional  or  absolute.  This  is  a 
personal  concern,  and  the  statements  on  such 
-matters  frequently  made  by  the  leaders  of 
ethical  societies  who  differ  much  in  their 
philosophies,  are  merely  expressions  of  personal 
conviction,  and  not  made  as  in  any  way  com- 
mitting the  societies.  This  is  to  make  a  clear 
distinction  between  the  private  and  the  public 
factors  of  religious  belief ;  and  to  find  as  the 
only  possible  basis  for  religious  union,  for 
those  who  would  jealously  guard  their  intel- 
lectual integrity,  a  mora!  aim  by  which  any 
man  should  be  ashamed  not  to  be  bound. 

The    ethical   movement   has   been   criticized 


of  the  people.  Perhaps  Emerson  was  rif^t  in 
emphasizing  the  austerities  of  the  new  religion 
in  Its  early  protestant  phases.'  But  at  heart  it 
is  genial  and  passionately  human.  It  has  noth- 
ing sensationally  novel  to  offer;  it  does  not 
compete  with  picturesque  claimants  like  Theos- 
ophy,  Qiristian  Science,  Vedanlism,  etc..  and 
it  may  be  a  fact  that  'plain  goodness,*  'mere 
morality,'  'the  beauty  of  holiness,'  will  not  yet 
draw  many  with  their  old-new  evangel.  And 
yet  one  finds  among  its  adherents  nothing  less 
than  a  new  type  of  the  religious  temperament, 
voicing;  a  new  imaginative  sense  of  the  hidden 
mysteries  and  wonders  of  the  moral  personality, 
the  new  unrevealed  heights  and  depths  of  the 
moral  life,  the  unrealized  joyousness  of  devo- 
tion to  duty  and  to  service. 

Pekoval  Chubb, 
Leader  of  the  Ethical  Society  of  Saint  Louis. 
ETHICS  (from  Gr.  ieai,  havine  to  do  with 
conduct,  from  ^*i-,  character,  lenguiened  form 
of  Igor,  custom,  manners;  cf.  morals,  from 
Latin,  mos  mores,  customs),  that  branch  of 
the  theory  of  conduct  which  is  concerned  with 
the  formation  and  use  of  judgments  of  right 
and  wrong,  and  with  intellectual  emotional,  and 
executive,  or  overt,  phenomena,  which  are  as- 
sociated with  such  judgments,  either  as  ante- 
cedents or  consequents.  As  a  branch  of  the 
theory_  of  conduct,  it  is  generically  akin  to 
the  scieucet  of  jurisprudence,  politics  and  eco- 


nomics ;  but  it  b  marked  off  from  such  sciences 
in  that  it  considers  the  common  subject  matter 
of  human  conduct  from  the  standpoint  of  rigfat- 
ness  and  wrongness.  Such  terms  as  good  and 
evil,  the  dutiful  or  obligatory,  might  be  used  in 
the  definition  as  substitutes  for  the  terms  "right* 
and  "wrong,*  but  ^ood  and  evil  are  somewhat 
too  wide  in  scope,  including,  for  instance,  eco- 
nomic utilities,  commodities  and  satisfactions; 
while  duty  is  somewhat  too  narrow  an  idea, 
emphasizing  the  notion  of  control  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  idea  of  the  good  and  desirable. 
■Right"  and  "wrong"  designate  exactly  those 
phases  of  good  and  evil  to  which  the  ideit  of 
the  obligatory  is  also  applicable.  The  terms 
moral  philosophy,  moral  science,  and  morals 
have  also  been  used  to  designate  the  same  sub- 
ject of  inquiry. 

In  its  historical  development,  ethics  has  been 
regarded  as  a  branch  of  philosophy,  as  a  science, 
and  as  an  art — -often  as  a  composite  of  two  or 
all  of  these  in  var^n^g  proportions.  As  a 
branch  of  philosophy,  it  is  the  business  of  ethics 
to  investigate  the  nature  and  reality  of  certain 
conceptions  in  connection  with  fundamental 
theories  of  the  universe.  It  is  the  theory  of 
reality  in  its  moral  aspect.  The  term  good  is 
taken  to  denote  or  describe  a  property  of  ulti- 
mate and  absolute  being.  As  such,  it  is  usually 
co-or(Unated  with  two  other  fundamental  prop- 
erties of  rcahty,  the  true  and  the  beautiful;  and 
the  three  philosophic  disciplines  are  defined  as 
ethics,  logic  and  atsthetics.  *  Even  when  so 
much  emphasis  is  not  thrown  upon  the  plac 


Shy,  because  concerned  with  the  ideal, 
.at  ought  to  be,  or  with  what  is  abso- 
hitely  desirable,  as  distinct  from  the  actual,  the 
existent,  the  phenomenal.  From  this  point  of 
view,  ethics  is  regarded  as  nornuilive  in  char- 
acter, that  is,  concerned  with  establishing  and 
justifying  certain  ultimate  norms,  standards 
and  rules  of  action. 

In  contrast  with  such  functions,  ethics  as 
3  science  is  concerned  with  collecting,  describ- 
ing, explaining  and  classifying  the  facts  of 
experience  in  which  judgments  of  right  and 
wrong  are  actually  embodied  or  to  which  they 
apply.  It  is  subdivided  into  social,  or  socio- 
logical, ethics,  and  individual,  or  psychological, 
ethics,  (a)  The  former  deals  with  the  habits, 
practices,  ideas,  beliefs,  expectations,  institu- 
tions, etc,  actualljy  found  in  history  or  in  con- 
temporary life,  in  different  races,  peoples, 
grades  of  culture,  etc.,  which  are  outgrowths 
of  judgments  of  the  moral  worth  of  actions  or 
whidi  operate  as  causes  in  developing  such 
judgments.  Up  to  the  present,  social  ethics  has 
been  developed  mainly  in  connection,  (1)  with 
discussion  of  the  evolution  of  morality,  cither 
by  itself  or  in  connection  with  institutions  of 
law  and  judicial  procedure,  or  of  religious  cult 
and  rite;  or  (2}  with  problems  of  contemporary 
social  life,  particularly  with  questions  of  philan- 
thropy, penology,  legislation,  regarding  divorce, 
the  family  and  industrial  reform  —  such  as 
child-labor,  etc  In  both  aspects  it  is  closely 
connected  with  the  science  of  sociology.  It  is 
sometimes  called  inductive,  or  in  its  second  as- 
pect, applied  ethics,  (b)  Psycholopcal  ethics 
IS  concerned  with  tracing  in  the  individual  the 
origin  and  growth  of  the  moral  consctoosness, 


.^lOQlHC 


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that  is,  of  judgments  of  ri^t  and  wrong,  feel- 
ings of  obligation,  emotions  of  remorse,  shame, 
of  desire  for  approbation ;  of  the  various  habits 
of  action  -which  are  in  accord  with  the  judg- 
ment of  right,  or  the  virtues;  with  the  possi- 
hility  and  na.tnre,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
psyddcal  structure  of  the  individual,  of  free, 
or  voluntary,  action.  It  gathers  and  organizes 
psychological  data  bearing  upon  the  nature  of 
intention  and  motive;  desire,  effort  and  choice; 
judgments  of  approbation  and  disapprobation; 
emotions  of  sympathy,  pity  in  relation  to  the 
impulse  of  self-preservation  and  the  formation 
and  reformation  of  habit  in  its  effect  upon 
character,  etc.  In  other  words,  it  treats  be- 
havior as  an  expression  of  certain  psychical 
elements  and  groupings,  or  associations :  psy- 
chological analysis. 

"Ethics  as  an  art  is  concerned  with  discover- 
ing and  formulating  rules  of  acting  in  accord- 
ance with  which  men  may  attain  their  end. 
These  rules  may  be  considered  as  of  the  nature 
either  of  injunctions  or  commands,  which  pre- 
scribe as  well  as  instruct ;  or  as  technical 
formula:  which  indicate  to  the  individual  the 
best  way  of  proceeding  toward  a  desired  result, 
thus  not  dilterent  in  Und  from  rules  of  paint- 
ing, or  of  carpentry.  Which  view  is  taken 
depends  usually  upon  the  kind  of  philosophy 
with  which  ethics  as  an  art  is  associated.  Ethics 
as  an  art  may  also  be  an  outgrowth  of  either 
a^neral  i)hilosophy  of  conduct,  or  of  a  scien- 
tific analysis  of  it.  Thus,  from  the  philosophic 
point  of  view,  a  recent  writer,  Sorley,  in  the 
Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology  (Vol. 
I,  p.  346,  1502),  says  of  ethics:  'It  has  to  do 
not  merely  widi  actual  conduct,  but  with  ri^t 
or  good  conduct,  and  accordingly  with  an  ideal 
from  which  rules  may  he  laid  down  for  actual 
conduct.*  It  is  clear  that  the  philosophical 
establishment  of  the  ideal  is  cbn  side  red  to 
terminate  in  rules  for  its  attainment.  On  the 
other  hand,  Jeremy  Bentham  in  his  'Principles 
of  Legislation'  (1739),  having  before  insisted 
that  ethics  is  a  science  whose  truths  are  to'  be 
discovered  'only  by  investigations  as  severe  as 
mathematical  ones,  and  beyond  all  comparison 
more  intricate  and  extensive,'  goes  on  to  define 
ethics  *as  the  art  of  directing  men's  actions  to 


private  ethics  'to  instruct  each  individual 
what  manner  to  govern  his  own  conduct  in  tile 
details  of  life.'  Thus  as  an  art  ethics  may  be 
grounded  upon  either  a  philosophy  or  a  science. 
As  may  readily  be  inferred  from  die  above 
account,  some  of  the  most  serious  (iroblems  of 
ethics  at  present  are  concerned  With  defining 
and  delimiting  its  own  scope,  basis  and  aims. 
From  a  purely  abstract  point  of  view,  all  three 
conceptions  can  exist  harmoniously  side  by  side. 
It  is  possible  theoretically  to  regard  certain 
topics  as  assigned  to  ethics  as  a  branch  of 
philosophy,  others  to  its  scientiflc  phase,  and 
Others  to  the  practical,  or  to  ethics  as  an  art. 
But  no  consensus  as  to  these  various  possible 
assignments  exists.  Usually  those  who  insist 
that  ethics  is  a  branch  of  philosophy  deny  that 
it  can  be  anything  else;  they  deny  that  any 
descriptive  and  explanatory  account  of  actwu, 
as  distinct  from  ideal,  conduct,  deserves  the 
name  of  ethics.  What  we  have  above  treated 
as  belonging  to  the  science  of  ethics  is  by  them 


treated  as  really  a  matter  of  history,  sociology 
and  psychology,  not  of  ethics  proper  at  al[. 
Thus  Green,  'Prolegomena  to  Ethics*  (1883), 
begins  by  attempting  to  prove  that  a  natural 
science  of  ethics  is  inherently  impossible,  be- 
cause moral  conduct  by  its  nature  implies  an 
ideal  that  transcends  actual  conduct  which 
alone  can  be  made  a  matter  of  observation  and 
experiment,  and  sets  up  an  obliRation  which  in 
its  absoluteness  transcends  all  the  sanctions  of 
experience.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  have 
occupied  themselves  with  the  scientific  analysis 
of  moral  behavior  and  character,  have  usually 
denied  the  legitimacy  of  the  philosophic  aspect. ' 
Thus  Bentham  expressly  regards  all  philosophi- 
cal inquiries  as  doomed  to  result  in  sterility,  in 
mere  dogmatic  personal  assertions,  or,  as  he 
calls  them,  "ipse  dixils*  A  more  recent  writer,  ' 
Leslie  Stephen,  'Science  of  EtHcs'  (1882), 
without  absolutely  denying  the  ^ssibility  in  the 
remote  future  of  a  metaphysics  of  conduct, 
says  that  the  metaplwsical  view  is  entirely  ir- 
relevant to  a  scientific  treatment.  Along  with 
this  uncertainty  as  to  the  defining  aim  and 
characteristic  methods  of  ethics,  are  naturally 
found  a  large  number  of  subordinate  and 
secondary  controversies  and  divisions  of  opinion. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  in  every  his- 
torical period  there  have  been  found  in  ethical 
theories  some  connection  with  general  philo- 
sophic thought,  and  with  the  data  of  behavior 
exhibited  in  experience  (or  the  scientific  aspect) 
and  with  the  further  direction  and  conduct 
of  life  —  the  practical  aspect.  Historically,  ethics 
has  passed  through  three  epochs:  (1)  the 
Grieco-Roman;    (2)    the   Patristic-Mediieval; 

i3)  the  Early  Modern;  terminating  with  say 
le  French  RevolutidB,  and  may  now  be  re- 
garded as  having  entered  upon  a  fourth  stage. 
In  each  period,  a  certain  practical  interest  is 
nppermoU  in  social  life,  and  this  interest  serves 
to  co^elitrate  and  direct  attention  toward 
certain  relevant  theoretic  problems.  An  ade- 
quate account  of  ethical  thought  accordingly  is 
possible  only  in  connection  with  the  larger 
civilization  and  culture  of  which  it  is  a  part. 
Brief  characterizations  of  the  main  problem  of 
each  epoch  in  its  wider  social  tendencies  will 
serve,  however,  to  point  out  (o)  the  philosophic 
(b)  the  scientific,  (c)  the  practical  centre  of 
ethics  in  each  period. 

The  Grwco- Roman  period  was  characterized 
by  the  disintegration  of  local  custom,  tradition 
and  institution,  civil  and  religious,  coincident 
with  the  spreadofcosmopohlan  teaming  and  the 
formation  of  an  inclusive  political  organization 
taking  effect  in  both  legislation  and  administra- 
tion—  Greek  culture  and  the  Roman  empire. 
With  the  disintCKration  of  thetiabits  and  modes 
of  life  which  had  ))reviously  defined  the  sphere 
of  legitimate  individual  satisfaction,  and  which 
snpphed  the  sanctions  of  the  mord  life,  there 
was  necessarily  coincident  an  intjuiry  which 
attempted  to  establish  throu^  reflection  ade- 
quate substitutes  for  the  waning  institutional 
modes  of  control.  One  of  the  results  of  modem 
historical  science  is  the  proof  of  the  extent  and 
stringency  of  the  force  of  custom  in  early  life. 
It  is  custom  which  defines  the  morally  right  and 
obligatory,  and  it  is  custom  which  enforces  its 
own  demands.  In  it  are  bound  together  morals, 
law  and  religion,  and  all  are  bound  into  the 
very  life  of  the  people,  emotional  and  intellectual. 


.Google 


IHUI  MTH 

as  well  as  practical.  Wherecuslom  xules.'moral 
theory  is  unnecessary  and  indeed  impossible.  la 
the  ^h  and  5di  centuries  before  Christ,  this 
regime  of  custom  was  irretrievably  shaken  ia 
the  Greek  world,  and  with  a  twofold  result 
upon  morals.  Many  thought  that  all  sanctions 
for  morality  had  disappeared,  or  at  least  lost 
validity,  aad  that  pure  individualism  in  thought 
and  conduct  — tempered  at  best  only  by  some 
judicious  regard  to  consequences  —  was  the 
proper  outcome.  Others,  prevented  by  what 
they  regarded  as  the  low  moral  stanthrds  of 
customary  morality  from  coming  to  its  defense, 
were  also  shocked  by  the  demoralization  attend- 
ant upon  ethical  inifividualism,  and  set  to  work 
to  discover  a  universal  and  unassailable  basis 
for  a  higher  type  of  ideal  morality.  In  this 
conflict,  ethical  theocy  was  bom. 

The  Grsco-Roman  Period  (6th  century  b.c. 
to  5th  century  a.d.) — The  controversy  origi- 
nated in  a  discussion  as  to  whether  morality  ex- 
ists by  convention  iv6/ju),  by  arbitrary  enact- 
ment (e*o«),  or  in  reality,  that  is  (in  the  ter- 
tcinology  oi  the  lime),  "by  nature^  {phSei) 
or  in  the  nature  of  things.  Some  of  the  Sophists 
taught  that  morality  was  a  creature  of  the 
efforts  of  the  rulers  of  a  community,  bein^  a 
device  on  their  part  to  keep  others  in  subjection 
for  the  better  indidgence  of  their  own  desires  — 
much  as  many  of  the  "free- thinkers*  of  the  18th 
century    {in   many   respects   the   modern    con- 


..  .  ind  priest-i 
Others  taught  that  it  was  a  product  of  social 
agreement  or  institution.  Some  of  the  nobler 
Sophists  (like  Protagoras,  see  the  Platonic 
dialogue  of  the  same  name)  interpreted  this  as 
praise  of  the  state  of  civilization  and  culture  as 
against  the  raw,  crude  state  of  nature,  while 
others  taught  that  it  was  merely  a  conventional 
means  to  personal  satisfaction,  and  hence  had 
no  binding  force  when  short-cuts  to  happiness 
were  available.  In  the  meantime  the  actual 
moral  discipline  of  the  Greek  city-stale  was 
much  relaxed,  partly  because  of  the  intermi- 
nable dissensions  of  party  strife,  and  partly  be- 
cause the  religious  beliefs  which  were  the  foun- 
dation of  civic  life  were  fast  becoming  incredi- 
ble. Socrates  (about  470  b.c-399  b.c)  was  ap- 
parently the  first  lo  undertake  a  positive  and 
analysis  of  moral  ideas.    He  made 


end,  which  indeed  constitutes  their  real 
'nature";  the  end  of  each  thing  is  its  good. 
Man  must  therefore  have  his  own  end,  or  good; 
this  is  real  and  inherent,  not  conventional  nor 
the  product  of  law.  (2)  To  know  is  to  grasp 
the  essential,  real  being  of  a  thing  —  its 
"nature,"  or  end;  "know  ttyself  ii  the  essence 
of  morality;  it  means  that  man  must  base  his 
activity  upon  comprehension  of  the  true  end  of 
las  own  being.  All  evil  is  really  involuntary, 
based  on  ignorance  or  mbconception  of  man  s 
true  good.  To  be  ignorant  of  the  good  is  the 
one  disgrace.  If  a  man  does  not  know  it  — 
and  Socrates  professed  that  he  did  not  —  be  can 
at  least  devote  himself  seriously  to  inquiring,  to 
the  effort  to  learn.  If  not  wise  (a  sophist)  he 
can  at  least  be  a  lover  of  wisdom  (a  philoso- 
pher). And  until  he  attains  knowledge,  the  in- 
dividual will  be  loyal  to  the  responsibilities  of 
his  own  civic  life. 

The  two  conceptions  of  the  good  as  some- 


bow  (he  fulfilment  of  man's  tmeiutUFe  or 
reality,  and  as  attainable  only  under  conditions 
of  raUooal  insight  are  the  bases  of  ail  later 
Greek  thought.  Opinions  differed  to  what  man's 
end  is,  and  as  to  the  character  of  .true  knowl- 
edge of  it.  The  CKtrente  division  was  between 
the  Cynic  school,  the  forerunner  of  the  Stoics, 
founded  by  Antisthenes  (about  444  kcv-Jw 
B.C.),  and  the  Cyrenaic  (the  precursor  of  Epi- 
cureanism, founded  by  Aristippus  (about  43S 
B.c-360  B.C.).  The  former  taught  that  vinue, 
manifested  m  temperance  or  self-control,  is  the 
one  and  only   good,  pleasure  as  an  end  being 


ing  (the  sensation  of  a  gentle  and  c  

change)  is  the  good.    The  wise  man  of  Six:r3 
is  he  who  knows   this  moderate  and  enduring 

fileasure  and  is  not  captured  by  sudden  and  vio- 
ent  passion.  Both  schools  take  a  somewhat 
antagonistic  attitude  toward  the  state;  the  Cynic 
emphasizing  the  superiority  of  the  sage  to  gov- 
tnent  and  authority,  well  illustrated  in  the 
c dotes  of  Diogenes  and  Alexander  the 
ijreat ;  the  Cyrenaic  holding  that  the  pleasures 
of  friendship  and  social  companionship  of 
the  congenial  are  superior  to  those  of  partici- 
pation in  public  life.  These  schools  thus  set 
two  of  the  fundamental  problems  of  subsequent 
ethical  theory,  namely,  the  nature  of  the  goo<L 
and  the  nature  of  knowledge  of  it;  and  supplied 
the  framework  of  later  schools  of  thoughL 
Those  who  hold  that  pleasure  is  the  good  are 
termed  Hedonists  (Gr.  idov^,  pleasure)  ;  those 
who  held  to  its  residence  in  ue  virtuous  will 
Perfectionists,  or  (with  certain  mialifications 
added)  Rigorists.  Those  who  hold  that  il  is 
known  through  reason  are  Intuitional ists,  the 
other  school.  Sensationalists  or  Empiricists. 

Plato  (q.v.)  (about  427  b.c-347  b.c)  at- 
tempted a  synthesis  of  the  conceptions  of  the 
two  schools  ;ust  referred  to,  with  a  constructive 
program  of  social,  political  and  educational 
reform,  and  with  a  rdnterpretation  of  earlier 
philosophic  theories  of  the  universe'  and  of 
knowledge.  His  most  characteristic  doctrines 
are  (1)  the  generalization  of  the  Socratic  con- 
ception of  the  good  as  constituting  the  true 
essence  or  nature  of  man.  Under  the  influence 
of  philosophic  concepts  derived  from  a  varied 
of  sources,  Plato  conceived  man  as  essentially 
a  ihicrocosm ;  as  the  universe  in  miniature. 
He  is  composed  of  a  certain  arrangement  of  the 
elements  of  reality  itself ;  hence  he  can  be  truly 
knon-n  only  as  the  real  nature  of  the  universal 
reality  which  .constitutes  him  is  known;  bis  good 
is  ultimately  one  with  the  final  cause  or  good 
of  the  universe.  Thus  Plato  goes  even  farther 
than  Socrates  in  asserting  that  morality  is  bf 
nature  —  it  is  by  the  nature  not  only  of  man 
but  of  absolute  reality  itsdf,  which  is  thus  given 
an  ethical  or  spiritual  interpretation.  Thus  he 
pounded  ethics  on  general  nhilosoidiic  concep- 
tions and  has  been  me  model  for  all  since  woo 
have  distinctly  conceived  ethics  to  be  a  branch 
of  philosophy.  Moreover,  since  he  r^;ards  the 
ultimate  good  of  the  universe  as  one  with  God 
and  as  the  animatinK  purpose  in  the  creation  of 
physical  nature,  be  brings  ethics  into  connection  ' 
with  religion,  and  with  man's  relations  to  the 
world  about  him.  (2)  Plato  regarded  the  state 
in  its  true  or  ideal  form  as  the  best  embodiment 
or  expression  of  the  essential  nature  of  indi- 
viduaf  man ;  as  indeed  more  truly  man  than  any 


ooe  indiriduRl.  In  its  true  organUatiMi,  it 
refiecU  or  im^Kcs  die  constitution  of  the  ultimjUe 
good  Thus  Plato  brings  ethics  back  into  con- 
nection with  polltict  as  iBe  theory  of  ideal  social 
organizatko.  Practicjjly,  he  delineates  this 
state  in  outline  <esf>ectally  in  his  Republic,  and, 
with  greater  attentign  to  feasible  detail  in  fait 
Laws),  and  proposes  in  view  of  this  ideal  a 
specific  Tefoim  of  the  existing  ocder,  instead  of 
(Bsregard  of  it  as  with  Cynic  and '  Cytmaic. 
(3)  He  sets  forth  a  schone  of  tfae  good  aa 
realizable  in  bnman  nature,  wfaich  endeavors  to 
combine  the  one-sided  extremes  of  mere  i^ea»- 
nre  and  mere  virtue.  He  conceives  the  good 
to  be  tfae  fulfilment  of  all  capadties,  facul- 
ties or  {unctions  of  hiunan  nature,  the  fulfil- 
ment of  each  power  being  accompanied  with  its 
own  appropriate  pleasure,  and  all  being  ordered 
and  bound  together  in  a  harmonious  whole  hf 
a  law  of  measnre  or  proportion  which  assigns 
to  eacfa  its  proper  place;  at  the  head,  the  i^eas- 
ure  of  pure  knowledge-  at  the  bottom,  the 
appetites ;  between,  the  pleasures  of  the  nobler 
senses  (si^  and  hearing),  and  of  the  higher 
impulses' — ao^tion,  honor,  eCc  The  right  func- 
tioning  of  each  ia  virtue ;  its  product  is  pleasure. 
The  ^stem  oi' pleasures  according  to  virtue  is 
the  good.  Moreover,  he  specifies  four  cardinal 
virtues  wfaich  result  —  wisdom,  the  knowledge 
□f  the  good  or  organized  whole;  justice,  the  law 
of  proportion  or  measure;  courage,  the  asser- 
tion of  the  hifdier  tendencies  against  the  V^*' 
ores  and  pains  arising  from  the  oontemidaticB 
or  imagination  of  tfae  lower;  temperance,  the 
law  of  subordination  in  accordance  with  wfaidh 
each  lower  function  is  restrained  from  usurping 
the  place  of  the  higher.  Plato's  system  of  ethics 
remains  the  standard  of  ethical  theories  of  the 
*self -realization*  type. 

Aristotle  (q.v.)  (384  B.c-322  B.C.)  gave  the 
philosophic  consideration  of  Plato  a  more 
scientihc  and  empirical  turn  —  a  contrast,  how- 
ever, which  b  often  exaggerated.  He  protested 
against  the  identification  by  Plato  of  human  end 
or  good  with  that  of  the  vmiversc,  and  conse- 
quently attached  less  importance  to  knowlet^ 
in  the  form  of  philosophic  insight,  and  more 
to  practical  insist  or  wisdcon.  But,  in  the  main 
assuming-  the  Platonic  basis,  he  carried  into 
detail  Uk  analysis  of  human  faculties  or  func- 
tions involvea  in  conduct,  giving  a  careful 
analysis  of  desire,  pleasure  and  pain,  of  the 
various  modes  of  knowledee,  of  voluntary 
action  and  making  a  remarkable  analysis  of  the 
various  forms  of  virtue  and  vice  actually  cur- 
rent. In  a  word  he  emphasized  in  detail  psycho 
logical  and  social  aspects,  merely  sketched  by 
Plato.  On  the  social  side,  it  had  become  obvious 
that  the  comprehensive  scheme  of  reform  enter- 
tained by  Plato  was  impossible;  and  here,  also 
Aristotle  is  free  to  undertake  a  more  empirical 
description  and  analysis  of  various  forms  of 
govemment  and  organization  in  their  moral 
ba^es  and  bearings.  When  in  the  l2lh  and  13th 
centuries  A.D.  the  works  of  Aristotle  were  again 
made  known  to  the  European  world,  first 
through  translations  from  the  Arabic  and  then 
from  the  Greek,  Aristotle's  ethics  became  em- 
bodied in  the  official  philosophy  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  especially  in  the  writings  of 
Saint  Thomas  Aquinas  (1225-74),  and  found 
litera/y  expression  in  the  Divine  Comedy  of 
Dante.  His  ethical  writings  hav«  more  pro- 
foundly  affected   common   speech   and   thought 


than  tboM  of  any  other  writer,  and  to  a  large 
extent  have  become  a  part  of  the  moral  com- 
mon-sense of  civilized  humanity. 

The  details  of  later  ethical  philosophy  in 
Greece  and  Rome  form  an  interesting  part  of 
the  history  of  ethics,  but,  with  one  exception, 
supply  no  new  idea  of  aiiffident  importance  to 
need  mention  here.  The  exception  is  the  Stoic 
CMiceptioR  of  virtue  aS  'living  in  accordance 
with  nature,"  and  the  conception  of  the  *law 
with  nature*  which  grew  out  of  this.  This  idea, 
under  the  form  of  jus  naittraie,  was  taken  up 
into  Roman  jurisprudence,  and  became  the  ideal 
of  a  common  moral  law  which  underlies  all  dif- 
ferences of  positive  munidpal  law,  and  which, 
accordingly,  forms  an  ethical  Standard  b^  which 
positive  law  can  be  tried,  and  its  diversities  re- 
duced to  a  common  denominator.  It  reappeared 
in  the  Middle  A«es  in  tfae  fonn  of  the  natural 
law  (as  distinct  from  revealed  or  supernatural 
law),  written  on  the  "fleshly  tablets  of  the 
heart,'  and  was  thus  indirectly  influential  in 
fortning  the  still  corrent  notion  of  cansdenc* 
as  a  moral  legislative  force.  It  came  out  in 
continental  ethical  thought  of  the  17th  and  tSth 
centuries  in  the  conception  of  moral  law  as 
something  analogous  to  a  system  of  mathemati< 
cal  axioms,  definitions  and  demonstrations,  dis- 
coveraUe  by  reason,  and  forming  the  frame- 
work of  both  individual  and  polittca)  ethics. 

Ptrtrlatic  Hediaval  Period  (5th  to  15th  cen- 
turies jU).) — The  second  period  of  ethical  his- 
tory is  characterized  by  the  subordination  of 
ethics,  as  a  brandi  of  philosophy,  to  theoloK^. 
The  distinctive  features  contnbuted  in  Ims 
period  to  subsequent  ethics  are  the  emphasis 
hid  upon  ideas  of  law,  authority,  obligation  or 
duty,  and  merit  or  demerit,  namely,  the  good 
as  religious  salvation  involving  a  knowledge 
and  love  of  God  as  supreme  perfection,  possible 
only  in  the  next  world;  and  evil  as  sin,  guilt 
also  needing  supernatural  expiation.  Because 
of  the  emphasis  upon  law  and  authority,  moral 
ideas  are  largely  assimilated  to  forensic  and  (u- 
ridicat  conceptions.  Most  significant,  however, 
for  ethical  theory  is  the  transfer  of  theoretical 
interest  from  the  conception  of  the  good,  the 
central  idea  of  ancient  ethics,  to  that  of  obliga- 
tion. Not  the  natural  end  of  man,  but  the  duty 
of  absolute  submission  of  will  to  transcendent 
nmral  authority  was  the  keynote.  And  even 
when  ethics  was  freed  frwn  subservience  to 
theology,  it  still  remained  easier  for  the  modem 
mind  to  concdve  of  morality  in  terms  of  the 
nature  and  authority  of  duty  than  as  the  process 
of  realizing  the  good.  On  the  more  concrete, 
empirical  side,  the  great  contribution  of  me- 
discval  theory  was  in  depicting  the  moral  drama, 
the  struggle  of  good  and  evil,  as  it  goes  on  in 
the  individual  soul.  The  fact  that  this  was 
fraught  with  significance  for  an  endless  future 
life  made  it  a  subject  of  anxious  and  mrnute 
attention ;  and  here,  loo,  even  when  the  moral 
rerion  was  later  marked  oft  more  or  less 
definitely  from  the  religious,  modem  thoupht 
owes  its  consciousness  of  the  subtle  perplexities, 
temptations  and  shades  of  moral  effort  and  issue 
to  media:val  rather  than  to  ancient  ethics. 

Early  Modem  Period  (The  Reformation  to 
the  French  Revolution). —  The  complexity  and 
variety  of  moral  theory  and  inquiry  since  the- 
15(h  century,  as  well  as  its  relative  nearness, 
make  it  difficult  to  secure  the  perspective  neces- 
sary to  its  proper  characterization.    It  is  all 


joogle 


more  or  less  connected,  however,  with  the  strug- 
gle toward  greater  individual  freedom,  and  with 
the  problem  of  maintaining  a  stable  associated 
and  institutional  life,  on  the  basis  of  recog~ 
nition  of  individuality  —  the  democratic  movC' 
meat  In  its  earliest  period,  modem  ethics  was 
largely  characterized  hy  reaction  against  scho- 
lasticism ;  it  was  an  effort  to  secure  a  basis  for 
ethics  free  from  subordination  to  theology  and 
to  mediseval  philosophy,  and  the  schoolmen's 
versions  of  Aristotle.  Moreover  so  much  oi 
energy  was  expended  in  the  practical  effort  to 
get  freedom  of  thought,  of  political  action,  of 
religious  creed,  of  commercial  life,  that  moral 
theory  turned  largely  upon  detailed  (questions 
ari^ng  out  of  the  practical  struggle.  This  act 
counts  to  a  considerable  extent  for  the  scat- 
tered, fragmentary  condition  of  modern  ethics  as 
compared  with  the  systematic  character  of 
either  Greek  or  medieval  thought.  Moreover, 
the  very  gaining  of  intellectual  freedom  of  in' 

Juiry  opened  up  coimlless  fields  of  interest 
Ithical  proMems  sprang  into  existence  at  every 
turn ;  every  new  movement  in  industry,  in  poh- 
tics,  national  and  international,  and  in  art, 
brought  with  it  a  new  ethical  problem.  Social 
life  was  itself  undergoing  sudi  rapid  change, 
and  in  such  tentative,  uncertain  ways,  that  each 
of  these  problems  had  to  be  attacked  independ- 
ently. The  result  is  a  critical  controversial  and 
individualistic,  rather  than  a  constructive  and 
systematized  ethics  —  with  the  advantage,  how- 
ever, of  remarkable  richness  in  detail. 

Continental  ethics  followed  the  prevailing 
philosophic  method  of  rationalism ;  the  attemtit 
to  build  up  a  theory  of  conduct,  individual  ant] 
social,  on  the  basis  of  pure  reason,  independent 
of  revelation  of  ecclesiastic  authoritv,  or  positive 
institutions.  While  the  method  was  a  priori  in 
name,  as  matter  of  fact  it  drew  largely  upon 
the  inheritance  of  generalized  Romaji  law,  at- 
tempting to  harmonize  and  purify  it  in  accord- 
ance with  ideals  of  unity  ancl  comprehensiveness 
which  were  supposed  to  represent  the  demands 
of  reason.  Grotius  (1SS3-1M5)  was  the  founder 
of  this  movement,  and,  in  his  De  Jure  Belli  et 
Pacis,  used  the  idea  of  law  which  is  founded 
upon  man's  rational  nature,  which  in  turn  is 
inherently  social,  to  place  international  relations 
of  comity,  commerce  and  war  upon  a  more  hu- 
mane and  enlightened  basis.  H:s  German  suc- 
cessors, Puffendorf  (1632-94),  Leibnitz  (1646- 
1716),  Thomasius  (1655-1728),  Wolff  (167Si- 
1754),  carried  on  with  greater  critical  acumen 
and  more  adequate  philosophic  instruments,  the 


after  Jus  Nalurale)  applicable  to  all  sphe: ._  _. 
private,  domestic,  civil,  political  and  intenia- 
tional  life  —  a  code  of  morals,  positive  in  efFect, 
but  supposed  all  to  be  drawn  deductively  from 


relormed  of  ail.  _ 
detail.  French  rationalism  took  a  different  turn. 
It  attempted  a  synthesis  of  the  more  basal 
notions  of  the  newly  arisen  physical  science  with 

fsychological  ideas  borrowed  from  Locke  and 
is  English  successors.  It  was  rationalistic  not 
'so  much  in  attempting  to  deduce  an  ethical 
system  from  the  conceptions  of  reason,  as  in 
subjecting  the  existing  order  of  belief  and  insti- 


tutions to  Unsparing  criticism  as  anti-sdentific 
In  its  extreme  forms  it  seemed  to  demand  an 
abrogation  of  existing  institutions,  the  erection 
of  the  same  tabula  rasa  in  social  matters,  that 
Descartes  had  postulated  in  intellectual,  and  a 
creation  de  novo,  by  sheer  voluntary  action,  of 
a  new  social  order,  aiming  at  universal  happi- 
ness. Reason  gives  an  ideal  of  society  in  which 
all  men  ^11  be  free  and  equal,  and  in  whicb 
economic  want  and  misery  shall  be  abolished, 
and  a  widely  diffused  intclli^:ence  and  wealth 
shall  be  instituted.  Pessimistic  to  the  extreme 
as  re^rds  the  existing  order,  it  was  anxaUj 
optimistic  as  to  the  possibilities  of  soci^  or- 
ganization, culminating  in  the  conception  of  the 
infinitely  progressive  perfectibility  of  human 
nature;  thus  Helvetius,  1715-71  (De  I'esprit, 
1758:  De  I'Homme  published  1773) :  Diderot 
(1713-84);  Condillac  (1715-80);  D-Holbadi 
(1723-89),  especially  'Systeme  Social'  (1773); 
Condorcet  (1743-94).  While  (krman  ethics 
had  emphasized  the  conception  of  natural 
law  which  is  social  in  nature,  French  thoudit 
eliminated  in  a  deification  of  natural  rigots 
which  are  individiial  in  their  import  and  loca- 
tion. Certain  characteristic  features  of  not  only 
the  French  Revolution  but  of  Ihe  thougbt  of 
American  puUicists  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
18th  century  are  directly  traceabJe  to  this 
influence. 

English  ethical  theory  received  its  impetus 
from  Hobbes  (158&-1679).  He  begins  with  an 
analysis  of  the  make-up  of  the  inoividuaj,  and 
resolves  the  latter  into  a  bundle  of  egotistic  im- 
pulses, all  aiming  at  unrestricted  satisfaction. 
He  denies  the  existence  of  any  inherent  sodal 
tendency,  or  of  anything  'rational"  in  the  in- 
dividual save  as  deliberation  may  be  involved  in 
the  individual's  efforts  after  satisfaction.  The 
social  counterpart  of  .this  unlimited  individualism 
is  chaos,  anarchy,  conflict  —  the  war  of  all 
against  all.  Hence  the  individtutl's  quest  for 
happiness  is  self -contradictory.  It  is  possible 
oE  fruition  only  within  the  state  of  absolute 
power  which  prescribes  to  each  individual  the 
proper  sf^ere  of  the  exercise  of  his  powers. 
The  state  is  dius  the  author  and  sanction  of  alt 
moral  distinctions  and  obligations.  The  au- 
thority of  this  state  with  respect  to  individuals 
is  absolute;  since  the  source  of  moral  law,  it 
cannot  be  subject  to  anything  beyond  itself. 
There  are  thus  three  strains  in  Hobbes'  teaching. 
The  psychological,  which  teaches  pure  egotian 
and  nedonism ;  the  ethical,  which  makes  the 
state  the  source  of  moral  values  and  relations; 
the  pohtical,  which  makes  its  authority  un- 
limited. Each  strain  evoked  profound  and  in- 
stant reaction.  John  Locke  (1632-1704)  taught 
that  the  individual  has  a  natural  right  to  a  hfe 
of  personal  securib',  possession  of  property  and 
social  activity,  subject  only  to  limits  of  the 
similar  rights  of  others,  and  that  the  state 
comes  into  existence  to  protect  and  secure  these 
rights  by  settling  cases  of  dispute  or  aggression, 
and  hence  is  null  and  void  when  it  goes  beyond 
this  province  and  encroaches  upon  indiMdual 
rights.  A  succession  of  writers,  notablv  Stafies- 
bury  (1671-1713} ;  Hutcheson  (1694-1747)  ;  But- 
ler (1692-1752));  Adam  Smith  (1723-90),  un- 
dertook a  re-analysis  of  human  nature,  and 
endeavored  to  justify  the  presence  of  dian- 
terested  benevolent  impulses,  of  tendencies  to 
regard  the  ivelfare  of  others.  Cudworth  (1617- 
88);     More     (1614-87);    Cumherland     0632- 


>y  Google 


1718);  Qarke  (1675-1729);  Price  (1723-«1) 
took  up  the  question  of  the  origin  of  moral  dis- 
tinctions, and  tried  to  show  that  they  were  based 
not  in  the  state  but  in  immutable  laws  of  reason, 
or  upon  a  science  as  abstract  and  certain  as 
mathematics;  or  else  were  made  known  in  in- 
tuition, etc.  But  during  these  inquiries,  new 
proUems  came  to  light,  and  led  to  a  rearrange- 
ment of  forces.  These  problems  were  (1)  the 
relation  of  happiness  —  the  expression  oE  the 
self-seeking  tendencies  of  man  — to  virtue,  fce 
expression  of  his  benevolent  -tendencies ;  (2)  the 
nature  of  the  test  or  standard  of  ri^t  and 
wrong;  (3)  the  nature  of  moral  knowledge. 
The  first  problem  led  in  Butler  to  the  attempt 
to  introduce  "conscience"  as  a  third  and  tr- 
ancing authoritative  factor  in  human  nature; 
and  m  Smith  and  Hume  (1711-76)  to  a 
peculiarly  rich  and  significant  theory  of  sym- 
pathy as  a  central  principle  through  which  dis- 
tinctively moral  sentiments  are  generated  and 
whose  exercise  is  intimately  bound  up  with 
individual  hairiness.  "Hie  second  and  third 
problems  taken  iogether  lead  to  the  conflict  of 
utilitarianism  ana  intuitionahsm,  the  foimer 
holding  that  conduciveness  to  the  maximum  of- 
possible  happiness  is  the  standard  of  riefat,  the 
basis  of  obligation,  and  the  source  of  all  moral 
rules;  this  conduciveness  to  be  determined  by 
actual  experience;  the  latter  holding  that  there 
are  moral  values,  which  are  inherently  and 
absolutely  such,  without  reference  to  conse- 
quences. Each  school  has  a  tbeoliwicat  and 
a   non -theological  variety.      Among   theological 


Jeremy  Bentham  (1748-1842)  outranks  all  the 
others.  Without  adding  much  that  is  funda- 
mentally new  to  the  theoretical  analysis,  he 
makes  an  analysis  of  happiness  in  connection' 
with  a  discussion  of  the  various  impulses  (or- 
motives  as  he  termed  them)  of  human  nature 
the  basis  of  a  thorough-going  scheme  of  judi- 
cial and  penal  reform.  Through  him  utili- 
tarianism became  the  most  notcnt  instrument  of 
the  first  half  of  the  19tn  century  of  social 
reform ;  conduciveness  to  general  and  equally 
distributed  happiness  being  the  test  by  which 
all  customs,  traditions  and  institutions  were 
tried  ^  and  by  which  most  of  tlicm  in  their  ex- 
istent forms  were  condemned. 

Recent  Modern.  (From  the  French  Revolu- 
tion.)—The  last  20  years  of  the  18th  century 
signalize  a  turning  point  in  the  history  of 
thought.  Bentham's  and  Kant's  chief  works  are 
daiea  in  this  period.  The  French  Revolution, 
carr;ring  into  effect  the  naturalistic  rationalism 
and  its  optimistic  faith  in  the  possibilities  of  the 
individual,  compelled  a  reconsideration  of  the 
intellectual  premises  from  which  it  set  forth. 
The  problem  of  I9th  century  ethics  was  to  get 
back  from  the  individual  to  the  social  whole 
wliich  includes  him  and  within  which  he  func- 
tions ;  but  to  do  this  in  a  way  which  should 
take  due  account  of  the  deepened  significance 
given  to  individnal  initiative  and  freedom  — 
without,  that  is,  a  return  to  pure  institutional- 
ism,  or  to  arbitrary  external  authority.  The 
followinjr  schools  or  main  tendencies  are  easily 
distinguishable : 

(a)  English  Liberalism. —  In  Bentham,  utili- 
tarianism, as  we  have  seen,  became  a  program 
of  social  reform.  The  attempt  to  stretch  an  in- 
dividualistic bedcmism   whicn  tan^t  that  tbe 


end  of  desire  is  always  the  agent's  own  pleasure 
into  a  theory  which  taught  that  the  individual 
should  always  judge  his  motives  and  acts  from  ' 
the  standpomt  of  their  baring  upon  the  happi- 
ness of  all  beings,  brought  out  all  the  weaknesses 
of  the  theory.  James  Mill  (q.v.)  (1773-1836) 
strove  valiantly  to  overcome  these  weaknesses 
by  a  systematic  use  of  the  principle  of  associa- 
tion, in  virtue  of  which  individual  states  be- 
come indissolubly  connected,  through  punish' 
ment  or  commerce,  with  the  welfare  of  others 
—  the  theorv  of  "enhrfUcned  selfishness,"  for 
which  Hartley  (1705-S7)  bad  previously  pro- 
vided the  psychological  machinery.  His  son, 
John  Stuart  Mill  (1806-73)  while  extending 
the  same  idea,  introduced  into  utilitarianism  two 
iimovations,  which  were  seized  upon  by  his 
intuitional  opponents  as  virtual  abandonments 
of  the  oitire  hedonistic  portion.  These  were 
that  quality  of  pleasure  is  more  important  than 
quantity  and  that  the  individual  is  naturally 
social  and  so  instinctively  judges  bis  own  wel- 
fare from  tbe  standpoint  of  society,  instead  of 
vice  versa.  J.  S.  Mill  also  severely  criticised  the 
other  utilitarians  for  their  neglect  of  the  ideal 
elements  in  education,  and  for  neglect  of  tbe 
cuhure  element  in  historical  development.  With- 
out abandoning  the  individualistic  basis  he  was 
much  influencM  by  schools  (b)  and  (f)  below. 
From  (b)  came  the  influence  of  Coleridge 
(1772-1^);  Maurice  (1805-72),  and  Sterling 
(1S06-43).  Bain  (I8IS-1903)  belongs  to  the 
same  empirical  and  utilitarian  school.  Sidgwick 
(1838-1900)  in  his  'Methods  of  Ethics"  at- 
tempted a  fusion  of  the  utilitarian  standard  widi 
an  intuitional  basis  and  method. 

(6)  German  rationalism  culminated  in  Kant 
(l?34-iaM),  who  reduced  the  function  of 
ffibral  reason  in  man'  to  a  single  principle ;  the 
consdousness  of  the  moral  law  as  the  sole  and 
lufiicin^  principle  of  action.  Since  the  claims  of 
this  principle  are  opposed  by  those  of  self-love 
^■the  desire  for  personal  happiness  —  the  pres- 
ence of  moral  reason  in  us  takes  the  form  of  a 
■categorical  imperative,*  or  the  demand  that 
duty  alone,  without  any  influence  from  inclina- 
tion, desire  or  affection,  be  the  motive  of  con- 
duct. Upon  the  consciousness  of  duty  are  built 
the  ideas  of  freedom,  QoA  and  immortality — 
that  is,  by  moral  action  is  opened  to  us  a  sphere 
of  reasonable  faith  in  transcendental  realities 
which  are  shut  to  scientific  and  philosophic 
cognition.  Kant  brought  rationaiism  to  a  turn 
much  as  Bentham  had  affected  empiricism.  Sub- 
sequent German  thou^t  attempted  to  overcome 
the  formalism  of  Kant's  bare  reason,  making  it- 
self known  only  in  a  consciousness  of  obligation. 
Hegel  (1770-1831)  attempted  a  synthesis  of  the 
Kantian  idealism  with  tbe  ideas  of  Schiller,  of 
Spinoza  (especially  through  the  meditmi  of 
Goethe),  and  of  the  rising  historical  school 
founded  by  Savigny.  He  endeavored  to  show 
that  the  social  orAtt  is  itself  an  objective  em- 
bodiment of  will  and  reason,  and  diat  tbe 
regions  of  civil  law,  of  family  life,  social  and 
commercial  intercourse  and  above  all  the  state, 
constitute  an  ethical  world  (as,  real  as  the  physi- 
cal) from  which  tbe  individt»l  must  take  his 
cue.  He  anticipated  in  many  particulars  from 
the  standpoint  of  a  different  mediod  and  termin- 
i^^,  doctrines  of  recent  anthropology  and 
social  psychology,  (jerman  moral  influence  has 
been  ^It  in  English  thou^t  chiefly  through 
Coleric^,  Carijk  (who  was  mainly  affected  by 


.Google 


6«e  ETHI< 

Kant's  successor,  Fichte,  1762-1814),  and  more 
recently,  T.  H.  Green  (183fr-82).  The  New 
£iiKiand  Transcendental ists  were  also  aSected 
by  this  school  of  thought,  Ralph  Waldo  Emer- 
son (q.v.)  (1803-82)  giving  a  highly  original 
version  of  it,  blending  it  with  factors  of  his  own 
personality  and  with  ideas  drawn  from  Puritan- 

vidua     _.  ._      .  

At  the  head  of  the  reaction  stands  Comte 
(1798-1857),  who  attempted  to  build  up  a  theory 
of  ethics  upon  an  organized  social  basis,  similar 
in  many  respects  to  that  of  Hegel,  but  relying 
Upon  a  systematization  of  sciences  rather  than 
upon  philosophy,  for  method,  his  system  ac- 
cordingly being  termed  positivism.  ComtC 
sought  to  show  how  such  an  ethical- social 
science  could  replace  metaphysics  and  theol- 
ogy, the  latter  in  the  form  of  a  religion  of 
humaniQ'.  He  influenced  G.  H.  Lewes  and  the 
latter's  wife,  George  EJiot,  and  alio  John  Stuart 
Mill. 

(d)  In  the  latter  half  of  the  19th  century 
the  theoiy  of  evolution  has  been  dominant  in 
ethical  as  well  as  in  other  forms  of  philosophic 
and  scientific  thougfat.  Herbert  Spencer's  appli- 
cation is  the  best  (mown  to  English  readers.  It 
is,  however,  generalty  recognized  that  his  funda- 
mental ethical  conceptions  were  worked  out 
before  he  became  an  evolutionist,  and  that  the 
attachments  between  his  ethics  ana  the  theory  of 
evolution  are  of  a  somewhat  external  character. 
Indeed,  it  is  now  dear  that  the  further  devehy- 
ment  of  the  science  of  ethics  waits  upon  the 
more  thorough  clearing  up  of  the  evolutional^ 
ideas  themselves,  and  upon  more  complete  appli- 
cation to  biology,  psychology  and  sociology  (in- 
cluding anthropology  and  certain  phases  of  the 
history  of  man)  in  order  to  supply  the  auxiliarv 
sciences  necessary  far  ethical  science.  Through 
the  conception  of  evolution  it  is  probable  that 
ethics,  will  .be  emancipated  from  the  survival 
of  the  idea  that  it  is  an  art  whose  business  is  to 
lay  down. rules.  The  practical  aspect  of  the 
theory  of  ethics  will  necessarily  remain  (since  it 
is  theory  of  practice  or  conduct) ,  but  it  will  take 
the  form  ot  providing  methodi  for  analysing 
and  resolving  concrete  individual  and  social 
situations,  rather  than  of  furnishing  injunctiona 
and  precepts.  The  coincidence  of  the  evolution- 
ary tendency  with  the  growth  of  democracy 
will  relieve  ethics  in  its  philosophic  aspects  from 
its  dependence  upon  fixed  values,  ideals,  stand- 
ards and  laws,  and  constitute  ethics  more  and 
more  a  working  method  for  the  self -regulation 
of  the  individual  and  of  society. 

Every  period  of  ethical  theory  has  been 
associated,  as  we  have  seen,  with  some  corre- 
sponding epoch  of  human  development,  having 
its  own  characteristic  problem.  Upon  the 
whole,  however,  ethics  has  not  as  yet  adequately 
outgrown  the  conditions  of  its  orisnn,  and,  the 
supposed  necessity  they  imposed  of  finding 
something  as  fixed  and  unchanging  as  custom. 
Consequently,  philosophic  inquiry  has  been  de- 
voted to  finding  Ike  good,  the  law  of  duty  etc; 
that  is,  something  unchanging,  all  inclusive. 
Even  the  empirical  school,  in  its  emphasis  upon 
pleasure,  has  tried  to  find  something  free  from 
conditions  of  development,  something  fixed  in 
the  sense  of  being  .everywhere  and  at  all  times 
the  same  sii^e  unchanging  standard  and  end. 
Even  Spencer  distinguishes  present  ethical  codes 


as  merely  relative,  and  anticipates  a  period  in 
which  evolution  will  reach  its  goal — a  period 
in  which  an  unchanging  aet  of  rules  slull  be 
uniformly  binding.  But  as  ethical  writers  be- 
come more  habituated  to  evolutionary  ideas, 
thev  will  cease  setting  up  ideals  of  a  Utopian 
millennium,  with  only  one  end  and  law;  and 
will  devote  themselves  to  studying  the  condi- 
tions and  effects  of  the  dianging  situations  in 
which  men  actnallv  live. 

Consult  the  works  of  the  authors  already  meii> 
tioned  and  also  CUfford,  W.  K.,  *The  Scientific 
Basis  of  Morals*   (New  York  1884)  ;  Croce,  B., 


Uackenzie,  J.  S.,  'Manual  of  Ethics'  (New 
York  1901);  Mezes.  S.  E..  'Ethics'  (London 
1901);  Palmer,  G.  H.,  <The  Field  of  Ethics' 
(Boston  1901);  Paulsen,  F.,  'System  of  Ethics' 
(New  York  1899)  ;  Bqyce,  L  'Philosophy  of 
Loyalty'  (New  York  IWB) ;  Sorly,  R.,  'Recent 
Tendencies  in  Ethics>  (Edinburgh  1904); 
Stmhen,  Sir  Leslie,    'The  Science  of  Ethics' 


(2d  ed..  New  York  1907) ;  Thilly,  Frank; 
'Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Ethics'  (New 
York  1900) ;  Wundt,  W.  M.,  'Ethics'  (London 
1897-1901). 

JoRir  Dewey, 
Proftttor  of  Philosophy,  Columbia  Untversily. 
ETHIOPIA  (Gr.     ai*«,  to  bum,  and    if, 
countenance),    the    biblical    CusH,    in    ancient 

Smgraphy,   the   name   originally   given   by   the 
reeks    to    the    southern   parts   of    the   Imown 
world.      It  is  divided  in  the  poems  of  Homer 
eastern  and  western  Ethiopia,  and  this  dis- 


tinction is  repeated  by  Herodotus,  and  tw  the 
later  Greek  and  Roman  geoKraphers,  Homer 
gives   the    southern    limit    of   Ethiopia    as   the 


northern  boundary  of  the  Southern  Sea.  Some 
ancient  writers  give  the  boundaries  of  the  three 
Elthiopian  kingdoms,  Meroe,  Aksum  and 
Napata.  Eastern  Ethiopia  appears  to  have  in- 
cluded southern  India,  whose  inhabitants  were 
called  Ethiopians  from  their  color.  There  were 
also  other  Asiatic  Ethiopians,  an  equestrian  race, 
of  a  darker  color  than  their  neighbors,  who 
wore  crests  made  of  the  hides  and  manes  of 
horses,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  a  Mon- 
golian tribe  whidi  had  wandered  into  the 
steppes  of  Koordistan.  The  name  Ethit^ia  was 
more  usually  and  definitely  applied  to  the  coun- 
try south  of  Libya  and  Egypt,  between  the 
Red  Sea  on  the  east  and  the  desert  of  Sahara 
on  the  west,  and  embracing  the  modem  regions 
of  Nubia,  Sennaar,  Kordofan  and  Abyssinia. 
In  a  still  narrower  sense,  the  designation  was 
restricted  to  the  province  or  kin^om  of  Mero^ 
which  was  also  called  the  civilized  Ethiopia. 
African  Ethiopia,  which  is  called  in  the  Bible 
the  land  of  Cush,  embraced,  accordiiw  to  Pliny, 
45  distinct  kingdoms;  yet  as  neither  Qie  Greeks 
nor  Romans  ever  penetrated  beyond  Napata,  in 
lat.  19°  N.,  we  are  indebted  for  most  ac- 
counts of  it  to  Greek  imagination.  Mero^  be- 
tween the  Nile  and-  the  Astaboras,  formed  the 
most  powerful  kingdom,  and  had  a  theocratic 
constitution.  The  other  priricipal  divisions  were 
the  Blemmyes,  whose  aspect  was  hideous;  the 
Tro^odytac,  who  lived  in  caverns;  the  Uacrobii, 
or  long-lived  men;  the  Ichthyophagi,  or  fish 
eaters;  and  the  Creoiriia^  Chdono^tagi, 
Elephantoi^an,  Stralhoi^iagi,  and  Ofiliiopha|j, 
respectively  the  caters  of  ncsh,  tortotsci,  d»- 


.  Google 


phants,  ostriches  and  serpents.  Fable  placed 
also  in  this  region  the  race  of  pygmies.  Some 
parts  oF  Ethiopia  were  named  from  their  pro- 
ductions; as  the  land  of  cinnamon,  and  of 
myrrh,  and  the  Jews  and  Phcentdans  went 
thither  to  obtain  arottiatics  and  ivory.  The 
Ethiopian  kin^s  seem  to  have  been  chosen  from 
among  the  priests,  and  the  order  of  succession 
gave  the  crown  to  the  nephew  of  the  king,  the 
son  of  his  sister;  and  in  default  of  an  heir, 
an  election  was  made.  The  Mople  practised 
circumcision,  and  embalmed  their  dead  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  of  the  Egyptians.  They 
were  of  an  intrepid,  impetuous  and  violent 
character,  and  ^t  are  represented  as  loving 
and  practising  justice.  Homer  makes  Jupiter 
visit  them,  and  sit  at  their  feasts.  There  were 
many  Ethiopian  queens  named  Candace,  one  of 
whom  became  subject  to  the  Emperor  Augus- 
tus. Under  the  Romans  the  population  of 
Ethiopia  became  almost  wholly  Arabian,  and 
so  continued  after  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  4th  century.  When  the  followers 
of  Mohammed  overran  the  entire  re^on  some 
centuries  later,  the  Arabic  element  gamed  com- 
plete predominance  in  it.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Christians  and  cler^  of  Abyssinia 
were  designated  as  the  Ethiopian  Church.  See 
Meboe, 


Amharic  and  the  Ttgri  are  the  most  remark- 
able. The  former  of  these  shows  little  affinity 
with  the  ancient  language  of  the  country,  the 
Geez,  or  the  Ethiopic  properly  so  called,  which 
since  the  bewnning  of  the  14th  century,  when 
a  dynastic  change  made  the  Amharic  the  lan- 
guage of  the  court,  has  ceased  to  be  the  ver- 
nacular, and  is  used  onl^  by  people  of  educa- 
tion and  learning  in  religious  and  civil  docu- 
ments. This  ancient  language,  which  has  ite 
name  from  the  inhabitants  calling  it  lesatta  geet. 
that  is,  language  of  science,  as  it  is  also  called 
langua^  of  books,  is  of  Semitic  origin,  resem- 
bling in  roots,  structure  and  grammatical 
form^  the  ancient  South  Arabian  dialect  of 
the  Himy antes,  which  since  Mohammed  has 
disappeared  from  the  peninsula.  T^s  favors 
the  hypothesis  of  some  historians,  who  suppose 
the  Ethiopians  to  have  been  a  colony  from 
Arabia.  The  alphabet  also  of  the  Geez  greatly 
Tcsembles  that  of  the  Himyarites,  as  found  in 
their  remaining  inscriptions.  It  consists  of 
26  consonants  and  7  vowels,  which  are  smalt 
marks  inseparably  connected  with  the  former, 
thus  forming  a  peculiar  syllabic  mode  of  writ- 
ing, analogous  to  the  Devanagari  and  some 
other  Indian  alphabets.  Pew  of  these  tetters 
stiow  a  resemblance  to  the  Phsnician  alphabet, 
fvhile  24  of  them  maj;  be  traced  in  the  Arabic. 
There  are  no  diacritical  marks ;  the  single 
-words  are  separated  by  two  dots ;  the  accent  is 
difficult;  the  mode  of  writing  is  from  left  to 
rigfat,  the  reverse  having  been  the  practice  be- 
fore the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Abys- 
sinia. In  roots,  and  forms  of  expression  and 
construction,  the  Geez  is  poorer  than  the 
Arabic.  According  to  Gesenius,  one-third  of 
all  the  roots  can  be  traced  distinctly  in  the 
Arabic,  and  many  other  words  may  be  pre- 
snmed  to  be  of  the  same  origin,  while  the  roots 
of  Others  can  be  found  in  the  Hebrew,  Syrtac, 
or  Oialdaic,  some  being  native  African,  a  few 
of   Gredc,  scarce^  anjrof  Coptic  derivation. 


6th  being  peculiar.  A  double  infinitive  is  used 
substantively,  this  mood  having  both  an  absolute 
and  constructive  form.  There  is  no  participle. 
The  dual  is  unknown  both  in  verbs  and  nouns; 
the  difference  of  masculine  and  feminine  is 
observed  throughout  in  the  second  and  third 
persons.  The  relation  of  the  genitive  is  ex- 
pressed by  an  inflection,  causing  some  changes 
in  the  terminations,  or  through  the  relative 
pronoun;  the  dative  by  prepositions;  the  com- 
rarative  and  superlative  degrees  by  particles. 
The  plural  is  formed  hy  affixed  syllables,  an  in 
masculine,  at  in  feminine  nouns,  on  the  prin- 
ciple common  to  the  Hebrew,  Arabic  and 
Aramaic,  or  by  changes  in  ihe  radical  letters, 
after  the  manner  of  the  so-called  broken  plural 
in  Arabic.  In  the  formation  of  nouns  the 
Geez  most  resembles  the  Hebrew,  but  it  has 
superfluous  final  vowels,  modified  in  certain 
cases,  in  which  it  is  analogous  to  the  Arabic 
in  its  nunnation.  Besides  a  few  fragments 
in  inscriptions,  there  are  no  remnants  of  the 
ancient  Ethiopian  literature  of  a^riod  preced- 
ing the  introduction  of  Christiamty  under  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  but  of  works  composed  since 
that  time  about  200  are  known  to  European 
scholars.  The  Old  Testament,  translated  from 
the  Septuagint  by  unknown  Christian  writers 
in  the  4th  century,  is  extant  in  manuscripts  in 
Europe,  but  only  a  part  of  it  has  been  printed. 
The  Psalms  were  published  in  Ethiopic  and 
Latin  by  Ludolf  (Frankfort  1701),  and  in 
Ethiopic  alone  (London  181S).  The  version 
of  the  New  Testament  appeared  at  Rome  in 
1548,  and  in  the  London  polyglot  Bible.  Of 
versions  of  apocryphal  books,  in  which  the 
Ethiopic  is  particularly  rich,  several  have  been 
published,  as  the  'Book  of  Enoch,'  translated 
by  Richard  I^urence  into  English  (2d  edition, 
London  1833),  and  by  Hoffmann  into  (lerman 
(Jena  1838),  in  Valts,  translated  by  Laurence 
into  Latin,  and  published  in  both  languages 
(Oxford  1819).  Geez  in  1840  (London),  and 
Aseensio  Isaw.  The  'IMdascalia,  or  Apostolical 
Constitution  of  the  Abyssinian  Church,*  was 
puMished  in  Ethiopic  and  English  by  Piatt 
(London  1834).  The  Synaxar  contains  lives  of 
saints,  martyrologies  and  the  hymns  of  the 
Ethiopian  Oiurch,  in  rude  rhythmical  form, 
every  three  or  five  lines  often  ending  in  the 
same  consonant,  which  forms  a  kind  of  rhyme. 
The  profane  literature  of  the  Ethiopian  lan- 
guage is  comparatively  poor,  consisting  chiefly 
of  chronicles,  which  appear  to  be  of  consider- 
able interest,  but  have  not  yet  been  generally 
accessible.  Of  these  the  most  remarkable  are 
the  'Keber  ca  Nageste,'  containing  the  tradi- 
tional and  legendary  history  of  the  once  mighty 
kingdom  of  Aksum,  a  copy  of  which  was 
brought  to  Europe  by  Bruce,  and  a  translation 
of  it  appended  to  his  travels;  and  the  *Tardc 
Nagushti,'  or  chronicle  of  longs.  In  Europe 
the  Ethiopian  language  was  almost  unknown 
until  the  time  of  Job  LndoU,  who,  beiii^  assisted 
by  an  excellent  native  scholar.  Abbas  Gregorins, 
made  himself  master  of  it,  and  published  an 
admirable  dictionary  and  grammar  (2d  im- 
proved and  enlaiged  edition,  Frankfort  1703). 
Manuscripts  written  in  the  Ethiopian  langua^ 
are  in  possession  of  Abyssinian  monks  and  m 
libraries  in  Europe.  Their  knowledge  of  music 
may  be  inferred  from  their  musioil  notation 


.,ogle 


ETHIOPIAN  CHURCH— BTHNOORAPHY 


which  has  been  pubUshed  After  a  long  inter- 
vaJ  the  interest  in  this  language  and  literature 
has  been  revived  by  the  works  of  Piat^  Lau- 
rence, Gesenius,  Hupfeld,  Hoffmann,  Rodiger, 
Ewald  and  others,  as  well  as  by  the  contribu- 
tions of  Isenberg,  Blumberg,  and  D'Abbadie. 
Bibliography,^  Breasted,  'History  of  Egypt' 
(New  York  1909) ;  Budge,  'The  Egyptian 
Sudan'  (London  1907)  ;  D'Almeida,  'Historia 
de  Ethiopia  alta'  (Coimbra  1660) ;  Bosset, 
'fitudes  sur  I'histoire  d'Ethiope'  (in  Journal 
Atiatique,  Paris  1881);  Bent,  'Sacred  City  of 
the'  Ethiopians'  (London  1893) ;  Bruce, 
'Travels  in  Abyssinia'  (Edinburj^  1773); 
Hoskins,  'Travels  in  Ethiopia'  (London  1835)  ; 
Dillmann,  'Graramatik  der  Athiopischen 
Sprache'  (Leipzig  1859;  2d  ed.  by  Bezold, 
1899);  Pratorius,  'Die  amharische  Sprache' 
(1871);  id.  'Grammatik  der  tigrina  Sprache' 
(1871);  Schrieber,  'Manuel  de  la  langue 
rigrai'    (Vienna   188/);   Goldschmid^  'Biblio- 

Eli 

uiaiiii,  L.1C  deutsch^  Aksum-Expeditiou 
(Berlin  1913)  ;  Beccari  'Documenti  inediti  per 
la  storia  d'Etiopia'    (Rome  1903). 

ETHIOPIAN  CHURCH.  See  Abyssinian 
Cbukch. 

ETHIOPIAN    PEPPER.      See    GtnNEA 

ETHIOPIAN  REGION.  See  Zoogeog- 
raphy. 

ETHIOPIANISH,  a  movement  among  the 
native  races  of  South  Africa,  having  for  object 
negro  domination  in  Africa,  thus  contem- 
plating the  ousting  of  the  whiles.  It  has  in 
the  i>ast  masqueraded  as  a  sort  of  religious 
leaching  and  took  its  start  in  the  early  90's 
of  the  last  century  when  two  black  ministers 
receded  from  the  Wesley  an  Church  and 
founded  the  Church  of  Ethiopia  for  blacks  ex- 
clusively. One  of  these  ministers,  Dwane, 
cam*  to  America  and  had  his  church  recog' 
nized  by  the  African  Uethodist  Episcopal 
Church.  Later  he  sought  a  union  with  the 
Anglican  Church  at  Cape  Town  and  was  par- 
tially successful  through  the  temporizinf^  and 
weak-kneed  policy  of  the  Anglican  archbishop. 
Various  troubles,  religious  and  political,  have 
been  traced  to  the  movement ;  of  the  latter  we 
may  cite  the  Herero  uprising  of  1904,  and  the 
Zulu  insurrection  two  years  later.  Little  has 
been  heard  of  the  movement  within  the  last 
decade. 

BTHIOPIC.  See  Ethiopia,  Language  and 
Literature;  Ethiopic  WsitiNC. 

ETHIOPIC  WRITING.    Sec  Ethioma. 

BTHIOPS  MINERAL,  a  name  formerly 
given  by  chemists  to  the  black  sulphide  of 
mercury,  prepared  by  rubbing  mercury  and  sul- 
phur together,  either  hot  or  cold.  JEthiopt 
martis,  or  ethiops  of  iron,  was  the  black  oxide 
got  by  exposing  iron-filings  and  water  to  the 
air.  Vegetable  ethiops  is  the  nlant  bladder- 
wrack,  heated  until  it  becomes  black,  a  reme<^ 

ETHMOID  BONE,  The  (so  called  from 
llhmoi,  "a  sieve*),  is  one  of  the  eight  bones 
which  collectively  form  the  cranial  box.  It  is 
of  a  somewhat  cubical  form,  and  enters  into 
the  formation  of  the  cranium,  tiie  orUts,  and 


name).     See  Nose. 

ETHNIC  PSYCHOLOGY.  See  Psy- 
chology, Ethnic 

ETHNOGRAPHY,  a  branch  of  ethnology, 
the  vast  science  which  treats  of  mankind  as 
a  whole,  their  origin  and  their  development  in 
language,  art,  reUgion  and  political  ideas,  from 
barbarism  into  civiliiation.  The  German 
scientists  class  ethnology  as  a  science  standing 
midway  between  natural  history  and  philosophy. 
As  natural  history,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  term,  is  a  classification  and  description  of 
the  lower  animals,  ethnology  may  fairly  be  con- 
sidered as  a  classification  of  the  various  fami- 
lies of  the  human  race,  based  on  the  observa- 
tion of  their  physical  characters,  and  geo- 
graphical distributioa  From  the  earliest  rec- 
ords and  moniunents  of  mankind  we  find 
traces  of  various  types  of  humanity.  The 
statues  and  paintings  of  ancient  Egypt  rep- 
resent several  racial  types  includinir  the  negro, 
the  Berber  and  the  Asiatic  In  the  first  book 
of  Moses,  mankind  are  divided  according  to 
their  descent  from  one  of  the  three  sons  of 
Noah,  Shero's  progenjr  occ^ying  Western 
Asia,  while  to  the  posterity  of  Ham  and  Japhet 
fell  North  Africa  and  sonlhem  Europe,  re- 
spectively. Some  recognition  of  the  superficial 
physical  differences  observable  in  variously  dis- 
tributed races  may  also  be  foiuid  in  Greek  and 
Roman  writers.  In  the  Middle  Ages  little  prog- 
ress was  made  in  ethnography.  The  discovery 
of  America,  with  its  revelation  of  new  human 
types,  seems  to  have  given  the  first  genuine 
stimulus  to  this  study,  and  the  word  ethnog- 
raphy was  first  used  in  a  book  published  at 
Nuremberg  in  1791,  and  entitled  <An  Ethno- 
graphical Picture  Gallery.'  In  his  great  work. 
'Systema  Natural,'  Linnxus  classes  manldoa 
(Homo  sapietu)  together  with  the  apes  under 
the  order  of  Primates,  and  divided  them  into 
four  groups,  as  American,  European,  Asiatic 
and  African.  BufFon  in  his  'Variites  dans 
I'espece  humaine'  distinguishes  the  races  ac- 
cording to  their  geographical  distribution, 
though  he  makes  some  reference  to  physical 
variations.  Blumenbach  was  the  first  to  clas^fy 
the  races  of  men  according  to  the  shape  of 
their  skull.  The  Caucasian,  whose  skull  was 
symmetrical,  he  set  as  the  normal  type,  mid- 
way  between   the   Mongolian   with   the   square 


each  of  these  types  he  distinguished  a 

nized  as  important  the  character  of  the  hair, 
the  setting  of  the  eyes,  and  the  foria  of  the 
mouth. 

The  modem  science  of  ethnography  dates 
from  the  year  1829  when  MiJne-Edwards  wrote 
to  Thierry,  with  the  result  that  the  Society 
Ethnologique  was  founded.  The  foundins  of 
an  ethnographic  museum  was  st^gested  by 
Jomard  m  1843,  and  built  some  years  later  in 
Paris.  Since  that  time  the  study  has  beoi 
thoroughly  systematized  all  over  the  world. 
While  of  all  ethnographical  classifications  the 
most  obvious  is  the  enumeration  of  the  white, 
.  yellow,  red  and  black-skiiined  races,  as  together 
makiDg  up  mankind,  tfiii  is  deaily  tnsufficienl. 


STHNOLOGT 


as  it  woultl  be  Hkely  to  confound  widely  differ- 
ent types.  Many  attempts  at  a  more  scientific 
classification  have  been  made,  Oscar  Fecbsel 
recogniiEed  seven  races  of  men:  (1)  the  Aus- 
tralian; (2)  the  Papuan,  including  tne  Melane- 
stan,  the  Negrito,  etc. ;  (3)  the  Mongolian,  in- 
clutUng  the  Polynesian,  the  Malay,  the  Eslamo, 
and  the  American  Indian;  (4)  the  Dravidian 
(soutfaerti  India  and  Cevlon) ;  (5)  the  Hotten- 
tot and  Bushman;  (6)  the  negro;  (7)  the 
Mediterranean  races,  or  Caucasian,  which  in- 
clude the  Hamitic  Semitic,  and  Indo-European. 

It  will  be  seen  that  theae  divisions  are  based 
upon  other  considerations  than  those  of  physi- 
cal character,  for  it  is  merely  because  of  their 
^graphical  proximity  that  the  Hamitic,  which 
mcludes  the  mhabitants  of  North  Africa,  can 
be  placed  in  one  category  with  the  Caucasian. 
Among  the  most  recent  systems  of  ethnographi- 
cal classification  is  that  of  Haeckel  who  has 
divided  the  human  family  into  races  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  variations  of  a  single  physi- 
cal character,  that  namely  of  the  hair.  Accord- 
ing to  his  authority  there  are  two  main  species 
and  four  sub-species  of  hair  found  among  man- 
kind, who  may  be  broadly  separated  into  the 
woolly-haired  (Ulotriches),  and  the  straight- 
haired  (Lissotriches).  The  woolly-haired  con- 
sist (I)  of  the  crested- haired  (Lophocomi) 
subdivision,  represented  by  the  Hottentot,  and 
the  Papuan ;  and  (2)  of  the  fieecy-haired 
(Eriocomi)  which  includes  the  negro  and  the 
Kaffir.  The  straight-haired  are  subdivided 
into  the  streaming-haired,  and  the  curly-haired. 
To  the  former  belong  the  Australian,  the  Arctic 
dwellers,  the  American  Indian,  Malay,  and  Mon- 
golian ;  to  the  latter  the  Dravidian,  the  Medi- 
terranean races  and  the  Nubian.  See  Eth- 
nology and  consult  works  sifbjoined  thereto. 

ETHNOLOGY,  that  branch  of  the  sdcnce 
of  anthropology  which  treats  of  the  races  of 
mankind  and  seeks  to  explain  their  ori^n  and 
development. 

Anthropology  is  the  science  which  treats  of 
man  in  relation  to  himself,  to  other  men  and 
to  all  nature.  It  is  subdivided  into  several 
branches,  each  of  which  treats  of  some  special 
phase  of  man's  natural  history.  There  is  a 
difference  in  the  meaning  given  by  students  to 
the  names  employed  to  designate  the  divisions 
of  the  study  of  man.  Ethnology,  ethnography, 
and  anthropology  have  been  to  some  extent  in- 
terchangeable terras.  Each  of  these  branches  of 
knowledge  has  a  special  meaning  ^ven  it  in 
different  countries.  However,  there  is  becoming 
a  more  general  acceptance  of  a  definite  meaning 
for  these  topics.  The  comprehensive  term 
anthropology  is  recognized  in  its  general  sense 
to  include  all  others  (Keane,  Tylor,  Mason), 
The  meaning  herein  given  to  Ethnology  is 
widely  recognized  (Keene,  Brinton).  The  use 
of  the  term  anthropology,  to  designate  societies 
for  the  study  of  man  and  for  sections  in  na- 
tional scientific  bodies  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic,  indicate'  a  general  tendency  to  accept 
the  proper  meaning  of  the  word. 

Ethnology  differs  from  ethnography,  which 
deals  chiefly  with  the  collection  of  facts  regard- 
ing the  families,  tribes  and  races  of  manlcind, 
in  seeking  to  explain  the  significance  of  the 
information  obtained.  Ethnography  ^from  i(ri"K 
a  people,  ypi-^i*  to  write)  is  a  writing  about, 
a  description  ot,   peoples.     Ethnology    (from 


f9r^,  a  people,  ^"c  a  discourse),  attempts 
to  inteipret  the  facts  gathered,  to  explain  the 
causes  tor  the  conditions  and  the  relationships 
of  different  peoples.  Ethnography  and  etfmol- 
ozy  occupy  a  relation  to  each  other  somewhat 
akm  to  that  of  geo^phy  and  geology.  One 
deals  chiefly  with  existing  faots,  the  other  at- 
tempts to  interpret  the  history  which  brought 
them  forth, 

Broca  says  ethnography  studies  peoples, 
ethnol<^y  races.  The  following  seems  a  con- 
venient scheme  for  grouping  uie  branches  of 
anthropology.  Substantially  it  is  as  follows: 
ArdueoloCT,  Biology,  Psychology,  Ethnology, 
Ethnography,  Philoloey,  Technology,  Sociology 
and  Religion  (Mason). 

The  unity  of  the  race  is  now  generally  ac- 
cepted. From  the  researches  of  the  physiologist, 
Che  anatomist,  the  philolc^st  and  the  psycholo- 
gist we  obtain  the  same  testimony  as  to  the 
specific  unity  of  our  race.  The  place  of  origin 
or  centre  of  dispersal  is  not  fixed.  From  the 
studies  of  eminent  specialists,  it  would  seem 
that  the  land  about  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, or  the  region  farther  eastward  toward 
India,  may  claim  to  be  the  home  of  primitive 
man.  About  the  Mediterranean  they  settled 
down  like  frogs  about  a  pond  (Plato). 

ClauiSc&tioti. —  For  classification,  mankind 
is  divided  into  groups.  On  account  of  their 
distribution,  these  are  sometimes  named  for 
geographical  divisions.  They  are  also  distin- 
guished as  families,  clans,  tnbes,  nations,  peo- 
ples and  races.  In  the  naming  of  the  latter, 
family  relationships  form  a  prominent  factor. 
It  is  with  both  of  these  lines  of  classification 
and  the  distribution  of  those  discussed  under 
them  that  ethnolop^  has  to  do.  In  these  efforts 
at  classification,  different  schemes  have  been 
tried.  It  is  generally  accepted  that  there  are 
two  groups  of  elements  of  characterization, 
which  are  sometimes  called  criteria.  These  are 
physical  elements  and  psychical  elements. 


The  principal  physical  elements  are  the' 
.  .nes,  the  shape  of  the  skull,  the  facial  anffle. 
the  color  of  the  skin,  color,  shape  a 


of  the  hair.  Of  these,  color,  probably  because 
the  most  conspicuous  feature,  was  the  first  to 
be  considered  and  formed  the  basis  of  all  the 
early  classifications.  The  craniotogical  school 
founded  by  the  elder  Retiius  (1796-1860),  made 
the  shape  of  the  head  the  basis  of  classification, 
and  introduced  exact  methods  into  this  branch 
of  the  subject.  This  was  based  on  the  relative 
length  and  breadth  of  the  skull,  and  accordingly 
manltind  was  divided  into  long-skulled  and 
short,  broad-skullcd  races.  Later  developments 
in  craniology  introduced  a  third  class,  repre- 
senting a  mean  between  the  other  two.  Crani- 
ology alone  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  supply 
sufficient  or  trustworthy  materials  for  the  proper 
classification  of  mankind.  Nevertheless  it  has 
thrown  much  light  upon  the  subject.  Of  late 
years  the  color^  shape  and  texture  of  the  hair 
have  steadily  risen  in  the  estimation  of  natur- 
alists as  a  racial  test.  The  hair  is  now  re- 
garded as  the  most  constant  of  all  the  phvsical 
features  and  has  been  made  the  foundation 
of  their  grouping  by  some  of  the  most  emi- 
nent anthropolc^sts. 

The  other  physical  ethnical  elements  are  of 
little  value  separately,  but  are  often  useful  aids 
in  combination  with  others.  Such  are  stature; 
the  shape,  color  and  position  of  the  eye;  the 


Google 


wo 


ETRMOLOGT 


size  and  form  of  the  bntin;  the  shape  of  the  primitive  form  or  in  the  ntore  enligbtaied 
nose  and  mouth ;  the  snperdhary  and  zygonatic  stwe,  is  of  deepest  interest  The  arts  of  life 
ardies,  and  all  such  other  elements  as  collec-  find  their  origin  in  the  rude  homes  of  early 
tively  constitute  the  broad,  flat  features  of  the  man,  and  have  steadily  been  influential  in  all 
lower,  the  oval  and  regular  faces  of  the  higher  human  progress.  For  these  have  lives  been 
lost,  tribes  been  destroyed,  nations  been  formed. 


The  psychical  elements  are  less  conspicuous, 
and  have  out  recently  been  taken  into  account 
in  classification.  It  has  been  said  that  "Love 
and  hunger  rule  the  world*  The  former  relates 
to  the  perpetuation  of  kind,  the  latter  to  self- 
preservation.  Around  these  two  may  be 
erouped  the  other  factors  of  this  class.  The 
following  are  the  principal  psychical  elements: 

(1)  Preservative  instinct,  food,  clothing, 
shelter;  (2>  Perpetuating  instinct;  (3)  Lan- 
guage ;  (4)  Reli^on;  (5)  Government  (6) 
The  Arts. 

Food,   clothing  and  shelter  are  the  impera- 


battles  been  won.  They  have  been  the  t 
power  in  every  eflon,  the  impulse  behind  evciy 
forward  movement  of  mankind  from  the  earli- 
est days  to  now. 

Race  CUnification.  There  have  been  so 
many  changes  in  this  world  of  ours  and  so 
inany  mixtures  of  ancestral  strains  that  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  certainly  to  which  race 
certain  peoples  belong.  After  successive  efforts 
by  able  students  to  classify  mankind  upon  this 
or  that  character  or  group  of  characters,  the 
tendency  now  seems  to  be  to  return  to  the 
earlier    classification.      To   recur   to    the    three 


needs  of  the  human  species  at  all  ages  and     greater  subdivisions  —  white,  black  and  yellow 


under  all  conditions.  Among  the  prominent 
topics  considered  under  the  sexual  impulse  are 
the  position  of  woman,  the  marriage  relation 
and  the  line  of  descent.  Language  is  the  chief 
of  the  psychical  elements.  Some  perhaps,  with 
Horatio  Hale,  would  make  it  the  sole  test  of 
race.  The  power  of  religion,  both  as  a  con- 
structive ana  dispersive  force,  is  the  repeated 
testimony  of  history.  The  organization  an4 
administration  of  government,  whether  in  its 


,  Caucasian,  Negro,  Mongolia:.. 

With  all  the  data  gathered  and  the  characters 
used  in  succeeding  classifications,  the  original 
color  plan  in  a  general  way  is  as  good  as  we 
know.  Popularly,  too,  this  seems  to  have  struck 
the  fancy.  Without  thought  we  speak  of  a 
person  as  white,  black  or  red,  as  he  is  a  Cau- 
casian, Ne^o  or  an  American  Indian. 

Dail  divides  man  into  three  groups:  white, 
black  and  ydlow.     Flower  and  Lydeldcer  also 


GENERAL  BTHNOGRAPHIC  8CHBMB. 


3.  But  Afrioui 


CcAat  blukoi  (Uck 


Neeiillo 

Negro 

UI 

Negroid 


,  Ccntnl  Africwl 


DwmKi  at  tbs  ConCD 
BuituDot.  HottvMot* 


Kiffln  *nd  Cooso  TtitH 


I 


Hkilitnighc 
Nonnwlmm 


1,  Tungiuie 

2.  MoQgolic 


fchiiTAino* 


Color  coppery 
H«itMnuahtot 


I.  Alooofcln*,  1 


M*yu.  QwowMC* 


Color  dark 

lir  w»vy  or  (riul)' 


N«wGufaH«as 


joogle 


IW 


'"    .5 


i 


Coogle 


'(.-'.M'Tri 

I'l  ■.■:■•    h 

1..:  Mioi. 

,.. .. . 

-    -■..  ..      M.,.k.-.!i.!  V 

'  .■  ...-  ^-a^.''',,".;  "ilie  ",'. 

• 

.  •.■;■ 

.■'ili.'iinht    ,V'V-"-k 

.yGooi^le 


RACES  OF  MANKIND 


jyGoot^Ie 


.yGooi^le 


■THHOLOOY 


assign  all  representatives  of  mankind  to  three 
priina:^  divisions.  The  status  of  the  American 
aborigines  is  left  unsettled.  Keane  gives  to 
these  a  place  among  the  races,  making  four. 
Linnxus  in  his  day  adopted  four  primary  divi- 
sions. He,  however,  recognized  man  as  a  dis- 
tinct genus,  homo,  havit^  four  spedes :  Homo- 
sp  aithiopicus.  Homo  sp  mongolicui.  Homo  sp 
americanus,  Homo  sp  eattcasieus.  Gerland  divides 
mankind  into  six  races,  separating  the  Dra- 
vidians  from  the  other  groups.  To-day  man  is 
considered  a  single  species,  having  several 
varieties  or  races.  Blumenbach  gives  five 
groups,  classified  according  to  the  color  of  the 
skin.  Professor  Huxley  also  designated  five 
groups  along  somewhat  similar  lines.  Morton 
used  the  skull  as  a  basis  of  classification; 
Haeckel  and  Broca  the  hair;  and  Hale  lan- 
guage. 

To  one  who  carefully  goes  over  the  differetit 
schemes  of  classifying  man,  it  is  apparent  that 
none  is  wholly  satisfactory.  Each  in  some  direc- 
tion overlaps  some  other.  It  is  by  taking  all 
these  race  criteria  so  far  as  they  are  of  value 
that  the  most  reliable  conclusions  may  be  drawn 
as  to  the  proper  classification  of  mankind.  Mo 
one  set  of  standards  will  properly  answer.  That 
classification  will  be  most  satisfactory  which 
obtains  the  most  help  from  all  the  elements. 
All  that  we  can  aim  to  do  is  to  group  under 
some  general  and  loose  fitting  subdivisions  those 
members  of  the  spedes  whicn  display  the  great- 
est number  rrf  similarities.  (Brinton).  Perhaps 
it  will  be  as  satisfactoty  to  follow  the  plan 
of  Linnxus  and  classify  the  races  of  men  ac- 
cording to  geographical  areas.  Under  such  a 
plan  wc  speak  of  the  European  race,  which  in 
andcnt  times  was  confined  to  Europe  and  ad- 
jacent parts  of  Asia  and  Africa;  the  African 
race,  whose  natural  home  is  Africa;  the  Asiatic 
race,  which  is  chiefly  confined  to  Asia;  the 
American  race,  composed  of  those  occupying 
the  western  continent  before  its  occupation  by 
Europeans;  and,  the  Oceanic  or  Australian  race, 
comprising  the  tribes  of  Polynesia,  Australia 
and  the  many  groups  of  islands  sometimes  in- 
cluded in  Oceanica.  We  can  use  Blumenbach's 
scheme  of  dividing  them  according  to  the  color 
of  the  skin.  Under  it,  they  are  grouped  as 
follows ; 

i,  Caucasian,  or  white;  2,  Ethiopian,  or 
black- 3,  Mongolian,  or  yellow;  4,  American,  or 
red;  5,  Malay,  or  brown.  Dr,  D.  G.  Brinton 
enumerated  five  races  of  mankind.  Their  chief 
characteristics  may  be  summed  up  substantially 
as   follows:     1.  The  European  Race  —  Traits 

—  Color  white,  hair  wavy,  nose  narrow,  jaws 
straight,  skull  variable,  languages  inflectional, 
religions  ideal.    H.  The  African,  or  Negro  Hace 

—  Traits  —  Color  black,  hair  woolly,  nose  flat, 
jaws  protruding,  skull  lone,  language  agglu- 
tinative, religions  material.  IH.  The  Asiatic,  or 
I^ongolian  Race  — Traits  —  Color  yellowish  or 
brownish,  hair  straight,  nose  flat  or  medium, 
jaws  straight,  skull  broad  and  high,  languages 
isolating  or  agglutinative,  religions  matenal. 
IV.  The  American  Race  — Trails— Color  cop- 
pery, hair  straight,  nose  narrow,  jaws  sfrai^t, 
skull  variable,  language  incorporating,  religions 
ideal.  V.  The  Oceanic  Race  — Traits  — Color 
dark,  hair  lank  or  wavy,  languages  agglutina- 

Oassified  in  this  manner,  the  human  spedes 


presents  the  subdivision  shown  in  the  preceding 

The  European  Race.- Of  the  South  Medi- 
terranean branch  of  the  European  race  there 
are  given  two  divisions,  the  Hamitic  and  the 
Semitic.      The    former    is    divided    into    three 

?-oups,  the  Libyan,  Egyptian  and  East  African. 
he  Libyan  group  extends  over  Northern  Africa 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Nile.  Some  of 
these  tribes  are  very  dark  and  have  been 
termed  *Black  Caucasians,*  Neverthless,  ex- 
cept for  color,  ihw  are  fine  representatives  of 
the  white  race.  The  Egyptian  group  is  repre- 
sented by  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  their  de- 
scendants, the  modem  Fellah  of  the  Nile  vallev 
and  the  Copts.  These  two  groups  of  this  branch 
of  the  European  race  have  been  potent  factors 
in  the  world  s  history.  The  development  of  the 
earliest  seats  of  culture,  the  organisation  of 
government,  and  the  establishment  of  high  de- 
grees ,of  civilization  have  been  the  y/ork  of 
their  representatives.  On  the  contrary  the  East 
African  group  is  represented  by  a  number  of 
tribes  who  are  chiefly  nomadic  and  occupy  the 
territory  south  of  the  Egyptian  group  and  ex- 
tending from  the  Nile  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 
They  include  the  Gallis,  Somalis  and  Agaas. 

The  Semitic  stocks  are  made  up  of  three 
groups  —  the  A  rabian,  Abyssinian  and  Chal- 
dsean.  The  most  prominent  of  the  first  group 
are  the  Arabians^  the  existing  tribes  best  l^own 
are  the  Ishmaelites  and  Bedouin.  They  have 
occupied  at  different  times  parts  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula  and  now  practically  cover  it  all. 

The  Ab^sinian  group  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  the  region  last  mentioned  and  to 
have  been  dispersed  over  Abyssinia  and  ad- 
jacent parts  of  Africa,  Th^  have  become 
mixed  with  adjoining  tribes  and  a  corrupt  form 
of  Christianity  exists  among  them.  The  Abys~ 
sinians,  Tigre  and  Amhara  are  prominent  na- 
tions.   .The  former  is  best  known. 

The  third  group  of  Semitic  peoples  has  been 
called  the  Chaldann.  This  includes  the  Syrians, 
Israelites,  Samaritans,  Babylonians  and  Jews. 
They  also  ori^nated  in  Arabia  and  spread  out 
into  other  lands.  The  Jew  has  become  world- 
wide in  his  dispersal.  From  these  peoples  great 
nations  were  developed  and  from  them  two 
great  religious  leaders,  Jesus  Christ  and  Mo- 
hammed, nave  sprung. 

The  North  Mediterranean  branch  is  divided 
into  three  divisions.  They  are  the  Euskaric, 
Atyac  and  Caucasic  stocks.  The  only  surviving 
remnant  of  the  Euskaric  stock  is  the  Basques  of 
Spain.  That  they  formerly  were  more  widely 
distributed  is  generally  believed.  Their  rela- 
tionship with  other  peoples  is  not  satisfactorily 
determined.  The  most  extended  and  most  im- 
portant of  these  race  stocks  is  the  Aryac.  The 
origin  of  the  Aryans  has  been  a  fruitful  theme 
of  discussion  in  recent  years.  While  there  is 
still  a  difference  of  opinion  on  this  subject,  the 
majority  of  writers  have  accepted  the  theory  of 
their  European  origin.  The  Aryac  or  Indo- 
Germanic  Stock  is  divided  by  Brinton  into  eight 
groups :  Celtic,  Italic,  Illync,  Hellenic,  Lettic, 
Teutonic,  Slavonic  and  Indo-Iranic  groups. 

The  Lettic  or  Lithuanian  peoples,  while 
comparatively  Inconspicuous,  are  in  some  re- 
spects the  most  interesting  of  their  fellows. 
They  are  thought  b^  some  students  to  be  the 
of  the  original  stodc  and  that  which 


.Google 


BTHMObOOY 


most  resembles  iU    They  are  located  along  tbp 

Baltic  Sea  in  Prussia  and  Russia. 

The  Indo-Iranic  group  is  of  special  interest 
because  it  has  the  farthest  eastern  range  and 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  nearest  the  re^on 
which  those  who  believe  in  the  Asiatic  origin 
of  the  race  think  was  its  primitive  home. 
The  term  Iranic  is  derived  from  the  plateau 
of  Iran,  whidi  has  been  thought  by  some  to  be 
the  area  of  dispersal  of  the  race.  The  group 
divides  into  two  divisions,  the  Iranic,  whose  old 
representatives  were  the  Bactrians  and  Persians. 
To-day  it  includes  the  modern  Persians,  the 
Parsees,  generally  known  as  fire- worshippers, 
and  the  tribes  of  Belachistan,  Afghanistan  and 
neighboring  regions.  The  Indie  branch  com- 
prises the  peoples  occupying  India.  The  most 
prominent  of  these  are  the  Hindus,  Rajpoots 
and  Djats.  The  typical  Brahmins  probably  are 
the  best  representatives  of  the  stock. 

The  Teutonic  group  includes  the  Germans, 
English,  Norwegians,  Swedes  and  Danes,  and 
their  ancestors,  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Angles. 
Saxons,  Norsemen.    These  independent^,  aggres 


Sive,  progressive 


conspicuous  II 


the  history  of  the  past  and  the  activities  of  the 
present  They  have  spread  throughout  the 
world  as  missionaries  of  business,  education  or 
religion.  They  are  the  forces  which  operate  in 
all  progressive  government,  and  are  destined  to 
sway  the  world. 

East  of  these  is  the  Slavonic  ^roup.  It  is 
represented  to-day  by  the  Russians,  Poles, 
Czechs,  Bulgarians,  and  other  tribes  of  the 
Danube  region.  Of  their  ancestors  known  in 
history  are  the  Scythians  and  Massagetas.  The 
Slavonic  tribes  to  the  east,  in  one  direction, 
came  in  contact  with  the  Indo-Iranians  and,  in 
another,  with  some  of  the  branches  of  the  Mon- 
golians. Within  comparatively  recent  limes 
some  of  them  have  made  remarkable  progress 
in  civilization. 

The  Hellenic  groufi  comprised  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  their  relatives.  They  occupied  at 
an  early  date  the  peninsulas  of  Asia  Minor, 
Greece,  the  southern  part  of  Italy  and  con- 
tiguous territory.  The  progress  of  Greek  cul- 
ture is  familiar,  Greek  language,  literature  and 
art  form  the  basis  of  education  everywhere. 
llieir  dominion  was  one  of  the  world's  greatest 
confederacies.  Overthrown  by  the  Romans  and 
subsequently  by  the  Mohammedans,  they  were 
for  generations  hidden  from  the  view  of  the 
progressive  world.  The  Illyric  stock  is  situated 
near  the  Greeks  in  Turkey.  It  is  represented 
by  the  Albanians.  The  Italic  stock  covered 
most  of  the  Italian  Peninsula.  The  Umbrians, 
Etruscans,  Oscans  and  Latins  were  the  princi- 
pal older  representatives.  They  developed  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  in  the  organization  and  con- 
duct of  government  and  the  framing  of  laws 
they  achieved  a.  front  place  in  the  history  of  the 

The  Celtic  group,  originally  spread  over 
stern  Europe,  has  largely  disappeared.  Cer- 
1  parts  of  the  British  Isles  and  the  north  of 
ince  contain  the  surviving  members.  These 
;  the  Irish.  Welsh,   Scotch.  Manx  and  the 


groups:   Lesghic,  Circassic,  Kistic  and  Georgic. 
TTiCT  occupy  the  Caucasus  Mountain  region. 

The  African  or  Negro  Race.— The  African 
race  occupies  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  Desert 


and  of  the  Nile  Valley.  It  is  classified  in  three 
groups :  the  Negrillos,  Negroes  and  Negroids. 
Under  Negrillos  {little  Negroes)  are  grouped 
the  Akkas  itnd  other  pygmies  of  the  interior  re- 
gion and  the  small-sized  Bushmen  and  Hotten- 
tots farther  south.  The  characters  of  sonie  of 
these  tribes  are  faithfully  preserved  in  figures 
upon  the  Egyptian  monuments.  The  most 
striking  of  these  physical  features  is  the  peculiar 
growth  and  development  about  the  pelvic 
region.  The  clicks,  of  the  Hottentot  and  Bush- 
man languages  find  no  counterpart  in  any 
other  tongue.  The  Negroes  are  confined  chiefly 
to  western  and  central  Africa,  ranging  east  into 
Nubia.  They  comprise  four  subdivisions:  the 
Nilotic,  Sudanese,  Senegambian  and  Guinean. 
The  first  is  confined  to  the  upper  Nile  Valley. 
The  Sudanese  group  is  represented  by  tribes 
in  Sudan  and  westward.  The  western  coast 
south  of  the  Senegal  River  is  the  territory  of 
the  Scncgambians.  Farther  south  toward  the 
Niger  River  are  the  tribes  of  the  Guinea  group. 
This  region  was  the  chief  source  of  the  slave 
trade.  The  descendants  of  the  Guinea  negroes 
found  throughout  the  United  States  are  living 
witnesses  of  the  slavery  which  existed  there  but 
a  generation   ago. 

The  Negroids  approach  the  Negroes,  but  are 
in  some  ways  quite  different  from  them.  Their 
color  is  brown,  rather  than  black;  their  hair  is 
"kinkv*  but  not  woolb"!  the  nose  is  straight  and 
not  snort  and  flat.  They  are  of  two  groups  — 
the  Nubian  and  Bantu.  The  former  are  found 
in  Nubia  and  the  upper  Nile  Valley.  The  latter 
occupies  practically  all  of  southern  Africa,  ex- 
cept the  region  of  the  Hottentots  and  Bushmen. 
Among  the  better  known  tribes  are  the  Kaffirs. 
Bcchuanas  and  Zulus.  The  African  race  oceti- 
pics  a  low  stage  in  culture.  It  has  developed  in 
the  restricted  area  south  of  the  Sahara  basin. 
Probably  it  reached  its  typical  development  in 
the    Niger   Valley. 

The  Asiatic  or  Mongolian  Race. —  The 
Asian,  or  Mongolian  rac«v  is  made  up  of  two 
divisions  — the  Sinilic  and  Sihiric.  The  Sinitic 
branch  includes  the  Chinese,  Tibetans  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Anam,  Siam,  Burma  and  Cochin 
China.  The  Chinese  have  occupied  their  terri- 
tory from  quite  earlj'  times,  Tney  have  devel- 
oped a  peculiar  civilization  and  in  some  par- 
ticulars reached  quite  a  high  stage  of  culture. 
While  there  is  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  whether  the  arts  of  ancient  China  de- 
veloped there  or  were  acquired  from  the 
Aryans  to  the  westward,  it  seems  probable 
that  in  a  great  measure  at  least  they  were 
indigenous. 

The  Sibiric  branch  of  this  race  is  largely 
located  north  of  the  mountains  of  central  Asia, 
ranging  with  the  Arctic  Circle  from  the  Pacific 
tp  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  sbt  groups  are  the 
Tungusic,  reaching  from  northern  China  toward 
the  Arctic  Ocean  and  to  Kamchatka.  The 
Mongolic  occupying  the  vast  highlands  west  of 
Manchuria,  Genghis-Khan  and  later  Tamerlane 
established  two  of  the  wide  extended  Mongol 
empires.  The  Tartaric,  another  highland  group. 
has  spread  from  Turkestan  in  several  direc- 
tions. The  Turk  Is  the  most  conspicuous  rep- 
resentative, though  much  mixed  with  other 
races.  The  Finnic  is  a  group  of  Mongols  oc- 
cupying northern  Europe.  It  is  represented 
there  by  the  Finns  and  iJapps,  and  farther  south 
by  the  Magyars.     From  there  it  extends  east 


BTHHOLOGY — BTHYLAHIHE 


to  the  Volga  River.  The  rode  tribes  fringing 
the  Arctic  Ocean  in  eastern  Siberia  and  reach- 
ing to  the  Pacific  are  giouped  under  the  name 
Arctic.  The  Chukchis  ana  Kamchatkans  are 
of  their  number.  The  Japanese  and  Koreans 
constitute  the  Japanese  KTOup.  The  Japanese 
are  the  most  progressive  and  advanced  of  the 
Asiatic  race. 

The  Oceanic  Race. — The  Oceanic  race 
may  be  divided  into  three  slocks  —  Negritic, 
Ma]ayic  and  Australic  It  occupies  Australia, 
the  islands  o{  the  South  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans  and  the  adjacent  shores  of  Asia.  In 
their  migrations,  whether  along  the  shores  or 
over  the  seas,  they  have  so  intCTmingled  that 
their  relationships  are  piuzling.  The  Negritic 
stock  is  represented  by  the  N^ritos,  including 
such  small  peoples  as  the  Hincopies  of   the 


Malayic  stock  is  the  most  conspicuous  and  ener- 
getic of  the  ocean  peoples.  Its  reprdsentatives 
are  found  extending  almost  two-thirds  around 
the  world,  reaching  from  Easter  Island  to 
Madagascar     The    most    typical    Malays    are 


the  Philippines.  The  Malayi  farther  to  the 
eastward  are  often  called  Polynesians.  From 
their  traditions  it  has  been  possible  to  obtain 
a  fairly  good  idea  of  their  successive  migra- 
tions and  of  the  comparative  time  of  the  settle- 


and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  Austratic  stock 
includes  the  different  tribes  of  Australia,  the 
extinct  Tasmanians,  and,  according  to  some 
authoi4ties,  the  primitive  peoples  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Hindustan.  The  Australians  are  very 
low  ia  culture,  nomadic,  lacking  govemtnent 
and  wear  little  or  no  clothing.  'The  life  of 
these  savages  proves  to  be  of  undeveloped 
type,  alike  in  arts  and  institutions,  so  much  sOi 
that  the  distinction  of  being  the  lowest  of 
normal  tribes  may  be  claimed  for  them.* — (E. 
B.  Tylor). 

The  American  Kace<— The  American  race 
includes  those  peoples  occup^riug  tlte  western 
continent  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  white 
men.  For  the  purpose  of  study  ihey  may  be 
divided  into  seven  groups:  Arctic,  North  At- 
lantic, North  Pacific,  Mexican,  Inter-Isthmian, 
South  Atlantic,   South  Pacific. 

The  Arctic  groups  include  the  Esldmo  and 
Aleutian  peoples.  They  occupy  the  shores  of 
the  oceans  in  Arctic  America  and  extend  from 
Labrador  to  Greenland.  !n  the  North  Atlantic 
group  are  some  Indians  of  wide  range.  TTie 
Athabascans  extend  from  the  valleys  of  the 
Yukon  and  lower  Mackenzie  to  Arizona;  while 
farther  lo  the  southward,  reaching  into  Mexico, 
the  warlike  Apaches  are  of  this  group.  The 
Algontdns  ranged  from  Newfoundlantf  to  the 
Rocky  Mountams  and  from  the  Giurchill  Rivci 


Indians  encountered  by  the  early  settlers,  Thdr 
names  are  more  or  less  familiar  to  us  from 
history.  The  intelligent  Iroquois,  the  formi- 
dable Dakotas  (Sioux),  the  southern  In(Hans, 
some  of  whom  built  mounds  within  historic 
times,  and  the  tribes  of  the  interior  plains  also 


belong  to  tliis  divisiotL  The  North  Pacific 
KToup  includes  a  number  of  tribes  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  many  of  which  are  small  and 
represent  distinct  linguistic  stocks.  Several  of 
these  tribes  have  the  head  artificially  defonned. 
These  incUide  the  FlaAeads  and  Nes  Perc^ 
(Pierced  Noses).  The  CUff-dwellers  and 
Pueblo  tribes  of  the  arid  regions  of  the  south- 
western United  States  are  placed  here.  The 
Mexican  groiqt  is  notable  because  of  the  state  of 
civiliiatibn  attained  by  the  Aztecs,  its  besi- 
knowu  tribe.  The  organization  developed,  gov- 
enunent  established,  education  acquired,  bmld- 
ings   constructed   and   arts   pursued   were   ua- 

2ualed  by  any  tribe  of  the  American  race.  The 
ayas  were  the  most  important  tribe  of  the 
Inter-Isthmian  group.  They  were  builders  of 
note,  elaborate  decorators  of  stone  and  mural 
artists.  The  South  Adantic  group  occupied  the 
Atlantic  Coast  of  South  America,  They  were 
chiefly  wandering  tribes  without  settled  haHta- 
tions.  The  Qmcbuas  of  Peru  are  the  best- 
known  tribe  of  the  South  Pacific  group.  They 
attained  h^her  civilization  than  any  odier 
South  American  tribe.  They  developed  ^ri- 
culture,  domesticated  animals,  constructed  laree 
buildings  of  stone,  were  expert  workers  in 
metals  and  devised  a  method  of  record  keeping 
by  means  of  strings  and  knots  called  quippus. 
See  Am^HROPoLocY ;  Eiknoloct;  Maw.  Chris- 
tian Anthropoiogv  ;  Man,  PaEHiSTOMC  Races 
OT;  Embryology,  Humaw. 

Bibliography.— Boas,  F.,  <The  Mind  of 
Primitive  Man'  (New  York  1911);  Brinton, 
^Rsces  and  Peoples';  id.,  *Thc  American 
Race' ;  Dcnikcr,  J.,  'The  Races  of  Man> 
(London  1900);  {^rland.  •Ethnography*; 
Keane,  A.  H.,  <Ethnol(^y>  (2d  ed.,  New  York 
1906);  id.,  'Man  Past  and  Present'  (ib. 
1900);  Morgan,  L.  H.,  'Ancient  Society' 
(1878)  ;  Ratzel,  P.,  'History  of  Mankind'  (3 
vols.,  ib.  1904)  J  Thomas,  W.  I.,  'Source  Book 
for  Social  Origins'  (Chicago  1909),  with  an 
extensive  bibliography ;  and  Tylor  E.  B., 
•Anthropology' ;  id.,  'Primitive  Culture'  (2 
TOls.,  New  York  1891). 

Amos  W.  Butleb, 

Zoologist  and  Anthropologist.  Indianapolis. 

ETHNOLOGY,  Bnrean  of  American-  See 
SMrrHSONiAN  iNsimmoN. 

STHOLOGY.    See  BroNOMics. 

ETHYL,  the  organic  radical  CJfl.,  which 
occnrs  in  many  carbon  compounds,  but  which 
is  not  known  to  exist  in  the  free  state.  Its 
most  important  compounds  are  ethyl  hydrate,  or 
ethyl  alcohol  (see  Alcohol)  and  ethyl  oxide, 
popularly  known  as  ether  (q.v.)  ;  but  the  iodide. 
CjHiI,  which  is  formed  by  acting  upon  etliyl 
alcohol  with  iodine  in  the  presence  of  phos- 
phorus, is  also  of  much  importance  in  synthetic 
chemistry. 

ETHYL  NITRATE.    See  Niraous  Etheb. 

ETHYLAMINE,  an  amine  (q.v.)  in  whidi 
one  or  more  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  of  ammonia, 
NHfc  is  replaced  1^  the  radical  ethyl,  GHm. 
Three  cotnpounds  of  this  sort  are  possible,  and 
all  have  been  actually  prepared.  When  only 
one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  of  the  ammonia  has 
been  replaced,  the  resulting  compound,  NHi. 
CiHj,  is  known  as  mono-cthylamine,  or  ethyl 
monamine;  and  it  is  this  substance  which  is 
understood  when  the  word  ethylamine  is  used 


■8l^ 


BTHYLXNB — aTIQVETTB 


without  (itiaKficatioii.  NH(GH.),  is  known  as 
diethylamine,  and  N.(GH>)i  is  called  tricth- 
ylamine.  All  three  are  formed  when  abiolute 
atcobol  is  heated  with  zinc  chloride,  in  doled 
tubes,  to  500'  F.;  and  they  may  then  be  sep- 
arated tw  the  crystallization  of  their  picrates. 
Etbylamine  (that  is,  the  mono-amine)  may  also 
be  prepared' by  boiling  cyanic  ether  with  an 
aqueous  solution  of  caustic  potash,  absortHng 
the  liberated  gas  by  passing  it  through  hydro^ 
chloric  acid,  and  finally  drying  tfae  ethylainine 
^drochloride  that  is  so  foimed,  and  distilling 
it  with  auicklime.  All  three  of  the  ethyUmines 
are  alkaline,  all  smell  strongly  of  ammonia  and 
ail  combine  with  acids  to  form  salts.  The  mono- 
amine is  a  colorless,  caustic,  inflammable  liquid, 
bumiog  with  a  yellow  flame,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  0.70,  boiling  at  68°  F.,  and  not  sohd- 
ifying  at  220*  below  lero,  F.  Diethylamine 
(which  may  be  prepared  by  heating  the  mono- 
amine with  ethyl  bromide  is  also  volatile,  color- 
less and  inflammable  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
072,  and  boils  at  133_  F.,  under  ordinary  atmos- 


Seneral  character.  It  has  a  specific  gravity 
.73,  boils  at  194°  F.,  and  its  critical  temper- 
ature (according  to  Pawlewsld^  is  513°  F. 
(See  OunCAL  Point).  Trietbylamine  is  but 
slightly  soluble  in  water ;  diethylamine  dissolves 
in  water  freely;  mono-ethyl  amine  mixes  with 
water  with  a  considerable  rise  in  temperature, 
and  the  probable  formation  of  a  hydrate,  though 
it  is  entirely  expelled  again,  upon  boiling. 

ETHYLENE,  a  gaseous  hydrocarbon  hav- 
ing the  formula  GHi,  and  constituting  the  first 
member  of  the  olefine  series.  It  is  lormed  in 
die  dry  distillation  of  numerous  organic  bodies, 
and  constitutes  4  to  5  per  cent  of  ordinary  coal 
gas.  It  is  most  conveniently  prepared  for  labor- 
atory purposes  by  mixing  1  part  of  alcohol  with 
4  parts  of  sulphuric  acid,  adding  enough  sand 
to  form  a  paste,  and  heating  tbe  mass  over 
a  flame.  The  sand  lakes  no  part  in  the  chemis- 
try of  the  process  but  merely  serves  to  regu- 
late the  action.  The  sulphuric  acid,  owing  to 
its  afiiniQ'  for  water,  removes  the  elements  of 
water  from  the  alccJiol,  and  thereby  liberates 
the  cthvlene.  Cll^On=H^+Cdi*  Ethylene 
is  a  colorless  gas,  which  bums  with  a  bright 
flame,    a    five-foot    burner,    using    the    pure 


gas,   yielding   a   li^t   of  68  candle-pov 

may  be  condensed  to  a  traosparent  Uquia  wmcn 

boils,  under  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  at 


153°  F.  below  rero,  and  freeies  at  272°  F.  be- 
low zero.  Ethylene  is  an  unsaturated  compound, 
and  combines  directly  with  hydrogen  when 
mixed  with  that  gas  and  led  over  platinum 
black ;  the  product  of  the  combination  being 
ethane,  CiH^  Mixed  with  three  times  its  own 
volume  of  oxygen,  and  fired  by  a  spark,  ethylene 
explodes  with  great  violence.  When  it  is  mixed 
with  chlorine  in  the  dark,  combination  takes 
place  according  to  the  formula  CiH.+2CI=Ci 
HiCli,  the  new  substance  being  an  oily  fluid, 
known  as  ethylene  dichloride,  or  'Dutch  liquid.* 
''  '  t  of  this  reaction  that  ethylene 


Ictie,    with    the    formation    of    more    highly 
chlorinated  substitudon  products,  of  which  the 

highest  is  ecu. 


ETHYLENE  DICHLORiDE.  See  DtrrcH 
Liquid. 

BTIBNNE,  Charles  (Jtiillatime,  ^arl  gi 
ySm  i-ti-fn,  French  dramatist;  b.  Chamouilfy, 
6  Jan.  1778;  d.  Paris,  13  March  184S.  Under 
rile  First  Empire  he  was  censor,  editor-in-chief 
of  the  Journal  of  the  Empire,  and  a  member 
of  the  Academy.  He  took  part  in  Napoleon's 
campaigns  in  Italy,  German  v,  PtJand  and 
Austria.  At  the  Restoration  he  was  expelled 
from  the  Academy,  and  thereafter  as  editor 
of  the  ConititKtional  was  a  power  on  the 
side  of  the  opposition.  His  comedies  give 
proof  of  brilliant  fancv,  elegant  style,  and  great 
constructive  skill;   'The  Two  Sons-in-Law>  is 


farces,  vaudevilles,  operettas  and  spectacular 
pieces,  whidi  had  unbounded  success;  and  his 
operas,  'Cinderella'  and  'Joconde,'  -were  the 
delight  of  Paris.  He  wrote  a  'History  of 
the  French  Theatre.' 

ETIBNNB  DU  HONT,  a-te-Sn  dii  mhh 
{Ft.  'Saint  Stephen  of  the  Mount*),  a  fine 
church  of  media:val  Paris.  It  was  founded  in 
1220-  its  completion  and  restoration  were  b^un 
in  )517,  and  the  building  reached  its  present 
perfection  in  1626.  The  shrine  of  Saint  Gene- 
vieve, heroine  and  patron  saint  of  Paris  is  its 
prinapal  point  of  antiquarian  interest,  but  it  is 
also  the  burial-place  of  Pascal  and  Racine. 

ETIOLATION,  6'tl-&-la'shftn,  the  altera- 
tion in  the  color  ana  the  structure  of  plants  due 
to  the  absence  of  light  during  growth.  The  n 


tension  of  the  cells,  and  the  paleness  to  the 
non-development,  arrested  development  or  de- 
struction of  the  chlorophyll  or  green  coloring 
matter  of  the  plant.  Other  phenomena  are  im- 
perfect development  of  leaves,  altered  method 
of  branching  and  various  modifications  of 
(issues,  especially  in  the  imperfect  development 
of  the  cell  walls,  which  do  not  attain  normal 
thickness.  Agriculturally,  etiolation  is  either  a 
fault  to  be  shunned  or  a  useful  process.  In  the 
first  case  it  is  often  responsible  for  the  'lodg- 
ing* of  wheat  and  other  grain-crops  sown  too 
thickly,  the  bases  of  the  stems  being  shaded  so 
much  that  the  cells  fail  to  develop  normal 
strength,  and  when  the  heads  form  the  wind 
easily  beats  down  the  plants.  The  sprouting 
of  potatoes,  turnips,  etc.,  is  also  undesirable. 
But  etioladon  is  utilized  in  the  blanching  of 
various  plants,  such  as  asparagus  and  sea-kale, 
and  especially  salads  such  as  celery,  endive  and 
chicory.  The  process  involves  tbe  exclusion  of 
li^t  by  means  of  earth  banked  around  the 
steins,  by  boards,  paper,  etc.j  or  by  tying  the 
outer  leaves  loosely  over  the  inner  ones  as  wifli 
endive  or  with  cauliflower.  Rhubarb  is  often 
grown  in  darkness.  In  general,  tenderness  and 
modifications  in  flavor  are  tbe  chief  ends  sout^t 
in  the  process. 

ETIOLIN,  in  botany,  a  name  ^ven  by  the 
older  authors  to  the  carotin  of  etiolated  plant 
structures.    See  Cauotin. 

ETIQUETTE,  Ut-iMmK,  the  nickname  of 
the  Ducnesse  dc  Noaillea,  mistress  of  cere- 
monies at  the  French  court  in  the  time  of  Marie 
Antoinette,  because  of  her  rigid  adherence  to 
the  formalities  or  prescriptiona  for  the  varioas 
ceremonies  at  court, 


CiOOglc 


BTIQDSTTB^BTOH  COIXEGE 


KTIQUBTTE,  «t1  Ut,  a  c<rilcctive  terra  for 
the  establuhed  coanonies  and  usages  °i  sodety. 
Among  conrta  the  Bynwtine  and  Spanish  courts, 
and  the  French  court  under  Louis  XJV  and 
Louis  XV,  were  noted  for  the  strictness  of 
their  etiquette.  Social  etiquette  consbts  in  so 
man^  minute  observances  that  a  tolersUe 
familiarinr  with  it  can  be  acquired  only  by  a 
oonliderable  intercourse  witli  polite  society. 
Quickness  of  synipathy  and  a  certain  fineness 
of  observation  are  more  needed  for  proficiency 
in  this  sphere  than  mere  power  of  intellect. 
The  term  ii  derived  from  the  Frendi  word 
etiquette,  ori^oally  a  slip  of  paper  affixed  to 
a  packet  to  indicate  its  contents.  This  term 
has  come  to  mean  the  various  decorums  to  be 
observed  in  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  life, 
and  especially  the  comportment  on  stale  oc- 
casions perhaps  from  the  custom  formerly  of 
distributing  tickets  or  slips  of  paper  to  eadi 
person  containing  the  ^les  to  be  observed  by 
nim  or  her  at  the  ceremony.    The  word  is  also 


bers,  e.g.,  *Iegal  etiquette,*  etc.  In  the  latter 
■ense,  however,  it  bks  been  supplanted  by  the 
word  'ethics.* 

BTIVE,  itfiy,  lAch,  an  inlet  from  the  Firth 
of  Lome,  in  north  of  Argyllshire,  west  coast 
of  Scotland.  The  river  Awe,  the  outlet  of 
I.o<di  Awe,  and  the  river  Etive  flow  into  it 
At  Connel  Ferry,  about  three  mites  from  the 
sea,  it  is  barely  20O  yards  wide,  and  is  crossed 
by  a  ridge  of  sunken  rocks.  The  depth  here 
at  low  water  is  six  feetj  tlie  inflowing  tide, 
which  rises  14  feet,  rashes  with  tremendous 
force  through  the  narrow  draonel,  breaking 
into  racing  foam  wliich  may  sometimes  be 
heard  miles  away.  DnnstaSnage,  a  13ih  century 
castle,  once  a  royal  fortress,  ii  near  its  mouth. 

ETLAR,  Carlt,  pseudortym  of  Karl  Bros- 
bSll,  Danish  realistic  novelist:  b.  Friderida,  7 
April  1816;  4  1900.  His  first  story  was  'The 
Smuggler's  Son'  (1830)  ;  of  bis  later  writings, 
die  historical  tale  of  'The  Queen's  Captain  of 
the  Guard'  and  the  realistic  story  'The  People 
in  Need'  (1878)  are  the  most  popular;  his 
verse  also  has  merit  An  edition  of  his  collected 
works  was  published  in  1859-68,  with  an  addi- 
tional collection  in  1873'79;  a  new  addition  ap- 
peared in  1888. 

ETNA,  or  .STNA,  a  volcano  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  province  of  Catania,  on  the  island 
of  Sicily,  and  the  largest  active  volcano  in 
Europe  and  the  hi^est  mountain  in  Italy. 
Directly  north  is  the  valley  of  Alcantara,  on 
the  west  and  soutii.  the  valley  of  Simeto,  and 
on  the  cast  the  Ionian  Sea.  From  the  waters 
on  the  east,  which  are  in  depth  from  5,000  to 
6,000  feet,  Etna  rises  cone-like  to  a  height  of 
about  10,875  feet;  but  on  the  south  andwesl  it 
seems  formed  o£  superimposed  mountains,  the 
terminal  being  surrounded  by  a  number  of 
cones,  all  of  volcanic  origin,  aboitt  nine  of  which 
are  of  considerable  sije.  The  circumference 
at  the  base  is  about  90  miles.  Around  the 
mountain  and  at  the  lower  slope  are  a  number 
of  villages,  cultivated  fields,  groves  of  olive-, 
orange-,  fig-  and  date-trees;  and  a  little  hi^er 
up  is  a  belt  of  forest  with  oak,  bircb,  beech 
and  coniferx.  Above  7,000  feet  vegetation  is 
scanty,  the  cone  is  almost  bare;  rocky  preci- 
pices, lava  beds,  masses  of  ashes  and  scorue  are 


visible  at  its  summit  except  where  covered^ 
snow,  A  deqk  depression,  Val  de  Bove,  oh  the 
eastern  side,  was  once  the  prindpa]  crater; 
and  frequently  lava  has  issued  out  of  the  sides 
of  the  mountain,  thus  forming  small  cones  and 
craters,  about  200  of  which  are  now  distinctly 
marked.     The  sununit  is  usually  altered  with 


The  eruptions  of  Etna  have  been  numerous 
and  many  of  them  destructive:  more  than  80 
have  been  recorded,  11  of  which  occurred  be- 
fore the  Christian  Era.  That  of  IIW  a.d.  over- 
whelmed Catania  and  buned  15,000  persons  in 
the  ruins.  In  1669  the  lava  spread  over  the 
country  for  40  days,  and  10,000  persons  are 
estimated  to  have  perished  In  1(93  there  was 
an  earthquake  during  the  eruption,  when  over 
60,000  lives  were  lost  One  eruption  was  in 
1755,  the  year  of  the  Lisbon  earthquake.  Among 
more  recent  eruptions  are  those  of  1852,  1865^ 
1874,  1879,  1886,  1892,  1909  and  1911.  An  erup- 
tion is  ordinarily  preceded  by  premonitory 
sjimptoms  of  longer  or  shorter  duration.  In 
Greek  mythology  there  are  found  frequent 
allusions  to  Etna,  espedally  in  the  legends 
of  Enceladus  and  HiphxsCus.  Consult  Dana, 
'Characteristics  of  Volcanoes' ;  Kneeland,  'Vol- 

ETNA,  Pa.,  borough  in  Allegheny  County, 
on  the  Allegheny  River,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
and  a  branch  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroads. 
It  is  really  a  suburb  of  Pittsbu^h,  with  only 
the  Alleghen}r  River  between.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  in  connection  with  the  iron  and 
steel  products  for  which  this  part  of  the  State 
is  famous.  It  has  rolling  mills,  furnaces,  steel 
mills,  galvanized-pipe  works  and  other  manu- 
factures. The  waterworks  and  electric-li^t 
plant  are  owned  by  the  borough.    Pop.  5330. 

ETON,  England,  viUage  and  parish,  in  the 
county  of  Buckin^iam,  on  the  Thames,  21 
miles  west-southwest   of   London.    It  consists 

E'ndpally  of  one  narrow  street  which  has  of 
E  years  been  much  improved.  An  iron  bridge 
across  the  Thames  connects  Eton  with  Windsor, 
from  which  it  is  separated  only  bj;  the  river. 
Eton  derives  its  celebrity  from  its  college 
Pop.  3,192. 

ETON  COLLEGE,  the  moat  famous  of 
English  public  schools,  was  founded  by  Heniy 
VI  in  1440,  under  the  name  of  'The  College 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  Beside  Windsor,* 
The  present  collegiate  edifice  was  begun  in  1441 
and  the  whole  of  the  oripnal  structure  was  com- 
pleted about  1523.  Important  additions  were 
made  in  1646,  and  also  in  1889.  This  school  was 
intended  ori^nally  for  the  benefit  of  the  sens 
of  worthy  but  poor  parents,  and  also  for  the 
support  of  25  poor  infirm  men;  and  was  to  be 
maintained  out  of  the  incomes  from  the  royal 
demesne  lands.  Now  the  students  admitted  are 
the  sons  of  the  gentry  and  nobility,  and  so 
numerous  are  the  applicants  that  it  is  usual  to 
enter  the  names  at  birth.  The  scholarships  are 
open  to  all  British  subjects;  but  candidates  must 
be  12  years  or  over  and  not  more  than  14  years, 
and  must  pass  an  examination.  A  certain  num- 
ber of  the  students,  not  under  17  years,  are 
elected  each  ^ear  to  scholarships  at  lung's  Col- 
lege, Cambndge,  The  number  of  pupils  on  the 
foundation  is  mnited  to  70,  but  the  number  out- 


.gk 


ETOROPU  *-  ETSUSIA 


course  of  instruction  is  mainly  classical,  but 
modern  languages,  mathematics  and  the  natural 
sciences  are  given  now  a  due  share  of  attention. 
The  college  roll  includes  the  most  famous  names 
in  more  recent  English  history  in  nearly  every 
department  of  service,  and  especially  among 
statesmen  and  administrator.  Consult  Cust, 
"Eton  College'  ;  Lyte,  'History  of  Eton  Col- 
lege* (1440-1898). 

KTOROFU,  a'tfl-r^foo,  or  ITURUP, 
C-too-roop',  (1)  an  island;  (2)  a  strait;  in  the 
most  northerly  part  of  Japan.  The  island  be- 
longs to  the  Kurile  group.    Area,  1,500  square 

ETOSA  LAKE.    See  Kunene. 

BTOURDI,  L',  a  comedy  of  Moli^e, 
which  was  first  produced  at  Lyons  in  the  year 
1653.    See  MouiBE. 

ETOWAH  HOUND.  See  Moumd  Binu)- 
Eas  AND  Mounds. 

ETKBTAT,  France,  a  fashionable  summer 
resort  on  the  English  Channel,  17  miles  east 
of  Havre,  in  the  department  of  Seine-ln- 
ffirieure.  It  contains  a  casino,  bathhouses,  a 
fine  strand  and  many  summer  residences.  It  is 
famed  for  its  gatherings  of  litterateurs  and 
artists.    Pop.  (commune)  1,973. 

ETRURIA,  c-troo'ri-a  (Greek  Tyrrhenia), 
the  name  anciently  given  to  that  part  of  Italy 
which  corresponded  with  the  greater  part  of 
modern  Tuscany  and  part  of  Umbria,  and  was 
bounded  by  the  Mediterraneui,  the  Apennines, 
the  river  Magra  and  the  Tiber.  The  name  Tus- 
cia,  for  the  country,  came  into  use  in  late  times, 
while  Tusd,  as  well  as  Etrusd,  was  used  by  the 
Romans  as  the  appellation  of  the  people  from 
an  early  period.  The  oldest  inhabitants  of  the 
country  belonged,  according  to  the  accounts 
of  the  ancients,  to  the  Umbnan  stock  and  were 
dispossessed  by  the  Tyrrhenians  or  Tyrsenians, 
a  people  who  came  by  sea  and  who  were  gen- 
erally believed  to  be  Lydians.  These  again 
were  in  early  times  subjected  by  another  race 
who  called  themselves  Rasena  and  who  finally 
became  incorporated  with  the  Tyrrhenians 
proper,  the  whole  nation  then  being  called  Tus- 
cans or  Etruscans.  These  Rasena,  by  ancient 
writers  usually  confounded  with  the  Tyrrhe- 


nians, entered  Italy  at  a  very  early  period  from 
the  north  and  gradually  took  possession  of  the 
whole  country  from  the  Alps,  Tidno  and  lower 


„ II  the  south. 

To  what  race  the  Etruscans  belonged  is  tin- 
known  and  our  ignorance  is  equally  great  with 
regard  lo  their  lan^age,  remams  of  which  still 
exist  in  numerous  inscriptions  mostly  on  tombs. 
It  appears  to  have  been  quite  distinct  from  the 
languages  of  the  rest  of  Italy,  but  attempts  to 
connect  it  with  the  Greek,  Celtic,  Germanic  or 
Semitic  languages  have  had  little  or  no  success. 
The  characters  used  are  essentially  the  ancient 
Greek  and  were  either  introduced  from  Magna 
GrKcia  or  possibly  from  Corinth.  Etruria  was 
very  early  a  confederation  under  the  rulers  of 
the  12  pnndpa!  cities,  each  of  which  formed  a 
republic  bv  itself.  The  chiefs  of  these  republics 
were  styled  lucumones,  who  were  also  the  priests 
and  generals  and  held  their  meetings  in  the 
temple  of  Voltumna,  where  they  deliberated  to- 
gether on  the  general  aflairs  of  the  country.  In 


all  the  dties  there  appears  to  have  been  an 
aristocracy,  toward  which  the  mass  of  the  com- 
mon people  stood  in  the  relatioa  of  clients, 
though  there  woidd  no  doubt  be  a  body  of  en- 
tirely free  men  resonbhng  the  plebeians  at 
Rome.  The  rdigion  of  the  Etruscans  offers  a 
subject  of  great  di£culty,  but  it  is  at  least  cer- 
tain that  it  had  many  points  in  common  with  the 
religious  systems  of  the  Sabines  and  Latins, 
while  in  some  respects  it  shows  evidences  of  an 
Eastern  origin.  Amotig  the  deities  tnay  be  men- 
tioned Tina  or  Tinia,  corresponding  to  the 
Latin  Jupiter;  Cupra,  corresponding  to  Juno; 
Uenerfa  (Minerva);  Sethlans  (Volcau); 
Turms  (Mercury) ;  and  Aplu  or  Apulu 
(Apollo). 

What  may  be  called  the  Etruscan  Era  com- 
menced about  1044  B.c  They  became  the  domi- 
nant race  in  northern  and  central  Italy  and 
Rome  itself  fell  under  their  rule  and  was  ruled 
by  Etruscan  kings.  In  th'  maritime  wars  they 
were  in  alliance  with  Carthage  against  Greece, 
The  tenith  of  their  power  was  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  when  with  the  Greeks  and  the  Phocni- 
dans  th^  shared  the  maritnne  supremacy  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Their  tiaval  power  was 
shattered  in  474  B.C.  by  Hiero  I  of  Syracuse  and 
after  this  their  decline  was  rapid.  The  Gauls 
swarmed  over  the  Alps  in  3%  B.C.;  in  3S1  the 
southern  Etruscans  made  submission  to  the 
Romans ;  and  the  process  of  conquest  was  com- 
pleted by  the  subjugation  of  the  northern 
Etruscans  in  282  B.C  After  this  they  became 
merged  in  thdr  conquerors,  on  whom  they^  ex- 
erdsed  a  considerable  influeiKe  in  religious, 
social  and  poUtical  Ufe. 

The  chief  occupations  of  the  Etruscans  were 
agriculture  and  commerce,  both  maritime  and 
overland.  Grain,  wine,  timber,  cattle  and  wool 
seem  to  have  been  the  prindpal  articles  of  trade. 
The  staple  food  of  the  common  people  was 
pulse,  but  the  upper  classes  were  tiotonous  for 
extravagance  in  their  diet  as  well  as  in  dress 
and  in  furniture.  Thdr  knowledge  of  the  arts 
and  sdences  is  said  to  have  been  derived  mainly 
from  Greece  and  in  a  less  degree  from  Egypt 
The  iron  mines  and  con>cr  mines  in  the  interior  . 

of  Etruria  were  worked  at  a  very  remote  pe-  | 

riod  and  the  metallurgical  skill  shown  by  the 
Etruscans  was  obviously  coimected  with  thdr 
proficiencf  in  the  art  of  worldng  in  bronie, 
silver,  gold,  etc.     Of  Etruscan  architecture  our  i 

knowledge  is  limited;  but  their  dties  were  laid 
out  on  a  quadrangular  plan  and  strongly  forti- 
fied. The  so-called  Tuscan  order  seems  to  be  ' 
little  else  than  a  modification  of  the  Doric.  Of 
thdr  temples  there  exist  no  traces;  the  theatres 
have  been  more  fortunate,  that  at  Fiesole  show- 
ing how  much  in  this  form  of  construction  th^ 
owed  to  the  Greeks.  The  sepulchres,  which 
were  always  subterranean,  but  frequently  having 
superstructures  of  an  architectural  character 
surmounting  them,  present  many  varieties  of 
construction. 

For  articles  In  terra-cotta  the  Etrascans  were 
especially  celebrated.  These  were  not  restricted 
to  small  objects,  but  embraced  statues  and 
figures  of  large  slie,  with  which  the  exteriors 
and  interiors  of  their  temples  were  adorned 
Gosely  related  to  this  brancJi  of  art  was  the 
Etruscan  potterv,  in  the  manufacture  of  which 
they  excelled;  but  the  onl^  extant  productions 
of  this  class  that  can  he  said  to  be  genuine  are 


BTRUBIA-.  BTTWBIH 


H7 


tiie  red  ware  of  Arretinm  and  die  blaclc  wan  of 
ClDtium  ornamented  with  figures  in  relief,  many 
of  them  of  a  grotesque  and  strongly- marked 
Oriental  character.  On  the  other  hand,  numbers 
of  the  painted  vases  popularly  known  as  Etrus- 
can vases  are  undoubtedly  productions  of  Greek 
workmen,  the  subjects,  the  style  and  the  inscrip- 
tioDs  being  all  Greek.  The  skill  of  the  Etrus- 
cans in  works  of  bronze  is  attested  by  many 
ancient  writers,  and  also  by  numerous  extant 
specimens.  The  sWle  of  art  characteristic  of 
these  works  is  stiff  and  archaic,  having  some 
resemblance  to  the  early  Greek,  thou^  some 
of  the  existing  specimens  exhibit  more  freedom 
of  design  and  great  beavihr  of  execution.  The 
bronze  candelabra,  of  which  many  examples 
have  been  preserved,  were  eagerly  sought  after 
both  in  Greece  and  Rome.  Another  branch  of 
art  which  seems  to  have  been  peculiar  to  this 
people  was  that  of  the  engraved  oronze  mirrors, 
a  considerable  number  of  which  has  been  dis- 
covered, some  quite  recently.  These  mirrors 
were  polished  on  one  side,  and  have  on  the 
other  an  engraved  design,  taken  in  most  cases 
from  Greek  legend  or  mythology.  Consult 
Dennis,  *The  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria' 
n892) ;  Seymour,  'Up  Hill  and  Down  Dale  in 
Ancient  Etruria*  (1910). 

ETRURIA,  Kingdom  of,  the  name  given 
to  the  province  of  Tuscaiv>  i»  Italy,  when,  in 
1801,  Napoleon  formed  of  It  a  Idngdom,  and 
made  Florence  the  capital  In  1808  he  incor- 
porated it  with  the  French  Empire,  and  in  1809 
nis  sister,  Elise  Bacciocchi,  was  made  Grand 
Duchess  of  Tuscany.  When  Napoleon  became 
an  exile  in  1814,  Tuscany  reverted  to  Austria, 
and  Frederick  HI  became  king. 
ETRU&CAN.  See  EnuRU. 
ETRUSCAN  VASES,  a  class  of  beautiful 
ancient  painted  vases  made  in  Etruria,  but  not 
strictly  speaking  a  product  of  Etmscan  art, 
since  they  were  really  the  productions  of  a  ripe 
age  of  Greek  art  the  workmanship,  subjects, 
style  and  inscriptions  bein^  all  Greek.  They 
are  elegant  in  form  and  enriched  with  bands  of 
beautiful  foliage  and  other  ornaments,  figures 
and  similar  subjects  of  a  highly  artistic 
character.  One  clasi  has  black  figures  and 
ornaments  on  a  red  ground  —  the  natural  color 
of  the  clay;  another  has  the  figures  left  of 
rtie  natural  color  and  the  ground  painted  black. 
The  former  class  belong  to  a  date  about 
600  B.C.,  the  btter  date  about  a  century  later, 
and  extend  over  a  period  of  about  350  years, 
when  the  manufacture  seems  to  have  ceased. 
The  subjects  represented  on  these  vases  fre- 
quently relate  to  heroic  personages  of  the  Greek 
mythology,  but  many  scenes  of  an  ordinary  and 
even  of  a  domestic  character  are  depicted.  The 
figures  are  usually  in  profile. 
ETSCH.    See  Adice. 

ETTINGHAUSEN,  Konatantin,  Baron 
VWi,  Austrian  geologist  and  botanist :  b.  Vienna, 
1826  [  d.  1897.  He  was  educated  in  his  native 
dty  and  became  professor  of  botany  and  of 
medical  natural  history  at  the  Joseph  Academy 
in  I8S4.  He  removed  to  Gratz  in  1871  and 
seven  years  later  was  engaged  b^  the  British 
Museum  to  arrange  the  collection  of  _  fossil 
^ants  there.  His  works  include  'Phystohfpia 
Plantarum  Anstriacanun'  (2  vols.,  18S6-73) ; 
<Pl^k>gc»phiB  d«  MediiinalpfanMn>   (1862); 


*B«itrage  «ir  Erforschung  der  Phylogenie  der 
Pfian8enarten>   (7  vols,,  W7~W). 

ETTLINGEN,  ftllng-en.  Germany,  town 
in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  on  the  Alb,  five 
miles  south  of  Karisruhe.  It  is  an  ancient 
place,  containing  some  Roman  remains;  is  en- 
tered by  three  sates,  and  has  an  old  castle  with 
gardens,  town-house,  hospital,  normal  and  other 
schools,  manitfactures  of  machinery,  linen  and 
cotton  goods,  starch,  leather  and  paper.  Near 
the  town  the  Archduke  Qiarles  of  Austria  here 
suffered  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Moreau,  9  and 
10  July  1M6.    Pop.  9,407. 

ETTHULLBR,  EmBt  Moritz  Ludwif, 
lood'vTg  et'miil-ler.  German  philologist  and 
historian:  b.  Gersaorf,  Saxony,  5  Oct.  1802; 
d.  Ziirich,  15  April  1877.  He  was  graduated 
at  Leipzig:  lectured  at  Jena  on  the  German 
poeU  of  the  Middle  Ages;  in  1833  went  to 
the  Gymnasium  at  Zurich  and  in  1863  he  b^ 
came  professor  of  German  literature  in  the 
Universitjr  of  Zurich.  He  made  extensive  re- 
searches in  German  media-val  literature  and 
was   author   of    'German   Dynasty   Founders' 


translated   'Beowulf   into  German. 

ETTOR,  loBcph  J^  American  industrial 
agitator:  b,  1886.  He  came  into  prominence 
during  the  labor  troubles  at  Paierson,  N.  }., 
BrooUyn,  N.  Y.,'and  elsewhere,  butattamed  his 
greatest  attention  in  conducting  the  textile 
workers  during  the  strike  at  Lawrence,  Mass., 
in  1912.  For  his  methods  in  this  affair  be  was 
sentenced  to  nine  months'  imprisonment,  having 
been  held  responsible  for  the  death  of  a  woman 
shot  in  a  riot  there  on  29  Jan.  1912.  After  his 
release  he  was  again  prominent  in  the  waiters' 
strike  in  New  York  m  1913  and  the  barbers' 
strike  in  the  same  city  in  1914.  He  is  promi- 
nently identified  with  the  Industrial  Workers 
of  the  World,  of  the  executive  council  of  which 
he  became  a  member. 

BTTRICK,  el'rik,  a  district  of  Scotland,  in 
Selkirl^  through  which  the  Ettrick  water  runs. 
It  is  now  a  sheep  pasture,  denuded  of  wood, 
hut  in  ancient  times  it  formed  part  of  Ettrick 
Forest,  which  included  the  whole  country  as 
well  as  parts  of  Peebles  and  Edinburg^re. 
The  "Ettrick  Shepherd,"  James  Ho^,  was  a 
native  of  this  district.  Consult  Craig-Brown, 
'History  of  Selkirkshire'   (Edinburgh  1886). 

ETTRICK  SHEPHERD,  The.  See  Hogg, 
Javes. 

ET  TU  BRUTE  C«and  thou  also.  Brutus'), 
the  words  supposed  to  have  been  uttered  by 
Julius  Caesar  at  the  moment  he  was  stabbed  by 
Brutus,  liiere  is,  however,  no  ancient  author- 
ity for  attributing  this  utterance  to  Oesar,  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  popular  impression  is 

in  his  play,    ,_ _    

of  the  same  period  also  used  the  phi 

ETTWEIN,  It'vin,  John,  American  Mora- 
vian bishop:  b.  Trendenstadt,  Wiirtemberg,  29 
June  J721 ;  d.  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  2  Jan.  1802.  He 
came  to  America  in  1754  and  for  nearly  50 
years  worked  among  the  Moravians  as  evangel- 
ist, pastor  and  bishop.  He  traveled  thousands 
of  miles,  oftentimes  on  fool,  preaching  in  11  of 
the  1.3  colonies  and  in  what  is  now  the  State  of 


V.Google 


STTY— KTYUOLOQT 


Ohio,  *ia  dtiei,  in  villages,  in  hometteads,  from 
pulpits,  in  the  open  air,  in  courthouses  and 
barns  to  maJiy  and  very  different  classes  of 
men,'  as  he  himself  wrote.  Among  the  Inians, 
loo,  he  worked  with  great  success.  In  1776-77 
he  rendered  noble  services  to  the  sick  and 
wounded  of  the  American  armv  in  the  general 
hospital  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.  Elected  bishop  in 
1784,  he  presided  over  his  Church  for  nearly  17 
years,  displaying  the  soundest  judgment  in 
matters  of  polity  and  a  fine  personal  heroism 
in  critical  circumstances.  In  1787  he  founded 
the  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  Among 
the  Heathen,  which  still  exists,  richly  endowed, 
and  is  the  bulwark  of  the  extensive  Moravian 
mission  work.  He  became  proficient  in  the 
lan^age  of  the  Delaware  Indians,  prepared  a 
dictionary  and  phrasebook  of  it,  and  in  1788 
compiled  an  account  of  the  language  with  a 
vocabulary,  which  has  since  been  published  by 
the  Pennsylvania  Historical  Society.  Old  a^ 
compelled  his  retirement  from  active  service  m 
1801. 

ETTY,  William,  EngUsh  painter:  b.  York, 
10  March  1787.;  d.  there,  13  Nov.  IM9.  He 
worked  long  without  muui  recognition,  hut  at 
length  in  1820  won  public  notice  by  his  "Coral 
Finders,'  In  1828  he  was  elected  an  academi- 
cian. Among  his  works,  which  were  greatly 
admired,  are  a  series  of  three  pictures  (1827- 
31)  illustrating  the  'Deliverance  of  BethuHa  by 

edith' ;  'Benaiah  one  of  David's  Mighty 
en' ;  'Women  Interceding  for  the  Van- 
quished.* All  these  are  very  large  pictures,  »nd 
are  now  in  the  National  Gallery  of  Scotland. 
Others  of  note  are  'The  Judgment  of  Paris'; 
'The  Rape  of  Proseniine';  'Youth  at  the 
Prow  and  Pleasure  at  the  Helm.'  In  coloring 
and  the  representation  of  the  nude  he  dis- 
played high  ability. 

BTUDB,  at  first  a  term  to  designate  a 
musical  composition  written  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  some  particular  point,  as  arpeggio, 
etc.,  has  come  to  mean  a  study  for  a  concert 
performance  with  many  technical  difficulties. 
Some  of  the  latter  by  famous  masters  are  of 
special  beauty  and  elegance,  of  which  we  may 
mention  here  the  famed  Etudes  of  Chopin, 
Liszt  and  Schumann,  which  rank  among  the 
finest  compositions  for  the  piano.  For  the  vii>- 
lin  the  compositions  of  Fiorillo,  Kreutzer  and 
Paganini  are  justly  famous. 

ETYMOJ^OGICUM  GUDIAHUM.  See 
Etymologicum  Magnuk. 

ETYMOLOGICUM  HAGNUH  (Or.  <the 
great  etymological  glossary,  or  dictionary*),  the 
sole  lexicon  of  size  surviving  from  the  Byzan- 
tine age  of  Greek  learning.  It  is  evidently  a 
compilation  from  other  worlcs  of  the  same  class, 
and  bears  no  author's  name.  The  book  may  be 
attributed  to  the  lOth  century.  It  consists  of  a 
number  of  quotations  from  the  works  of 
ancient  grammarians,  arranged  alphabetically. 
It  may  have  received  its  name  from  its  first 
critical  editor,  Sylburg,  or  from  its  printer,  Cai- 
liergus.  The  book  is  of  high  philological  value, 
although  many  of  the  derivations  of  words  con- 
tained in  it  are  fanciful  and  utterly  unscienrilic. 
Consult  Cohn,  'Griechische  Lexicograpbie'  (in 
'Griechische  Grammatick'  of  Burgrnann- 
Thumb  Munich  1913)  ;  Gaiaford,  'Etymologi- 
cum  Magnum'    (Oxford    1848)  ;    Reitzenstein, 


'Geachicbte  dc^  griechudieB  Etymologiha* 
(Leipzig  1897)  ;  Sturz,  'Etymologicum  Gudia- 
num*  (Leipzig  1816-20). 

ETYMOLOGY,  that  branch  of  philol- 
ogy which  deals  with  the  investigation  of  the 
ongin  or  derivation  and  of  the  original  sig- 
nification of  words.  It  forms  a  subsidiary  part 
of  the  science  of  comparative  philology,  and, 
though  it  has  occupied  the  attention  of  the 
learned  and  the  curious  in  every  age,  it  is  only 
within  the  19th  century  that  its  study  has  been 
pursued  on  really  scientific  principles.  Igno- 
rance, or  what  is  still  more  dangerous,  baU- 
knowlcdge,  has  often  suggested  false  etymol' 
ogies  and  many  more  have  sprung  from  that 
excess  of  confident  and  self-sufficient  ingenuity 
which  will  not  take  plain  words  like  beef-eater 
and  tuelsh-rabbit  for  what  they  are.  Folk- 
etymology,  properly  so  called,  has  played  an 
important  role  in  the  development  of  languages. 
The  words  thai  the  people  have  known  from 
infancy  are  for  them  things,  but  it  is  quite 
different  from  the  new  terms  they  meet.  Inese 
arrest  their  curiosity,  and,  as  they  believe  that 
every  word  has  its  signification,  they  seek 
for  this,  guided  by  resemblances  of  sound 
with  words  already  known,  and  consequently 
reach  conclusions  often  hopelessly  distorted 
by  false  analogies.  We  see  the  same  illogical 
process  in  the  Old  Testament  interriretatian  of 
personal  names,  applied  convenient^  after  the 
fact;  in  the  Homenc  explanation  of  the  names 
of  gods  and  men;  in  the  quaint  etymologies  so 
common  in  the  mediteval  writers  and  in  such 
moderns  as  Thomas  Fuller;  in  the  vagaries  of 
Celtic  topographers;  and  even  in  the  pages  of 
some  modem  dictionaries  it  is  possible  to  find 
such  a  statement  as  tlut  the  English  word 
nmis  is  derived  from  a  certain  con;tmctioti  of 
the  points  of  the  compass,  north,  east,  west  and 
south.  These  whimsical  etymologies  were 
laughed  at  by  Dean  Swift,  whose  ottler='  oaU 
ilealer,  was  a  stroke  of  genius,  but  have  not  yet 
disappeared;  and,  indeed,  the  modem  ideas  of 
method  in  etymology  are  hardly  at  all  beyond 
the  ^nt  attained  by  the  grammarians  of  Alex- 
andria and  by  Varro  among  the  Romans.  It 
was  the  birth  of  ^ilology  and  the  study  of  the 
languages  of  the  East  that  made  a  scientific 
etymology  possible.  It  no  longer  sought  the 
relation  oi  the  words  of  a  single  language  ex- 
clusively within  itself,  but  extended  iu  view 
to  the  whole  group  of  cognate  tongues,  or, 
wider  still,  to  a  whole  family  and  became  a  new 
science  ^nder  the  name  of  Conwarative  Gram- 
the  first  finger-post 


Grimm's  Law  was  I 


revival  in  Fjigtand  in  the  19th  coitury  com- 
menced the  histoiy  of  English  upon  an  historical 
method,  from  which  has  grown  a  really  scientific 
Endish  etymology,  as  seen  in  the  dictionaries 
of  Professor  Skeat  and  Dr.  Murray.  No  more 
useful  chart  of  warning  could  be  given  than  the 
former's  canons  for  etymology:  "Before  at- 
tempting an  etymology,  ascertain  the  earliest 
form  and  use  of  the  word  and  observe  chro- 
nology. If  the  word  be  of  native  origin,  we 
should  next  trace  its  history  in  cognate  lan- 
guages. If  the  word  be  borrowed,  we  must 
observe  geography  and  the  historv  of  events, 
remembering  that  borrowings  are  due  to  actual 
contact,*    See  Curtius,  <Gnmdsflge  der  GiieA- 


.yGoOgl 


C 


BTOIL  —  SUCALYFTUS 


Sprachen'    (1874-76);    Palmer,    'Folk-Etymol-      chieflv  mythological  and  many  of  his  plays  con- 
ogy'    (1882) ;  Skeat,  'The  Science  of  Etymol-      tained  parodies  of  the  tragic  poets,  especially 


ogy*    (1912)  f  also  see  Language,  Science  of, 
and  authonttes  quoted  thereunder. 
ETZEL.    See  Attila. 


the  mouth  of  the  Bresle,  17  miles  northeast  of 
Dieppe.  It  was  in  the  castle  belonging  to  this 
place  that  William  the  Conqueror  married  Maud 
of  Flanders.  The  town  was  burned 
ground  in  1475,  by  order  of  Louis  XI, 


lishments.     Pop.  of  commune  5,651. 

SUA,  &-oo'a,  or  EOA,  a  small  island  belong- 
ing to  the  Friendly  Islands,  owned  by  Great 
Britain.  It  is  about  lOyi  miles  long  by  three 
wide.  The  climate  of  all  the  islands  of  the 
Tonga  ^oup,  to  whidi  the  Friendly  Islands 
belong,  IS  but  slightly  higher  than  tl^t  of  the 
Samoan  Islands,  just  north.  Pop.  about  AOO. 
EUANTHIUS,  Roman  grammarian :  d. 
Constantinople,  358  a.D.  He  wrote  a  commen- 
tary on  Terence  which  was  extensively  used  by 
Donatus  in  his  own  commentary  of  that  author. 
His  treatise  'De  Fabula'  was  also  incorporated 
hy  Donatus.  Consult  Wessner,  'j£lt  Donati  . . . 
Commentum  Terenti'    (Vol.  I,  Leipiig  1902). 

EUBCEA,  Q-be'a,  formerly  called  Necito- 
totrr,  a  Greek  island,  the  second  largest  island 
of  the  Mgeaa  Sea.  It  is  90  miles  long,  30  in 
greatest  breadth,  reduced  at  one  point  to  four 
miles.  It  is  separated  from  the  mainland  of 
Greece  by  the  narrow  channels  of  Egripo  and 
Talanta,  and  is  connected  with  the  Boeotian 
shore  by-  a  bridge.  There  are  several  mountain 
peaks,  one  over  7,000  feet  The  island  is  well 
wooded  and  remarkably  fertile  Wine  is  a 
staple  product  and  cotton,  wool,  pitch  and  tnr> 
pentine  are  exported.  The  chief  towns  are 
Chalcis  and  Karysto.  The  island  was  anciently 
divided  among  seven  independent  cities,  the  most 
important  of  which  were  C^alds  and  Eretria. 
Successively  held  by  the  Athenians,  the  Persians, 
the  Romans  and  the  Venetians,  it  was  taken  by 
the  Turks  in  1470,  and  in  1830  was  delivered 
from  thdr  control.  With  some  small  islands  it 
foims  a  modem  nomarchy,  with  a  population 
of  116.903. 

BUBULIDES  (u-bfllidiz)  OF  MILE- 
TUS, Greek  philosopher :  the  best  known  of  the 
disciples  of  Euclid  of  Megara,  flourished  about 
the  middle  of  the  4th  century  B.C.  His  life  was  a 
struggle  against  Aristotle,  in  which  by  a  captious 
logic  he  sought  to  prevail  a^nst  good  sense.  A 
partisan  of  the  Megaric  principle,  that  there  is 
nothing  real  but  what  is  always  one,  simple  and 
identical,  he  immediately  found  an  adversaiy  in 
the  founder  of  the  great  contemporary  school 
which  made  experience  the  condition  of  science. 
He  attacked  the  peripatetic  doctrine,  like  Zeno 
of  Elea,  by  striving  to  show  that  there  is  none 
of  our  experimental  notions  which  does  not  6^ve 

Elace  to  insolvable  difficulties.    He  wrote  a  num- 
er  of  comedies  and  a  work  on  Diogenes  the 
Cynic.    See  Megahian  School  of  Philosophy, 
EUBULIUS.     See  CvanxtJS  and  Metso- 

DIUG. 


._  Consult   Koch, 

'Comicorum  Atticorum  Fragmenta'  (Leipzig 
18E^)  ;  Meinke,  'Fragmenta  Comicorum  GrK- 
conmi'   (Berlin  1839-1?). 

BUCAINB.    See  Cocaine. 

BUCALYPTOCRINUS,  a  genus  of  fossil 
Cnnoidea  found  in  the  Silurian  beds  of  the 
Niagara  group  in  America  and  in  England  and 
Scotland  Its  special  peculiarity  is  that  its  20 
arms  rest  in  vertical  compartments  divided  by 
10  partitions  attached  to  the  tegmen  and  sup- 
ported by  the  interbrachials. 

EUCALYPTUS,  ii-ka-llp'tiis,  a  genus  of 
trees  and  a  few  shrubs  of  the  family  Myrtacea. 
The  species,  of  which  there  are  about  3(X),  are 
characterized  by  simple  symmetrical  leaves, 
whose  edges  usually  turn  toward  the  sun;  gen- 
erally white,  bell- shaped  flowers,  sometimes 
solitary,  but  commonly  in  terminal  or  axillary 
umbels  near  the  ends  of  the  twigs;  calyx-lobes 
joined  to  form  a  lid,  which  falls  off  when  the 
flower  opens  (from  this  feattire  the  genus  is 
named)  ;  numerous  stamens ;  and  many-seeded, 
angular  fruit-capsules.  With  the  exception  of 
about  half  a  dozen  species  which  are  natives 
of  the  East  Indies  and  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
he  members  of  the  genus  are  indigenous  1 


highly  valued  for  planting  in  parks  and  along 
avenues ;  for  the  gum-resm  which  oozes  from 
their  trunks;  for  the  volatile  oil  contained  in 
their  leaves;  for  the  tannin  obtained  from  their 
bark;  and  for  the  fibre  of  their  inner  bark. 


They  have  been  widely  distributed  by 
warm  climates,  particularly  in  the  Bntish  pa 
sessions.     Above  all  the^  are  valued  for  the 


timber,  which  ii  extensively  used  for  wharf, 
ship,  bridge  and  house  building,  telegraph  poles, 
railroad  ties,  implements,  furniture,  etc.  To 
obtain  it  the  trees  are  frequently  ring-barked 
about  the  beginning  of  the  warm  season  so  as  to 
exhaust  the  sap  as  much  as  possible.  After 
standing  until  tne  end  of  the  dry  season  they 
are  felled.  Some  of  the  species  are  among  the 
largest  living  trees  of  the  world.  Specimens 
exceeding  450  feet  in  height  and  with  a  girth 
of  50  feet  are  occasionally  reported. 

Few  species  are  hardy,  but  many  are  culti- 
vated for  ornament  where  they  can  be  given 
shelter  from  cold  winds,  or  where,  like  other 
tender  ornamental  plants,  they  can  be  removed 
to  a  house  during  the  winter.  In  California  a 
majority  of  the  species  thrive  in  the  open  air 
and  are  valued  for  their  striking  habits  of 
growth,  their  foliage,  etc  They  are  readily 
propagated  from  seeds  sown  in  light,  sandy  soil. 
The  seedlings  should  be  transplanted  when  about 
four  inches  tall  and  again  at  rather  frequent 
intervals,  to  ensure  the  formation  of  fibrons 
near  the  surface,  thus  to  secure  them  a 


¥Mid  start  when  transplanted  to  final  quarters, 
ransplanting  should  always  be  done  in  cool, 
cloudy  weather.    When  once  established 


they  demand' no  further  attention  than  ordinary 
pruning  and  training. 

Among  the  bett-known  speciea  »re  the  folt 


.lOogle 


BUCHARIS  —  BUCRUOST 


lowing:  Eucatypttu  fftobulut,  the  blne-BVm, 
which  often  exceeds  300  feet  in  height,  has 
bluish  or  grayish  smooth  bark,  except  at  the 
base.  It  is  noted  Ear  its  rapid  growth,  the  un~ 
pleasantly  flavored  nectar  of  its  blossoms^  which 
IS  very  attractive  to  bees,  and  its  ability  to 
withstand  long  periods  of  drought.  It  is  the 
most  frequently  planted  species  in  CalifoTnia, 
where  it  is  also  becoming  naturalized  by  means 
of  its  seeds.  It  is  also  planted  to  sotne  extent 
in  Florida  and  other  Gulf  States,  and  is  said 
to  survive  a  temperature  as  low  as  20°  F.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  of  timber  trees  and  is 
one  of  the  chief  sources  of  oil  of  eucalyptus.  A 
somewhat  hardier  species  {£.  viminalts),  popu- 
larly known  as  manna  gum,  attains  about  the 
same  size,  but  has  either  dark-colored  persistent 
Irark  or  light-colored  deciduous  bark.  In  Cali- 
fornia, where  it  also  is  spreading  like  the 
former,  it  has  withstood  lower  temperatures 
and  made  phenomena!  growlhs,  in  some  instances 
exceeding  70  feet  in  height  and  3  feet  in  girth 
in  12  years.  It  is  valuable  for  its  nectar,  of 
which  bees  are  very  fond,  but  its  timber 


ing,  shingles  and  other  purposes  whei<e  strain  is 
not  expected.  Perhaps  the  most  valued  is  E. 
mtjrpinata,  the  jarrah  tree  or  wood,  which  often 
attains  heights  exceeding  70  feet  without  the 
development  of  any  limbs,  and  at  that  height 
often  has  a  girth  of  15  feet  It  is  not  hardy. 
Its  wood  is  especially  valued  for  wharf  and  ship 
building,  since  it  is  not  attacked  by  the  teredo 
or  shipworm.  It  is  also  highly  esteemed  for 
underground  work,  such  as  ties  and  tele|(raph 
poles,  and,  being  easily  worked  and  polished, 
IS  popular  for  house  finishing  and  furniture. 
The  largest  species  is  probably  £.  amygdalina, 
the  peppermint- tree,  which  is  also  noted  for  its 
abundant  yield  of  oil.  Its  timber  is  not  strong, 
but  is  largely  used  for  staves,  shingks,  build- 
ing, etc.  £.  robust  a,  the  swamp- mahogany 
gum,  is  perhaps  the  species  most  frequently 
[Wanted  in  swampy  places.  Its  timber  is  re- 
m^.kably  durable  and  is  used,  like  that  of  E. 
marginola,  but  is  somewhat  less  esteemed.  It  is 
one  of  the  finest  of  avenue  trees,  and  one  of 
the  best  for  bees  because  of  its  abundant  nectar 
and  profuse  bloom. 

In  medicine,  oil  of  eucalyptus  is  used  for  its 
antiseptic  and  stimulating  properties.  It  b  veiv 
sridely  used  in  affections  of  the  nose,  mouth 
and  bronchi,  and  in  diseases  of  the  bladder  and 
urethra.    It  makes  a  very  agreeable  and  ^cient 


tive.  Trees  of  eucalyptus  have  been  [Wanted, 
especially  in  low  marshy  places,  with  a  belief  in 
tbeir  beneficial  effects  against  malaria.  It  is 
frequently  asserted  that  they  have  a  direct 
action  on  malaria.  By  the  aid  they  furnish  in 
converting  marshes  mto  dry  '^ud  they  also 
help  to  prevent  the  development  of  mosquitoes, 
some  forms  of  which  are  known  to  be  the  chief 
agents  in  the  spread  of  malarial  disease.  (See 
Malaria;  Volattle  Oils).  Consult  Bailey, 
•Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture'  (1914)  ; 
Mueller,  'Eucalyptographia> ;  Bentham,  'Flora 
Australiensis '  (Vol.  Ill);  Pepper,  'Eucalyptus 
in  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  from  an  Hygienic  and 
Climatological  Point  of  View'  (Proceedings 
of    the  American   Philosophical   Society,   Vol. 


of  the  natural  order  Atnarylfidacta,  the  species 
which,  mostly  natives  of  Colombia,  are  perennial 
herbs  with  perennial  bulb-like  rootstocks, 
broadly  ovate  leaves  and  very  showy  white 
flowers  in  umbels  upon  long,  strong  scapes. 
ThCT  are  very  popular  hot-house  plants  because 
of  their  beauty  and  the  prolificacy  of  their  lon^- 
lasting  flowers.  They  are  easily  grown  in 
course  fibrous  soil  which  will-  permit  of 
abundant  watering  without  danger  of  stagna- 
tion. Partial  shajae  and  rather  high  tempera- 
ture are  also  needed.  The  best-known  spedes 
is  probably  E.  grandifiora,  which  is  popularly 
known  as  star-of -Bethlehem  and  Amaxon  lily. 
The  flowers  of  this  species  are  borne  upon  a 
scape  often  exceeding  18  inches  in  height  and 
bearing  two  to  four  star-like  and  very  fragrant 
flowers,  often  four  inches  in  diameter.  (2)  a 
genus  of  mollusks;  also  known  as  Glaucus; 
(3)  the  typical  genus  of  Chaleidians,  sub- 
family Eucharinx. 

EUCHARIST,  uTta-rfst,  ia  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  sacrament  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  also  the  Christian 
covenant  sacrifice.  Regarding  the  Eucharist 
as  a  sacramentj  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
teaches  that  it  is  the  true  bod^  and  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ  under  the  "species'  or  appear- 
ances or  physical  properties  of  bread  and  wine. 
The  institution  of  this  sacrament  by  Christ 
is  recorded  in  the  three  synaptic  gospels  and  is 
Saint  Paul's  first  letter  to  the  Corinthians.  The 
name  given  to  the  sacrament  comes  from  the 
expression  in  the  original  Gredc  text  of  Luke 
xxii,  19,  Ivxapumiaat  (eucharistesas),  "having 
given  thanks.'  The  words  of  institution,  as 
given  by  the  same  evangelist,  are:  'This  is  my 
body  which  is  given  for  you,  .  .  .  This  is  the 
chalice,  the  new  testament  in  my  blood,  which 
shall  be  shed  for  you."  The  perpetuation  of 
this  sacrament  is  commanded  in  the  words, 
<This  do  for  a  comn.^moration  of  me.»  (1  Cor. 
xi,  24).  A  year  before  the  institutioD  of  the 
sacrament  Jesus  Christ  in  a  discourse  at  Caper- 
naum, spoke  of  his  flesh  being  "meat  indeed* 
and  his  blood  'drink  indeed' ;  and  it  is  import- 
ant to  note  the  circumstances  in  which  he  em- 
ployed those  extraordinary  expressions.  He 
had  already  said;   *I  am  the  bread  of  life,* 

which    the   Jews    murmured.         Thereuptai 


*The  bread  which  I  will  give  is  my  flesh  for 
the  life  of  the  world.'  At  this  the  Jews  again 
murmured,  but  Christ  does  but  emphasize  the 
doctrine  in  the  words  already  quoteo.  And  not 
only  the  Jews  were  scandalized  by  these 
speeches :  many  of  Jesus'  disciples  even  would 
no  longer  listen  to  nim ;  they  "went  back  and 
walked  no  more  with  him.'  Would  the  apostles 
also  desert  him?  and  he  elicited  from  Oiem  a 
profession  of  implicit  faith  in  his  words,  how- 
ever 'hard*  his  sayings  might  be. 

And  that  altitude  of  the  apostles  is  the 
attitude  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Those 
words  of  her  Founder  and  the  many  other  an- 
nouncements he  made  touching  this  sacramental 
mystery,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  from 
apostolic  times  has  received  in  their  plain  literal 
interpretation  —  the     interpretation     put     upon 


.lOOg  Ic 


EUCALYPTUS 


Forail  Covn  for  Puks,  Lob  Aotelai,  Califorou 


i«  Shide  Trees,  aeu  Sioti  Honici,  Calilora: 


.yGooi^le 


.yGooi^le 


EUCHLORUW  —  EUCHRE 


Ml 


them  by  all  who  heard  them,  Jews,  disciples, 
apostles,  and  by  Jesus  Christ  himself:  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  teaches  that  in  the  Eu- 
charist is  contained  'truly,  really  and  sub- 
stantially" the  body  and  blood  of  ^esus  Christ, 
'  "  ''         with  his   soul   and   divinity.        Here 


son,  H.  H.,  'The  Holy  Eucharist>  (London 
1887)  ;  KeaUng,  J.  F.,  'The  Agapi  and  the 
Eucharist  in  the  Early  Church'  (ib.  1901); 
Kidd,  B.  }..  'The  Later  Mediaeval  Doctrine  of 
the  Euchanstic  Sacrifice'  fib-  1898) ;  McGif- 
fert,    A.    C. ,   'History   of    Christianity   i-    '*-- 


nothing;  is  added  to,  nothing  taken  away  from.      Apostolic  Age'  (New  York  1897) ;  Macnaught, 
the   words    of    Christ,    and' nothing    explained      J.,    'Ccena   Domine;    An   Essay   on   the   Lord's 


1 '  nothing  exph 
away  in  those  "words  of  eternal  life."  And 
when  in  the  11th  century  the  Church's  reading 
of  those  words  as  denoting  a  "true,  real  and  sub- 
santiaP  change  of  the  bread  and  wine  into 
"  '  '  i  body  and  blood  was  challenged  by 
irius,    who,    more    'spirituallv- minded' 

:  anostle?  of  lesiis  Chnsi 

b   Chri. 

presence  of   his  body  and  blood   _._   .  ._   

ment,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  adopted  the 
fittest  possible  word  to  express  the  change 
wrought  in  the  bread  and  wine^ — the  word 
Transubstantiation :  in  the  Eucharist  the  sub- 
stance of  bread  and  wine  remain  no  longer 
underlying  the  outward  appearances,  "species* 
of  bread  and  wine:  what  underlies  them  now 
is  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Such  is  the 
teaching  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Oiurch  with 
regard  to  the  real  presence  of  Jesus  Christ  in 
the  Eucharist, 

But  the  Eucharist  is  not  only  a  sacrament: 
il  is  also  the  perpetual  New  Covenant  sacrifice, 
believed  to  have  been  foretold  by  the  prcHihet 
Malachi,  as  rendered  in  the  Vulgate,  which 
differs  sli^tly  from  the  authorized  Anglican 
version:  "Froni  the  rising  of  the  sun  even  to 
the  going  down  thereof,  my  name  is  great 
among  the  Gentiles,  and  in  every  place  there 


Catholic  Qiurch  teaches 
Eucharistic  sacrifice  or  the  Mass  that  °it  is 
one  and  the  same  sacrifice  with  that  of  the 
cross :  the  victim  is  one  and  the  same,  lesus 
Christ,  who  offered  himself,  once  orUy,  a  bloody 
sacrifice  on  the  altar  of  the  cross.  The  bloody 
and  unbloody  victim  is  stil!  one  and  the  sam^ 
and  the  offering  upon  the  cross  is  daily  renewed 
in  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice,  in  obedience  to  the 
command  of  our  Lord,  'Do  this  in, remembrance 
of  Me.'  "  —Catech.  Cone,  Trid.,  cap.  de  Eucha- 
rislue  Sacr. 

Bibliography. —  Adamson,  R.  U.,  'Christian 
Doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper'  (New  York 
1905) ;  Armstrong.  'Sacraments  of  the  New 
Testament'  (ib.  1880)  ;  Bridget^  T.  E.,  'His- 
tory of  the  Holy  Eucharist  in  England'  (new 
ed.,  London  1908);  Bright,  W.,  'Aspects  of 
Primitive  Church  Life'  (ib.  1898)  ;  Dalgairns, 
J.  D.,  'The  Holy  Communion;  Its  History, 
Philosophy  and  Practice'  (3d.  ed.,  Dublin  1868)  ; 
Denzinger,  Heinrich,  'Enchiridion  Symbolorum 
et  Definilionum'  (Wiirzbur|  18S4) ;  Dimock, 
N.,  'On  Eucharistic  Worship  in  the  English 
durch'  (London  1911);  Franielin,  'Die  Eu- 
charistia'  (Rome  1868) ;  Gardner,  P.,  'Origin 
of  the  Lord's  Supper'  (London  1893)  ;  Gore, 
Charies,  'Dissertations'  (ib.  189S) ;  id.,  'The 
Body  of  Christ:  An  Inquiry  into  the  Institution 
and  Doctrine  of  Holy  Communion'  (New  York 
1901)  ;  Groton,  W.  M„  'Christian  Eucharist 
and  the  Pagan  Cults'  (ib.  1914)  ;  Harrison,  J„ 
'Answer  to  Dr.  Puseys  Challenge  Respecting 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence'  (2  vols.,  ib. 
1871);  Jacob,  G.  A.,  'The  Lord's  Supper  His- 
torically Considered*    (Oxford  1884);  Jeaffre- 

VOL.10— M 


.jiippcr'  (London  18?8)  ;  Meyrick,  Frederick, 
'Thi  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
Holy  Communion'  (New  York  1908)  ;  Morti- 
A.    G.,    'Catholic    Faith    and    Practice' 


J.  J.  S.,  'Doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper'  (ik 
1887) ;  Pusey,  E.  B.,  'The  Real  Presence  of 
the  Body  and  Blood  of  Our  Lord  in  the  Holy 
Eucharist'  (Oxford  1S57)";  Sanday,  William, 
'Different  Conception  of  Priesthood  and  Sac- 
rifices' (New  York  1900) ;  Stanley,  A.  P., 
'Christian  Institutions'  (London  1871)  ;  Stone, 
D.,  'History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Holy  Eu- 
charist' (2  vols.,  New  York  1901);  Strong, 
T.  B.,  •'The  Doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence> 
(ib.  1899);  Thalhofer,  V.,  'Das  Opfer  des 
alten  und  neuen  Bundes'  (Regensburg  1870); 
Weiisacker,  C,  'The  Apostlic  Age'  (2  vols,, 
London  1895)  ;  Wilberforce.  R.  L  'Doctrine  of 
the  Holy  Eucharist'  (ib.  1853)  ;  (Cardinal  Wise- 
man, 'Lectures  on  the  Real  Presence'  (Dublin 
1852). 

EUCHLORINB,  a  name  given  by  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  (q.v.')  to  the  yellow  gas  ob- 
tained In-  acting  upon  potassium  chlorate  vnUi 
hydrochloric  acid.  Davy  believed  it  to  be  a 
new  oxide  of  chlorine;  but  it  is  now  known  to 
be  a  mixture  of  chlorine  and  chlorine  peroxide, 
OOi.  It  has  powerful  bleaching  and  disinfect- 
ing properties,  hut  it  is  frirfitfully  explosive, 
and  should  never  be  prepared  nor  handled  save 
by  an  expert  chemist,  provided  with  proper 
safeguards,  and  with  a  full  previous  knowledge 
of  its  properties. 

EUCHOLCXiION,  ii-k^lo'jl-dn,  the  litur- 
pcal  and  ritual  book  of  the  Greek  Cnurch,  cor- 
responding to  the  Missal,  which  is  the  Pontifi- 
cal and  Ritual  of  the  Latin  Church.  The 
UniatE  Greek  Church,  or  Church  of  the  Greek 
Rile  in  communion  with  the  See  of  Rome,  has 
a  separate  Euchologion.  The  Euchologion  con- 
tains the  liturgies,  the  order  of  daily  services 
with  prayers  and  btanies.  and  finally  a  collection 
of  sacraments  and  sacramentals,  with  various 
rules,  canons  and  blessings.  The  first  printed 
edition  was  published  in  1526  at  Venice  and 
since  then  the  successive  official  Greek  editions 
have  been  printed  there.  There  are,  however, 
other  editions  published  both  in  Athens  ana 
Constantinople.  There  is  also  an  abstract, 
called  'Small  Euchologion.'  There  is  no  Eng- 
lish translation,  but  M.  Rajewsky  has  trans- 
lated it  into  German  under  the  title  'Eucholo- 
gion der  Orlhodox-Katholischen  Kirche,  etc' 
(Vienna  186Hi2). 

EUCHRE,  iilcer,  a  ^me  of  cards,  regard- 
ing the  origin  of  which  nothing  definite  is 
known.  For  a  long  time  it  was  the  most  gener- 
ally played  parlor  game  after  whist  in  the 
United  Sutes.  The  pack  of  cards  consists  of 
32,  but  sometimes  only  24  are  used,  being  an 
ordinary  "deck,"  minus  the  deuce,  trey,  tour, 
five  and  six  spots  of  each  suit.  The  game  is 
usually  played  by  two,  three  or  four  persons. 


,5le 


Me  sue 

the  most  interesting  party  being  four,  two  play- 
ing on  each  side  as. partners.  When  choice  of 
partners  and  first  d^er  has  been  decided  five 
cards  are  dealt,  usually  two  at  once,  then  three, 
or  the  contrary.  Having  dealt  five  cards  to 
each  player,  the  dealer  turns  up  the  next  card 
for  trumps,  leaving  it,  face  upward,  on  top  o£ 
the  balance  of  the  pack.  The  cards  rank  in 
value  as  follows :  The  best  euchre  card  is  the 
knave  of  trumps;  the  second  best  is  the  knave 
of  the  suit  of  die  same  color  as  the  trump.  The 
former  card  is  called  the  'right  bower,*  the 
latter  the  "left  bower.*  After  the  ri^ht  and 
left  bowers  the  cards  rank  as  at  whist,  the 
Imaves  of  the  color  not  turned  as  trumps  fall- 
ing into  their  regular  place  as  at  whist.  The 
object  of  the  game  is  to  take  tricks.  The  score 
's  five  points,  unless  otherwise  agreed.     In 


Should  he  pass,  tfien  the  dealer  may  take  up  the 
trump  and  discard  Tn  that  case  the  dealer 
must  make  three  tridcs  or  be  'euchred,'  which 
counts  two  points  for  the  adversary,  but  if  he 
makes  the  three  tricks  (or  four),  he  counts  one 
point.  Shouid  he  make  all  five  tricks,  it  is 
termed  'a  march,*  and  counts  him  two  on  the 
score.  The  non-dealer  has  the  first  lead,  after 
which  he  who  takes  the  trick  leads.  Suit  must 
be  followed  if  possible ;  otherwise  any  card 
may  be  played  Should  the  non-dealer  "order 
np*  the  trimip  he  must  make  three  tricks  or  be 
'euchred,*  which  counts  two  for  his  opponent, 
if  he  win  three  tricks  (or  four),  having  ordered 
up  the  trump,  he  scores  one  point.  Should  he 
make  *a  march,*  he  scores  two.  If  both 
players  pass  (the  dealer  turning  down  the 
tnunp),  and  then  both  decline  to  make  a  tnnnp, 
there  must  be  a  new  deal.  Either  party  nam- 
in^  a  new  suit  for  tmmp  must  make  the  three 
tncks  or  be  *euchred*  In  four-handed  euchre 
the  same  counts  are  made  and  the 


•order  up,*  "assist,"  or  "play  alone"  goes 
around  in  rotation,  beginning  with  the  player 
on  the  left  of  the  dealer.     "To  assist*  is  for  the 

Eartner  of  the  dealer  to  say  "I  assist,*  which 
is  the  same  eflect  as  ordering  up  the  trump, 
and  is  subject  to  the  penalty  of  two  points  to 
the  adversary,  should  three  tricks  not  be  se- 
cured by  the  party  'assisting'  and  his  partner. 
Either  partner  ordering  up  a  trump  or  making 
a  trump  may  "play  alone,*  that  is,  play  his  hand 
singly  a^inst  the  other  two,  his  partner  not 
playii^  his  hand  that  round  at  all.  'Propessivc 
euchre",  is  played  by  a  number  of  participants 
at  separate  tables,  the  successful  players  mov- 
it^  up  in  a  regular  order.  A  prize  is  generally 
awarded  to  the  two  winners.  There  are  also 
a  number  of  other  varieties ;  Railroad,  French, 
Call-Ace  or  Australian  Euchre,  and  Napoleon. 
Consult  Cady,  A.  H.,  'Euchre'  (in  'Spalding's 
Home  Library,)  Vol.  I,  No.  6,  New  York  1895)  ; 
Foster,  R.  P.,  'Call-Ace  Euchre'  (London 
1904) :  id.,  'Fosters  Complete  Hoyle,  etc' 
(New  York  1914)  ;  Jessel,  F.,  'A  Bibhography 
of  Works  in  English  on  Playing  Cards  and 
Gaming'  (London  190S)  ;  Seaver,  C  M.,  'The 
Standard  Guide  to  Progressive  Euchre*  (Bos- 
ton 1885). 

EUCKBN,  BndoU  CbriBtoph,  German 
plulosopher :  b.  .Aurich,  East  Frisia,  5  Jan. 
1846.     His      father     died     while     he     was     a 


child  but  he  enjoyed  the  loving  care  of  his 
mother,  a  woman  of  marked  intelligence  and 
warm  sympathies.  His  early  education  -i/as 
received  in  his  native  town  and  he  came  under 
the  influence  of  the  theologian  and  philosopher, 
William  Reuter,  who  was  one  of  his  teachers. 
It  is  generally  believed  that  Reuter  stimulated 
his  interest  in  religion.  He  studied  at  Gottin- 
gen  where  he  entered  the  philosophical  classes 
of  Hermann  Lotze.  It  was  characteristic  of 
the  man  that,  while  be  admired  Lotie's  acute- 
ness,  he  was  not  attracted  by  it.  Thus  early 
his  anti-intellectualism  displayed  itself,  Eucken 
took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Gottingen,  not  in 
philosophy,  but  in  classical  philology  and  ancient 
history.  After  his  graduation,  he  spent  five 
years  as  a  gymnasiimi  teacher.  In  1871  he  was 
called  to  the  University  of  Basel,  and  in  1874 
he  received  a  call  to  succeed  Kuno  Fischer  as 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena.  Here  he  set- 
tled permanently,  refusing  invitations  to  other 
places.  During  the  quiet  years  itassed  as  a 
teacher  at  Jena,  he  worked  out  his  own  phi- 
losophy of  history  and  life.  In  1908  he  received 
the  Nobel  priie  for  literature.  His  interna- 
tional fame  dates  from  this  period  In  1911 
he  visited  England  and  received  a  cordial  re- 
ception, and  the  next  year  he  came  to  the 
United  States  to  deliver  a  course  of  lectures  at 
Harvard 

Eucken's  early  philosophical  work  was  along 
historical  lines.  In  fact,  his  first  publications 
deal  with  Aristotle.  Gradually,  his  thinkingbe- 
camc  more  original  and  constructive  and  moved 
in  the  direction  of  a  philosophy  of  reli^on. 
His  philosophy  can  best  be  described  technically 
as  a  spiritual  activism  founded  on  a  NeoKantian 
theory  of  knowledge.  He  makes  constant  use 
of  history  to  show  the  ^^wth  of  life-systems 
which  soar  beyond  anythingfor  which  the  phy- 
sical world  can  account.  This  inner  sptrttiial 
life  of  man  is  real  and  tremendously  Mgnificaut 

is  condition-''  '■"  "*" — '— ' 

.  -educible  to  tl 
achievements  which  n 
ated  by  those  who  come  after.  Merc  accept- 
ance is  not  enough.  We  have  already  referred 
to  his  anli-intellectualism.  This  does  not  con- 
sist of  a  distrust  of  reason  but  of  a  feeling  that 
concepts  are  not  sufficient.  There  must  be  ex- 
periencing as  well  as  knowing.  Philosophy 
must  aim  at  a  profound  penetration  of  life  in 
the  lirfit  of  eternal  values. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Eucken  has 
struck  an  important  note.  His  attack  upon 
mere  traditionalism,  for  instance,  is  valuable. 
So  is  his  stress  upon  personal  idealism.  But 
the  technical  thinker  is  likely  to  criticize  bis 
neglect  of  theory  of  knowledge  and  his  disre- 
gard of  the  mind-body  problem.  These  lacunae 
need  filling  in,  as  even  his  most  ardent  disciples 
admit.  Yet,  when  all  is  said  Eucken  must  be 
accorded  a  high  place  among  modern  thinkers. 
He  has  helped  to  free  religion  from  its  mytho- 
logical setting  and  to  bring  into  relief  its  euiical 
content  He  has  been  a  very  prolific  writer. 
The  following  are  his  chief  works:  'Die 
Mcthode  der  Aristotelischen  Forschnng' 
(1872):  'Die  Gnindbegriffe  der  Gegenwart* 
(1878;  this  was  published  in  its  third  edition 
under  the  title  'Geistige  Stromungen  der  Ge- 
genwart') ;  *Geschichte  der  philosophisrhen 
Terminologie'  (1379);  'Die  Einheit  des  Geis- 
teslebens'    (1888);    'Die  Lebensanschauungea 


-gle 


BDCLASE  — BVDBS 


SeisiiKCn    Lebensinhalt'     (1896) ; 

rheitsgehalt  der  Religion'    (1901;  E 

title  "The  Truth  of  Religion')  ;  'Hauptprobler 


der  Religionsphilosoi)hie  der  G«genwart'  (1907; 
English  title  'Oiristianity  and  the  New  Ideal- 
ism'); 'Sinn  und  Wert  des  Lebens*  (1908; 
English  title  'The  MeaniriK  and  Value  of 
Life>);  'Religion  and  Life'  (1911);  'Can  We 
Still  be  Christians>  (1914).    The  two  bwt 


ophy  of  Life>  (New  York  1907),  and  W.  Tudor 
Jones's  'An  Interpretation  of  Rudolf  Eueken's 
Philosophy.'  Consult,  also,  Hoffding's  discus- 
sionin  'Modem Philosophers,'  Meynck Booth's 
'Eucken:  his  Philosophy  and  Influence,'  and 
0.  Siebert's  'R.  EudMns  Welt  und  Lebensan- 
schauung.' 

Roy  Wood  Sellars, 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  UniversHy  of  Micki^ 
gan. 

EUCLASE,  fllclas,  a  very  rare  sem  mineral, 
a  basic  silicate  of  beryllium  and  aluminum, 
HBe  Al  SiOt  It  occurs  in  Brad!,  Siberia,  and 
Austria,  in  brilliant,  transparent,  colorless  to 
pale-green  or  blue  crystals  of  monoclinic  forms, 
with  perfect  cleavage  and  has  a  hardness  of 
7.S,  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.1.  There  is  a  fairly 
extensive,  scientific  literature,  a  bibliography  of 
which  as  well  as  all  available  scientific  details 
regarding  Euclase  may  be  found  in  Dana,  E.  S., 
ed.,  'The  System  of  mineralogy  of  James  D. 
Dana'   (6th  ed.,  New  York  1914). 

EUCLID  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  Greek 
mathematician:  fl.  about  300  B.C,  taught 
geometry  at  Alexandria  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
1  (323-285  B.C,),  and  extended  the  boundaries 
of  mathematical  science.  The  severity  and  ac- 
curacy of  his  method  have  never  been  surpassed. 
There  is  very  little  known  regarding  his  life, 
Proclus  (412-485  a.d.)  forming  the  chief  source 
for  our  information.  His  chief  work,  Tdfrot^iio, 
is  known  as  'Elements'  and  has  formed  for 
many  generations  the  principal  introduction  to 
the  study  of  geometry.  It  consists  of  13  books, 
though  some  editions  contain  two  additional 
books,  which,  however,  are  almost  without 
doubt  not  the  work  ct  Euclid.  There  also  have 
been  preserved  six  other  works:  'Data,'  'Intro- 
duction to  Harmony,'  'Section  of  the  Scale,' 
'Phenomena,'  'Optics'  and  Catoptrics.'  Con- 
cerning some  of  these,  however,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  Euclid  was  tne  author  or  not.  Even 
more  doubtful  is  the  authorship  of  some  frag- 
ments sometimes  ascribed  to  him.  From  quo- 
tations, etc.,  it  has  been  well  established  that 
he  wrote  four  other  works  of  which,  however, 
nothing  is  in  existence  now:  three  books  on 
'Porism,'  two  books  on  'Curves,'  four  books 
on  'Conic  Sections'  and  one  book  on  'Fallacies.' 
The  'Elements'  have  come  to  us  indirectly 
through  the  Arabs  who  made  a  number  of  trans- 
lations of  which,  however,  only  one,  made  in 
the  13th  century  has  been  printed  (Rome  1594). 
It  is  claimed  that  the  first  retranslation  into 
Greek  from  Arabic  was  made  by  Adelard  of 
Bath  in  the  12th  century.  On  this  there  was 
based  the  first  printed  Greek  edition  edited  with 
comments  by  Campanus  of  Novara  (Venice 
1482),  which,  however,  is  not  very  reliable.  The 
first  translation  into  Latin,  made  by  B.  Zam- 


berti,  was  published  in  Venice  (1505).  The 
first  reliable  Greek  text  was  printed  in  Basel 
(1533)  and  edited  by  S.  Giynaeus.  Odier 
editions  were  brought  out  by  D.  Gregory 
(Greek  and  Latin,  Oxford  1703);  F.  Peyrard 
(3  vols.,  Paris  1814-18);  E.  F.  August  (i»-~ 


been  edited  by  M.  Curtie  (Leipzig  1899)  and 
by  J.  L.  Heibers  and  H,  Menge  (Leipzig  1883- 
96).  There  have  also  been  many  translations 
into  almost  all  the  modem  languages.  The 
first  English  translation  was  made  by  H.  Bil- 
lingsley  (London  JS70)  ;  the  first  French  by  D. 
Henrion    (Paris    161S) ;    the  first   German  by 

LScheybl  (Augsburg  1555).  There  are  also  a 
ge  number  of  commentaries,  almost  every 
new  editor  for  many  years  feeling  it  his  duty 
to  attempt  a  new  and  original,  and,  therefore, 
in  many  cases  useless  commentary.  Consult 
Anon.,  'The  Elements  of  Euclid'  (in  Dublin 
Review,  Vol.  XI,  p.  330,  London  1841)  ;  Dodg- 
son,  C,  L.,  'Euclid  and  His  Modern  Rivals' 
(London  1879)  ;  Heiber^,  J.  L.,  'Litteratur- 
geschichtliche  Sttidien  iiber  Euklid'  (Leipzig 
1882) ;  HuUsch,  F.,  'EuWeides'  (in  Pauly- 
Wissowa,  'Real-Encyclopadie  der  classischen 
Altertumswissenschaft,'  Vol.  VI,  Stuttgart 
1907):  Riccardi,    P.,    'Saggio    di   una    Biblio- 

ffufia  Eudidea'  (four  parts.  Bologna  1887-90)  ; 
mith,  T.,  'Euclid ;  His  Life  and  System' 
(New  York  1902). 

EUCLID  OP  MSGARA,  Greek  philos- 
opher, the  founder  of  the  UtKaric  school  of 
S.ilosophy:  b.  about  450  B.C.;  a  about  380  a.c. 
e  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  after  whose  death, 
399  B.C.,  he  retired  to  Megara   (most  probably 


Eleatic  school  with  those  of  bis  master.  He 
adopted  the  Eleatic  notion  of  one  universal 
imchangeable  existence,  and  upon  this  he  en- 
grafted the  ethical  views  of  Socrates.  From  its 
subtlety  and  dis^iutativeness,  the  school  of 
Euclid  was  sometimes  called  the  Dialectic  or 
Eristic.  He  wrote  six  dialogues  of  which  only 
one  small  fragment  has  been  saVed, 

£UD£MONISH,  the  doctrine  that  happi- 
ness (Gr.  cudaimonia)  is  the  chief  good.  Hap- 
piness, according  to  Aristotle,  is  the  activity  of 
soul  in  accordance  with  virtue,  virtue  being 
the  mean  between  excess  and  defect  as  deter- 
mined by  reason.  As  pleasure  and  life  are  in- 
separabk  joined  toa;ether,  the  one  is  Aerefore 
essential  to  the  omer,  and  the  former  is  a 
necessary  part  of  all  human  activity.  See 
Ethics  ;  Emesgisu. 

EUDSHUS  OF  RHODES.  Greek  philos- 
opher and  the  disciple  of  Aristotle.  He  wrote 
many  work^  most  of  which  were  in  defense  of 
die  philosophy  of  his  master;  of  these  the  most 
celebrated  is  the  'Eudemian  Ethics,'  published 
as  a  part  of  the  writings  of  Aristotle.  He 
wrote  also  a  history  of  mathematics  and 
astronomy,  now  lost,  but  of  which  a  com- 
mentary remains  to  us  in  a  work  on  Euclid  by 
Proclus  and  in  the  works  of  other  writers  we 
have  fragments.  All  these  fragments  were  pub- 
lished by  Mullach  in  '  Fragmenta  Philoso- 
phorum  GfKcorum'  (Vol.  III.  1881).  Consult 
Gow.  History  of  Greek  Mathematics'  (Cam- 
bridge 1884). 

EUDBS.    See  Odd. 


Google 


BUDE8  — BUDOXIA 


SUDES.Dukeof  Aquilania:  d.  735  a.d.  He 
ruled  that  portion  of  France  from  the  Loire 
to  the  Pyrenees  and  in  721  inflicted  a  serious 
defeat  on  the  Arabs,  who  had  besieged  Tou- 
louse. Ten  years  later  Charles  Mattel  began 
his  incursions  into  Aquitania  and  the  Arabs 
took  advantage  of  this  state  of  aflairs  to  again 
invade  France ;  Eudes  joined  forces  with 
Charles  to  repel  the  invader  and  the  Hllied 
armies  won  the  battle  of  Tours  in  732.  Con- 
sult Vic  and  Vaissette,  'Hisloire  generale  dc 
Languedoc'   (16  vols.,  Toulouse  1872-1904). 

EUDES,  Jean,  the  venerable  French  cler^- 
man  and  founder  of  the  Catholic  congre^tion 
known  from  his  name  as  the  Eudists:  b.  Ri,  14 
Nov.  1601;  d.  Caen,  19  Aug.  1680.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Jesuit  Collide  of  Caen  and  in 
L623  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  at 
Paris  and  rose  to  be  superior  of  the  Oratory 
at  Caen  in  1639.  Jn  I6M  he  founded  the  Con- 
gregaiibn  of  the  Uissioa  Priests  of  Jesus  and 
Mary  for  the  training  of  priests  in  missionary 
work.  This  society  came  to  be  known  by  the 
name  of  their  founder,  took  no  vows,  were 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary,  and  were 
at  liberty  to  leave  the  congregation  at  any  time 
they  pleased.  They  received  papal  approval  in 
1674  and  were  regarded  with  jealousy  by  the 
Oratorians,  especially  after  the  latter  became 
affected  with  Jansenism  which  the  Eudists 
reprobated.  The  congregation  spread  rapidly 
throughout  France  but  suffered  in  the  debacle 
of  the  Revolution.  In  1826  it  was  reorganized 
and  has  since  spread  to  Canada.  Eudes  also 
founded  a  society  for  the  rescue  of  fallen 
women  which  still  exists.  Pope  Leo  XIII  be- 
stowed on  Eudes  in  1903  the  title  of  "Author 
of  the  liturgical  worship  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus  and  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary.* 
In  1908  the  canonical  process  for  his  beatifica- 
tion was  instituted  in  Rome.  Consult  Montzey, 
'Le  Pere  Eudes  et  ses  instituts*   (Paris  1869). 

EUDIALYTE,  u-di'a-lit,  rhombohedral 
red  mineral  of  vitreous  lustre,  translucent  or 
nearly  so ;  its  hardness,  5.5 ;  specific  gravity,  2.90 
to  3.01.  It  consists  principally  of  silicates  of 
iron,  zirconia  and  lime.  There  are  two  varieties, 
eudialyte  proper,  of  which  the  double  refrac- 
tion is  positive,  and  eucolite,  in  which  it  is  nega- 
tive. It  is  found  in  North  Greenland,  Norway 
and  Arkansas. 

EUDIOMETER,  an  instrument  employed 
in  the  analysis  of  gaseous  mixtures.  It  was 
originally  designed  for  ascertaining  the  quantity 
of  oxygen  contained  in  any  given  bulk  of  elastic 
fluid.  The  first  instnunent  of  this  kind  was  con- 
siructed  by  Joseph  Priestley.  In  one  form  of 
eudiometer  two  platinum  wires  are  inserted 
near  the  top  of  a  graduated  glass  tube  open  at 
the  bottom.  An  electric  spark  is  introduced  by 
these  wires.  The  process  involves  the  explosion 
and  combustion  of  one  of  the  constituents  to  be 
determined.  The  operation  may  be  conducted 
in  a  trough  of  mercury  or  over  water.  See 
Gasouetkic  Analvsis. 

EUDISTS,  u'dists.  a  congregation  or  so- 
ciety of  secular  priests  founded  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury by  a  priest  named  Eudes  for  the  purpose  of 
conducting  ecclesiastical  seminaries  and  givinff 
'missions*  in  parish  churches,  for  the  revival  of 
religious  zeal  and  the  conversion  of  sinners. 
The  members  of  the  society  take  no  religious 
vows,  but  they  live  in  common  and  are  volun- 


tarily subject  to  the  orders  of  their  superior. 
They  do  not  wear  any  habit  to  distingnidi 
them  from  the  rest  of  the  secular  clerey.  Their 
first  house  was  established  at  Caen  in  Normandy 
1643;  the  membership  at  that  time  consisted  of 
Eudes  and  eight  other  priests.  In  his  time 
Eudes  conducted  !10  misuons  in  various 
places  in  the  kingdom.  The  institute  never 
spread  to  other  countries.  Ei^t  or  more 
Eudists  were  among  the  priests  who  were 
butchered  in  the  wholesale  suughter  of  priests, 
monks  and  bishops  at  the  Carmes,  Paris,  Sep- 
tember 1792.  The  society  was  broken  up  during 
the  French  Revolution,  many  of  the  members 
seeking  refuge  in  England.  In  1826  the  apos- 
tolate  was  revived  and  resiuned  with  ardor  and 
great  success. 

EUDO  DB  5TBLLA.    See  EoM. 

EUDOCIA,  u-dd'shl-a,  Roman  empress;  h. 
Athens,  about  393 ;  d.  Jerusalem,  about  460.  She 
was  a  dau^ter  of  Leontius  the  philosophical 
sophist.  After  the  death  of  her  father,  who 
left  nearly  all  his  property  to  his  two  sons,  she 
went  to  Constantinople  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
plaining of  this  injustice  to  the  emperor^  Theo- 
dosius  II.  There  she  embraced  the  Christian 
religion,  was  baptized  as  Eludocia  and  became 
empress  421  A.a,  through  the  efforts  of  Pul- 
cheria^  sister  of  Theodosius  (421).  Pulcheria 
in  reality  ruled  the  royal  houseoold  and  Eudocia 
afipears  to  have  bowed  to  her  will  in  everything. 
Finally,  however,  they  quarreled  over  religious 
matters  and  Pidcheria  was  banished  from 
court;  but  she  succeeded  in  again  securing  her 
influence  there  and  Eudocia  was  afterward 
divorced  or  retired  from  Constantinople  and 
spent  the  remainder  of  her  life  in  Jerusalem, 
engaged  in  acts  of  devotion.  She  is  said  to  have 
written  some  Greek  noems  and  also  a  life  of 
Christ.  Consult  Diehl,  'Figures  byianlines' 
(Paris  1906);  Gregorovius,  'Athenais'  (Lrip- 
zig  1892) ;  Ludwig,  'Eudodae  Agustse  C^rminum 
Reliquix'  (Konigsberg  1893) ;  any  good  history 
of  the  period. 

EUDOXIA,  u-ddk'sl-a,  Byzantine  empress: 
wife  of  Arcadius,  emperor  of  the  West :  d.  409. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Banto  a  Prankish 
general  of  Theodosius.  Eutro^us  the  eunudi. 
mtriguing  against  Rufinus,  chief  minister  o( 
Arcadius,  induced  the  emperor  to  take  her  to 
wife,  instead  of  marrying  the  daughter  of 
Rufinus,  as  the  latter  had  designed.  Eutropius 
soon  after  this  union  caused  Rufinus  to  be  put 
to  death  and  succeeded  him.  Eudoxia,  if  we 
may  believe  John  Chrysostom,  was  an  infamous 
creature,  although  at  one  time  winning  his  ad- 
miration and  profuse  acknowledgments  by  an 
open  profession  of  religious  earnestness.  She 
was  a  woman  of  strong  passions  and  resolute 
will,  and  when  Eutropius  insulted  her  bv  saying 
that  as  he  had  raised  her  so  he  could  debase 
her,  she  appealed  to  the  weak  Arcadius  who  at 
once  degraded  Eutropius  from  all  his  honors 
and  ordered  his  statue  in  the  market  place  of 
Constantinople  to  be  destroyed.  Chrysostom  so 
vehemently  inveighed  against  the  court  life  of 
Eudoxia  tnai  she  caused  him  to  be  banished  in 

403.  but  popular  clamor,  added  to  the  panic 
caused  by  an  earthquake,  induced  her  to  recall 
him.    But  her  enmity  caused  his  second  exile  in 

404.  She  survived  this  persecuted  prelate  only 
two  years,  and  if  she  were  too  impatient  under 
the  almost  Aristophanic  invective  of  a  bishop 


EUDOXIA— BUOBN  ONIBGIN 


who  was  more  a  monk  than  a  courtier,  she  was 
probably  sincere  in  her  anxiety  to  rescue  the 
feeble  Arcadius  from  the  dominion  of  a  min- 
ister like  Eutropius,  and  the  best  act  she  ever 
did  in  her  life  was  to  bring  this  monster  of 
profligacy  and  cormptian  to    the    end    of    his 

BUDOXIA,  Roman  empress,  who  was  the 
daughter  of  Theodosius  11 :  b.  Constantinople, 
A22;  d.  about  463.  She  was  married  to  .her 
cousin  Valentinian  III,  emperor  of  the  West, 
after  whose  death,  by  the  hands  of  emissaries 
of  the  senator  Maximus,  she  was  constrained  to 
espouse  the  latter.  Maximus  subsequently  had 
the  tolly  to  reveal  to  her  the  part  which  he  had 
taken  in  the  murder  of  Valentinian,  and  when 
the  time  for  vengeance  seemed  to  her  to  have 
come  she  invited  to  Italy  Genseric,  king  of  the 
Vandals,  at  whose  approach  Maximus  was  mur- 
dered. Genseric  delivered  Rome  to  pillag^e  and 
bore  away  with  him  to  Africa  Eudoxia  and  her 
two  daughters. 

BUDOXIA  FEODOROVNA,  [sarin::  of 
Russia:  b.  1669;  d.  1731.  At  19  she  became  the 
wife  of  Peter  the  Great,  but  her  adlkerence  to 
the  Conservative  party  caused  her  husband  to 
look  on  her  with  little  favor  and  in  1696  for 
refusing  to  consent  10  a  divorce  she  was  im- 
prisoned in  a  convent  at  SusdaL  In  1718  she 
was  brought  to  Moscow  for  trial  on  a  charge 
of  adultery  and  forced  to  confess  her  guilt. 
Thereafter  she  was  confined  in  the  monastery 
of  Staraya  Lodc^a,  but  on  the  accession  ot  her 
grandson,  Peter  II,  in  1728,  she  was  set  at 
liberty  and  returned  to  Moscow,  where  she  died. 

EUDOXIANS,  a'dfik'sl-aiu,  followers  of 
Eudoxius,  who  from  356  ax.  was  bishop  of 
Antioch,  in  Syria,  and  from  360  to  his  death  in 
370  bishop  and  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  He 
was  successively  an  Arian,  a  Scmi-Arian  and  an 
Aetian.  Respecting  the  Trinity,  be  believed  the 
will  of  the  Son  to  be  differently  affected  from 
that  of  the  Father, 

BUDOXUS  (u-dSk'sus)  OF  CNIDOS, 
Greek  astronomer,  lived  about  370  B.C.,  was  the 
scholar  and  friend  of  Plato.  All  his  works  are 
lost,  but  the  poem  of  Aratus  on  astronomy 
makes  us  acquainted  with  the  extent  of  his 
astronomical  knowledge.  Eudoxus  seems  to 
have  been  the  first  to  introduce  an  astronomical 
globe  into  Greece  and  this  may  account  for  the 
great  reputation  which  he  acquired  and  long 
continued  to  enjoy.  He  is  said  to  have  discov- 
ered that  the  solar  year  is  six  hours  longer  than 
365  days  and  to  have  invented  a  sun  dial.  He 
was  considerable  of  a  philosopher  too,  in  his 
day;  and  he  held  that  the  summum  bonum  of 
ail  Uiings  is  pleasure,  which  is  the  aim  of  every- 
one. Consult  Letronnc,  <Sive  les  £crets  et  les 
travaux  d'Eudoxe  de  Cnide*  (1841). 

EUFAULA,  u-fa1»,  Ala.,  city  in  Barbour 
County,  on  the  Chattahoochee  River,  and  on 
the  Central  of  Georgia  Railroad ;  80  miles  south- 
east of  Mont^mery.  It  is  at  the  head  of 
steamboat  navigation  on  the  river ;  is  the  trade 
centre  of  a  lai^  manufacturing  and  agricul- 
tural district,  and  carries  on  an  extensive 
cotton-shipping  trade,  exporting  over  30,000 
bales  annually.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton- 
goods,  cottonseed  oil,  bu^es  and  fertilisers. 
It  has  gas  and  electric  lights,  waterworks  plant 
erected  by  the  dty  in  \SS7  at  a  cost  of  $61^000, 


of  we  I! -wooded  hills,  lying  southwest  of  Padua, 
in  northern  Italy,  between  the  river  Bacchig- 
Itone,  the  canals  of  BattagUa  and  Este  and  the 
river  Bisatto,  deriving  their  name  from  an 
ancient  Italian  people  called  Euganei.  They 
owe  their  origin  to  eruptions  of  trachyte  dur- 
ing the  Jurassic  Period.  The  hisliest  point, 
Monte  Venda,  reaches  about  1,980  feet.  On 
their  slopes  stand  several  villas  with  interesting 
histories,  among  them  Petrarch's  house  at 
Arqua  in  which  the  Italian  poet  died  in  1374. 
His  tomb  is  on  the  market  square  of  Este  at 
the  southern  end  of  the  Hills  and  near  this 
town  is  the  villa,  I  Cappuccini,  lent  by  Byron 
to  Shelley,  who  there  finished  the  first  part  of 
'Prometheus  Unbound'  and  also  wrote  'Lines 
Written  Among  the  Euganean  Hills'  (1818). 
There  are  also  a  number  of  monasteries  dating 
back  to  the  early  Middle  Ages,  some  of  them 
in  ruins.  Valuable  building  stone,  quarries  and 
mineral  springs  abound.  Consult  Reyer,  E., 
'Die  Euganecn.  Bau  und  Geschichte  eines 
Vulkans>  (Vienna  1877)  ;  S>-monds,  J.  A., 
'Among  the  Euganean  Hills'  (in  Fortnightly 
Review,  Vol.  LIV,  p.  107,  London  1890). 

EUGANEI.    Sec  EugaN£an  Hills. 

BUOBN,  Frederich  Karl,  Dure  op  Wugt- 
TEUBEKG,  Russian  general :  b.  Dels,  Germany, 
1788;  d.  18S7.  His  aunt  was  the  wife  of  Tsar 
Paul  of  Russia  and  while  still  in  his  early  years 
he  was  made  major-general.  In  1806-07  he  took 
part  in  the  military  operations  in  Prussia  and 
in  1810  in  Turkey.  He  won  distinction  at  Boro- 
dino, Krasnoi,  Lutxen,  Kulm,  Leipzig  and  other 
battles,  commanded  the  Seventh  Russian  Army 
Corps  in  the  war  with  Turkey  in  J828  and  re- 
tired from  the  service  after  the  peace  of  Adrian- 
bple.  He  now  gave  his  attention  to  study  and 
COmpoMd  an  opera  <Die  Geisterbraut,'  produced 
at  Breslau  in   1830.     His  works  include   <Erin- 


(1862). 

EUGEN  ONIEGIN,  an  opera  in  three 
acts  by  Peter  Ilich  Tschaikowslq-  (libretto 
adapted  from  Poushkin),  first  performance  by 
the  students  of  the  Conservatory  at  Moscow  in 
March,  1879.  The  reception  was  cool,  but  grad- 
ually the  work  crept  into  popular  favor.  In 
spite  of  the  strong  dramatic  character  of 
Tschaikowsky's  music,  he  never  developed  any 
marked  talent  for  the  theatre  and  from  the 
dramatic  standpoint  'Eugen  Oniegin'  shows 
many  weaknesses.  Beside  the  works  of  the 
younger  Russian  school  of  which  Monssorgsky 
is  the  leader,  it  seems  to  lack  the  virility  that 
has  come  to  be  associated  with  modem  Russian 
music.  The  influence  of  sunny  Italy  is  felt 
rather  than  that  of  the  Northern  steppes.  But 
the  music  breathes  the  composer's  joy  in  cre- 
ation and  is  pervaded  by  a  romantic  njelancholy 
and  elegiac  sentiment  that  makes  its  emotional 
appeal  very  strong.  The  letter  scene  is  the 
most  popular  bit  in  the  opera.  Rosa  New- 
march,  who  has  made  a  special  study  of  Rus- 
sian opera,  likens  'Eugen  Oniegin'  to  *the 
embodiment  of  some  captivating,  wayward,  fe- 
male Spirit,  which  subjugates  all  emotional 
natures,  against  their  reason,  if  not  against 
their  will.*  Lewis  M.  Isaacs. 


„8le 


566  BU< 

BUGttNE,  e-zhan,  Prince  (Francois  Eu- 
GftHE  DE  Savoib-Carignan),  Austrian  general: 
b.  Paris.  18  Oct,  1663 ;  d.  Vienna,  21  April  1736. 
Among  all  the  generals  and  statesmen  of 
Austria,  none  has  rendered  more  numerous  and 
important  services  than  Eugene.  He  was  great 
alike  in  the  field  and  the  cabinet.  He  petitioned 
Louis  XIV  for  a  company  of  dragoons,  but 
was  refused  on  account  of  the  opposition  of 
Louvois.  Minister  of  War,  who  hated  the  family 
of  Eugene.  Indignant  at  this  repulse  and  at 
the  banishment  of  his  mother,  a  niece  of  Car- 
dinal Mazarin,  Eugene,  in  1683,  entered  the 
Austrian  service.  The  distinction  he  earned  at 
the  siege  of  Vienna  in  1683,  at  that  of  Belgrade 
in  I6S8,  at  that  of  Mayence  in  1689  and  else- 
where, procured  for  him  rapid  promotion.  War 
having  broken  out  between  France  and  Austria, 
he  prevailed  upon  the  Duke  of  Savoy  lo  enter 
into  an  alliance  with  the  emperor,  and  in  1690 
received  the  command  of  the  imperial  forces 
sent  to  Piedmont  to  act  in  conjunction  with  the 
troops  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  He  defeated  the 
Turks  at  the  battle  of  Zenta  (11  Sept.  1697) 
and  obtained  on  that  occasion  the  applause  of 
Europe.  The  loss  of  the  Turks  at  Zenta  obliged 
them  to  accede  to  the  Peace  of  Carlowitz,  lm9, 
which  was  the  first  symptom  of  their  decline. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  he  was  given  the  command  in  Italy 
and  defeated  the  Frentdi  on  several  occasions, 
but  inadeouate  forces  led  to  his  defeat  at 
Luziara,  15  Aug.  1702.  In  1703  he  received  the 
command  of  the  army  in  Germany,  and  his 
efiicienC  co-operation  with  Marlborough  frus- 
trated the  plans  of  France  and  her  allies.  In 
the  battle  of  Hochstadt  (BlenbeimJ,  13  Aug. 
1704,  the  two  heroes  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  French  ana  Bavarian  army,  com- 
manded by  the  Prince  of  Bavaria  and  Marshal 
Tallard,  the  latter  of  whom  was  made  prb- 
oner.  In  1705  Eugene  returned  to  Italy,  where 
he  hastened  to  the  relief  of  Turin,  stormed  the 
French  lines,  forced  them  to  raise  the  siege  and 
in  one  month  drove  them  out  of  Italy.  In  1707 
he  entered  France  and  laid  siege  to  Toulon; 
but  the  immense  superiority  of  the  enemy 
obliged  him  to  retire  into  Italy.  During  the 
following  years  he  fought  on  the  Rhine,  took 
Lille  and,  in  conjunction  with  Marlborough, 
defeated  the  French  at  Oudenarde  (1708)  and 
Malplaquet  (1709).  After  the  recall  of  Mari- 
borough  and  the  defection  of  England  and  Hol- 
land from  the  alliance  against  France,  his  farther 
progress  was  in  a  great  measure  checked.  The 
Peace  of  Rastadt,  tne  consequence  of  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht,  was  concluded  between  Eugene  and 
Villars  in  1714.  In  the  war  with  Turkey,  in 
1716,  Eugene  defeated  two  superior  armies  at 
Peterwardein  and  Tcmesyar,  and,  in  1717,  look 
Belgrade,  after  having  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  a  third  army  that  came  to  its  relief.  The 
Treaty  of  Passarovitz  (concluded  in  1718)  was 
the  result  of  this  success.     His  Came  is  still 


SUCENB,  ij-jen',  Ore.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Lane  County;  on  the  Willamette  River,  the 
Southern  Pacific,  Oregon  Electric  and  other 
railroads;  123  miles  south  of  Portland  and  50 


miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  University 
of  Oregon  was  established  here  in  1876  and  now 
has  about  1,000  students.  The  dty  is  also  Uie 
seat  of  the  Eugene  Bible  University  and  con- 
tains a  Carnegie  library.    It  is  the  commercial 


the  vicinity.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly 
flour^  lumber,  brick,  tiling,  fruit  drying  and 
packing,  a  flax  factory  and  some  articles  for 
home  consumption.  The  United  States  census  of 
manufactures  for  1914  showed  within  the  city 
limits  37  industrial  establishments  of  factory 
grade,  employing  322  persons;  238  being  wage- 
earners  receiving  annually  a  total  of  $167,000  in 
wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated  $651,000, 
and  the  year's  output  was  valued  at  $810,000: 
of  this,  $403,000  was  the  value  added  by  manu- 
facture. The  city  was  settled  in  1854,  and  was 
incorporated  in  1864.  The  government  is  ad- 
ministered by  a  mayor,  chosen  for  two  years, 
and  a  city  council.  The  waterworks  and  elec- 
iric-light  plant  are  the  property  of  the  dty. 
Pop.  12,000.  *    »-  ^ 

EUGENE  ARAM,  a  novel  by  Edward 
Bulwcr-Lytton  (q.v,)  written  in  1831  and  pub- 
lished in  3  voIb.,  1832.  It  was  founded  on  the 
career  of  an  English  scholar,  Eugene  Aram:  b. 
1704;  executed  for  the  murder  of  one  Clark  in 
1759.  The  character  of  the  murderer  and  the 
drcumstanccs  of  his  life  made  the  case  one  of 
the  most  interesting,  from  a  psychological  point 
of  view,  in  the  criminal  atmals  of  Ei^land. 
Aram  was  a  scholar  of  unusual  ability,  who^ 
selftaunht,  had  acquired  a  considerable  knowl- 
edge ol  languages,  and  was  even  credited  with 
certain  original  discoveries  in  the  domain  of 
philology.  Of  a  tnild  and  refined  disposition, 
his  act  of  murder  seemed  a  compete  contradic- 
tion of  all  his  habits  and  tdeals  of  life. 
'Eugene  Aram>  is  an  unusually  successful  study 
in  fiction  of  a  complex  psychological  case.  At 
the  time  of  its  publicaiion,  it  caused  a  great 
stir  in  England,  manjr  attacks  being  made  upon 
it  on  the  ground  of  its  false  morality.  To  the 
present  generation  its  romance  is  of  more  inter- 
est perhaps  than  its  psychology.  Some  years 
after  the  novel  was  first  published,  the  author 
changed  his  opinion  concerning  the  guilt  of 
Aram  and  as  a  result  also  changed  the  story 
beginning  with  the  edition  of  ISTl.  The  Eng- 
lish poet,  Thomas  Hood,  wrote  a  poem  on  the 
same  theme  entitled  'The  Dream  of  Eugene 
Aram'  (London  1831).  It  has  also  been 
dramatized,  first  by  Buiwer-Lytton,  who,  how- 
ever, never  finished  the  piay  but  published  it  in 
its  unfinished  form  in  The  New  Monthly  Maga- 
zine and  Literary  JoumrJ  (Vol,  XXXVlII,  p. 
401,  London  1833),  and  later  attached  it  to  the 
novel  itself.  Other  dramatic  versions  were  pub- 
lished by  Moncrieff,  W.  T.,  'Eugene  Aram,  or 
Saint  Robert's  Cave'  fin  'French's  Acting 
Edition  of  Flays.'  Vol  CIIL  London  and  New 
Yori^  n.  d.) ;  Williams,  K  W.  H.,  <Eugene 
Aram.  A  Play  in  Five  Acts'  (New  Orleans 
1874),  and  Wills,  W,  G,,  'Eugene  Aram'  which 
was  produced  in  1873  by  Henry  Irving.  For 
the  history  and  life  of  Eugene  Aram  constilt 
Scatcherd,  N.,  'Memoirs  of  Eugene  Aram* 
(London  1838). 

EUG&NS  DE  BEAUHARNAIS,  ^ihftn 
de  bo-ar-na.    See  Beauhaknais,  Eugene  m. 


BUGENI  ONYSGIN  — BUGSHICS 


BUOBNI  OKYBGIN.  Pushkin's  poem 
'Eugeni  Onyeirin*  is  the  prototype  of  the  Rus- 
sian novels  dealing  with  unsuccesstu]  heroes. 
Here  the  hero  Onyegin  represents  a  member  of 
cultured  society  in  the  35*9  who  took  OiUde 
HaroM  for  their  example.  Indeed,  the  first 
canto  arose  directly  under  the  influence  of 
Byron's  'Don  Juan>  and  'Childe  Harold,'  but  in 
the  further  development  Pushkin  described,  not 
an  individual  blas^  but  a  class  type  of  heiress, 
frivolous  upper  society,  and,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, gave  bts  poem  the  nature  of  a  social  satire, 
as  wnich.it  was  recognized  by  contemporary 
critics.  But,  although  Pushkin  in  the  begin- 
Bins  of  his  poem  pursued  Onyegin  with  banter 
and  irony,  he  looked  more  objectively  at  the 
hero  a>  he  proceeded,  and  eren  pitted  him, 
when  his  relation  to  Lensld  and  Tatyana  became 
Iragie.  Onjvgin  began  l^  joining  in  his 
friends'  orgies,  but  loon  commenced  to  pine, 
and  at  last  tried  to  busy  himself  with  affairs. 
He  wanted  to  act  as  a  benefactor  to  his 
peasants,  but  was  not  understood  by  them. 
After  killing  Lenski  in  a  duel,  he  started  on  a 

{"onmey,  but  even  his  wandering  could  not  cure 
lis  blasi  spirit.  He  insulted  simple-minded, 
faithful  Tatyana  with  his  cold  counsels,  and 
fell  in  love  with  her  only  when  he  found  her 
married  to  another  man. 

The  enormous  popularity  of  Ais  poem  is 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  up  to  1885  it  was  re- 
printed in  whole  or  in  part  27  times,  while  for 
the  same  period  there  are  recorded  SS  critical 
essays  dealing  with  the  subject  and  33  trans- 
lations. En^ish  translations  are  by  D.  Minaieff, 
(Saint  Petersburg  1868) ;  by  Mrs.  J.  Buchan 
Telfer  (nie  Mouravieff,  London  1880);  by 
Spalding  (London  1881).  It  was  dramatized  in 
1846,  and  in  this  form  was  kept  in  the  repertoire 
tmtil  1852,  It  gained  its  greatest  popularity 
througfi  Chaykovsld's  opera,  written  in  1872, 
LbO  Wienkh. 

KUGENICS  (from  Greek  rijn^r  well- 
bom).  According  to  Francis  (}alton,  the  great 
Engli.-ih  scientist  who,  in  1883,  first  used  the 
term  'eugwiics,'  this  branch  of  learning  'is  the 
science  which  deals  with  all  influences  that  im- 
prove the  inborn  qualities  of  a  race.'  Within 
the  scope  of  such  mfluences  Gallon  included  all 
forces  that  tend  to  produce  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  such  individuals  as  possess  desirable 
hereditary  qualities  and  a  decrease  in  the  num- 
ber of  those  whose  transmissible  traits  are  un* 
desirable.  As  applied  to  the  human  race  Gallon 
admitted  that  differences  of  opinion  exist  as  to 
what  hereditary  traits  are  desirable  and  what 


pressing  itself  i 


e  of  these  qualil 


)  decide  what 
Qualities  are  really  favorable?  Galton  met  this 
dUIiculty  Inr  pointing  out  the  fact  that  few  per- 
sons would  fail  to  consider  desirable  such 
fundamental  qualities  as  health,  energy  and 
ability.  In  a  lecture  before  the  Sociological 
Society  of  London  in  1904  he  reviewed  some  of 
the  results  that  in  his  opinion  would  follow  if 
die  British  nation  through  the  practice  of 
eugenics  were  to  raise  ils  average  quality  to 
that  of  its  better  half.  «The  general  tone  of 
domestic,  social  and  political  life  would  be  less 
foolish,  less  frivolous,  less  excitable  and  polit- 


aore  provident  than  now.  Its  dem- 
agogues who  'Played  to  the  gallery*  would  play 
10  a  more  sensible  gallery  than  at  present.  We 
should  be  better  fitted  to  fulfil  our  vast  imperial 
opportunities.  Lastly  men  of  an  order  of  abil- 
ity which  is  now  very  rare  would  become  more 
frequent  because  the  level  out  of  which  they 
rose  would  itself  have  risen.*  It  is  evident, 
from  the  foregoing,  that  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  heredity  is  requisite  if  eugenics  is  to  be  sci- 
entific in  fact  as  well  as  in  aim.  .  Such  knowl- 
edee  must  necessarily  include  ability  to  tell  not 
only  what  traits  arc  transmissible  1^  physiolog- 
ical processes  but  also  the  extent  to  whiii  they 
are  heritable.  If  these  laws  be  given  as'known 
factors,  the  eugenist  then  becomes  interested 
in  discussing  how  they  may  be  utilized.  He 
wishes  to  know  who  are  the  bearers  of  the  de- 
sirable hereditary  traits  and  how  they  may  be 
led  to  contribute  a  relatively  large  proportion  of 
offspring  lo  the  succeeding  generation.  Like- 
wise he  wishes  to  know  who  are  the  bearers 
of  undesirable  hereditary  traits  and  how  their 
contributions  may  be  minimized.  Still  further, 
havit^  ascertained  these  facts  he  wishes  by 
propagandist  methods  to  spread  abroad  what- 
ever knowledge  exists  within  the  field  and  by 
practical  measures  to  better  the  breed  of  man. 
The  idea  that,  like  the  animals,  the  breed  of 
man  may  be  improved  by  a  conscious  selective 
process  is  by  no  means  modem.  It  appears 
even  in  early  Chinese  literature.  Plato's  sug- 
gestions on  this  subject  in  the  'Republic'  are 
too  well  known  to  dwell  upon.  Some  of  the 
Roman  classical  writers  even  give_  explicit  rules 
of  procedure.  The  modem  eugenics  movement. 
however,  dates  from  the  publication  in  1865  Ot 
two  articles  on  'Hereditary  Talent  and  Char- 
acter" by  Francis  Galton  in  Macmillan't  Mago- 
sine  for  that  year.    So  far  as  its  scientific  f oun- 


biology.     For   this  no  specific  date 


'From  the  Greeks  to  Darwin' — may  be  traced 
from  a  very  early  period.  Nevertheless  it  was 
Darwin's  'Origin  of  Species*  that  in  1859 
inaugurated  the  disti  ' 
biological  invest! gat io 

spread  acceptance  ot  Darv 

the  most  fundamental  characteristics  of  all  liv- 
ing organisms  are  subject  to  change  naturally 
prepared  the  public  mind  for  a  practical  pro- 
gram for  bettering  those  characteristics.  There- 
fore when  in  1869  under  the  title  of  'Hereditaiy 
(jenius,*  Gallon  presented  extensive  biographi- 
cal studies  in  support  of  the  contention  that 
great  ability  is  hereditary  his  ideas  received 
widespread  attention.  An  increasing  literature 
on  this  and  other  phases  of  the  problem  soon 
popularized  the  subject  Eminent  English 
wnters,  such  as  WallacCj  Greg  and  even  Dar- 
win himself  took  part  in  the  movement.  In 
1873  the  appearance  of  Alphonse  de  Candolle's 
'Histoire  des  sciences  et  des  savants'  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  interest  of  continental  in- 
vestigators. In  the  same  year  appeared  Ribot's 
'L'Heriditi  psycbologique.'  Later,  Georg 
Hansen's  'Die  drei  Bevolkerungstufen,'  Am- 
mon's  studies  of  an  anthropological  character 
and  Lepouge's  'Les  selections  sociales'  raised 
the  question  whether  the  assumed  Aryan  race 
was  not  suffering  from  a.  "reversed  selection' 


,5le 


caused  by  the 


of  the  best  stock  t< 


ind  a  failure  to  reproduce  therein.  The 
subject  matter  of  de  Candolle's  woHc  was 
closely  related  to  that  of  Galton's.  The  conclu- 
sions  reached  in   the   former's  book,  however, 

t  fully  support  Galton's  belief  tha.t  spe- 

diately  replied  to  it 


cialized  ability  1$  hereditary.  Gal  ton  imme- 
diately replied  to  it  in  an  effective  manner  and 
shonfy  after  brought  out  his  classic  'English 


Men  of  Science:  their  Nature  and  Nurture.' 
In  this  be  set  forth  additional  carefully  com- 
piled data  indicating  the  supremacy  of  nature 
over  nurture.  Shortly  after  these  hopeful  be- 
ginninits  popular  interest  in  the  field  now 
known  as  eugenics  waned  in  England  and  for 
more  than  two  decades  little  attention  was  paid 
to  the  scientific  side  of  the  subject  It  is  true 
that  during  this  period  Galton  produced  two 
important  works  'Inquiries  into  Human  Fac- 
.  ulty  and  its  Development'  and  'Natural  Inher- 
itance,' the  first  in  18S3  and  the  second  in  1889, 
but  they  aroused  comparatively  little  general 
notice.  Even  Galton  himself  •laid  the  subject 
wholly  to  one  side  for  many  years.* 

In  America,  however,  various  contributions 
to  the  problem  of  race  betterment  appeared 
from  time,  to  time.     Among  these  Mr.  Robert 


study  of  a  degenerate  family, 
in  It  the  characteristics  of  over  500  descend- 
ants of  the  head  of  the  family  were  carefully 
recorded  and  a  number  of  important  'tenta- 
tive* inductions  were  drawn.  Amonj  these 
were:  pauperism  preponderates  in  the  consan- 
guineous lines;  cnme  preponderates  in  the  ille- 
{ptimate  lines;  illegitimale  criminal  lines  Aow 
collateral  branches  which  are  honest  and  indus- 
trious. A  popular  impression  has  quite  gener- 
ally prevailed  in  America  that  this  study,  of  the 
Jukes  constitutes  a  demonstration  of  "heredi- 
tary criminality."  "hereditary  pauperism,*  etc 
This  impression  is  unwarranted!  As  Professor 
Giddings  has  pointed  out  its  author  never  made 
such  a  claim  for  it.  'Mr.  Dugdale,"  he  says, 
'undoubtedly  believed  in  the  heredilary  trans- 
mission of  character  tendencies  aS'  of  physical 
traits  and  here  and  there  he  points  out  what 
seem  to  him  to  be  evidences  of  heredity  in  this 
sense  in  the  'Jukes'  blood.  But  he  is  ever 
careful  to  say  'seemingly'  or  'apparently'  or 
otherwise  to  warn  the  reader  that  the  conclu- 
sion is  tentative.  Far  from  believing  that 
heredity  is  fatal,  Mr.  Dugdale  was  profoundly 
convinced  that  'environment*  can  be  relied 
upon  to  modify  and  ultimately  to  eradicate  even 
such  deep-rooted  and  wide-spreading  growths 
of  vice  and  crime  as  the  'Juices*  group  exem- 
plified,* Another  study  of  similar  nature  by 
McCulloch  was  published  somewhat  later  under 
the  title  the  'Tribe  of  Ishmael.'  In  1883  Dr. 
Alexander  Graham  Bell's  'Memoir  upon  the 
Foundation  of  a  Deaf  Variety  of  the  Human 
Race'  appeared,  and  shortly  after  under  the  im- 
print of  the  Volta  Bureau,  endowed  by  Dr. 
Bel!  himself,  there  followed  Dr.  Fay's  'Mar- 
riages of  the  Deaf  in  America.*  Somewhat 
later  under  the  stimulus  of  Dr.  Amos  Warner's 
chapter  on  ■Charity  as  a  Factor  in  Human  Selec- 
tion' in  his  'American  Charities,'  various  studies 
on  this  topic  were  published  in  the  annual  vol- 
umes of  the  proceedings  of  the  National  Con- 
ference of  Charities  and  Correction.  These 
publications  natural^  appealed  to  a  rather  lim- 


ited number  of  t[>eciaUtts.  Popular  interest  in 
the  specific  eugenic  problem  of  social  improve- 
ment through  better  breeding  was  wamng  to 
some  extent  in  America  just  as  it  was  in 
England. 

The  beginning  of  the  20th  century,  h6wcver, 
witnessed  a  very  marked  reawakening.  By  thai 
time  Darwin's  doctrine  of  sdection  had  thor- 
on^ly  established  itself  and  the  public  was  ac- 
customed to  think  of  biological  laws  as  some- 
thing more  than  mere  hypotheses.  By  that 
time,  also,  the  Italian  school  of  criminologists 
including  Lombroso,  Garofalo  and  .Fern  had 
aroused  lively  discussion  of  the  (question  as  to 
how  far  there  was  a  true  hereditary  cnminal 
type.  In  Ejigland  much  alarm  had  been  oc- 
casioned by  the  military  reverses  in  South 
Africa.  Moreover  at  about  the  same  period 
Charles  Booth's  thorougli  investigations  had 
been  revealing  the  wide  extent  of  poverty  and 
d^radation  in  London.  "The  discussion  of 
Max  Nordau's  'Degeneration'  (1893)  which 
had  aroused  widespread  fears  of  progressive 
deterioration  had  not  yet  wholly  died  away  and 
Benjamin  Kidd's  'Social  Evolution'  <1894) 
which  had  emphasized  the  relation  of  relig;ion 
and  biolcny  to  social  progress  was  stiH  the 
subject  of  lively  comment  in  pulpit  and  press. 
In  view  of  this  situation  it  is  not  strange  that 
Kari  Pearson,  the  foremost  eugenist  of  Eng- 
land, after  Gallon,  created  almost  a  sensation 
when  in  November  1900  he  delivered  his  now 
famous  Newcastle  lecture  on  'National  Life 
from  the  Standpoint  of  Science.'  In  this 
lecture  he  reviewed  what  he  regarded  as  sources 
of  weakness  in  the  British  population  and  nn- 
phasized  the  necessity  of  being  ever  ready  to 
meet  the  competition  of  other  peoples.  *If  the 
nation,*  he  said,  °^is  to  maintain  its  position  in 
this  struggle  it  must  be  fully  provided  with 
trained  brains  in  every  department  of  national 
activitjf.  .  .  .  Are  we  certain  we  have  a  reserve 
of  brain-power  ready  to  be  trained?  We  have 
to  remember  that  man  is  subject  to  the  universal 
law  of  inheritance  and  that  a  dearth  of  capacity 
may  arise  if  we  recruit  our  society  from  the 
inferior  and  not  the  belter  stock*  Again  he 
exclaimed,  *Our  legislators  get  wonderfully 
excited  over  laws  relating  to  horses  and  cattle; 
they  devote  money  and  time  to  breeding  pur- 
poses and  realize  the  strength  of  the  law  of 
inheritance  when  they  endow  national  studs  and 
give  prizes  to  encourage  the  maintenance  of 
good  stock  or  when  again  they  work  for  the 
establishment  of  selected  herds.  But  which  of 
them  has  considered  domestic  legislation  from 
the  national  history  standpoint?  What  states- 
man has  remembered  that  in  the  character  of 
the  national  fertility  of  to-day  is  written  the 
strength  or  weakness  of  the  nation  to-morroisv  ?■ 
Primarily  through  the  efforts  of  Professor 
Pearson,  this  lecture  was  followed  a  little  later 
t^  the  founding  of  the  journal  known  as 
Siomftrika.  This  journal  became  the  particular 
'  organ  of  Aose  eugenists  who  attacked  the 
problem  from  the  mathematical  and  statistical 
point  of  view.  The  impetus  given  to  the  move- 
ment by  the  various  investigadons  published  in 
this  journal,  however,  was  greatly  strengdiened 
by  developments  following  another  striking 
event  —  also  purely  scientific  in  its  nature  — 
which  had  occurred  unexpectedly  in  190a  This 
was  the  rediscovery  by  several  independent 
workers  of  the  so-called  Mendelian  laws    of 


heredity.  These  laws  bad  been  announcod  by 
Gregor  Mendel  as  early  as  1868  but  had  retwved 
practicaUy  no  attention.  After  their  redis- 
covery, however,  biologists  all  over  the  world 
began  systematic  experimetits  to  ascertain  the 
extent  to  which  the  so-called  *laws*  applied. 
Hitherto  such  'laws*  of  heredity  as  had  been 
formulated  always  expressed  a  relationship  be- 
tween the  average  amount  of  a  given  trait  in 
an  entire  group  of  ancestors  and  the  average 
amount  of  the  same  trait  in  the  entire  group  of 
thdr  descendants.  For  example,  the  Caltonian 
'Uw  of  ancestral  heredity'  was,  that  two 
parents  contribute  together,  on  the  average,  one- 
half  of  the  total  heritage  of  the  oSs^ring;  the 
four  grandparenis,  one-quarter;  the  eight  great 
grant^rents,  one-eighth.  This,  even  if  true, 
tells  nothing  about  the  probability  of  a  given 
individual  inheriting  any  given  characteristic 
from  any  particular  ancestor.  The  Mendelian 
laws,  however,  formulated  relationships  between 
specific  traits  of  a  single  pair  of  ancestors  and 
the  corresponding  traits  in  their  descendants. 
For  example,  it  happens  that  eye  color  in  man 
appear  to  'mendelize.*  Thus  to  take  a  single 
specific  instance  it  is  held,  with  a  high  degree 
of  probability,  that  if  both  parents  nave  blue 
or  gray  eyes  they  cannot  have  children  with 
black  or  brown  eyes.  The  laws  also  express 
other  equally  definite  bot  more  complex  rela- 
tionships of  a  highly  significant  character.  How 
many  of  the  important  heritable  characteristics 
of  man  follow  the  Mendelian  laws  is  not  yet 
known.  The  problem  is  one  susceptible  of  ac- 
curate investigation,  however,  and  rapid  strides 
are  now  being  made  in  solving  it.  Some  notion 
of  the  importance  of  the  results  likely  to 
follow  as  further  facts  are  coUccted  may  be 
gained  by  consideration  of  a  single  one  out  of 
many  discoveries  —  namely,  the  operation  of  one 
phase  of  the  law  in  the  case  of  feeble-minded- 
ness.  This  trait  is  said  to  behave  like  the  blue 
color  of  eyes :  that  is,  almost  without  exception, 
if  both  parents  are  feeble-minded  none  of  the 
children  will  be  normal.  Dr.  Henry  H.  God- 
dard.  one  of  the  foremost  experts  on  feeble- 
minoedness  in  this  country,  found  this  to  be 
true  in  the  case  of  all  but  six  of  482  children 
whose  parents  were  all  feeble-r 

The   i  ' 

covery  of  .  _ 
investigation  of  the  extent  of  their  validity  . . 
evident  In  the  case  of  feeble-mindedness  alone, 
the  facts  stated  above,  taken  together  with  other 
known  relationships  of  similar  definiteness,  con- 
stitute ample  justification  for  active  efforts  to 
prevent  propagation  by  the  feeble-minded.  This 
IS  not  the  place  to  present  extended  discussion 
oF  the  technical  phases  of  the  biological  side 
of  the  eugenic  problem.  Attention  may  properly 
l>e  directed,  however,  to  some  of  the  hopes  and 
anticipations,  cherished  by  contemporary  eugen- 
ists,  that  wiH  indicate  the  possibilities  of  im- 
provement if,  ia  fact,  the  biolo^cal  basts  of  the 
claims  becomes  fully  established.  Dr.  Charles 
Davenport,  director  of  the  department  of  ex- 
perimental evolution  of  the  Carnegie  Institution 
at  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  Long  Island,  is,  at  the 

tiresent  time,  one  of  the  most  enthusiastic  be- 
ievers  in  what  the  future  holds  in  store  for 
eugenics.  In  describing  the  plans  for  the  work 
of  the  committee  an  eugenics  of  the  American 
Breeders'  Association  he  outlined  a  number  of 
interesting  jjans  for  future  advance.    Accord- 


ing to  Dr.  Davenport  one  sub-committee  of  that 
organization  is  c}iarged  with  the  study  of  the 
feeble-minded.  ^This  committee,*  he  says,  *has 
most  important  interests  since  the  number  of 
feeble-minded  in  the  United  States  alone  is 
probably  not  less  than  150,000  of  which  15,000 
are  in  institutions."  Other  contemplated  types 
of  work  for  the  eugenic  committee  inclnded 
study  of  the  protoplasmic  basis  of  eye  defects; 
deafness,  predisposition  toward  lung  and  throat 
trouble  and  toward  diseases  of  the  excretory 
and  circulatory  organs.  Still  other  forms  of 
investigation  which  Dr,  Davenport  hoped  could 
be  undertaken  were  studies  of  criminality  and 
pauperism,  the  effects  of  consanguineous  mar- 
riages and  of  "such  mongrelization  as  is  pro- 
ceeding on  a  vast  scale  in  this  country,*  He 
was  particularly  anxious  that  the  extant  records 
of  institutions  be  studied.  The  amount  of 
such  data  is  enormous.  "They  lie  hidden  in 
records  of  our  numerous  charity  organizations, 
our  42  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded,  our  115 
schools  and  homes  for  the  deaf  and  blind,  our 
350  hospitals  for  the  insane,  our  1,200  refuge 
homes,  our  1,300  prisons,  our  1,500  hospitals  and 
our  2,500  almshouses.  Our  great  insurance 
companies  and  our  college  gymnasiums  have 
tens  of  thousands  of  records  of  the  characters 
of  human  blood  lines. °  By  study  of  these 
records  it  will  be  possible  "to  learn  whence 
come  our  300,000  insane  and  feeble-minded,  our 
160,000  blind  or  deaf,  the  2,000,000  that  are  an- 
nually cared  for  by  our  hospitals  and  homes- 
our  80,000  prisoners  and  the  thousands  of 
criminals  that  are  not  in  prison  and  our  100,000 

?aupers  in  almshouses  and  out.  This  three  or 
our  per  cent  of  our  population  is  a  fearful  drag 
on  our  civilisation.  .  ,  .  A  new  plague  that  ren- 
dered four  per  cent  of  our  population,  chiefly 
at  the  most  productive  age,  not  only  incom- 
petent but  a  burden  costing  $100,000,000  yearly 
to  support  would  instantly  attract  universal  at- 
tention and  millions  would  be  forthcoming  for 
its  study  as  they  have  been  for  the  study  of 
cancer.  But  we  have  become  so  used  to  crime, 
disease  and  degeneracy  that  we  lake  them  as 
necessary  evils.  That  they  were,  in  the  world's 
ignorance  is  granted.  That  th^  must  remain  - 
so,  is  denied,  ,  ,  .  Vastly  more  effective  than 
ten  million  dollars  to  'Charity'  would  be  ten 
millions  to  eugenics.  He  who  by  such  a  nft 
should  redeem  mankind  from  vice,  imbecility 
and  suffering  would  be  the  world's  wisest 
phikuithropist*  A  considerable  part  of  die 
actual  investigations  outlined  by  Professor 
Davenport  has  been  undertaken  under  his  own 
direction  at  Cold  Spring  Harbor' and  the  results 
have  been  published  from  time  to  time  in  the 
bulletins  of  Eugenics  Record  Office. 

The  phases  of  eugenics  emphasized  by  Pro- 
fessor Davenport  in  the  foregoing  account  are 
chiefly  negative.  They  have  to  do  with  efforts 
to  eliminate  the  unfit.  Positive  eugenics  deals 
with  a  wholly  different  field,  namely,  the  effort 
to  increase  the  productivity  of  the  best  stocks. 
There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  birth  rate 
amouK  the  more  highly  educated  classes  throu^ 
out  toe  civilised  world  tends  to  be  much  lower 
than  that  of.  the  more  ignorant  classes.  It  U 
true  that  a  corresponding  state  of  affairs  exists 
in  the  matter  of  death  rates.  In  spite  of  this, 
however,  the  actual  effective  contribution  of 
the  better  educated  to  the  next  generation  is 
at  a  much  lower  rate  than  that  of  the  ignorant. 


STO 

Not  only  is  it  true  that  college  gradiutes  aa  a 
group  are  scarcely  reprodudng:  tbcmselves  but 
the  same  is  true  of  the  foremost  men  of  science. 
The  completed  family  of  the  contemporary 
scientific  man  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
according  to  a  very  careful  investigation  by 
Professor  Cattell  is  about  two ;  the  surviving 
family  about  one  and  eight'tentbs.  Twen^-two 
per  cent  of  the  families  are  childless ;  only  one 
family  in  75  is  larger  than  six.  As  a  rule  the 
native-born  inhahitants  of  Massachusetts  rank 
fairly  high  as  regards  education.  During  the  25 
years  from  188?  to  1911  the  deaths  among  this 
class  exceeded  births  in  families  where  the 
parents  were  native  bom  by  2M,918.  The 
eugenic  importance  of  these  declines  in  birth 
rates  among  educated  persons  depends  entirely 
upon  the  question  whedier,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  belter  educated  are,  on  the  average,  pos- 
sessed of  better  hereditary  charactistics  ttian 
other  classes.  Biologically  considered  the  train- 
ing that  a  man  receives  cannot  be  held  to  in- 
crease in  any  way  the  probability  of  his  having 
children  of  higher  talent  than  if  he  had  not  had 
any  training  whatsoever.  It  may  well  be, 
however,  that,  on  the  average,  those  who  Pos- 
sess better  hereditary  traits  have  succeeded  in 
obtaining  a  good  education  more  frequently 
than  have  persons  less  well  endowed  by  nature. 
On  the  other  hand  it  may  well  be  that,  on  the 
average,  educated  and  successful  persons  have 
merely  been  more  fortunate  than  others.  The 
question  as  to  whether  or  not  success  is  an 
evidence    of    hereditary   superiority    has    been 


period  had  been  changelings  when  babies  a  very 
fair  proportion  of  those  who  survived  and  re- 
tained their  health  up  to  50  years  of  age  would, 
notwithstanding  their  altered  circumstances,  have 
equally  risen  to  eminence.  If  a  man  is  gifted 
with  vast  intellectual  ability,  eagerness  to  work 
and  power  of  working,  Gaiton  could  not  com- 
prehend how  such  a  man  could  be  repressed. 
If  this  belief  proves  to  correspond  with  fact,  it 
is  easy  to  see  that  the  more  successful  mem- 
bers of  society,  including  the  better  educated, 
must  be  the  carriers  of  hereditary  traits  higher 
than  the  average.  A  low  birth  rate  in  such 
classes  would  be  correspondingly  serious  from 
the  eugenic  point  of  view.  It  is,  however,  very 
doubtful  if  the  argument  can  legitimately  be 
pushed  as  far  as  Gaiton  carried  it.  Prof,  Lester 
F.  Ward  was  never  wearv  of  contending  that 
natural  abili^  is  distriouled  fairly  evenly 
throu^out  tte  various  classes  in  societv. 
Naturally  he  did  not  contend  that  all  individuals 
are  equally  endowed  at  birth — such  a  conten- 
tion would  have  been  absurd.  He  did  hold, 
however,  that  in  all  probabili^  the  percentage 
of  individuals  highly  endowed  V  nature  with 
desirable  hereditary  qualities  in  al!  nations  and 
in  all  social  classes  does  not  materially  differ. 
If  the  question  here  presented  could  be  scien- 
tifically solved  it  would  carry  with  it  the  solu- 
tion of  the  vexed  question  as  to  whether  some 
races  are  by  nature  superior  to  others.  Gallon 
was  consistent  in  holding  that  the  ancient  Greeks 
were  much  more  highly  endowed  with  desirable 
hereditary  qualities  than  arc  modem  Europeans, 
and  that  the  African  negro  of  to-day  ranks 
about  as  far  below  the  present  European  as  the 
ancient  Greeks  ranked  above.    The  anthropol- 


ogist Boos  Ml  tbe  other  hand  agrees  with  tlie 
■egahtarian*  view  held  by  Ward. 

Because  of  the  di&ereooes  of  opinion  held 
concerning  many  of  tbe  biological  questions  in- 
volved it  II  evident  that  no  careful  thinker  is 
likely  to  give  unqnahfied  approval  to  the  more 
extreme  practical  measures  advocated  by  rad- 
ical eugenists.  It  is  probably  in  pan  at  least 
for  this  reason  that  advocates  of  the  'steritica- 
tion  of  the  unfit*  have  not  as  yet  succeeded  very 
fully  in  having  their  ideas  carried  over  into  leg- 
islation, it  is  true  diat  12  commonwealths 
of  the  United  States  have  enacted  sterilization 
laws,  but  only  two  appear  to  have  attempted 
any  enforcement  and  only  a  few  operations 
have  actually  been  performed.  On  me  other 
hand  the  increasing  adoption  of  the  idea  that 
custodial  care  is  necessary  for  the  feeble- 
minded reflects  the  increasing  willinffness  of 
public  authorities  to  carry  out  measures  advo- 
cated by  those  more  moderate  eugenists  who 
base  their  practical  plans  upon  establUfaed  tuo- 
logical  facts. 

Possibly  the  most  hopeful  fact  in  the  field 
'of  eugenics  at  the  present  time  is  the  growing 
interest  in  the  subject  itself  and  the  increaung 
numberof  trained  investigators  who  are  at  woilt 
upon  the  various  phases  of  the  problems  which 
lie  within  the  field.  One  has  onl^r  to  glance 
over  the  reviews  of  books  and  articles  on  ea- 
genic  topics  commented  on  or  listed  in  tbe 
Eugenies  Revievr  to  be  convinced  of  the  tre- 
mendous popular  literature  that  is  accumulat- 
ing. On  the  other  hand  one  needs  but  to  scan 
a  few  of  the  numerous  strictly  scientific  jour- 
nals io  the  field  of  biology  to  realize  what  a  vast 
amount  of  accurate  research  is  going  on  within 
the  general  field  of  heredity.  To  be  convinced 
that  much  valuable  work  in  the  specialized  in- 
vestigation of  strictly  eugenic  problems  is  being 
done  one  need  but  turn  to  publications  embodT- 
ing  from  time  to  time  the  results  reached  at  me 
biometric  and  eugenic  laboratories  in  England 
and,  in  America,  the  bulletin  of  the  Eugenics 
Record  OfRce.  The  work  of  this  American  of- 
fice according  to  its  own  prospectus  is:  (1)  To 
serve  eugeniCal  interests  in  the  capacity  of  re- 
pository and  clearing  house.  (2)  To  build  up 
an  analytical  index  of  tbe  traits  of  American 
families,  (3)  To  train  field  workers  to  gather 
data  of  eugenical  import.  (4)  To  maintain  a 
field  force  actually  engaged  in  gathering  such 
data.  (5)  To  co-operate  with  other  institutions 
and  with  persons  concerned  with  eugenical 
study.  (6)  To  investigate  the  manner  of  in- 
heritance of  specific  human  traits.     (7)  To  ad- 


conceming   tbe   eugenical    fitness   of   pro- 
d   marri^cs.     (8)    To   publish   results   of 
researches.     To  such  persons  as  will  undertake 


fill  them  out  it  furnishes  free  in  duplic: 
(one  copy  to  be  retained  by  the  applicant)  the 
following  blank  schedules:  (1)  Record  of 
Family  Traits ;    (2)    Index  to  Germ-plasm— a 


Parallel  Family  Record  of  Prospective  1^ 
Mates;   (3)   Musical  Talent;   (4)   Mathematical 
Talent;    (5)    Tuberculosis ■    (6)    Special   Trait 
Chart;   (7)  Hare-lip  and  Cleft-palate. 

The  foregoing  is  sufficient  evidence  that  the 
modem  eugenic  movement  is  very  much  aliv& 
To  what  extent  it  will  suffer  from  the  present 
war  is  difficult  to  predict.  Undoubtedly  it  will 
lose  the  services  of  many  brilliant  minds  that, 
had  ^3ce  continued,  would  have  made  notable 
contributions  to  the  subject    It  will  tfatis,  widi 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


.yGooi^le 


EUOtfHIB— KUGtfNIS  GRANDBT 


all  tbe  other  sciences,  Eeel  the  'disgemc'  effect 
of  w»r.  On  the  other  hand  the  vanous  psycho- 
Ic^ioJ  investigations  now  being  attempted  on 
a  very  large  scale  with  anny  men  as  subjects 
may  mrow  such  light  on  various  phases  of  iIm 
ci^enic  problem  that  the  science  will  advance 
even  tnore  rapidly  than  it  has  in  the  past  Fur- 
thermore  the  war  may  itself  produce  such  po- 
tent demonstrations  of  various  contentions  now 
merely  debated  that  the  net  result  for  the  sci- 
ence, if  not  for  the  race,  will  be  advantageous. 
Consult  Bioux;y;  Houaimt;  LIehtai.  Tests; 
Sterilization. 

Bibliography. — Gallon,  Francis,  'Hereditary 
Genius'  (London  1869);  id.,  'Natural  Inher- 
itance' (New  York  1889);  id.,  'English  Men 
of  Science :  Their  Nature  and  Nurture'  (New 
York  1895);  id.,  'Inquiries  into  Human  Fac- 
ulty and  Its  Development'  (New  York  18S3) ; 
Pearson,  Karl,  'National  Life  From  the  Stand- 

r'nt  of  Science'  (London  190J)  ;  Conklin, 
G.,  'Heredity  and  Environment  in  the  Devel- 
opment of  Men'  (Princeton  1916)  ;  Davenpori, 
C  B.,  'Heredity  in  Relation  to  Eugenics'  (Hew 
York  1911);  Dugdale,  R.  L.,  'The  Jukes'  (4th 
ed..  New  York  1910);  Goddard,  H.  H, 
•Feeblemindedness'  (New  York  1914);  id., 
'The  Kallikak  Family'  (New  York  1912); 
C^tle,  Wm.  E.;  Oulter,  T.  M.;  Davenport, 
C  B.;  East,  E.  M.:  Tower,  W.  L.,  'Heredity 
and  Eugenics'  (C:hicaEO  1912)  ;  Doncaster,  L., 
'Heredity  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Research'' 
(Cambridge,  England  1911)  ;  Guyer,  M.  F., 
'Being  Well  Bom'  (Indianapolis  1916):  Ten- 
oey,  A.  A.,  'Social  Democracy  and  Population' 
(in  Coliunbia  University  Studies  in  History, 
fconomics  and  Public  Law,  Vol.  XXVI,  No.  4, 
New  York  1907)  ;  Kellicott,  W.  E,  'The  Social 
Direction  of  Human  Evolution'  (New  York 
1911);  'Eugenics  Laboratory  Memoirs'  (Lon- 
don 1901-  )  ;  'Record  Office  Memoirs'  (Cold 
Spring  Harbor,  N.  Y.,  1912-    ). 

Journals:  BiometHkia  (London  1902-  >; 
The  Eugenics  Review  (published  by  Eugenics 
Education  Society,  London  1909-  );  Archiv 
fir  Rassen  —  And  GeselUchaftt  BioiogU 
(Berlin  1904-  ) ;  Tht  Journal  of  Heredity 
(Washington,  D.  C.  1910). 

Alvan  a,  TiasMKif, 
Assiitant    Professor    of   Sociology.    Coltunbia 
Universily. 

BUGtiNIB,  i-iht^-nS   (EuciNiE  Maris  de 

MONTtJO  VK  GU2MAN  Y  DE  PoRTO-CAJmEHO)^  ex- 

empress  of  the  French:  b.  Granada,  Spain  5 
May  1836.  Her  father,  the  Count  de  Montijo, 
was  of  a  noble  Spanish  family;  her  mother 
was  of  Scotch  extraction,  maiden  name  Kirk- 
patrick.  On  29  Jan.  1853  she  became  the  wife 
of  Napoleon  HI  and  empress  of  the  French. 
On  16  March  1856,  a  son  was  born  of  the  mar- 
riage. When  the  war  broke  out  with  Germany 
she  was  appointed  res."^t  (27  July  1870)  dur- 
ing the  absence  of  the  emperor,  bitt  on  4  Sep- 
tember the  revolution'  forced  her  to  flee  from 
France.  She  went  to  England,  where  she  was 
joined  by  the  prince  imperial  and  afterward  by 
the  emperor.  Camden  House,  Chiselhurst,  be- 
came the  residence  of  the  imperial  exiles.  On 
9  Jan.  1873,  the  emperor  died,  and  six  years 
later  the  prince  imperial  was  slain  while  with 
the  English  army  in  the  Zulu  war.  In  1881  the 
empress  transferred  her  residence  to  Farabor- 


ougb  in  Hampshire.    She  has  published  'Some 
Recollections  from  Uy  Life'  (1885). 

EUGENIE  GRANSET,  e-tba-ni  gron-da. 
In  the  scenes  of  the  'Comedie  Humaine'   that 

E resent  aspects  of  provincial  life  the  first  place 
y  universal  assent  belongs  to  'Euginie  Gran- 
del'  (1833).  Its  heroine  is  Balzac's  finest 
female  character,  radiant  in  the  generosity  of 
her  love ;  its  story  is  probably  the  most  terrible 
study  of  the  corroding  influence  of  avarice  in 
any  literature.  Its  astonishing  power  of  grad- 
■'■"•'  L  the 


/^ 


of   Old 


indet's   house,    ils    strong- 


personality  to  i 

detail,  marks  the  inevitable  next  step  i 
inexorable  prcM^ess  of  the  miser's 
monomania.  Graodet's  assumed  stan 
hesitancy  in  bargaining  infects  the  reader  with 
the  same  impatience  that  it  was  designed  to 
produce  in  his  victims  in  negotiation.  'There 
was  in  him,'*  says  Balzac,  "something  of  the 
tiger,  something;  too  of  the  boa-constrictor.  He 
could  lie  in  wait,  watch  his  prey,  leap  on  it, — 
and  then,  opening  the  jaws  of  his  purse,  he 
would  swallow  a  pile  ot  iau  and  settle  down 
tranquilly,  like  the  serpent  after  his  meal,  im- 
passive, cold,  methodical.' 

The  stoiy  in  brief  outline  is  diis:  Felix 
GrandeL  a  cooper  o£  Satmiur,  has  amassed 
wealth  fT(»n  trade,  land  speculation  and  usury, 
but  with  such  shrewd  concealment  that  his 
wife  and  his  dau^ter  Eugenie  think  him  as 
straitened  as  he  is  pennnous.  Partial  con- 
fidents of  his  business  intrigue  for  the  hand  of 
the  unsuspecting  heiress,  but  are  made  tbe 
dupes  ancl  tools  of  F^lx  to  swell  his  own 
fortune.  Charles  Grandet,  a  ParisiMi  cousin, 
son  of  a  bankrupt  suidde,  wins  Engenie's  sym- 
pathy and  a  love  of  which  he  proves  nnwoithy, 
F^ix  contrives  to  save  his  brother's  name  to 
his  own  hidden  profit;  FUig^nie  remains  faith- 
ful to  the  memory  of  C2iarles,  who  prospers  in 
India,  while  Felix,  with  unrelaxing  vigilance,  is 
ever  seising  and  devising  new  wa^s  to  add 
to  his  hoard.  Eug^e  had  ^ven  Charles  her 
little  store  of  gold  coins  on  his  departure.  Her 
father  sees  opportunity  to  increase  it  by  ex- 
change. His  oiscovery  of  the  gift  leads  to 
a  terrible  scene,  accentuating  the  miser's 
mania.  He  confines  Eugteie  and  ignores  her; 
avoids  his  wife,  who  falls  ill.  Should  she  die 
he  would  have  to  render  an  account  of  her  es- 
tate to  his  daughter.  It  becomes  policy  to  keep 
the  ailing  wife  alive  and  to  cajole  Eugenie  to  a 
renunciation  of  the  accounting.  Tbe  mother 
dies,  but  Eugenie's  renunciation  even  of  the  in- 
heritance from  her  is  attained  with  a  truly  dia- 
bolical ingenuity  by  playing  on  tbe  poor  girl's 
emotions.  Five  years  later  Fflix  dies,  clutch- 
ing at  the  gold  on  a  crucifix.  His  last  words 
to  his  dauniter,  in  the  very  gasp  of  death; 
'Be  carefuT  5«ne  day  you  will  nave  to  ren- 
der an  account  of  all,"  Eiw^nie,  now  a  woman  of 
30  and  heiress  to  19,000,000  francs,  looks  over-sea 
for  Charles.  .He  returns  with  enough  to  marry 
for  social  position  and,  ignoi'^it  of  Euginie't 
fortune,  writes  her  a  shameful  letter,  enclosing 
a  check  for  her  loan,  "with  interest."  He  rei- 
fuses  to  make  final  settlemeht  of  his  father's 
debts.  Eugenie  docs  it.  (partes  discovers  hii 
mistake,  too  late.  Eugenie  contracts  a  marriage 
oi  form  wilh  the  least  noworthy  o£  her  dd 


,^le 


B70 


BU0BNIU8  — XUKAIRITE 


suitors,  a  lawyer,  who,  thinking  to  secure  her 
fortune,  arranged  that  each  should  be  the 
other's  heir  but  was  bimsdf  first  to  die. 

No  novel  of  Balzac's  is  better  constructed, 
none  lias  more  scenes  and  descriptions  that  ciing 
to  memory.  Grandet's  business  transactions 
are  told  with  the  keenest  psychological  insist. 
11)e  leading  characters  are  among  the  master- 
pieces of  iJl  fiction;  the  minor  personages,  es- 
peciallv  the  maid-servant,  Nanon,  are  clearly 
defined,      'There    are    many    scenes    of    great 

eower;  that  of  the  miser's  death  is  incompara- 
le.  Consult  translation  by  Marriage,  £.,  in 
'Everyman's  library.* 

Benjamin  W.  Wells, 
Author  of  ^Modern  French  Literahire.* 
BUGBNIUS,  fl-ja'ni-ijs,  the  name  of  four 
popes.  The  first.  Saint  Engenius,  was  elected 
654;  d.  657.  Eucenius  II  occupied  the  Roman 
See  from  824  to  827.  His  election  was  contested 
W  a  powerful  faction  in  the  city  who  favored 
Cincinnus  (Zintinnus)  ;  and  Lothaire,  son  of 
Louis  le  EWbonnaire,  who  shared  the  empire 
with  his  father,  came  to  Rome  to  quell  the  dis- 
turbance. On  this  occasion  the  people  and  clergy 
of  Rome  took  the  oath  of  fioelity  to  the  two 
emperors  and  promised  that  ihereafler  when- 
ever a  new  pope  succeeded  he  should,  before 
his  consecration,  take  oath  in  pretence  of  the 
people  and  the  emperor's  representative  to 
honor  the  emperor  as  the  protector  of  the 
Church.  The  Pope  was  the  first  to  take  thi> 
oath ;  its  terms  were  complied  with  at  the  two 
papal  elections  next  following,  for  example,  of 
Valentius  who  filled  tht  see  diree  months  and 
of  Gregory  IV.  Eucenius  HI:  b.  Pisa;  d. 
Tivoli,  7  Jtme  11S3.  He  was  a  Gaterdan  abbot 
and  a  close  friend  of  Saint  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux  and  was  elected  1145.  Before  his  conse- 
cration the  popalace  of  Rome,  led  by  Arnold 
of  Brescia,  effected  a  revcdution  and  over- 
turned the  papal  government;  during  a  reign 
of  a  little  more  than  eight  years  Eugenius  was 
most  of  the  time  in  exile,  tiring  at  Viterbo, 
Siena  and  other  places  in  Italy  and  in  France. 
Edgenius  IV:  b.  Venice  1383;  d.  Rome,  23  Feb. 
1447.  He  was  a  Celestine  monk,  cardinal  and 
bishop  of  Siena  when  he  was  elected  successor 
to  Martin  V  1431.  On  23  July  1431  was  opened 
the  Council  of  Basel,  convoked  by  his  predeces- 
sor; but  not  one  bishop  w«s  present  for  the 
CHKning,  only  theolc^ians,  abbots  and  canons. 
On  12  November  the  Pope  ordered  the  council 
to  be  dissolved  and  convoked  another  council  to 
be  held  in  1433  at  Bolo^ia ;  but  the  fathers  of 
the  council  of  Base!  continued  to  hold  their  ses- 
sions; throughout  his  reigi  the  Pope  was  in 
conflict  with  the  council.  From  first  to  last  the 
council  sought  primarily  and  almost  exclusively 
to  curb  the  authority  of  the  Roman  See,  and  in 
consequence  there  passed  between  Rome  and 
Basel  a  succession  of  bulls  ordering  the  disso- 
lution of  the  council.  atmuUing  its  acts,  anathe- 
matizing its  members;  and  from  the  other  side 
decrees  of  the  council  declaring  that  general 
assembly  of  the  Church  to  be  superior  in  au- 
thority to  the  Pope,  and  finally  a  decree  pro- 
claiming Eugenius  deposed  and  setting  up  as 
Pope,  Amedeo,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  assumed 
the  style  Felix  V.  This  was  the  act  of  the 
council  in  its  35th  session  held  8  July  1439.  At 
the  same  date  there  was  assembled  at  Florence, 
at  the  call  of  Eugndiu,  a  council  attended  by 


160  Latin  and  some  20  Gredc  bishops,  with  the 
Emperor  John  Palaralogus ;  at  this  council  a 
reconciliation  was  effected  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  churches ;  but  it  stood  only  till  its 
terms  and  conditions  became  known  in  the  East, 
when  it  was  repudiated  by  the  Greek  Church. 
The  cause  of  the  rival  Pope  Felix  was  a     ' ' 


declaring  for  Eugenius. 

EUGIPPIUS,  or  BUGYPPIUS,  an  Ital- 
ian monk  of  the  5th  century,  horn  at  Carthage. 
He  studied  at  Rome  and  later  became  the  pupil 
of  Saint  Severin  at  Fariana  and  was  afterward 
abbot  of  LucuUanum,  near  Naples.  In  511  he 
wrote  'Vita  Sancti  Severini,'  but  his  most  im- 
portant contribution  to  ecclesiastical  history  is 
a  collection  of  excerpts  from  the  works  of 
Saint  Augustine,  'Thesaurus  Augustianeus.* 
Consult  'Corpus  Scriptonim  Ecclesiasticorum 
Latinorum>  (Vol.  IX,  Vienna  1885-86). 

EUGNATHUS,  ug-nS'thfls,  a  fossil  fish,  a 
precursor  of  the  mudfish,  found  in  the  Liassic 
rocks  of  England  and  also  in  Bavaria.  It  pos- 
sessed an  elongated  body  with  ^noid  scales, 
supported  internally  by  vertical  ribs,  some  of 
which  were  joined  to  each  other.  It  had  dorsal, 
pelvic,  pectoral,  anal  and  tail  fins. 

EUGUBINB  (a'gu-bln)  TABLES,  the 
name  given  to  seven  bronze  tables  found  iji 
1444  at  the  town  of  Gubbio,  the  ancient  I^vium 
or  Eu^bium,  now  in  the  Italian  province  of 
Perugia,  bearing  inscriptions  in  a  language  de- 
cided to  be  that  of  the  ancient  tjmbrians. 
They  were  purchased  by  the  town  and  arc  kept 
in  its  town  hall.  These  tables  are  the  most 
important  monument  of  the  language  in  which 
Ihey  are  written.  Four  are  inscribed  in  Um- 
brian  characters,  two  in  Latin  and  the  remain- 
ing one  partly  in  Umbrian  and  partly  tn  Latin. 
The  contents  of  the  tables  refer  to  the  ritual 
customs  of  the  ancient  Iguvinians.  Photo- 
graphic reproductions  of  the  inscriptions,  with 
French  translations,  are  given  in  Breal,  M.  J. 
A.,  'Les  Tables  Eugubines'  (Paris  1875-78). 
An  edition  of  the  Umbrian  text  with  interlinear 
Latin  translation  was  published  by  F.  W.  New- 
man, 'The  Text  of  the  Iguvine  Inscriptions) 
(London  1864).  Consult  Aufrecht,  S.  T.,  and 
Kirchhoff,  J.  W.  H.,  'Die  Umbrischen  ^irach- 
denkmaler,  etc*  (2  vols.,  Berlin  184»-51); 
Biicheier,  F„  'Umbrica'  (Bonn  1883)  ;  Buck, 
C.  D.,  'A  Grammar  of  Oscan  and  Umbrian* 
(Boston  1904) ;  Conway,  R  S.,  'The  Italic 
Dialects'  (2  vols.,  Cambndge  1897)  ;  Huschke. 
G.  P.  F_,  'Die  Iguvinischen  Tafeln,  etc.*  (Leip- 
zig 1859)  ;  Lassen,  C,  'Bcitrage  zur  Deutung  der 
Eugubinisehen  Tafeln*  (Bonn  1833) ;  Lepsius, 
K.  R.,  'De  Tabulis  Sugubinis*  (Berlin  I833); 
id.,  'Inscriptiones  Umbricae  et  Oscae,  etc.* 
(Leipzig  IS41);  Planta,  R.  von,  'Grammatik 
der  Oskisch-Umbrischen  Dialekte*  (2  vols., 
Strassbutg  1892-97). 

EUGUVIUM.     See  Gubbio. 

EUHEMERISU,  u-he'merlzm,  or  BUB- 
HERISM.     See  Mytuologv. 

EUKAIRITE,  Q-ka'rIt,  a  rare  mineral  of 
a  shining  lead-gniy  color  and  gratralar  struc- 
ture, consisting  chiefiy  of  selenium,  copper  and 
silver  CutSe.AgiSe.  Its  name  is  derived  from 
the  Greek  word  meaning  opporhmt,  and  was 
given  to  it  by  Bcnelius  because  found  soon 


EULACHON  —  BULBNBUSO 


after  the  disa>veiy  of  selenium.  It  occurs  in 
Smiland,  Sweden,  and  in  Chile  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  Its  hardness  is  2.5  and  its  specific 
gravity  7.5.  Consult  Dana,  E.  S.,  ei  'The 
System  of  Mineralogy  of  James  D.  Dana*  (6d) 
ed..  New  York  1914). 

CANDLB- 


There  is  some  doubt  whether  there  was  only 
one  or  more  martyrs  of  (his  name.  At  any 
rate  there  are  two  distinct  festivals  celebrated 
in  Spain,  one  at  Barcelona  on  12  February  and 
one  at  Merida,  10  Deceml>er.  The  trends, 
l^rmns  and  acts  about  these  two  saints  are  very 
sunilar  in  many  points.  CoaccTTUDg  Saint 
Eulalia  of  Ueiida  it  is  reported  that  when  she 
was  only  12  years  old,  the  great  persecution  of 
Diocletian  was  set  on  foot,  whereupon  the 
young  giii  left  her  maternal  home  and,  in  the 
presence  of  the  Roman  judge,  cast  down  the 
idols  he  had  set  up.  She  was  martyred  by  tor- 
ture.    Aurehus  Rudentius  has  written   (about 


her  of  translations.  Her  relics  are  at  Oviedo, 
whereas  those  of  Saint  Eulalia  of  Barcelona 
are  preserved  in  the  Barcelona  Cathedral.  The 
latter  saint  is  the  patron  saint  of  Barcelona  and 
of  sailors.  The  oldest  French  poem  in  exist- 
ence is  also  devoted  to  the  description  of  the 
life  and  martyrdom  of  a  virgin  Saint  Eulalia; 
tnit  h  is  8  mooted  question  whether  it  refers 
to  one  of  the  two  Spanish  saints  or  to  still 
smother.  This  manuscript  is  to  be  found  in 
the  library  at  Valenciennes.  Consult  Anon., 
'Annals  of  Virgin  SaintS>  (London  1846); 
Baring-Gould,  S.,  'The  Lives  of  the  Saints* 
(Vols  II  and  XV,  Edinburgh  1872)  ;  Moretus. 
H.,  'Les  Sainles  Eulalies'  (in  Revue  des 
Qvestions  Hislon<mes>  VoL  LXXXIX,  p.  8S, 
Paris  1911) ;  Rninart,  T.,  'Acta  Pnmorum 
Martyrum,  etc'  (Amsterdam  1713) ;  Suchier, 
H.,    <yber  Inhalt  und  Quelle   des  altesten 


»). 

EULALIA,  a  popular  name  for  certain 
Miedes  of  tall  perennial  ornamental  grasses  of 
the  genus  Miscattthus  (family  Poaeem).  They 
are  natives  of  eastern  and  southern  Asia.  The 
best-known  species  is  probably  M.  tinenHi, 
which  has  developed  several  well-marked  horti- 
cultural varieties  characterized  by  green,  mottled 
or  striped  foliage  and  large  terminal  fan-like 
panicles  of  Rowers,  which,  after  shedding  their 
deciduous  parts,  are  still  attractive  because  of 
their  persistent  silky  hairs,  which  give  the  pani- 


lasting  bouquets.  Because  of  their  beauty,  their 
perfect  hardiness  and  the  ease  with  which  they 
can  be  propagated  by  means  of  seeds  or  division 
*^  the  roots,  these  plants  are  universal  favorites, 
especially  for  bedding  purposes. 

EULALIUS,  an  antipope,  elected  in  oppo- 
sition to  Boniface  I  in  418.  His  election  is  the 
first  histance  of  the  interference  of  the  tem- 
poral authorities  in  a  papal  election.  Eulalius 
was  unable  to  maintam  his  authority  against 


Bouiface  and  was  forced  to  leave  Rome.  Soon 
afterward  he  resigned  his  pretensions  and 
submitted 

BULENBBRO,  onSn-berk,  Herauim, 
German  physican;  b.  Muhlheim-on-the-Rhin& 
1814 ;  d.  1902.  He  was  educated  at  dte  univer^ties 
of  Bonn  and  Berlin.  From  1860  to  1870  he  was 
government  medical  counsellor  at  OlogDe  and 
in  the  latter  year  was  named  counsellor  to  the 
Ministry  of  Education,  in  which  relation  he 
remained  until  1887.  In  Coblenz  he  founded  the 
Korretpondeiublall  der  detttsehen  Gesellsekaft 
fur  Piychialrie  und  gericMliche  Medixin  and 
from  1870  to  1890  was  editor  of  Vierieijahrs- 
ichaft  fUr  gericMicke  Medustn  und  ogentliches 
Santtatnetien.  He  published  *Das  Mediiin- 
alwesen  in  Preussen'  (1^4);  Handbudi  der 
C^werbehygiene'  (1876);  'Handbuch  des  6f- 
fentlichen  Gesundheitswesens*  (1882);  'Schul- 
gesnndheitslehre,>  with  Bach  (2d  ed,  1896). 

EULENBERG,  Philip,  Pbince:  b.  Konigs- 
berg,  Prussia,  1847.  He  took  part  in  the  wart 
waged  by  lus  country  against  Austria  apd 
France  and  later  studied  Jaw  at  the  universities 
of  Leipzig  and  Strassburg.  From  1888  to  1890 
he  was  Ambassador  at  Oldenburg,  latter  at  Stutt- 
gart and  Munich,  and  from  1894  to  1902  he 
served  as  Prussian  Ambassador  at  Vienna.  Ill 
health  compelled  {lis  retirement  and  in  1900  he 
was  raised  in  rank,  being  made  Fiirst  in  that 
year  and  having  Hertefeld  added  to  his  title. 
He  was  also  made  hereditary  member  of  the 
house  of  peers.  Maximilian  Harden  attacked 
him  bitterly  in  the  Zukunft  in  1907  and  Eulen- 
berg's  reputation  suffered  greatly  in  conse- 
quence and  bis  influence  was  diminished.  He 
wrote  'Rosenlieder'  (1886;  many  later  edi- 
tions); 'Skaldengesange'  (1892);  'Dichtungen' 
(1892);  'Erich  und  Erika  und  andere  Erza- 
hmgen  fiir  Kinder'  (1893) ;  'Abend erzatungen, 
Marchen  und  Traume'  (1894). 

BULENBUSG,  onSn-boorv,  Albert,  Ger- 
man physician :  b.  Berlin,  1840.  He  received  his 
education  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  was  made  : 


tische  Injection  der  Arzneimittel,'  for  which  he 
was  awarded  a  prize  by  the  Hufeland  Society, 
Berlin.  He  was  named  professor  of  thera- 
peutics and  director  of  the  Pharmacological 
Institute  at  Greifswald  in  1874,  removed  to 
Berlin  in  1832  and  began  his  researches  in 
neuropathology,  in  which  he  was  soon  recog- 
nized ad  the  leading  authority.  His  published 
volumes  include  'Sexuale  Neuropathie'  (1895); 
'Lehrbuch  der  Nervenkrankheiten*  (2d  ed., 
1878).  He  edited  the  'Real-EuQ'klopadie  der 
gesamten  Heilkunde*  after  1893,  and  with 
Schwabe  the  Deutsckt  meditmuehe  Wochtn- 
sehrift. 

EULENBURQ,  Botho,  CotrKT,  German 
statesman:  b.  31  July  1831.  In  1867  he  was 
elected  to  the  North  German  Reichstag  as  a 
Conservative ;  became  Minister  of  the  Interior 
in  lS78  and  as  such  formulated  the  famous  So- 
cialist law  of  October  1878.  Differences  with 
Bismarck  led  to  his  resignation  of  this  ofKce 
1881.  In  1892  he  succeeded  Count  Caprivi  as 
president  of  the  Prussian  ministry,  but  owing  to 
roversies  between  Eulenburg  and  Caprivi 
the  bill  for  an  amendment  to  the  criminal 


.lOogle 


6T4 


XULBH&PISOSL  —  EULBR 


cod«,  the  emperor  dismissed  them  bodi  in  Octo- 
ber 1894.  In  1899  Eulenburg  took  his  seat  in 
the  Herrenhaus,  or  Prussian  House  of  Lords. 

BULBNSPIEGEL,  oflSa-spe-gel  a  Qrical 
ch&racter  auociatcd  in  Germany  with  all  sorts 
of  frolica  and  fooling.  The  type  originated  in 
Till  or  Tyll  Eulenspiegel,  a  German  down  who 
lived  probably  in  the  first  hall  of  the  14th  cen- 
turv,  and  became  celebrated  for  the  wild  pranks 
and  escapades  that  he  practised  in  all  psrts  of 
Germany,  and  in  some  of  the  neighborine  coun- 
tries. According  to  popular  account  He  was 
bom  at  the  village  of  Kneitlingen,  near  Bruns- 
wick, and  died  at  UoUn,  near  Liibeck  about 
1350  where  his  tombstone  with  the  design  of 
an  owl  and  a  mirror  on  it  may  still  be  seen.  The 
tricks  and  frolics  currently  attributed  to  Eulen- 
spiegel  first  appear  in  a  Low  Saxon  account 
written  in  1483;  the  earliest  edition,  in  High 
German,  was  pubhshed  at  Strassburg  in  15157a 
reprint  of  which  was  published  in  Halle  (1885). 
A  poetic  treatmint  of  the  same  theme  was  pub- 
lished by  Johann  Fischart  (il-V.)  as  'Der 
Enlenspiegel  Reimensweiss^  (Frankfort  A.  M. 
1572;  r«)rinted  in  Kurchner,  J.,  'Deutsche  Na- 
tional-Litteratur,»  Vol.  XVHI,  pt.  2,  Stuttgart 
1892).  The  same  collection  published  a  reprint 
of  the  prose  version  in  Vol.  XXV.  The  work 
became  very  popular,  and  was  translated  into 
nearly  every  European  language.  In  English 
it  first  appeared  as  a  mirade-plav,  with  the  title 
*A  Merry  Feast  of  a  Man  tnat  was  called 
Howleelas'  (Enlenspiegel  meaning  literally 
•owl-glass').    An  edition  of  Mumer's  collection 


in  1864-  English  translations  and  editions  ap- 
peared m  1860  and  1890.  In  modern  times  a 
number  of  writers  have  used  the  same  theme. 
Some  of  them  drawing  freely  on  the  old  sourct 
but  all  of  them  creatmg  more  or  less  original 
results.  Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
work  of  the  Dutch  novelist,  Charles  de  Coster, 
<Tyir  Ulenspiegel'  (1867,  transl.  into  German 
by  F.  v.  Oppelu-Bronikowskij  Jena  1911):  that 
of  the  German  poet,  Julius  Wolff,  'Till  Eulen- 
spiege!  Redivivus,  Ein  Schclmenlied>  (1875)  ; 
and  finally  the  musical  rendition  of  the  theme 
in  form  of  a  Rondo  by  Richard  Strauss,  'Till 
Eulen Spiegel's  Merry  Pranks'  (1894).  Consult, 
besides  any  standard  'History  of  German  Liter- 


EULER,  'oi-l^,  Leonard,  Swiss  mathe- 
matician: b.  Basel,  4  or  5  April  1707;  d.  Saint 
Petersburg,  7  Sept.  1783.  He  was  educated  by 
his  father,  a  minister  and  mathematician,  and 
then  studied  at  the  University  of  Basel  under 
the  famous  mathematician,  Jacob  Bernoulli, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  Uaster  in  1723. 
In  his  19th  year  he  gained  the  accessil  of  the 
prize  offered  by  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences 
for  the  best  treatise  on  the  masting  of  vessels. 
He  went  to  Russia  in  1727  to  become  a  member 
of  the  faculty  of  the  newly  founded  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Saint  Petersburg  and,  in  1733, 
became  its  professor  of  mathematics,  where  he 
labored   with   astonishing  industry.       He   com- 

Eosed  more  than  half  of  the  treatises  in  this 
ranch  of  science  contained  in  the  46  quarto 
volumes  published  by  the  Saint  Petersburg 
Academy  1727-83;  and  at  his  death  left  about 
200     unptiblished     dissertations,     subsequently 


printed  by  the  sode^.  In  1741  he  accepted  an 
invitation  from  Frederick  the  Great  to  become 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Berlin  Acad- 
emy, but  in  1766  returned  to  Saint  Petersburg. 
Soon  after  his  arrival  he  was  attacked  by  a 
very  serious  illness  from  which  he  finally  re- 
covered, but  only  after  he  had  lost  his  eye- 
sight. This,  however,  did  not  prevent  him  from 
continuing  his  work,  employing  a  secretary  and 
overcoming  the  difficulties  in  connection  with 
his  elaborate  computations  chiefly  by  means  of 
his  remarkable  memory.  He  finally  submitted 
to  an  operation  which,  at  first,  was  successful ; 


the  example  of  those  long  processes  in  wiich 
the  conditions  of  the  problem  are  first  ex- 
pressed by  algebraic  symbols,  and  then  pure 
calculation  resolves  all  the  difficulties.  He  ap- 
plied  the   analytic   method   to   mechanics,   and 


enlarged  the  boundaries  of  this 


He 
greatly  improved  the  integral  and  differential 
calculus,  of  which  he  afterward  published  a 
complete  course  which  surpassed  everythiiig 
then  extant  on  this  sub)ect  An  extensive 
optical  treatise,  'Sur  la  Perfection  des  Verres 
object,  des  Lunettes,'  in  the  U^oires  de  Ber- 
lin (1747),  was  the  resuU  of  his  inquiries  into 
the  means  of  improving  spectades.  The  share 
which  he  contributed  by  this  work  toward  the 
discovery  of  achromatic  telescMKS  is  sufiident 
to  distinguish  his  name  in  this  department  also. 
He  also  employed  himself  in  metaphysical  and 
philosophical   speculations.       He  attempted  to 

frove  Uie  immateriality  of  the  soul,  and  to  de- 
end  revdation  against  freethinkers.  In  his 
well-known  'Lettres  ^  une  Princesse  d'Alle- 
magne,  sur  Divers  Sujets  de  Physique  et  de 
Phdosoi^iie'  (3  vols.,  Saint  Petersburg  1768- 
72),  he  attacks  the  Leibnitzian  system  of  mon- 
ads and  pre-established  harmony.  Among  his 
numerous  writings  may  be  mentioned  here  his 
'Theoria  Motuum  Planetarum  et  Cometarum' 
(Berlin  1744)  ;  'Introductio  in  Analysin  Infini- 
torum'  (2  vols.,  Lausanne  174S),  which  has 
always  been  regarded  as  his  greatest  produc- 
tion ;  'Institutiones  Calculi  Differential  is' 
(Saint  Petersburg  1755);  'Institutiones  CalcuU 
Integralis'  (3  vols..  Saint  Petersburg  1768-70) ; 
'Introduction  to  Algebra'  (Saint  Petersburg 
1770);  his  'Dioptrica'  (3  vols.,  Swnt  Peters- 
burg 1767-71)  ;  'Opuscula  Analytica'  (2  vrfs. 
Saint  Petersburg  1783-85),  His  industry  was 
as  remarkable  as  his  genius.  During  his  life 
of  76  years,  of  which  about  60  were  devoted 
to  sdentific  studies,  he  published  a  total  of  32 
separately  printed  books  written  in  Latin,  Ger- 
man and  French,  and  many  running  to  more 
than  one  volume;  331  treatises  in  the  publicf 
tions  of  the  Saint  PetersburK  Academy,  all  in 
Latin ;  14  treatises  for  the  Royal  Academy  at 
Paris,  in  French;  128  treatises  for  the  Royal 
Academy  at  Berlin,  all  in  Frendi ;  and  196  mis- 
cellaneous treatises  in  Latin.  For  a  detailed 
bibliograt^y  of  his  works  consult  Hagen,  J.  G., 
'Index  Operum  Leonard!  Euleri*  (Berlin  1896). 
For  his  life,  etc.,  consult  Fuss,  N.,  (filoge  de 
M.  Leon.  Euler'  (Saint  Petersburg  1783,  Basel 
1786) ;  Hoppe,  K,  'Die  Philosophie  L.  Eulers' 
(Gotha  1904) ;  Schulz-Euler,  S„  'Leonard 
Euler'  (Frankfurt  a.  M.  1907) ;  Rudio,  F_ 
'Die  Baseler  Mathematiker  D.  Bernoulli  und 
L,  Euler'  (Basd  1884);  id,  'L.  Euler'  (Basel 


,v  Google 


BUHJBUe  —  EUNUCH 


EUMJEU8,  a  chanicler  in  Homer's  'Odys- 
sey,' Book  XV,  who  recognizes  Odysseus  on 
the  laller's  return  from  his  long  absence  and 
who  materially  assisted  the  latter  in  getting  rid 
of  Penelope's  suitors.  He  was  a  swineherd  by 
occupation. 

EUMENES,  u'mi-nez.  Macedonian  oEGcer 
of  Alexander  the  Great:  b.  Cardia,  Thracian 
Chersonesus,  360;  d.  316  b.c.  H«  began  his 
career  as  secretary  to  Philip,  and  after  the  -lat- 
ter's  death  occupied  a  similar  post  under  Alex- 
ander, who  also  placed  him  in  command  of  the 
cavalry.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  he  was 
made  governor  of  Cappadocia,  Paphlagonia,  and 
the  coast  along  the  Euxine  as  far  as  Tra^ms. 
In  321  he,  with  Perdiccas,  defeated  Antipater, 
Craterus  and  Neoptolemus,  but  in  320  he  was 
himself  routed  by  Antigonus,  and  forced  to  re- 
treat to  Nora.  Here  he  held  out  for  over  a 
year  until  his  soldiers  at  last  betrayed  him  into 
the  hands  of  Antigonus,  who  had  him  executed 
in  316  B.C  Consult  the  lives  by  Nepos  and 
Plutarch,  also  Vczin,  'Eumenes  von  Kardia: 
ein  Beitrag,  lur  Geschichte  der  Diadochenieit* 
(Munster  1907). 

SUMSNES  II,  king  of  Fergamumi  d 
159  B.C.  He  was  a  son  of  Attalus  I  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  in  197  B.C.  He  was  a 
faithful  all^  of  Rome,  and  for  his  services 
against  Antiochus  was  given  the  provinces  of 
Lydia,  Mysia  and  Phry^a.  He  was  also  an 
able  civil  administrator  and  under  him  the 
kingdom  was  great  and  powerful,  also  rich  and 
pro^Krous,  and  having  Rome  for  an  ally  it  was 
practically  invincible  in  the  East.  Eumenes  did 
much  as  a  patron  of  art  and  science.  He 
founded  a  magnificent  library  which  in  its  day 
had  no  rival  other  than  thai  of  Alexandria^ 

EUUENIDSS,  u-roenl-diz.     See  Furies.  . 

EUMEMIUS,  Roman  educator:  b.  Auguito- 
dunum  (Autun),  in  Galha  Lugdunensis,  260; 
d,  311  A.D.  He  became  secretary  to  Constan- 
tius  Chlorus,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his 
campaigns.  Conslantius  commissioned  htm  to 
restore  the  famous  schools  of  Augustodunura 
in  296.  We  have  an  address,  'Pro  Restauran- 
dis  Scholis,'  made  there  by  him  in  297.  For 
other  addresses  attributed  to  Eumenius  consult 


EUMOLPIDS.    See  Eumolpus. 

EUMOLPUS,  a  mythical  personage  of  an- 
cient times,  celebrated  as  a  poet,  warrior,  hiero- 
phant  and  legislaior,  according  to  the  common 
tradition  a  Tfaradan,  the  son  of  Poseidon  and 
Chione,  the  daughter  of  Boreas.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  driven  from  Thrace,  but  to  have 
afterward  returned.  The  accounts  of  his  sub- 
sequent career  vary.  According  to  one  tradi- 
tion he  was  the  founder  of  the  Eleusinlan  mys- 
teries (<i.v.),  in  which  he  was  instructed  by 
Demeter.  "The  sacerdotal  family  of  the  Eumol- 
pides  at  Athens  claimed  to  be  descended  from 
this  Eumolpus. 

EUMYCETB&,  ^'mi-se'tex,  the  name  used 
to  distinguish  Ascomycetes  and  Basidiomycete* 
from  the  Phycomycetes.     See  Fungi. 

EUNAPIUS,  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
4th  century  a.d.  He  was  a  native  of  Sardis 
and  throu^out  his  life  bitterly  opposed  Oiris- 


tianity.  In  366  he  set  up  a  Neoplatonist  school 
at  Sardis.  He  wrote  'Lives  of  the  Philoso- 
phers and  the  Sophists.'  This  work  was  edi- 
ted by  Boissonade  (Paris  1849).  He  also  wrote 
a  history  of  his  own  time  of  which  only  frag- 
ments have  come  down  to  us.  These  are  to  be 
found  in  Miiller,  'Fragmenta  Historicorum 
Grwcorum'   (5  vols..  Pans  1841-73). 

EUNICE,  a  Jewess  of  Lystra,  mentioned 
in  Acts  xvi,  I ;  2  Tim.  i,  S;  ill,  IS.  See  Tim- 
othy. 

EUNOMIANS,  the  extreme  faction  of  the 
Arian  sect  in  the  4th  century  so  called  from 
the  name  of  their  leader,  Eunomius  <q.v.>. 
They  asserted  the  doctrine  that  Jesus  Christ 
'  of  God  is  o_f  different  nature   (or  sub- 


thus  his  doctrine  was  that  of  Uni 
doctrine  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  de- 
clared in  the  Council  of  Nicsa,  was  that  of 
Jfuwiolor  consuhstantiality ;  that  of  the  Semi- 
Arians  was  that  the  Son  is  of  like  or  similar 
substance,  dpnoOo'ior  and  hence  they  are  called 
homccusians,  while  the  orthodox  took  the  name 
of  homousians  (both  words  usually  written 
homoiousians,  homoousians).  To  give  solemn 
expression  to  their  distinctive  tenet  the  Euno- 
mians  changed  tha  baptismal  formula,  *I  baptize 
thee  in  the  name  of  the  Father.^  etc.,  to  this: 
*I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  God,  the  Creator, 
into  the  death  of  Christ"  Consult  Newman. 
J.  H.,  'Arians  of  the  Fourth  Ontury'  (Lon- 
don 1886). 

EUNOMIUS,  Arian  bishop:  b.  Dacora, 
Cappadocia;  d.  diere  about  395.  In  the  contro- 
versy wliich  gave  rise  to  Arianism,  Eunomius 
was  ail  ardent  disciple  of  Arius.  So  extreme 
were  his  views  that  he  and  his  followers  were 
looked  upon  as  members  of  a  party  within  the 
Arian  ranks  and  were  called  Eunomians  (q.v.). 
He  was  made  bishop  of  Cyzicus  in  360,  but  was 
deposed  the  following  year  as  a  result  of  his 
extreme  views.  He  lived  the  life  of  an  exile 
after  this,  but  finally  returned  to  his  birthplace. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works,  three  of  which 
are  still  in  existence :  'Apologeticus,'  'De- 
fence of  the  Defence'  and  'Confession  o£ 
Faith.'  The  first  of  these  is  in  'Patres  Graci> 
(J.  P.  Migne.  ed..  Vol.  XXX,  Paris  1857-66) 
and  has  been  translated  into  English  by  Whis- 
ton,  W.,  'The  Apologetick  of  Eunomius'  (in 
•Primitive  Christianity  Revived,'  Vol.  I,  Lon- 
don 1711).  The  fragments  of  the  second  have 
been  collected  by  Rettberg,  C.  H,  G.,  'Marcel- 
liana'  (pp.  124-147,  Gottingcn  1794).  Consult 
Klose,  'Geschichte  und  Lenre  des  Eunomius' 
(Kiel  1833). 

EUNUCH,  u'niik,  a  castrated  mal&^  gener- 
ally used  to  take  charge  of  the  harem.  Etmuch- 
ism  is  of  prehis'toric  origin  and  prevailed 
among  all  Eastern  nations  and  peoples  and 
amongst  those  of  the  West  which  had  Seen  sub- 
ject to  Eastern  influences.  History  refutes  the 
general  idea  that  eunuchs  are  deficient  in  cour- 
age and  intelligence.  In  Persia,  India,  China, 
and  during  the  later  days  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, they  frequently  occupied,  with  f[reat  suc- 
cess, important  military  and  civil  positions.  In 
fflodeni  times  eunuchism  is  practiced  exten- 
sively only  in  Moslem  countries  and  even  there 
it  is  gradually  losing  grotmd.  Of  secondary 
importance  has  been  its  practice  for  rdigious 


■8l^ 


BUNUCHU8— BUPHOSBIACKS 


reasons,  an  u^gerated  develoiimeni  of  asceti- 
cism. In  the  Christian  Church  it  was,  perhaps, 
most  prevalent  in  the  3d  century,  thougli  never 

officially  countenanced. 

EUNUCHUS,  il-nfilc'u3,  a  comedy  of  Ter- 
ence and  one  of  the  best  of  iiis  works,  written 
in  161  B.C.  Modem  imitators  are  Sedley  in 
'Bellamira,'  and  La  Fontaine  in  'L'Eunuqae.' 

EUOMPHALUS.  a  fossil  ^stropod,  hav- 
ing a  spiral  shell  and  found  m  Silurian  and 
Triassic  rocks,  but  most  numerous  in  the  Car- 
boniferous Age. 

EUORNITHES,  u-or'nl-thez,  a  grand  divi- 
sion of  birds,  which,  according  to  some  authors, 
includes  all  living  birds  except  the  ostriches  and 
ihcir  allies  and  the  penguins;  and  according  to 
Others  includes  all  birds,  modem  and  extmct, 
except  Ardueopteryx.  In  this  sense  it  is 
equivalent   to   the   preferable    term   NeortUihes 

(q.v.). 

BUPALINUS  OF  HEGARA,  Greek 
architect,  who  constructed  the  great  aqueduct 
for  Polycrates  on  the  island  of  Samos,  Con- 
sult Smith,  'Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Ajitiquities, '  sub  verbo,  ■Emissarium*  (3d  ed, 
London  1890). 

BUPATARIA,  or  BUPATORIA,  Russia, 
seaport,  in  the  government  of  Taurida,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  38  miles  northwest  of  Simferopol. 
Having  long  been  possessed  by  the  Tartars  of 
the  Crimea  (who  gave  it  the  name  of  KosloS 
or  KeslofE),  it  is  more  Asiatic  than  European 
in  its  aspect  The  salt  lake  of  Sake  is  a  bathing 
resort  Formerly  in  possession  of  the  Turks 
it  was  annexed  hy  Russia  in  1783.  It  was  here 
that  the  allied  forces  landed  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Crimean  War  (14-18  Sept.  1854). 
It  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  Russians 
J7  Feb.  185S.    Pop.  30,432. 

EUPATORIUH,  a  genus  of  composite 
plants  including  many  (about  600)  species,  espe- 
cially characteristic  of  America,  where  several 
are  well  known.  Among  the  most  prominent 
are  boneset  or  thoroughwort  (H.  perjotiatum), 
a  native  of  low  grounds,  distinguished  by  the 
fact  that  its  opposite  leaves  are  joined  around 
the, stem;  and  the  Joe-Pye-weed,  or  gravel- 
root  (£.  purputeum),  whose  purplish  rosy 
flowers  become  conspicuous  in  late  summer  in 
wet  meadows,  borne   on  stems  often   12  feet 


:orymbs,  all  the  florets  tubu- 
lar. Several  of  these  plants  have  enjoyed  from 
lime  immemorial  a  reputation  in  folk-medi- 
cine as  remedies  for  the  breaking  up  of  fevers. 
Poptllar  tradition  has  it  that  eupatortum  is  good 
for  broken  bones,  the  common  name  boneset 
preserving  this  notion.  It  l^s  no  such  action. 
By  reason  of  a  certain  amount  of  volatile  and 
fixed  <»1  which  eupatorium  contains  it  makes 
a  fair  diaphoretic  mixture,  and  in  the  form  of 
*boneset  tea'  it  is  of  service  in  caunuK  profuse 
sweating.  This  may  be  of  service  in  tne  treat- 
ment of  congestions  in  different  parts  of  the 
body.    See  DiAPHottincs. 

EUPATRIDES  (Or.  liirarpUai,  eupatndai, 
well-born),  the  aristocracy,  or  land-owning 
class  of  ancient  Athens,  distinguished  from  the 
geomiroi,  or  peasants,  and  the  iUmionrgoi,  or 


SUPBN,  orpibi  (Fr.  Niimx).  Germany, 
town  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Wenze,  near 
the  frontiers  of  Holland,  10  miles  south-south- 
west of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Its  manufactures  are 
numerous  and  varied.  Eupen  owes  its  manu- 
facturing prosperity  to  the  French  refugees, 
who  settled  here  while  the  town  formed  part 
of  the  duchy  of  Limbur^,  under  Austrian  rule. 
After  the  Peace  of  Luneville,  when  this  duchy 
was  ceded  to  Prance,  Eupen  belonged  to  the 
department  of  Ourthe  until  the  Peace  of  Paris 
in  1814,  when  this  town,  with  other  portions  of 
Limburg,  was  ceded  to  Pmssia.    Pop.  14,000. 

EUPHEMISM,  a  figure  of  speech  by  which 
one  avoids  the  use  of  words  directly  expressing 
anything  improper,  disagreeable  or  painful  by 
the  employment  of  phrases  that  suggest  in  a 
more  delicate  manner  or  mider  a  more  cheer- 
ful aspect  the  idea  to  be  conveyed.  Thus  the 
Greeks,  in  speaking  of  the  Erinyes  or  Furies, 
came  to  call  them  the  Eumenides,  or  well-dis- 
posed, gracious  goddesses,  and  sometimes  jem- 
noi  tkeai,  "the  august  goddesses.*  Neariy  all 
languages  have  some  euphemism  for  death,  or 
to  express  the  fact  that  one  has  died,  as  when 
we  speak  of  the  'departed.*  In  the  Bible  we 
have  the  phrases  "ne  was  gathered  to  his 
fathers,*  *lie  has  fallen  asleep,'  etc.;  the 
Romans,  with  the  same  intention,  said  "he  has 
lived*  (vixil) ;  the  Germans  say  "he  is  as- 
cended" (er  ij(  hmaufgtqOKgen) ,  or  "he  has 
been  made  immortal*  (fr  w(  verewigl  wordm). 
On  the  same  principle  the  Irish  speak  of  the 
fairies  as  the  "good  people." 

BUPHORBrACE,E,  u-f6r-bl-i's(-e  (the 
Spurge  family),  a  family  of  plants,  consisting 
of  more  than  4,000  species  of  herbs,  shrubs  ana 
trees  arranged  in  about  220  genera,  some  of 
which  are  well  known  for  their  ornamental  and 
economic  uses.  They  are,  with  few  exceptions, 
natives  of  warm  climates,  especially  of  tropical 
America,  and  nearly  every  species  has  an  acrid 
juice,  usually  poisonous,  but  sometimes  made 
Uand  when  healed.  Among  the  members  of 
the  family  are  many  species  of  commercial  im- 
portance. Thus  the  juice  of  some  species  and 
the  roots  of  others  are  used  in  medicine,  for  in 
plants  of  this  kind  are  found  croton  oil,  castor 
oil,  etc  A  few  of  the  Euphorbiaceae  yield  fra- 
grant balsamic  products ;  a  few,  although  their 
juice  i^  poisonous,  yield  a  wholesome  starch  to 
considerable  abundance  (see  Manioc)  ;  a  few 
are  cultivated  and  used  as  pot-herbs,  particu- 
larly species  of  Flukenetia  in  the  East  Indies; 
a  few  yield  wholesome  and  agreeable  sub-acid 
fruits,  as  Cieft  dulicka  and  C.  raceniosa  in  the 
East  Indies;  the  seeds  of  some  are  edible,  as 
those  of  the  candle-nut  (q.v.),  etc;  the  oil  of 
the  seeds  is  also  in  some  cases  used  for  food, 
like  other  bland  oils,  but  more  frequently  for 
burning,  as  castor  oil,  candle-nut  oil,  the  oil  of 
Aleuritei  cordata  in  Japan  and  Mauritius,  and 
the  solid  oil  of  Sapium  seMerum,  which  is  used 
in  Cbiia  for  making  candles,  and  in  medicinal 
preparations  as  a  substitute  for  lard.  From  //«- 
vea  is  derived  the  highest  grade  of  rubber  pro- 
duced in  South  America.  Others  yield  dye- 
EtuSs.  The  timber  of  some  of  the  Euphorbia- 
cea:  is  valuable  —  for  example,  African  teak. 
Of  the  numerous  genera,  many  ar«  represented 
in  the  American  flora,  the  most  important  being 
Croton  Ricinus  (castor-oil .plants),  and  Euphof 
Jrw  or  ^urge  proper.  This  genus  numbers  about 


.lOogle 


BUPMORBIUH  — Bin»HUt8U 


700  species,  most  abundant  in  th«  warm  parts 
of  the  north  temperate  zone,  more  than  12S  of 
them  being  found  in  America.  They  arc  alt 
known  as  "spurge,"  and  some  are  poijonous. 
Some  one  specie >i  is  found  in  almost  eveiy 
part  of  America,  those  not  native  havii^  es- 
caped from  cultivation.  Some  of  the  species 
are  iinposiDg  omamenial  plants  and  are  much 
used  in  landscape  gardening  and  ia  green- 
houses, usually  for  their  curious  forms  of 
growth,  rather  than  for  their  beauty. 

Plants  of  this  family,  although  of  widely 
differing  forms  of  growth  and  foliage,  are  char- 
acterized by  unisexual,  tnoncccious  or  dicedous 
flowers,  often  brilliantly  colored  and  often  in- 
conspicuous, in  the  latter  case  sometimes  sub- 
tended by  brilliantly  colored  bract*:  the  usually 
ihree-lobed  fruits  split  elastically  when  ripe  and 
throw  the  Geeds  to  greater  or  less  distances. 

BUPHORBIUM.    See  Guua. 

BUPHORBUS,  in  Greek  mythologr,'  one 
of  the  bravest  of  the  Trojan  heroes,  the  son 
of  Pantfaoiis.  He  wsu  shua  by  Uenelaus  in 
the  Trojan  War. 


.  led  secret  amours  with  Nicia,  wife  of 
Alexander  of  Eubcea,  reference  to  which  fre- 
quently appears  in  the  'Greek  Anthology.*  He 
produced  several  works  on  history  and  gram- 
mar in  prose,  and  in  verse  several  elegies,  epics 
and  epigrams.  Fragments  of  his  works  appear 
in  Kocn,  'Fragmenta  Comicorum  GrKconim' 
(Leipzig  1880),  and  Meinke,  'De  Euphorionis 
Chalcidensis  Vita  et  Scriptis>  (Berlin  1823). 
Consult  Christ 'Schmid,  'Geschichte  der  griech- 
ischcn  Litteratur'  (Munich  1911)  and  Ber- 
liner Klusikertexle  (Vol.  I,  1907). 

BUPHRANOB,  Greek  scu1;)tor  and  painter 
of  the  4th  century  i.e.  He  hved  at  Corinth. 
His  most  famous  statues  were  an  Apollo,  a 
Paris,  a  Leto,  with  Apollo  and  Artemis  in  her 
arms.  Mis  most  celebrated  paintitig  was  that 
representing  12  gods  in  the  Stoa  Basileios,  at 
Athens.  Consult  Gardner,  E.  A.,  'A  Handbook 
of  Greek  Sculpture'    (London  1911). 

EUPHRASIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
fi^vort  family  {Serophuiariacetw) .  It  com- 
prises about  110  species,  natives  of  temperate 
and  cold  regions  of  both  hemisfdieres.  several 
of  them  occurring  in  North  America.  They  are 
annual  or  perennial  low-branched  herbs,  with 
small,  blue,  yellow  or  white  flowers,  generally 
known  by  the  name  eyebright.  The  principal 
American  species  are  E.  arlica,  glandular  eye- 
bright  and  E.  aiHerieama,  hairy  eyebri^,  the 
most  widely  distributed.  The  common  Eng- 
lish eyebright,  E.  oSi^maUt,  is  not  known  m 
America.  This  is  a  very  pretty  little  plant,  the 
flowers  white  streaked  with  purple,  and  a  yel- 
low spot  on  the  lip.  It  grows  so  abundantly  in 
lome  places,  as  to  give  the  ground  an  appear- 
ance of'  being  covered  with  snow,  during  the 
time  o't  its  flowering,  from  May  to  September, 
The  whole  plant  is  slightly  aromatic  It  has 
been  used  with  success  in  catarrhal  inflamma- 
tions of  die  eye,  in  coue^,  hoarseness,  earache 
or  headache  which  follow  after  catarrhs. 


BUPHRATBS,  u-fri't!«,  a  celebrated  river 
in  Asiatic  Turkey,  having  its  sources  in  central 
Armenia,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  shores 
of  the  Euxine^  and  its  mouth  in  the  Persian 
GuH ;  length,  including  windit^s,  1,7^6  miles. 
It  is  formed  by  the  iimction  of  two  large 
streams,  called  uie  Kara-Su  and  the  Mourad- 
Chai.  These  two  head  streams  unite  near 
Kaban  Madet^  about  lat.  38°  58'  N.;  long. 
38°  30*  E. ;  from  which  point  the  river  holds  in 
the  main  a  southeasterly  course,  until  it  falls 
into  the  Persian  Gulf.  At  Korna,  about  100 
miles  from  its  mouth,  it  is  ioined  by  the  Tigris, 
and  the  united  streams  take  the  name  of  the 
■  Sfaatt-el-Arab.  In  point  of  current  the  Eu- 
phrates is  for  the  most  part  a  sluggish  stream, 
except  in  the  height  of  the  flooded  season.'  The 
Shatt-el-Arab  has  a  depth  of  from  three  to  five 
fathoms  and  presents  banks  covered  with  vil- 
lages and  cultivation.  The  most  important 
town  on  the  Shatt-el-Arab  is  Bassora  or  Basra, 
The  melting  of  the  mow  in  the  mountains 
along  the  upper  part  of  the  river's  course 
causes  Ae  Euphrates  to  rise.  This  takes  place 
about  the  beginning  of  March  and  it  increases 
gradually  up  to  the  end  of  May.  The  river 
continues  high  for  30  or  40  days;  but  after- 
ward there  is  a  daily  decrease.  From  the  nud- 
dle  of  September  to  the  middle  of  October  the 
river  is  at  the  lowest.  The  Euphrates  is  navi- 
gable for  a  long  distance  from  the  sea,  but  there 
are  numerous  rapids.  Steamers  navigate  the 
Shatt-el-Arab.  Between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris  lies  the  celebrated  region  Mesopotamia. 

EUPHROSYHB,  fi-friSsl-ne    (Lat.,    from 


of  the  three  Graces  (q.v.). 
EUPHTHALHINE,  flf'thal'mTn,  an  arti- 
ficial alkaloid  the  hydrochtorate  of  which  is 
used  in  solution  in  place  of  atropine  and  homa- 
tropine  to  dilate  the  pupil  of  the  eye  for  ex- 
amination with  die  ophthalmoscope.  The  great 
advanta^  it  possesses  is  that  the  effect  passes 
oS  within  five  hours  and  there  is  no  ^nger 
of  causing  glaucoma,  whereas  atropine  causes 
dilation  for  from  24  to  40  hours  and  homatro- 
pine  for  several  days. 


Lyl,.  , , ^   -     ,     _ 

when  the  author  was  a  young  courtier.    Tbi 
constitute  the  first  and  second  part  of  a  wort 


irk 


which  can  only  loosely  be  called  Actio: 
modem  sense.  Perhaps  the  word  "n 
best  expresses  its  nature.  For  SO  years  the 
work  was  fashionable  in  the  |io1ite  circles  of 
England;  and  the  word  'euphuism*  survives  in 
the  language  to  desi;[nate  the  stilted,  far-fetched, 
ornate  st^He  of  writing  introduced  and  made 
popnlar  by  Lyly.  Although  Lyly*!  style  had  in 
It  too  much  of  the  affected  to  give  it  long  life, 
he  undoubtedly  did  something  toward  making 
the  t6th  centu^  speech  refined,  musical  and 
choice.  It  is  this  rather  than  any  attraction  of 
story  that  makes  the  'Eophnes'  interesting  to 
the  modem  student  of  literature.  See 
Euphuism. 

BUPHUISH,  ii-fu'izm,  an  affected  style  of 
speech  whidi  distinguished  the  conversation  and 


8l^ 


BUPHYLLOPODA  —  BURBKA 


writings  of  many  of  tfae  wits  of  tbe  court  of 

Stueen  Eliialieth.  The  name  and  the  style  were 
erived  from  'Euphues,  or  the  Anatomy  of 
Wit>  (1579),  and  the  'Euphues  and  His  Eng- 
land' (about  1581),  of  John  Lyly.  It  is  prob- 
able that  Lyly  ^t  his  idea  of  these  books  from 
Ascham  who,  in  his  'Schoolmaster,'  published 
a  short  time  before,  had  said  that  Euphu 


bis  hero,  whom  he  developed  in  the 
in  which  Ascham  used  the  Greek  word  °a  man 
well  endowed  by  nature."  Lyty  deliberately,  in 
his  writing,  appealed  to  the  audience  of  ladies 
throughout  Britain  for  whom  it  was  made  li^, 
pleasant  and  couched  in  high  sounding  En^ish, 
which  his  followers  soon  styled  'the  new  Eng- 
lish." For  over  half  a  century  'Euphues'  re- 
mained one  of  the  most  popular  o£  oooks  and 
its  author  was  held  to  be  one  of  the  im- 
mortals. Among  his  most  noted  ardent  admir- 
ers was  Queen  Elizabeth  herself.  These  books 
which  became  the  model  of  the  wits  and  the 
gallants  of  the  time,  and  an  acquaintance  with 
which  was  regarded  as  a  lest  of  courtly  breed- 
ing, were  characterized  by  smoothness  and 


t  of  a  euphuist  in  the  character  of  Sir  Pier- 

cie  Shafton,  in  'The  Monastery.'     Consult  Ar- 
■N;r,    'Euphues'    (1869),   a  complet 


BUPHYLLOPODA     See  Branchiomda. 

EUPION,  u'pi-<'>n,  or  BUPIONB,  Reich- 
eobach's  name  for  a  fragrant  colorless  liquid 
produced  in  the  destructive  distillation  of  various 
animal  and  vegetable  substances.  It  is  highly 
volatile  and  inflammable;  it  is  insoluble  in 
water,  but  mixes  with  oils,  and  acts  as  a  solvent 
for  fats  and  resins.  It  is  not  readily  acted  on 
by  ordinary  chemical  reagents. 

BUPOLBHUS,  Jewish  historian,  who  lived 
in  the  Ist  or  2d  century  b.c  He  wrote  a  work 
with  the  title,  "Concerning  the  Kings  of  Jud«a,* 
fragments  of  which  have  come  to  us  through 
Clcfnent  Alexandrinlis  and  EuseUus.  Eupol«- 
mus  claimed  thai  Moses  was  the  inventor  of  the 


Pficenicians  and  Greeks.  For  the  fragments 
consult  Kuhlmey,  'Eupolemi  Fragmenta'  (Ber- 
lin 1840)  and  Muller,  'Fragmenta  Historicorum 
Gr*corum>  (Vol.  Ill,  Leipzig  1849).  Consult 
Schurer,  'Geschichle  des  iudischen  Volkes' 
(4th  ei.  Leipzig  19CW)  and  Willrich,  'Juden 
und  Griechen'  (Goitingen  1905). 

BUPOLIS,  Greek  poet:  b.  about  446;  d. 
411  B.C  In  429  appeared  his  first  play,  written 
when  he  was  about  17.  Stiidas  relates  that  he 
wrote  altogether  17  pieces  and  was  awarded  10 
ftriies.  Early  in  his  hterary  career  he  was  on 
Ultimate  terms  with  Aristophanes,  with  whom 
be :  collaborated.  Later  they  became  enemies 
and  Eupolis  was  accused  of  plagiarism.  Frag- 
ments of  iiis  works  are  found  in  Mcineke, 
'Fragmenta  Comicorum  GrKcorum'  (Vols.  I 
and  II.  Berlin  1839-57)  and  Koch,  'Fragmenta 
Comicorum  Atticorum>    (Leipzig  1880).     Con- 


BURAQUILO,  ii-rak'wf-ld,  the  name  given 
by  the  sailors  to  the  east -northeast  wind  which 
wrecked  the  ship  on  which  Saint  Paul  was 
lravelin_g  to  Rome  (Acts  xKvij,  13,  14).  The 
Authonzed  Version  adopted  the  incorrect 
Euroclydon  from  a  faulty  manuscript,  probably. 

BURASIANS.    See  Anoa-Ikdiahs. 


EURE,  ir,  France,  a  departmeut  in  the 
northwest  forming  part  of  Normandy;  area, 
2,331  square  miles.    The  chief  river  whu;h  flows 


thrciui^h  it  is  the  Suae,  of  which  the  Eure  and 
the  RiUe  are  the  most  important  tributaries. 
Wheat  is  the  principal  crop^  and.  the  mining 
and  manufacturing  indnstnes  are  extensive. 
Capital,  Evreux.    Fop.  323,651. 

BITRE,  a  river  of  France,  which  has  given 
its  name  to  two  departments — that  of  the  Eure, 
and  that  of  the  Eure-et-Loir.  The  river  rises 
in  the  department  of  the  Ome,  and  flaws  into 
the  Seine,  near  Pont-de-1'Arche,  after  a  course 
of  124  miles,  being  navigable  for  about  half  the 
distance. 

BURB-BT-LOIR,  er-i-lwir,  France,  a  de- 
partment in  the  northwest,  forming  part  of  the 
old  provinces   of    Orl£annais    and   Normandy; 

a,  2,293   stjuare   miles.    The   departm 


BURBKA,  fl-relca,  a  Greek  word  meaning 
*I  have  found  i^ ;  used  as  an  expression  of 
triumph  at  a  discovery,    See  Axchiuedes. 

EUREKA,  CaL  city,  county-seat  of  Hum- 
boldt Comity,  on  Humboldt  Bay,  the  Eel  River 
and  the  Northwestern  Pacific  Railroad,  225  miles 
northwest  of  San  Francisco.  It  has  a  fine  har- 
bor, which  has  been  improved  by  the  United 
States  gtjvertmient  on  the  jetty  plan.  The  city 
is  situated  in  the  famous  redwood  region,  and 
has  large  lumber  interests.  Sequoia  Park,  a 
tract  of  40  acres  of  redwood  forest,  is  near  the 
city.  The  noteworthy  features  are  the  Carnegie 
library.  Federal  building,  county  jail,  hospital, 
city  hall  and  courthouse.  An  extensive  trade 
is  carried  on  in  redwood  lumber,  shingles,  but- 
ter, fish,  apples  and  wool,  the  exports  in  1912 
amounting  to  $10,960,000.  There  are  shingle 
mills,  tobacco  factories,  bottling  works,  sash  and 
door  factories,  marble  and  granite  works,  a  tan- 
nery, iron  foundry,  woolen  mill,  etc  The  United 
Stales  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  showed 
within  the  city  limits  57  industrial  establish- 
ments emplo^ng  928  persons;  799  beins  wage 
earners  receiving  annually  a  total  of  ^05,000 
in  wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated 
$2,976,000,  and  the  year's  output  was  valued  at 
g480,000;  of  this.  $1,263,000  was  the  value 
added  by  manufacture.  The  government,  under 
a  charter  of  1895.  is  vested  in  a  maj^r,  elected 
biennially,  and  a  municipal  council.  First  settled 
in  1850,  Eureka  became  the  coun^  seat  and 
was  incorporated  in  1856,  Tfae  ci^  has  gas  and 
electric  lights,  high  schools,  daily  and  weddy 
newspapers,  and  five  banks.    Pop.   13,768. 

EUREKA,  111.,  city  and  eounty-s*at  of 
Woodford  County,  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Toledo,  Peoria  and 
Western  railroads,  20  miles  east  of  Peoria. 
Eureka    College,    under   the   auspices    of    the 


nzo.h,  Google 


EURBKA—  BUSIPIDB8 


BTO 


Christian  Church,  wu  cstabliahed  in  1855.  The 
city  is  a  trade  centre  for  the  nuroundinK  agri- 
cultural community.  Eureka  was  incorporated 
as  A  town  in  1856.  The  waterworks  kre  owoed 
by  the  nunidpality.     Poi>.  1,525. 

EUREKA,  Kan.,  city,  county-seat  of  Green- 
wood County,  on  Fall  River,  and  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Mis- 
souri Pacific  railroads,  about  58  miles  north- 
cast  of  Wichita,  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Southern 
Kansas  Academy,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Congregational  Qiurch.  There  is  a  Carnegie 
library.  The  city  is  a  trade  centre  for  3ie 
surrounding  rich  agricultural  region.    Eureka 


road.  It  was  once  a  productive 
producing  great  quantities  of  lead,  gold  and 
silver;  and  many  other  valuable  minerals.  The 
town  has  numerous  and  important  smelting  and 
refining  works.  Because  of  severe  fires,  de- 
stroying a  large  portion  of  the  place,  the  popula- 
tion decreased  from  5,000  in  1880  to  661  in 
1910. 


^  mbed  in  fte 
neigh  borbood.    Pop  3,416. 

EUREKA  COLLEGE,  coeducational  in- 
stitution in  Eureka,  111. ;  founded  in  1855  imder 
the  auspices  of  the  Christian  Church ;  reported 
at  the  close  of  1915:  Professors  and  instruc- 
tors, 26;  students"  273;  and  volumes  in  the 
library,  12,000. 

EUREKA  SPRINQS,  Ark.,  city  and  counly- 
seat  of  OmtoH  County,  on  the  Jefferson  High- 
way and  the  Missouri  and  North  Arkansas 
Railroad,  175  miles  northwest  of  Little  Rock. 
It  is  a  noted  health  and  pleasure  resort  to  which 
30,000  visitors  come  annually.  The  shipping  of 
water  from  the  spring  is  the  principal  industry. 
It  has  two  benks  with  combined  resources  of 
$550,000,  tHic*ble  property  valued  at  $1,875,000. 

gblic  and  high  schools  and  is  the  seat  of  the 
escent  Cottage  for  Women.  The  chief  pub- 
lic bml(fi[%s  are  the  city  hall.  United  States 
post  office  and  the  county  courthouse.  It  has 
also  several  large  hotels  catering  to  tourists. 
The  receipts  of  the  city  amount  to  about 
$I8/XI0  annually.  The  commission  form  of  gov- 
ernment is  in  operation.    Pop.  3,800. 

EDRIC,  a  king  of  the  Visigoths  (q.v.). 

BUKINGER,  oi'ring-er,  Sebastian.  German 
Semitic  scholar:  b.  Au^burg,  1865.  He  was 
educated  at  Munich.  Heidelberg,  Freiburg, 
Strassburg,  Tiibingen  and  at  the  Ecole  Biblique 
'  Pratique  at  Jerusalem.  He  entered  the  min- 
istry in  1887  and  preached  for  two  jfcars,  after 
which  he  toured  Egypt  and  Palestine.  From 
1894  to  1900  he  held  a  pastorate  near  Augsburg 

'  '  1  the  latter  year  was  appointed  professor 


(1900);  'Die  Oironologie  der  bibU- 
schen  Urgcschichle*  (1909)  ;  'Die  Kunstform 
der  althebraischen  Poesie>  (1912) ;  'Ein  un- 
kanoniscber   Text  in  der  annenischen   Bibel* 

(1913). 

EURIPIDES,  son  of  Mnesarchus.  a  retail 
dealer  of  the  Attic  villajte,  Phlya :  b,  480  B.C. 
on  the  island  of  Salamis,  and,  according  to 
tradition,  on  the  day  of  the  famous  battle;  d. 
406.  His  mother's  name  was  Clito,  which  indi- 
cates aristocratic  lineage.  Under  the  influence 
of  his  father  Euripides  first  paid  attention,  to 
athletics,  then  to  painting,  and  finally  to  philos- 
ophy. He  learned  much  from  Protagoras, 
from  Prodicus  and  from  Anaxagoras,  with 
whom  he  holds  that  nothing  which  exists  per- 
ishes. The  poet  entered  upon  his  real  career 
at  25.  His  first  success  was  limited,  but  he 
became   more  and  more  the    favorite  of   the 


was  extraordinary.  Later  comedy  was  based 
on  his  methods.  The  Romans  had  a  strong 
predilection  for  him.  In  modem  times  the 
admiration  for  Euripides  was  unbounded  until 
Schlegel  set  up  a  standard  against  him.  But 
Schlepel  is  unfair:  a  poet  must  be  measured 
by  his  aims.  Nevertheless,  the  poet's  works 
failed  at  first  to  win  the  approval  of  the 
Athenians.  He  was  unsuccessful  until  he  was 
38,  and  he  won  only  five  first  priEes  in  his 
whole  life.  He  was  also  personally  unpopular, 
for  he  was  essentially  a  pessimist.  He  felt 
that  the  evil  in  hfe  was  not  counterpoised  by 
good.  He  loved  retirement  and  sequestration 
from  open  haunts  and  popularity:  preferred 
the  contemplative  life  of  the  student  to  the 
active  life  of  the  statesman.  He  even  aci^uired 
the  reputation  of  being  a  morose  cynic,  vicious 
in  his  private  life  despite  his  austere  exterior. 
His  gloomy  visage,  rendered  doubly  so  b^  un- 
happy domestic  relations,  was  not  attractive  to 
the  Athenians,  who  detested  an  unsociable  dis- 

Esition.  So  he  lived  the  life  of  a  recluse;  on 
I  estate  at  Salamis,  rapt  in  secret  ttndies. 
His  library  was  dukedom  enough  for  him. 
Late  in  his  Hfe  he  repaired  to  me  court  of 
Archelausj  Idne  of  Macedonia,  Here  he  died 
in  40&  The  Macedonians  built  him  a  magnifi- 
cent tomb  at  Pella.  The  Athenians  erected  for 
him   a  cenotaph   in   Athens. 

Euripides  is  the  most  rhetorical  of  the  three 
tra^c  poets,  because  he  is  most  affected  by  the 
spirit  of  the  new  school.  He  is  the  representa- 
tive of  the  new  Athens,  of  the  new  ideas 
which  were  crowding  out  the  simpler  beliefs  of 
the  £schylean  and  Sophodeao  school.  Eurip- 
ides is  nearer  ourselves.  He  marks  the 
transition  to  the  modem  world.  The  antique 
standard  cannot  be  applied  to  him.  With 
Alfred  de  Musset  he  tmeht  have  said:  "je  ue 
puis  m'  enfuir  hors  de  rhumanite."  His  heart 
IS  fuU  of  compassion  for  the  poor.  None  Is 
too  lowly  for  his  Alcestis  to  address,  w  she 
bids  farewell  to  the  household.  Euripides  was 
the  first  dramatic  poet  to  hold  aloof  from  the 
world.  But  the  motive  was  not  pure  indiffer- 
ence: he  spoke  to  a  larger  audience.  No 
tragedian  treated  a  greater  number  of  patriotic 
themes ;  but  he  had  no  affection  tor  the 
demagogue.  The  pomp  and  glory  of  war  had 
no  fascination  for  him.  The  suffering  of  all 
humanity  appeals   to  his.  generous  heart.     In 


jOOgIc 


SVBIPUS  —  SimOPA 


the  cDsfflopolitanism  of  Socrates,  traces  of 
which  we  find  in  Euripides,  he  anticipates 
Goethe.  A  poetic  associate  of  the  sojAists,  he 
was  naturally  not  orthodox.  He  did  not  act- 
ually deoy  the  existence  of  the  gods  —  that 
were  dangerous  in  Athens  and  in  the  theatre 
impossible.  Euripides  simply  puts  the  question 
to  his  audience  and  so  troubles  their^  souls. 
He  shrinks  from  discussing  no  question  of 
heaven  or  earth.  Toward  the  dose  of  his 
life  he  is  supposed  to  have  drawn  nearer 
to  the  religion  of  his  fathers,  but  the  only 
mbnumenl  of  this  change  is  that  remarlcable 
play,  the  'Bacch«.'  No  chronological  develop- 
ment in  his  religious  views  can  be  shown.  He 
was  a  skeptic  and  a  seeker  after  truth,  but  not 
a  creative  philosopher.  No  other  poet  gives 
us  a  belter  conception  of  what  the  truth-seek- 
ing Athenian  knew  and  reed. 

Much  has  been  written  about  the  poet's 
hatred  of  women.  But  we  have  only  to  read 
the  'Alcestis,'  or  'Iphigenia,'  to  discover  that  he 
can  portray  the  noblest  types  of  womanhood. 
Euripides  knew  le  mat  qtie  Pent  faire  »ne 
femme,  but  no  man  understood  better  the  ca- 

Sibilities  of  woman's  nature.  He  is  the  first 
reek  after  Homer  that  showed  any  approach 
to  a  just  conception  of  what  under  normal  cir- 
cumstances woman  may  and  should  be  to  so- 
ciety. True,  he  assailed  fiercely  a  certain  type 
of  woman,  but  this  does  not  prove  that  the 
women  of  his  time  were  eipeaally  depraved. 
Often  the  condemnation  is  due  to  the  dramatic 
situation.  He  does  satirixe  the  women  of  his 
time  for  their  gossiping  disposition,  for  their 
cleverness  and  for  their  love  of  slander  with 
a  persistence  that  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  his  in- 
tentions; but,  being  a  pessimist,  his  mind  em- 
I^asized  the  bad  rather  than  the  good. 

The  plays  of  Euripides  are  not  so  subtle  in 
structure  as  those  of  Sophocles.  He  cared 
more  for  striking  situations  than  for  articulated 
plots,  more  for  fliritling  scenes  than  for  unity 
and  symmetry  of  the  whole.  But  he  made  a 
special  study  of  the  recognition  as  leading  to 
the  dfaouement.  Another  innovation  of  Eu- 
ripides was  the  introduction  of  the  prologue. 
In  the  very  beginning  he  gives  the  entire  set- 
ting of  the  {nece,  relates  all  the  circumstances. 
This  mechanical  opening  has  been  criticised  as 
flat  and  jejune.  But  he  worked  on  a  diiferent 
plan  from  Soi^ocles.  Like  Lessing,  he  be- 
lieved that  the  audience  should  know  more 
than  the  characters  themselves.  He  <Usdained 
to  excite  vulgar  curiosity.  So  he  conceived 
the  prologue  as  an  integral  part  of  the  play. 
Moreover,  he  leaves  the  most  important  part 
tuitold;  the  audience  does  not  Imow  at  the 
outset  how  the  poet  proposes  to  treat  the 
myth ;  hence  the  pleasure  of  surprise  is  not 
entirely  laddng.  The  audience  enjoys  also 
Ae  sudden  revelations  to  the  individual  char- 
acters. Furthermore,  the  Greeks  cared  more 
for  the  quiet  contemplation  of  situations  dian 
we  do.  Nevertheless,  this  practice  of  be^nning 
the  play  with  a  prologue  became  a  mannerism 
and  was  justly  ridiculed  by  Aristophanes.  Eu- 
ripides' plays  have  also  a  mechanical  ending  — 
when  the  conflict  seems  insoluble,  the  deus  ex 
machina  interfers  expressly  to  solve  diffi- 
culties, to  cut  the  cords  alwain  (hat  seem  too 
int rinse  to  loose.  This  is  not  high  antique 
art;    but    the    flaw-hunters    unduly    emphasize 


the  defect  Many  of  the  playt  also  break  b 
two  in  the  mid<fie.  This  is,  indeed,  a  faoh. 
Nevertheless,  the  scenes  are  interesting,  some- 
times stirring.  Often  the  thoughts  expressed 
are  not  adapted  to  the  speaker;  and  the  choral 
odes  frequently  seem  irrelevant  The  poet's 
monodies  constitute  an  imdue  proportion  of  die 
lyrical  element. 

We  have  80  titles  of  plays,  but  vety  few 
fixed  dates.  There  are  19  extant  dramas— 18 
tragedies  and  one  satyr  drama  ('Cyclops'). 
The  'Rhesus,'  regularly  printed  in  the  editions 
of  the  Euripidean  corpus,  is  certainly  not  by  Eu- 
ripides. The  earliest  extant  play  is  the 
<AlcestiB>  (438) :  the  most  famous  is  the 
'Medea*  (431)  ;  but  probably  the  two  greatest 
tragedies  are  the  'Hippolytus'  (428)  and  the 
'Bacchx*  (4(?).  One  of  the  most  mteresting 
is  the  'Iidii^enia  in  Tauris'  (414)  and  the 
most  charming  the  'Ion'  (about  416).  The 
other  plays  with  approximate  dates  are 
'Iphigenia  in  AuUs>  (407),  'Orestes'  (408), 
'Phoaiissae'  (410),  'Helen'  (412),  'Electra' 
(413),  'Troades*  (415),  'Andromache'  (417). 
'Heracles'  (418).  'Supplices'  (420),  'Hecuba' 
(424),  'Heraclid*'  (430).  See  AtcKTis; 
Medea. 

Joseph  E.  Hakxy, 
Author  of  'The  Greek  Traffic  Potlt} 

BURIPU8,  fi-rrp&s,  in  ancient  geography. 
the  strait  between  me  island  of  Eubcxa  ami 
the  mainland,  Bceotia  in  Greece.  At  Gialds,  the 
width  at  the  narrowest  part  was  120  feet  The 
term  Euripus  is  also  sometimes  applied  to  the 
southeast  part  of  the  Eubtean  CHiannel. 

EUROCLYDON.  u-r6k1I-d5n,  a  tempestu- 
ous wind  that  frequently  blows  in  the  Levant, 
and  which  was  the  occasion  of  the  disastrous 
shipwreck  of  the  vessel  in  which  Saint  Paul 
sailed,  as  narrated  in  Acts  xxvii,  14-44.  In  the 
form  in  which  the  word  is  found  in  the  re- 
vised version  it  must  be  taken  as  made  up  of 
the  two  Greek  words,  euros,  the  east  or  rather 
southeast  wind,  and  klydOn,  a  wave.  But  the 
word  used  for  it  in  the  Vulgate  is  Euro-aquUo, 
a  I,atin  compound  signifying  a  northeast  wind; 
and  some  of  the  best  M55.  have  the  reading 
Eurakyldn  instead  of  Eurociydon,  which  is  ac- 
cepted bv  scrnie  scholars  as  the  preferable  read- 
ing. Whatever  may  have  been  the  true  form  of 
die  word,  it  was  applied  to  a  northeast  or 
north-northeast,  and  not  an  east  or  southeast 
wind,  as  the  course  taken  by  the  vessel  referred 
to  indicates.  Exactly  such  a  wind  is  described 
t^   sailors  of   the  present  day  as  prevalent  t 


EUROPA,  u-ro'pa,  in  Greek  mythdt^jf. 
the  daughter  of  Agenor  or  of  Fhcenlx,  IdngoE 
the  Phcenicians,  and  a  sister  of  Cadmus,  The 
fable  relates  that  she  was  abducted  by  Jupiter, 
who  assumed  the  form  of  a  bull,  and  swam 
with  his  prize  to  the  island  of  Crete.  Here 
Europa  bore  to  him  Minos,  Sarpedon  and 
Rhadamanthlus.  Zebus  made  her  miraculous 
presents,  Talos  (a  bronze  man),  a  dog  that 
always  kept  track  of  bis  prey  and  a  spear  that 
never  missed  its  mark  By  his  order  also  she 
became  the  wife  of  Asterius,  king  of  Crete. 
As  Hetlotia,  Europa  was  wonhipped  in  Crete 
in  the  capacity  of  oie  goddess  of  fertility.    Sbe 


,v  Google 


.yGooi^le 


Dgitiz.chyGoOt^IC 


'^u-i^' 


„Googla 


BUROPA  —  BUROPB 


581 


Topography ^— Eunpc  fonos  a  huge  petiin- 


die  Atlantic  Ocean;  on  the  south  by  dte  Med- 
itemnean,  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caiicosui 
Ran^;  on  the  cast  by  the  Casp»n  Sea,  the  Ural 
River  and  the  Ural  Monntaiiu.  The  most 
northerly  point  on  the  mainland  is  Cape  Nord- 
kyo,  in  Lapland,  in  lit  71°  £/  N.;  the  most 
southerly  pomts  are  Ponta  da  Tarifa,  lat.  36°  N^ 
and  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  Cape  Hatapan, 
lat  36°  17',  vhich  terminatei  &eece.  The 
most  we>te|^  point  is  Cape  Roca  in  Portugal, 
in  lonR.  9°  ZS  W:,  while  Ekaterinburg  is  in  long. 
60°  36^  E.  From  Cape  Matapan  to  North  Cape 
is  a  direct  distance  of  2,400  miles,  from  Cape 
Saint  Vincent  to  Ekaterinburg,  northeast  by  east, 
3,400  miles ;  area  of  the  continent,  about  3,f«X),000 
square  miles.  Great  Britain  and  IrelancL  Ice- 
land, Nova  Zembla,  Corsica,  Sardonia,  Sicily, 


shores  are  very  much  indented,  giving  Europe 
an  immense  leosth  of  coast  line  (estimated  at 
nearly  SO.OOOmiles).  The  chief  seas  or  arms  of 
Ae  sea  are  the  White  Sea  on  the  north;  the 
North  Sea,  or  the  German  Ocean,  on  the  west, 
from  whidi  branches  off  the  great  gulf  or  in- 
land sea  known  as  the  Baltic;  the  English  Chan- 
nel, between  En^nd  and  France ;  the  Mediter- 
ranean, conunnmcating  with  the  Atlantic  by  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar  (at  one  point  only  19  miles 
wide) ;  the  Adriatic  and  the  JEgean  seas, 
branching  off  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Black  Sea,  connected  with  the  JE^ean  Sea 
tbrough  tlie  Hellespont,  Sea  of  Marmora  and 
Bosporus. 

The  mountains  form  several  distinct  groups 
or  systems  of  very  different  geological  dates, 
the  loftiest  mountain  masses  being  in  the  south 
centra]  region.  The  Scandinavian  mountains  in 
the  northwest,  to  which  the  great  northern 
peninsula  owes  its  form,  extend  above  900  miles 
from  the  Polar  Sea  to  the  southern  point  of 
Norway.  The  highest  summits  are  about  8,000 
feet.  The  Alps,  the  highest  mountains  in  Eu- 
rope (unless  Mount  Elbruz  in  the  Caucasus  is 
claimed  as  European),  extend  from  the  Medi- 
terranean first  in  a  northerly  and  then  in  an 
easterly  direction,  and  attain  their  greatest  ele- 
vation in  Mont  Blanc  (15,781  feet),  Monte 
Rosa  and  other  summits.  Branching  off  from 
the  Alps,  though  not  geologically  connected 
vilb  them,  are  the  Apennines,  which  run  south- 
east, through  Italy,  constituting  the  central  ridge 
of  tne  peninsula.  The  hi^est  summit  is  Monte 
Corno  (9,541  feet).  Mount  Vesuvius,  the  cele- 
brated volcano  in  the  south  of  the  peninsula, 
is  quite  distinct  from  the  Apennines.  By  south- 
eastern ex  tensions  the  Alps  are  connected  with 
the  B^kan  and  the  Despoto-Dagh  of  the  south- 
eastern peninsula  of  Europe.  Among  the  moun- 


tains of  southwestern  Europe  are  seveial  mas- 
sive chains,  the  loftiest  sumftiits  betUK  in  the 
Pyrenees,  and  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  the  soui 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  The  highest  point  in 
the  former.  La  Maladetta  or  Mont  Uaudit,  has 
an  elevation  of  11,165  feet;  Mulahaven,  in  the 
latter,  is  11,703  feet,  and  capped  by  per- 
petual snow.  West  and  northwest  of  the  Alps 
are  the  Cevennes,  Jura  and  Vosges;  north  and 
northeast,  the  Hara,  the  Thurin^rwald  Moun- 
tains the  Fichtelgebirge,  the  Erzgebirge  and 
Bohmerwaldgebirge.  Farther  to  tibe  east  the 
Carpathian  chain  encloses  the  great  plain  of 
Hungary,  attaining  an  elevation  of  8,000  or 
8,500  feet.  The  Ural  Mountains  between  Eu- 
rope and  Asia  reach  the  height  of  5,540  feet 
Besides  Vesuvius  two  other  volcanoes  are  Etna 
in  Sicilv,  and  Hecta  in  Iceland.  A  great  part 
of  nortnem  and  eastern  Europe  is  level.  The 
■great  plain"  of  North  Europe  occupies  part  of 
Prance,  western  and  northern  Belgium,  Hol- 
land the  northern  provinces  of  Germany,  and 
the  greater  part  of  Russia.  A  large  portion 
of  this  plain,  extending  through  Holland  and 
North  Germany,  is  a  low  sandy  level  not  in- 
frequently protected  from  inroads  of  the  »ea 
only  by  means  of  strong  dykes.  The  other 
great  plains  of  Europe  are  the  plain  of  Lom- 
bardy  (the  most  fertile  district  in  Europe) 
and  the  plain  of  Hun^Riy.  Part  of  southern 
and  southeastern  Russia  consists  of  steppes. 

Rivera  and  Laket,— The  main  European 
watershed  runs  in  a  winding  direction  from 
southwest  to  northeast,  at  its  northeastern  ex- 
tremity being  of  very  slight  elevation.  From 
the  Alps  descend  some  oi  the  lar^st  of  the 
European  rivers,  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone  and  the 
Po,  while  the  Danube,  a  still  greater  stream, 
rises  in  the  Black  Forest  north  of  the  Alps. 
The  Volga,  which  enters  the  Caspian  Sea,  an 
inland  sheet  without  outlet,  is  the  longest  of 
European  rivers,  having  a  direct  length  of 
nearly  1,700  miles,  including  windings  of  2,400 
miles.  Into  the  Mediterranean  flow  the  Ebro, 
the  Rhone  and  the  Po;  into  the  Black  Sea,  die 
Danube,  Dnieper  Dniester  and  Don  (through 
the  Sea  of  Azov)  ;  into  the  Atlantic,  the  GuiSl- 
quivir,  the  Guadiaua,  the  Tagus  and  Loire; 
into  the  English  Channel,  the  Seine-  into  the 
North  Sea,  the  Rhine,  Elbe;  into  the  Baltic,  die 
Oder,  the  Vistula  and  the  Duna;  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  the  Dwina.  The  lakes  of  Europe 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  the  southern 
and  the  northern.  The  former  nm  along  both 
sides  of  the  Alps,  and  among  them,  on  the  north 
side,  are  the  lakes  of  (jeneva,  Neuchatel,  Thun, 
Lucerne,  Ziirich  and  Constance;  on  the  south 
side,  Lago  Maggiore,  and  the  lakes  of  Como, 
Lugano,  Iseo  and  Garda.  The  northern  lakes 
extend  across  Sweden  from  west  to  east,  and 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Baltic  a  number  of 
lakes,  stretching  in  the  same  direction  across 
Finland  on  the  borders  of  Russia,  mark  the 
continuation  of  the  line  of  depression.  It  b  in 
Russia  that  the  largest  European  lakes  are 
founds  Lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega, 

Geology. —  The  geological  features  of 
Europe  are  exceedingly  varied  The  older 
formations  prevail  in  the  northern  part  as 
compared  with  the  southern  half  and  the 
middle  region.  North  of  the  latitude  of  F-din. 
burgh  and  Moscow  there  is  verv  little  of  the 
surface  of  more  recent  origin  tnan  the  strata 


■gle 


of  the  upper  jura  belonging  to  the  Mesoioic 
Period,  and  there  are  vast  tracts  occupied  either 
by  eruptive  rocks  or  one  or  other  of  the  older 
sedimentary  formations,  Denmark  and  the  por- 
tions of  Germany  adjoining  belong  to  the  Creta- 
ceous Period,  as  does  also  a  large  part  of  Russia 
between  the  Volga  and  the  basin  of  the  Dnieper. 
Middle  and  eastern  Germany  with  Poland  and 
the  valley  of  the  Dnieper  present  on  the  sur- 
face Eocene  formations  of  the  Tertiary  Period. 
The  remainder  of  Europe  is  remarkable  tor 
the  great  diversity  of  its  superficial  structure, 
rocks  and  deposits  belonging  lo  all  periods  being 
found  within  it,  and  having  for  the  most  part 
no  great  superficial  extent,  Europe  possesses 
abundant  stares  of  those  minerals  which  are  of 
moat  importance  to  man,  such  as  coal  and  iron, 
Great  Britain  being  particularly  favored  in  this 
respect.  Coal  and  iron  are  also  obtained  in 
France,  Belgium  and  Germany.  Gold  is  found 
to  an  unimportant  extent,  and  silver  is  widely 
spread  in  small  quantities.  The  richest  silver 
ores  are  in  Norway,  Spain,  the  Erzgebir^e  and 
the  Harz  Mountains.  Spain  is  also  nch  in 
quicksilver.  Copper  ores  arc  abundant  in  the 
Uial  Mountains,  Thuringia,  Cornwall  and  Spain. 
Tin  ores  are  found  in  Cornwall,  the  Erzge- 
birge  and  Brittany. 

Cliauitc,— Several  circumstances  concur  to 
^ve  Europe  a  climate  peculiarljr  genial,  such  as 
Its  position  almost  wholly  withm  the  temperate 
zone,  and  the  great  extent  of  its  maritime 
boundaries.  Much  benefit  is  also  derived  from 
the  fact  that  its  shores  are  exposed  to  the  warm 
marine  currents  and  warm  winds  from  the 
southwest,  which  prevent  the  formation  of  ice 
on  most  of  its  northern  shores.  The  eastern 
portion  has  a  less  favorable  climate  than  (he 
western.  The  extremes  of  temperature  are 
greater,  the  summer  being  hotter  and  the  winter 
colder,  while  the  lines  of  equal  mean  temper- 
ature decline  south  as  we  go  east  The  same 
adrantages  of  mild  and  genial  temperature 
which  western  has  over  eastern  Europe,  the 
continent  collectively  has  over  the  rest  of  the 
Old  World.  The  diminution  of  mean  temper- 
ature, as  wdl  as  the  intensity  of  die  opposite 
seasons,  increases  as  we  go  east,  Peking,  in 
iat.  40*  N,  has  as  severe  a  winter  as  Petrograd 
in  Iat.  60°. 

Botanr< — With  respect  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom  Europe  may  be  divided  into  four  zones. 
The  first,  or  most  northern,  is  that  oi  fir  and 
birch.  The  birch  reaches  almost  to  North  Cape; 
the  fir  ceases  a  degree  farther  south.  The  culti- 
vation of  grain  extends  farther  north  than 
might  be  supposed.  Barley  ripens  even  mider 
the  70th  parallel  of  north  latitude;  wheat 
ceases  at  64°  in  Norway  to  Iat,  62°  in  Sweden. 
Within  this  zone  the  southern  limit  of  which  ex- 
tends from  Iat.  64°  in  Norway  to  Iat  62*  Russia, 
agriculture  has  little  imi)ortance,  its  inhabitants 
being  chiefly  occupied  with  the  care  of  reindeer 
or  cattle,  and  in  fishing.  The  next  zone,  which 
may  be  called  that  of  the  oak  and  beech,  and 
cereal  produce,  extends  from  the  limit  above 
mentioned  to  the  48th  parallel.  The  Alps, 
thou^  beyond  the  limit,  by  reason  of  their  ele- 
vation belong  to  this  zone,  in  the  moister  parts 
of  which  cattle  husbandry  has  been  brought  to 
perfection.  Next  we  find  the  zone  of  the  chest- 
nut and  vine,  occupying  the  space  between  the 
48th  parallel  and  the  moimtain  chains  of  south- 


em  Europe.  Mere  At  oak  still  llatirislMs,  hot 
the  pine  species  become  rarer.  Rye.  which  char- 
acterizes the  preceding  zone  on  the  continent, 
gives  way  to  wheat,  and  in  the  southern  portion 
of  it  to  maize  also.  The  fourth  zone,  compre- 
hending the  southern  peninauk,  is  that  of  the 
olive  and  evergreen  woods.  The  orange,  lemon 
and  olive  flourish  in  the  southern  portion  of 
it,  and  rice  is  cultivated  in  a  few  spots  in  Italy 
and  Spain, 

Zoology. —  As  regards  animals  the  reindeer 
and  polar  bears  are  peculiar  to  the  north.  In 
the  forests  of  Poland  and  Lithuania  the  urus, 
a  species  of  wild  ox,  is  still  occasionally  met 
with.  Bears  and  wolves  still  inhabit  the  forests 
and  mountains;  but,  in  general,  cultivation  and 
population  have  expelled  wild  animals.  The  do- 
mesticated animals  are  nearly  the  same  throu^ 
out  The  ass  and  muie  lose  ueir  size  and  beauty 
north  of  the  Pyrenees  and  Alps.  The  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  has  many  species  of  fish,  but  no 
great  fishery;  the  Dortheiu  seas,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  annually  filled  with  countless  shoals 
of  a  few  species,  chiefly  the  bcrrinfe  mackerel, 
cod  and  saunon. 

iDbafaitants. —  Europe  u  occupied  by  several 
different  peoples  or  races,  in  many  parts  now 
greatly  intermingled  The  Celts  once  possessed 
the  west  of  Europe  from  the  Al^  to  the  British 
Islands.  But  the  Celtic  nationalities  were 
broken  by  the  wave  of  Roman  conquest,  and  the 
succeeding  invasions  of  the  Gennamc  tribes 
completed  their  political  ruin.  At  the  present 
day  the  Celtic  language  is  spoken  only  in  the 
Scotch  highlands  (GaeUc),  in  some  parts  of 
Ireland  (Irish),  in  Wales  (Cymric)  and  in 
Brittany  (Armorican).  Next  to  Uie  Celtic 
comes  the  Teutonic  lac^  con^rehending  the 
Germanic  and  Scandinavian  bnancfaes.  The 
former  includes  the  Getmans,  the  Dutch  and 
the  Enf^ish.  The  Scandinavians  are  divided 
into  Danes,  Swedes  and  Norwegians.  To  the 
east,  in  general,  of  the  Teutonic  race,  though 
sometimes  mixed  witli  it,  come  the  Slavoiuans, 
Aat  is,  the  Russians,  the  Poles,  the  Czechs  or 
Bohemians,  the  Serbians,  Croatians,  etc.  In  the 
sOuth  and  southeast  of  Europe  are  (he  Greek 
and  Latin  peoples,  the  latter  comprising  the  Ital- 
ians, French,  Spanish  and  Portuguese.  All 
these  peoples  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
Indo-European  or  Aryan  stock.  To  the  Mon- 
golian stock  belong  the  Turks,  Finns,  Lapps 
and  Magyars  or  Hungarians,  all  imnagranii 
into  Europe  in  comparatively  recent  times.  The 
Basques  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Pyre- 
nees are  a  people  whose  affinities  have  not  yet 
been  detennined.  The  total  population  of 
Europe  is  about  425,000,000;  nine-tenths  speak 
the  languages  of  die  Indo-Enropean  family,  the 
Teutonic  group  numbering  about  tO8,0O9,00(^ 
the  Slavonic  and  Latin  over  95,000,000  each 
The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Christian,  em- 
bracing the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  various 
Protestant  bodies  and  the  Greek  Church.  A 
part  of  the  inhabitants  profess  the  Jewish,  a 
part  the  Mohammedan  religion. 

Political  Dlviriona.— The  states  of  Europe, 
with  their  respective  areas  and  populations,  are 
as  shown  below. 

Area  and  Poptdation.— The  following  table 
shows  the  countnes  with  their  Bovemment  area 
and  population  according  to  'The  Statesman's 
Year  Book>  (1916). 


.lOOglc 


.yGooi^le 


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1 

''ili 

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.yGooi^le 


.yGooi^le 


ZVROPK  —  BURTCLEA 


COUMTUES 

A™mEna.Sq.M. 

PopuUtim 

20  .054 
20B,TS0 
121,391 

imIuo 

1,U   .SZ4 

li 

'  10.B82 
19.768 

niig»r7 

Em  ■ 

PUB 

(1012)1, -MI. *ll 

BIblioKnphT-— Adams,  "European  Hislory' 
(1899);  Allison,  "History  of  Europe>  (1853); 
Biyce,  'The  Holy  Roman  Empire*  (1877); 
Duruy  'General  Hislory*  (1898);  Dyer,  'His- 
tory of  Modem  Europe'  (1901);  Fyffe,  'His- 
tory of  Modern  Europe'  (1890)  ;  Freeman, 
'Historical  Geography  of  Europe'  (1881) ; 
Gibbon,  'Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire' (ed.  1902)  ;  Hassell,  'Handbook  of  Euro- 
pean History'  (1897);  Lodge,  'History  of 
Modem  Europe'  (1885)  ;  May,  'Democracy  in 
Europe'  (1877);  McCarthy,  'History  of  Our 
Own  Times*  (I^):  Munroe,  'History  of  the 
Middle  Ages'  (1902):  Rose,  'A  Century  of 
Continental  History'  (1880)  ;  Robinson,  "His- 
tory of  Western  Europe'  (1902) :  Schnill, 
•History  of  Modem  Europe'  (1902)  ;  'Cam- 
bridge Modem  History'  (14  vols.,  New  York 
1902-12)  ;  Herre.  'Quellenkunde  lur  Well- 
gcschichte*  (Leipzig  1910)  ;  Stanford,  'Com- 
pendium of  Geography  and  Travel'  (13  vols., 
London  1907). 

EUROPEAN  CITIES,  Goremment  of. 
See  Cmes,  European,  Govebnmekt  of. 

EUROPEAN  FURNITURE.  See  Furni- 
TUBE,  Meia^cvAi. 

EXntOPEAN  HISTORY.  For  outline  of 
European  history  from  the  earliest  period  to  the 
present  time  see  History,  Ancient  ;  History, 
Meni^vAL;  History,  Modern.  See  also  the  arti- 
cles on  the  Centuries  — First  Century;  Second 
Century,  etc.,  and  the  history  of  the  various 
nations  under  their  own  titles. 

EUROPHEN,  a  yellow  powder  containing 
27.6  per  cent  of  iodine.  Heat  and  moisture  ap- 
plied set  the  iodine  free.  Europhen  is  easily 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether  or  chloroform,  but  is 
insoluble  in  water  In  action  it  is  similar  to 
iodofomi,  to  which  it  is  often  preferred  be- 
cause of  its  pleasant  odor. 

EUROPIUM,  a  chemical  element  found  in 
small  quantities  in  monazite  sand.  Its  symbol 
is  Eu;  atomic  weight,  152;  it  is  known  in  the 
metallic  state. 

EUROTAS,  u-ro'tas,  or  IRI.  a  river  of 
southern  Greece   (Peloponnesus),  at  one  time 


called  the  Iris  and  Niris  in  the  upper  and  the 
Basilipotamo  (King's  River)  in  the  lower  part 
of  its  course.  It  flows  in  a  southerly  direction 
through  the  valley  between  the  ranges  of 
Taygetus  and  Parnon,  and  enters  the  Gulf  of 
Kolokytha.  Amyclse  and  Sparta  were  on  the 
Eu  rotas. 

KUKOTIA,  a  genus  of  the  goosetoot 
family  (ChenopodiaretF),  which  comprises  two 
or  three  species,  one  of  which,  E.  lanala,  is 
found  in  western  North  America,  and  is  gener- 
ally known  as  white  sage.  It  is  a  Jnany- 
branched  shrub,  from  one  to  three  feet  high, 
the  flowers  densely  covered  with  long  silky 
hairs.  It  is  also  called  winter  fat,  being  used 
by  cattle  as  a  winter  forage. 

EUHOTIUM,  u-ra'shl-uffl,  the  common 
moid  which  appears  on  bread,  preserves,  etc., 
and  often  called  herbarium  mold,  Aspergillus 
is  the  generic  name  now  in  most  general  use. 

EURUS,  the  southeast  wind,  also  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  son  of  Astrteus  and  Eos.  See 
Greek  MvTHOUxnr. 

EURYALE,  fl-rTa-le,  a  genus  of  the  water 
lily  family  (Nymphxacete).  It  has  but  one 
species,  Euryale  ferox,  a  native  of  China  and 
southeastern  Asia.  The  plant  is  covered  with 
spines;  the  flowers  are  small,  red  or  purphsh, 
and  the  leaves  very  large,  sometimes  four  feet 
in  diameter.  The  seeds  are  rich  in  starch,  and 
in  the  native  countries  of  the  slant  are  an 
article  of  commerce,  being  roasted  and  eaten  or 
used  in  soups.  The  root  is  also  eatea  The 
plant  is  hardy  and  will  prow  out  of  doors  in 
America  and  reproduce  itself  as  far  north  as 
Baltimore. 

EORYBIADES,  u'ri-brg-dez.  admiral  of 
the  Spartan  fleet  and  commander  of  the 
united  Greek  fleets  against  the  Persians  in  480 
B.C.  With  ThemistocTes  he  shares  the  glory  of 
the  battle  of  Salamis. 

EURYCLBA,  the  nurse  of  Odysseus,  who 
recogniied  the  latter  on  his  return  by  a  scar 
disclosed  while  washing  bis  feet  and  reported 
the  matter  to  Penelope. 


.lOogle 


BUS  YDIOX — BU8BBIU6 


BURYDICB,  fi-rid'!-5i, 


J  sen>ent.     Her  husband,   inconsolable   for 

ber  loss,  descended  to  the  lower  world,  and,  by 
the  diarms  of  his  lyre,  moved  the  infernal  deities 
to  grant  him  permission  to  bring  her  back.  This 
ibey  grantetf,  on  condition  that  he  would  not 
took  Dack  upon  her  till  he  had  reached  the 
upper  world.  Forgetting  his  protoise,  he  looked 
and  lost  her  forever.  This  ston*  has  often 
formed  a  subject  for  poets  —  as  for  Virgil  in 


modem  ofieras  was  the  'Eurydice'  (Euridice) 
of  Cocdm  and  Peri.  It  was  first  produced  at 
Florence  in  1600.  The  name  Eurydice  was 
borne  by  certain  Macedonian  princesses. 

EURYLOCHUS.    See  Circe. 

EURYHACHU8,  the  son  of  Folybus  and 
a  suitor  of  Penelope.  With  the  other  suitors  be 
was  killed  by  Odysseus. 

BURYHBDON,  Athenian  general.  He  was 
cotnmander  of  a  fteet  at  Corcyra  in  428  B.C., 
and  three  years  later,  with  Soi>hocles,  son  of 
Sostratides,  led  an  expedition  against  Sidly.  On 
arrival  there  they  made  peace  with  Hemiocra- 
tes,  which  the  Athenians  suspected  to  have  been 
brought  about  by_  bribery-  Eurymedon  was 
heavUy  fined,  but  in  414  was  sent  to  reinforce 
the  Athenians  at  Syracuse  and  lost  his  Ii£e 
before  reaching  Sicily. 

EURYHONB,  u-rlm'd-ne,  an  infernal  deity, 
who  gnawed  the  dead  to  the  bones  and  was 
always  grinding  her  teeth.    Also  a  daughter  of 

EURYNOMB,  fl-rln'A-mi,  in  Greek  my- 
thology, the  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  mother 
of  the  Graces  and  of  Zeus,  and  the  wife  of  the 


half  woman  and  half  fish. 

EURYPTBRUS,  Q-rlp'te-rils  a  remarkable 
fossil  arthropod  related  to  the  horseshoe  crab 
{L»»«/wj),  many  genera  and  species  of  which 
occur  in  Palseozoic  rocks  of  western  Europe 
and  eastern  North  America.  They  include  the 
largest  anthropods  known,  and  form  the  family 
Eurypterida  and  order  Eurypterida  of  the  sulv 
dass  Meroilomala  (q.v.).  They  resembled  the 
modem  horseshoe  crabs  in  structure,  but  had 
elon^ted,  often  scorpion-like  bodies,  terminat- 
ing m  B  hinged,  spike-like  or  flattened  tail  or 
tdsoQ.  The  most  remarkable  feature,  however, 
is  the  great  size  they  attained,  some  exceeding 
six  feet  long,  so  that  they  were  well  named  by 
Haeckel  Ctgantostraea.  The  surface  was 
formed  by  a  thin  chitinous  epidermal  skeleton, 
ornamented  by  fine  acalc-lilce  markings,  and 
bearing  upon  the  head-shield  two  large  lateral 
faceted  eyes  and  a  pair  of  median  ocelli.  Be- 
neath the  ccphalo-tborax  are  six  pairs  of  1^, 
the  foremost  prcoral,  the  basal  joints  of  whidi 
serve  as  jaws.  The  last  pair  is  greally  enlarged 
somewhat  flattened  and  terminated  by  an  oval 
plate,  which  suggests  that  these  limbs  served  as 
paddles  in  swimming  but  they  mav  have  been 
otherwise  useful.  InPterygotus  and  some  allied 
genera  the  preoral  limbs  are  modified  info  more 
or  less  antenme-like  organs  terminating  in 
toothed  pincers  (chelx),  no  doubt  for  seizing 
prejr,  etc.  The  ventral  segments  are  13,  of 
which  the  first  two  bear  the  genital  orpins,  and 


the  remainder  leaf-tike  structures  r^nrded  at 
respiratory  and  equivalent  to  the  ■bodcgills'  o[ 
Limuius.  These  extraordinary  crustaceans  are 
found  assodated  with  graptolites,  cephalopods 
and  trilobites  in  the  Ordovician;  with  marine 
cr^istacea  in  the  Silurian;  with  oceanic  fisbes 
in  the  Devonian,  and  with  land  and  fresh-waier 
plants  and  animals  in  the  coal  measures.  Tfaeii 
structure  shows  that  they  must  have  been 
marine  and  good  swimmers;  but  toward  the 
end  of  their  race  they  became  gradually  adapted 
to  brackish  and  even  fresh  water.  The  laiesi 
review  of  the  group  is  in  Elastman's  American 
edition  of  Zittell's  'Text-book  of  Palaron- 
tology>  (1900). 

EURYSTHENES  (u-rTs'th^-nu)  AND 
PROCLES,  pro'cltz,  the  twin  sons  of  Arisio- 
demus,  and  the  progenitors  of  the  two  royal 
lines  of  Sparta,  which  consisted,  of  31 
sovere^s. 

EURYSTHEUS,  fl-rls'thus,  the  son  of 
Stbenelus,  and  king  of  MyceuK,  who,  at  Juno's 
instigation,  ordered  Hercules  to  perform  'lilt 
twelve  labors.*  Hyllus,  the  son  of  Hercules, 
afterward  killed  htm. 

BURYTHHICS.  See  OaaozE,  E»iu 
Jacques. 


Coningsl^,  Lincolnshire,  27  Sept.  1730.  He  ai- 
tracted  much  attention  by  his  'Original  Poems' 
(1714);  'Ode  for  the  New  Year'  (1720).  and 
other  poems.  His  appointment  as  poet  laureate 
in  1718  was  due  to  a  fulsome  poem  on  the 
marriage  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  in  whose 
gift  the  office  lay,  and  was  the  occasion  of  much 
ridicule. 

EUSEBIUS  (fi-sell-iis^  OF  C£- 
SAREA,  surnamed  Pamphili,  Church  historian: 
b,  probably  C«sarea,  Palestine.  264  A-D.  ;  d 
there,  about  349.  He  is  known  as  EuseUiis 
Oesariensis  and  Eusebius  Pamphili,  that  is, 
Pamphilus's  Eusebius  —  a  style  assumed  after 
the  mar^rdom  of  his  instructor,  Saint  Pam- 
philus.  He  was  chosen  bishop  of  Cisarca  314, 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Coundl  of 
Nioea  (325),  and  was  present  at  the  Synods  of 
Antioch  (330J  and  IVre  (335).  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Ongen  and  Jerome  he  was  the  most 
teamed  of  the  fathers,  and  is  regarded  as  the 
father  of  ecclesiastical  history.  Hu  moderation 
procured  him  the  favor  of  Constantine,  who  de- 
clared him  fitted  to  be  the  bishop  of  the  whole 
world.  Though  he  never  subscribed  to  the 
views  held  by  Arius  and  the  Ariajis  regarding 
the  (jodhead  of  Christ,  he  bein^  averse  to  dis- 
cussing the  nature  of  the  Trinity,  was  alwa>-s 
friendTy  toward  them  and  thus  incurred  censure 
as  being  at  best  a  semi-Arian.  Before  the 
rise  of  Arianism  he  wrote  a  Spirited  defense  of 
the  Christian  faith  in  refutation  of  a  book  by 
one  Hierodcs.  who  contended  that  the  noted 
impostor,  Apoilonius  of  Tyana,  was  superior  to 
Jesus  Cnrist  in  sanctity  and  in  miraculous 
powers.  Eusebius  wrote  two  treatises  which 
have  come  down  to  our  time:  (1)  the  'Prepara- 
tion,' and  (2)  the  'Demonstration  of  *<  Gos- 
pel,' visually  designated  by  their  Latin  titles. 
'Prscparatio  Evangelica,'  'Demonstnitio  Evan- 
gelica.'  The  argument  of  the  former  is  uw 
groundlessness  of  idolatry,  the  impostures  of 
the  oracles,   the  monstrous  impieties  of  the 


EU8BBIQ8  OF  BWESA  —  JBUSTIS 


hesthen  mjihalogy  and  iheology ;  and  the  authoc 
shows  that  the  floctrine  of  the  «ni^  of  the 
Godhead  and  the  truth  of  his  revealed  religion 
is  as  ancient  as  the  world.  In  the  'Demon- 
stratio'  the  argument  Is  that  the  law  and  the 

fropbecies  of  the  Jewish  scriptures  clearl; 
oreshow  Jesus  Christ  and  the  GospeL  Of  his 
other  worts  extant  the  chief  is  his  ^History  o£ 
the  Church  from  the  Time  of  Its  Founder  to 
the  j^car  323.'  It  has  the  defect  that  in  it  no 
mention  is  made  of  the  wickedness  or  dis- 
sen»ORS  of  Christians  as  not  bdng  edifying  to 
the  faithful.  See  Schone,  'Die  Weltchronik  des 
Eusebius  in  ihrer  Bearbeitung  durch  Hierony^ 
mus>  (1900). 

BUSKBIUS  OP  JEtMESA,  Greek  ecclesi- 
astic: b.  Edcsssj  d.  Antioch  about  360.  He 
studied  under  Eusebius  of  Oesarea,  and  at 
Alexandria  and  Antioch.  Averse  to  all  theo- 
logical controversies  he  declined  the  bishopric 
of  Alexandria  vacant  by  the  deposition  of 
Athanasius.  He  was  afterward^  however,  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Emesa,  in  Syria,  but  was 
twice  driven  away  by  his  flock,  who  accused 
him  of  sorcery  on  account  of  hiS  astronomical 
studies.  The  homilies  extant  under  his  name 
are  probably  spurious. 

BUSBBIUS  EMHBRAN.  See  Dauueb, 
Geobg  Fbiedhich. 

BUSBBIUS  OF  NICOUEDIA,  Arian 
bishop :  d.  Constantinople  342.  He  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  of  Beryta  (Beirut)  in  Syria  and 
afterward  of  Nicomedia.  He  appeared  as  the 
defender  of  Arius  at  the  Council  of  Nice  and 
afterward  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Arian  party.  He  baptised  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine  in  337  and  became  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople in  339. 

EUSKALDUN,  fi'ddl-don.    See  BAsginq. 

EUSKIBCHBN,  ois1cTr-k$n^  Prussia,  town 
and  capital  of  a  circle  in  the  Rhine  province,  IS 
miles  west  of  Bonn.  It  has  marmfactorieS  of 
cloth,  furniture,  leather,  machinery,  flour,  meal, 
potteiy,  malt  and  beer.    Pop.  12.413. 

EUSPORANGIATKS,  a'spS-rSn'jM'tfe, 
plants  in  which  die  sporangia  oceur  beneath 
the  body  surface  and  not  on  the  surface.  The 
class  includes  all  the  seed  plants  and  most  of 
the  Pteridophytea. 

EUSTACHIAN  (a-stlTclanJ  TUBE,  in 
anatomy,  a  canal  lea<fmg  from  the  phamyx^  to 
the  tympanum  of  the  ear;  named  for  the  Italian 
anatomist,  Eustachio.    See  Eab. 

BUSTACHIQ,  i-<Ms-ta^-o>,  Bartolom- 
meo,  Italian  anaiotnist :  b.  San  Severino,  c. 
1500;  d.  Fossombrone,  August  1S74.  He 
studied  at  Rome  and  became  professor  of  medi- 
cine At  the  Studeo  della  sapienxa  there  and 
was  also  pensioned  ph^ician.  He  later  be- 
came physician  to  Cardinal  Perctti,  who  there- 
after Decame  Pope  Sixtus  V.  Although  Eus- 
tachio at  first  took  the  part  of  Galen  against 
Vesalius,  he  advanced  the  srience  of  anatomy 
very  considerably  and  thoroughly  understood 
the  importance  of  comparative  and  pathological 
anatomy.  He  later  came  to  appreciate  the 
woHc  of  Vesalius.  The  eustachian  tube  to  the 
middle  ear  and  the  eustachian  valve  of  the  fcetal 
heart  perpetuate  his  name.  He  investigated 
the  structure  of  the  kidneys,  the  teeth,  the  os- 
sicles of  the  ear,  the  ai^ious  vein,  the  ductus 


thoracicus,  the  valve  of  the  vena  cava  inferior, 
the  oranial  nerves,  the  muscles  of  the  head  and 
neck  and  tlie  valves  of  the  coronary  veins.    He 

fublished  "Dc  Renibus  Liber'  (Venice  1563); 
De  Dentibus  Liber'  (Venice  1563):  'Opus- 
cula  Anatomica'  (Venice  1564)  ;  'Tabulae  An- 
atomicx'  (Rouen  1714). 

EUSTACHIUS.  ii-stald-us.  or  EUSTA- 
THIUS,  Roman  martyr  of  the  2d  century. 
At  first  named  Placidus,  after  his  conversion 
to  Christianity  he  took  the  name  of  Eustachius. 
It  is  told  that  while  hunting  he  beheld  Christ 
between  the  antlers  of  a  deer.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  patron  of  hunters  and  suffered  martyr- 
dom under  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  he  is  commemomted 
on  20  September. 

EUSTATHIUS,  semi-Arian  bishop  of  Se- 
baste:  b.  about  300;  d.  380.  He  introduced 
monasticism  in  Armenia  and  the  celibate 
Eustathian  order  named  from  him  were  con- 
demned at  the  Gangra  Synod  in  340.  At  Se- 
baste  he  founded  a  Hospital  for  the  poor.  His 
doctrinal  views  brought  him  into  continual  con- 
flict with  his  more  orthodox  contemporaries, 
but  his  intimacy  with  Constantine  enabled  him 
to  retain  his  sec  la  358  he  was  deposed  by 
the  Synod  of  Melitene.  Consult  Loofs,  'Eo'' 
atathius  von  Sebaste'    (Halle  1898). 

EUSTATHIUS,  Byzantine '  commentator: 
b.  probably  at  Constantinople,  early  in  the  12dl 
century;  d.  1194.  He  became  a  member  of  a 
monastic  order,  was  made  deacon  of  Holy  Wis- 
dom (Hagia  So^ia)  and  in  1175  was  made 
archbishop  of  Thessalonica.  His  principal 
work  is  the  commentary  on  the  'Iliad'  and 
'Odyssey,'  still  a  valuable  source  of  infonna-  ' 
tion  on  ancient  learning.  In  1542  the  commen- 
tary was  first  published  in  Rome;  the  latest 
edition  is  that  of  Slallbaum  (7  vols.,  Leipsig 
1825-30).  He  also  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Dionysius  the  Periegete,  valuable  for  the  frag- 
ments of  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  and  Arn- 
anns,  which  it  nas  preserved  to  US.  Consult  the 
edition  of  Dionysius  by  Bemhardy  (Leipzig 
1828).  He  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  Pindar 
of  which  the  introduction  only  survives.  He 
also  left  a  great  number  of  historical  pam- 
phlets, tracts  and  speeches;  these  are  nearly  all 
found  in  Migne,  'Patrologia  Gneca'  (vols. 
CXXXV,  CXXXVI).  Consult  Krumbachcr, 
'Byzanlinische  Litteraturgeschichte'  (Munich 
1897)  and  Pauly-Wissowa,  'Real-Encyclo- 
p&die  der  classischen  Altertumswissenschaft* 
(Vol.  VI.  Stuttgart  1909). 

EUSTATIUS,  Saint,  one  of  the  Leeward 
Islands.    See  Saint  Eustatius. 

EUSTIS,  James  Biddle,  American  diploma- 
tist: b.  New  Orleans,  La,  27  Aug.  1834;  d. 
Newport,  R,  I.,  9  Sept-  1899.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1856  and  practised  in  New  Orleans 
till  the  Civil  War  broke  out.  He  then  entered 
the  Confederate  army  and  served  as  judge-ad- 
vocate- on  the  staffs  of  Geus.  Magruder  and 
J.  E.  Johnston  tiTl  the  clow  of  the  war.  He 
was  elected  United  States  senator  in  1876,  but 
not  given  his  seat  till  late  in  1877;  and  was 
professor  of  civil  law  in  the  University  of 
Louisiana  in  1879^,  when  he  again  served  as 
senator,  1885-91.  In  March  1893  he  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  Minister  to  France,  and 
on  the  expiration  of  his  term,  hi  1897,  resumed 


„8le 


EUSTIS  —  BUTROPIUe 


practice  in  New  York.  He  translated  into  Bng- 
Ush  the  'Institutes  of  Justinian.'  and  Guiiors 
'Histoiy  of  Civilization.' 

EUSTIS,  William,  American  physician  and 
politician:  b.  Cambriitee,  Mass.,  10  June  17S3; 
d  Boston,  6  Feb.  1825!  He  served  as  a  sur- 
geon in  the  American  army  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  subsequently  practised  medicine  in 
Boston.  He  was  a  member  of  Coiwress  1801-05 
and  1819-23;  was  Secretary  of  War  1809-13; 
and  governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1823-25, 

EUTAW,  fl'ti,  Ala.,  town,  county-seat  of 
Greene  County:  on  the  Alabama  Great  South- 
em  Railroad,  about  9S  miles  southwest  of  Bir- 
mingham. It  was  settled  in  1838,  named  in 
honor  of  the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  S.  C 
(1781),  where  the  American  forces  commanded 
Oy  General  Greene  ^ined  a  victory.  It  is  in  a 
nch  agricultural  region.  It  has  an  oil  mill,  gin- 
neries, a  lumber  mill  -  and  a  cotton  compress. 
Pop.  1,000. 

EUTAW  SPRINGS,  a  small  tributan'  of 
the  Santee  River  in  Charleston  County,  5.  C 
It  is  noted  for  the  battle  fouj^t  on  its  banks 
in  1781.    See  Eutaw  Sfmngs,  Battle  op. 

EUTAW  SPRINGS,  B&ttie  of,  8  Sept. 
1781,  in  the  Revolution.  Tactically  a  drawn 
battle,  in  results  it  was  an  important  American 
victory,  winnttig  the  object  of  Greene's  cam- 
paign, as  the  British  shortly  abandoned  inte- 
rior South  Carolina,  retiring  to  Charleston. 
Greene,  having  captured  96  men,  stole  on  the 
British,  some  2,S00,  under  General  Stuart, 
at  Eutaw,  50  miles  northwest  of  Charleston,  and 
attacked  suddenly  at  4  A.K.  He  had  about 
2,000  men,  part  militia,  but  wiHi  Marion  and 
Pickens  for  commanders;  while  the  regulars 
were  the  famous  Marylandera  under  Howard 
and  Hardman,  Virginians  under  Campbell, 
North  Carolinians  under  Sumner,  and  the  rem- 
nant of  the  brave  Delaware  men ;  with  William 
Washington,  R.  H.  Lee  and  Pleasant  Hender- 
son for  cavalry  leaders.  The  British  had  one 
line;  the  right  on  Eutaw  Creek,  the  left  in  the 
air.  The  Americans  had  two,  besides  the  re- 
serves ;  the  militia  in  front,  who  fought  des- 
perately and  fired  in  some  cases  17  rounds  be- 
fore giving  way.  Then  the  regulars  rushed 
forward  and  swept  the  British  line  off  the  field; 
but  gaining  their  camp,  stopped  to  plunder  it, 
and  though  rallied,  could  not  drive  oie  British 
from  the  strong  positions  they  had  taken.  In 
assailing  a  brick  house.  Greeners  guns  were  cap- 
tured and  he  lost  many  of  his  best  men;  and 
a  charge  of  Colonel  Washington's  was  repulsed 
and  himself  taken  prisoner.  Greene  was 
obliged  to  retreat;  but  Stuart  decamped  in  the 
night.  The  American  toss  was  408  regulars 
killed  and  wounded,  militia  probably  at  least 
ISO;  British,  453  kilhd  and  wounded,  257  miss- 
ing. 

EUTERPE.  u-t«r'p«  ("the  well-^Ieasing"), 
one  of  the  Muses,  considered  as  presiditig  over 
lyric  poetry.  The  invention  of  the  Ante  is 
ascribed  to  her.  She  is  usually  represented  as 
a  virgin  crowned  with  flowers,  having  a  flute 
in  her  hand,  or  with  various  instruments  about 
her.  As  her  name  denotes,  she  is  the  inspirer 
of  pleasure.  (See  MuSES).  In  botam,  Buierpe 
is  a  genus  of  palms  found  in  5ont£  America 
and  tlte  West  Indies,  and  embracins  seven  or 
ti0it  species.    Some  spedmens  attain  a  hagjit 


E.  edulis,  is  edible;  and  the  latter  s 

nisbes  assai  (<l-v.).     Euterpe  in  astronomy  is 

an   asteroid    (No.   27),  discovered  by  Hind  in 

18S3. 

EUTHANASIA,  u-th^-ni'sH,  means,  in 
Greek,  being  happy  or  opportune  in  the  time  of 
one's  death.  The  correlative  adjective  is  ap- 
plied in  Greek  literature  to  a  man  who  died  for 
his  country,  and  it  has  been  translated  by  the 
Latin  historian  'felix  opportunitate  mortis.* 
The  term  euthanasia  has  recently  been  employed 
br  some  scientific  men  in  advocating  the  reason- 
aoleneas  of  relieving  the  sufferings  of  those 
afflicted  widi  incurable  diseases  by  administer- 
ing to  them  aniesthetics  — "■■—  --  — * 


self-destruction. 

EUTHBRIA,  subclass  of  Mammalia,  com- 
prising all  mammals  except  the  monolremes. 
Consult  'Cambridge  Natural  History*  (Vol.  X, 
London  1902^  and  Gregory,  'The  Orders  of 
Mammals'  (in  Bulletin  of  the  American  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History.  Vol.  XXVII,  New 
York  1910). 

EUTHYHIUS,  Bulgarian  prelate  and 
author  of  the  late  I4th  century.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  the  patriarch,  Theodosius,  lived  for  a  time 
as  a  monk  at  Mount  Athos,  but  afterward  with- 
drew to  Timovo,  the  seat  of  the  Bulgarian 
patriarch.  He  here  directed  a  lar^c  monastic 
establishment  and  revised  the  Slavic  liturgical 
books.  In  1375  he  was  chosen  patriarch.  He 
preached  against  the  Bogomiles  and  other  heret- 
ical bodies.  He  wrote  much  on  the  lives  of 
the  saints,  prominent  churchmen  and  various 
pastoral  epistles.  His  stvle  was  dariy  Byzan- 
tine, as  was  his  thought,  syntax,  etc  His 
school  of  religious  literature  for  a  lon^  time 
held  sway  in  Bulgaria,  Russia,  Rumania  and 
Serbia. 

BUTING,  oi'tbig,  Jnlina,  German  Oriental 
sdiolar:  h.  Stuttgart,  1839;  d.  191Z  He  was 
educated  at  Tubingen,  Pans,  London  and  Ox- 
ford. He  was  made  Ubrarun-in-chief  at  the 
Imperial  University  and  Government  Library 
at  Strassburg,  of  which  institution  he  became 
director  in  1900.  In  1909  he  retired.  He 
traveled  extensively  in  the  Orient  and  collected 
a  great  number  ot  Semitic  inscriptions,  which 
he  bequeathed  to  the  Universi^  of  Strassburg, 
He  .published  'Scchs  Phonildsche  Inschriften 
aus  idaHon'  (1875);  <Beschrrabung  der  Stadt 
Strassburg  und  des  Ministers*  (1881;  ISth  cd., 
1909);  'Nabataische  Inschriften  aus  Arabien' 
(1885)  ;  'Sinaitische  Inschriften*  (1891);  'Tage- 
bneh  einer  Relse  in  Inner- Arabien*  (1896) ; 
•Mandaischer  IMwan'   (1904). 

EUTROPIUS,  Roman  historian.  He  was 
secretaiy  to  Constantine  at  Constantinople  and 
in  363  fought  against  the  Persians.  Little  else 
is  known  of  him  beyond  the  fact  that  he  was 
still  living  in  378  a.d.  He  wrote  'Breviarium 
ab  Urbe  Condita,*  a  compendium  of  Roman 
history  down  to  the  time  of  Valens.  An  en- 
larged edition  was  later  issued  by  Paulus  Dia- 
conus,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  the 
work  was  in  three  distinct  forms  —  the  two 
named  above  and  a  third  interpolated  copy. 
The  tditio  prince fis  (Rome  1471)  was  printed 


■UTYCHB8  —  BUTYCMIANISH 


MT 


from  dw  text  of  Puilns.  Good  modem  edi- 
tions are  those  of  DroyMti  (Berlin  1879),  of 
Rueh)  (Leipiig  18S7)  and  one  with  English 
notes  by  Hazzard  (New  York  1898).  Consult 
TeuSel,  '(^eschichte  der  rdtnanischen  Littera- 
tur>   (Vol.  Ill,  6th  ed.,  Leipzig  1913). 

BUTYCHES,  u't!-kez,  heresiarch  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  who  flourished  in  the  Sth 
century.  He  was  a  priest  and  archimandrite  or 
prior  of  a  monastery  in  Constantinople  i  was 
the  founder  of  the  rehsious  sect  called  after  him 
Eutychians,  but  also  Monophysites,  as  believing 
that  in  Jesus  Christ  was  but  one  nature,^  and 
that  the  divine  nature.  The  Council  of  Ephe- 
sus  (431)  having  declared  that  in  Jesus  Christ 
were  united  the  divine  and  buinan  natnres. 
Eutyches  was  condemned  as  a  heretic  by  a 
synod  of  bishops  held  in  Constantinople  448, 
but  the  next  year  the  "Robber  Synod"  of  Ephe- 
sus.  controlled  by  Dioscorus,  patriarch  of  AJex- 
anaria,  reversed  that  Judgment  In  451  the 
(^neral  Council  of  Chalcedon  annulled  the 
decrees  of  the  Robber  Synod,  ejccommunicated 
Eutyches  and  formulated  the  Catholic  doctrine 
regarding  the  hipostatic  union  of  the  divine  and 
human  natures  in  Christ.  Eutyches  died  in 
exile.  His  doctrine  took  fast  root  in  Syria, 
Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  H^t  and  Ethiopia, 
and  in  those  cotmtries  the  Monophysite  (now 
known  as  Jacobite)  churches  are  strong  to  this 
day.    See  MoNOPHYsma. 

BUTYCHIANISM,  u-tik'i-an-iz'm,  in 
Christology,  the  mouophysitism  peculiar  to 
Eutyches,  an  archimandrite,  or  abbot  of  a  mon- 
aster, who  lived  near  Constantinople  during 
the  5th  century  a.d.  Uonophysitism  designates 
the  creed  of  those  who  in  opposition  to  the 
Creed  of  Chalcedon  maintain  the  single-nature 
in  Christ,  or  that  the  human  and  the  divine  in 
Jesus  Christ  constitutes  but  one  composite  na- 
ture. In  Eutychianism  it  is  held  that  the  divine 
and  human  person  in  Christ  is  so  blended  as  to 
constitute  one  nalurt.  Eutyches  was  seduced 
by  the  vehemence  of  his  opposition  to  Nestorian- 
ism  into  an  unorthodox  view  of  the  nature  of 
Jesus  Christ.  Prior  to  his  time  the  Nicene 
Fathers  had  pronounced  on  the  relation  of  the 
Father  to  the  Divine  Logos  but  left  within  the 
limits  of  ortbodoi^  room  for  a  difference  as  to 
the  relation  of  the  Logos  to  the  human  Christ. 
The  Antiochene  school  dreaded  lest  the  idea 
of  humanity  should  be  entirely  mei^ed  in  that 
of  the  LoRos.  Others,  leaning  toward  the 
teachings  of  Alexandria,  sought  to  avoid  any 
contaminations  of  the  Logos  by  the  associations 
of  humanity.  These  positions  on  dogma  be- 
came intermingled  with  questions  of  ecclesias- 
tical authority,  the  conflict  of  national  ideals 
and  the  lower  strife  of  personal  rivalry. 

It  is  usually  alleged  that  Eutyches  was  the 
victim  of  his  own  zeal  in  opposition  to  Nesto- 
rius.  Nestorius,  a  harsh,  unpleasant  man,  in- 
tolerant of  doctrinal  eccentricities,  other  than 
his  own,  made  it  his  peculiar  mission  to  prevent 
mankind  from  assigning  human  attributes  to 
GoA,  and  boldly  toolc  the  consequences  of  bis 


Now  in  time  Nestorius  came  into  collision 
with  Cyril,  a  member  of  the  Alexandrian 
school.  To  Cyrit,  it  seemed  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  Incarnation  of  the  Lc^os  is  impugned  by 
any  hesitation  to  assiKn  the  attributes  of  hn- 
manity  to  the  divine  Christ    And  it  was  this 


theological  principle  which  was  the  cause,  or  at 
least  the  pretext,  of  Cyril's  first  attack  on  Nes- 
torius. On  the  other  side,  the  Antiochene 
school,  well  represented  in  Theodore  of  Mops- 
vestia,  a  learned  man  and  a  great  commenta- 
tor, and  the  teadier  whether  directly  or  indi- 
rectly of  Nestorius,— held  to  the  chrtstology  of 
Theodore.  In  it  the  union  of  the  divine  and 
human  in  the  person  of  Jesus  was  moral  rather 
than  physical  or  dynamical,  and  Theodore  care-. 
fully  avoided  the  deduction  that  the  relation  of 
divine  and  human  was  similar  in  kind,  though 
different  in  degree,  in  (Thrist  and  in  his  follow- 
ers. And  the  actions  of  Christ  and  his  quali- 
ties as  man  and  particularly  his  birth,  suffer- 
ings and  death,  were  not,  in  the  christology  of 
the  Antiochene  school  to  be  attributed  to  God 
without  a  qualifying  phrase.  This  was  the  doc- 
trine which  Nestorius  carried  to  its  logical  and 
practical  conclusion;  a  position  which  is  sum- 
marized in  his  saying:  'I  cannot  speak  of  (rod 
as  being  two  or  three  months  old  P  And  yet 
this  is  the  view  which  die  Alexandrians,  with 
Cyril  at  their  head,  and  Eutyches  among  its  fol- 
lowing, considered  as  virtually  implying  two 
Christs     one    divine    and    the    other    human. 

In  the  Monophysite  controversy  Eutyches  is 
the  main  figure.  He  had  (Miposed  Nestorius; 
now  he  was  himself  accused  of  disseminating 
errors  of  an  opposite  kind  from  those  of  his 
opponent  His  accuser,  Euselius  of  Dorylieum, 
induced  Flavian,  the  patriarch  of  Constantino- 
I>le,  to  call  Eutyches  to  account  The  accusa- 
tions made,  the  aged  Eutyches  was  with  d^- 
eulty  brought  from-  the  seclusion  of  his  monas- 
tery. He  was  no  theologian;  and  wished  to  fall 
bade  OQ  the  decisions  of  Nic3;a  and  of  Ephesus. 
But  the  accusers  pressed  him,  and  the  old  man 
replied  that  he  confessed  CHirist  as  being  of 
two  natures  before  the  union  in  the  Incarnation, 
of  one  nature  afieraiard,  being  God  Incarnate ! 
On  this  point  he  would  not  recant ;  it  was  his 
peculiar  monophysitism.  How  he  appealed  to 
the  emperor,  to  Pope  I-eo  and  to  the  monks 
of  Constantinople ;  how  the  decision  of  the 
Patriarch  Flavian  to  excommunicate  Eutyches 
was  controverted  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in 
449;  and  how  in  Chalcedon,  two  years  later, 
Eutychianism  was  condemned  a  second  lime, 
and  the  received  doctrine  came  into  existence; 
all  this  is  without  the  limits  of  this  axtide. 
In  place  of  the  Monophysite  doctrine  of  the  one 
nature,  it  was  established  at  Chalcedon  that 
Christ  was  perfect  God  and  perfect  man,  con- 
substantial  with  the  Father  as  to  his  divinity, 
and  with  roan  as  to  his  humanity,  the  two  na- 
tures being  united  with  him,  without  conversion, 
without  confusion  and  without  division.  But 
if  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  had  succeeded  in 
pronouncing  Eutyches  a  heretic,  it  did  not 
stamp  out  the  influence  of  bis  doctrine.  The 
sect  of  ^e  Entychians  continued  ouietly  to 
grow  for  a  century  after  his  deatn  in  the 
chiu-cbes  of  Armenia,  Ethiopia  and  of  the 
C^opts.  And  soon  after  his  condemnation.  10 
different  sects  could  be  counted  who  shared  his 
teachings  among  themselves.  Thus  it  came 
about  that  his  heresy  got  for  itself  the  name 
•ten-homed,* 

Monophysites  still  exist  in  Egypt  and  the 
East,  under  the  title  of  Jacobites,  a  name  de- 
rived from  Jacob  BarodKUS.  From  them  the 
orthodox  are  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
Melchites,  or  Royalists,  which  title  fbey  have 


,^le 


BUTYCHIANUS — B  VANOBUCAI. 


owing  to  their  adherence  to  the  edicts  of  the 
Emperor  Marcian,  in  favor  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  and  tbeir  adoption  of  the  doctrine 
it  laid  down.  (See  Uonophvsites).  Consult 
Harnack,  'History  of  Dogma' ;  and  Ottley, 
R.  L..  *rhe  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation.' 

BUTYCHIANUS,  fi-tlkl^i'n&s,  Saint,  the 
27th  Pope  and  bishop  of  Rome.  He  reigned 
from  275  to  283.  He  is  commemorated,  on  8 
December. 

EUTYCHIDES,  Greek  sculptor  of  the 
4th  ceniur^  B.C  He  was  a  native  of  Uegara 
and  a  pupil  of  Lysippus.  For  the  city  of  An- 
tioch  he  executea  a  statue  of  Fortune,  which 
made  him  famous.  Many  copies  of  it  were 
made  throughout  the  Orient  and  a  small  copy 
now  rests  m  the  Vatican  Museum.  Some 
authorities  hold  that  the  'Victory  of  Samo- 
thrace>  is  his  work,  but  of  this  there  is  no  con- 
clusive proof. 

EUXANTHIC  (uk'Sin'thlk)  ACID  (Cir 
IL/)u),  called  also  PURREIC  ACID,  an  acid 
obtained  from  purree,  or  Indian  yellow.  With 
the  alkalis  and  earths,  it  forms  soluble  yellow 
compounds. 

EUXENITE,  ak'se-nlt,  a  rare  Norwegian 
mineral,  essentially  a  niobate  and  titanate  of 
yttrium,  erbium,  cerium  and  auranium.  It 
sometimes  contains  iron  calcium  and  germa- 
nium, while  water  is  always  present.  It  occurs 
in  orthorhombic  crystals,  but  usually  it  is  mas- 
sive. It  has  a  hardness  of  6,5,  a  specific  gravity 
of  4.7  to  5.0,  a  brilliant  metallic- vitreous  lustre, 
and  a  brownish- black  color,  showing  a  reddish- 
brown  translncence  in  thin  slivers. 


EVA,  Little,  a  beautiful  child,  who  becomes 
the  friend  and  consoler  of  Uncle  Tom  in 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe's  novel  'Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin.'  Her  early  death  forms  one  of  the 
climaxes  of  that  affecting  story. 

EVACUATION  HOSPITALS.    See  Hos- 

PriALS,    MlUTABY. 

EVADNE,  e-vad'ne,  in  Greek  fable,  the 
daughter  of  Iphis  of  Argot,  who  threw  herself 
into  the  funeral  pile  of  her  husband,  Cateneus. 

BVAOORAS,  c-v!lg'&-nis.  king  of  Salamis 
in  Cyprus,  flourished  about  the  beginning-  of 
the  4tli  century  b.c  His  family  had  been  ex- 
pelled by  a  Pheenician  exile.  Evagoras  re- 
covered the  kingdom  in  410  B.C.,  and  endeavored 
to  restore  in  it  the  Hellenic  custom's  and  civil- 
ization. He  was  friendly  wirti  the  Athenians, 
and  in  return  for  his  services  a  statue  was 
erected  to  him  at  Athens.  His  increasing 
power  attracted  the  jealousy  of  the  Persian 
king,  Artaxerxes  II,  who  declared  war  against 
him  and  besieged  Evagoras  In  his  capital.  He 
was  saved  only  by  the  dissensions  of  his 
enemies,  and  was  able  to  conclude  in  387  K 
peace  by  which  the  sovereisnty  of  Salamis  was 
nominally  at  least  secured  to  him.  He  was 
assassinated  374  b.c 

EVAORIUS  (f-vig'ri-tis)  SCHOLAS'- 
TICUS,    Syrian    Church    historian :     b.    Eoi- 

Smia,  about  536;  d.  after  594.  He  wrote  th(f 
tory  of  the  Church  in  continuation  of  the 
ecclesiastical  histories  of  Eusebius,  Socrates, 
Theodoret  and  SoKimco  from  431,  the  date  of 


the  Council  of  E^hesiu,  to  594.  His  anmaiiie, 
Scholasticus,  indicates  that  he  was  by  profession 
(probably  at  Antioch)  an  advocate,  for  such  at 
that  time  was  a  usual  meaning  of  the  word: 
he  was  legal  adviser  to  Grcjipjiy,  patriarch  of 
Antioch,  who  commended  him  for  his  fideli^ 
and  learning  to  the  emperor,  Tiberius  Absi- 
marus,  and  obtained  his  promotion  to  a  judicial 
oESce.  In  recognition  ot  his  eminent  integrity 
as  an  official  of  the  empire  bis  second  marriage 
was  made  the  occasion  of  a  public  festival 
which,  however,  had  a  disastrous  ending,  for  it 
was  interrupted  by  a  violent  earthquake,  which 
caused  the  loss  of  thousands  of  Uves. 

EVALD,  i'valt.    See  Ewalo^  G.  H.  A. 

BVALD,  &'v4ld,  Hertnan  Prederik,  Danish 
noveUst:  b.  1821;  d.  1908.  His  works  deal 
mostly  with  histoiy  and  are  of  considerable 
merit  They  include  'Valdemar  Krone's  Youth' 
(1860);  'The  Nordty  Family'  (1862); 
'Johannes  Falk>  (1865) ;  ^Oiarles  Lyng' 
(1883);  *Thc  Swedes  at  Kronborg"  (18677; 
'Anna  Hardenberg>  (1880);  'Oarz  BiUe' 
(1892);  'Leonore  Kristine'  (1895);  'Klein 
Kirsten*  (1901);   *Bondebruden'  (1904). 

EVALD,  Johannes,  Danish  lyrical  poet :  b. 
Copenhagen,  1743^  d.  1781.  In  1764  appeared 
lus  'Temple  of  Fortune,'  followed  two  years 
later  by  'Elegies'  on  the  death  of  Frederick  V. 
These  works  brought  him  fame,  which  was 
further  establishea  by  the  biblical  drama, 
<Adam  and  Eve,'  in  1760.  His  'Rolf  Krake,' 
which  appeared  in  1770,  was  the  first  original 
tragedy  in  the  Danish  language.  From  1770 
to  1780  he  wrote  tragedies,  comedies  and  farcM, 
including  'The  Fisbers,>  his  greatest  work,  in 
which  appeared  the  present  Danish  national 
anthem.  Evald's  health  had  been  seriously  im- 
paired through  overwork  and  the  strain  inci- 
dent to  the  production  of  'The  Fishers'  has- 
tened the  end.  His  worics  were  edited  bf 
Liebenberg  ^8  vols.,  Copenhagen  1S55).  Con- 
sult bis  'Life  and  Opinions'  (CoDenhsgen 
1792) ;  and  the  lives  by  Hammerich  (lb.  1^> 
and  Jotgensen  (ib.  1888). 

BVANDER,  in  classical  legend,  the  civiliier 
of  Latium,  the  son,  according  to  one  account. 
of  Hermes  and  an  Arcadian  nymph.    About  60 

Kiars  before  the  Trojan  War  he  established 
mself  in  Latium  and  built,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Palatine  Hill  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  a  town, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Pallantium.  The 
Roman  legends  represent  him  as  teaching  the 
Latins  the  use  of  the  alphabet  and  the  art;  of 
agriculture  and  ti^usic,  softening  their  fierce 
manners  by  the  introduction  of  more  humane 
laws,  and  introducing  among  them  the  worship 
of  the  Lycican  Pan,  Heracles,  Demeter,  etc.  In 
the  ^neid  Virgil  brinw  his  hero  .^Jieas  into 
connection  with  Evander,  who  gave  him  a 
favorable  reception,  and  becomes  his  ally 
apainst  the  Latins.  iMvine  honors  were  paid  to 
Evander   by  the   inhabitants  of   Pallantium  in 

EVANGELICAL,  a  word  literally  signify- 
ing 'pertaining  to  the  gos^l*  and  used  in  dif- 
ferent senses.  In  one  of  its  senses  it  Is  a  term 
used  to  qualify  certain  doctrinal  opinions,  stress 
being  laid  on  the  total  depravity  of  humwi 
nature,  need  of  conversion,  justification  by 
faith,  free  offer  of  the  gospel^  the  plenarv  in- 
spiration and  exclusive  autoonty  of  tfae  Bible. 


BVANGELICAL  ALLIAHCX—  BVANOBLIGAL  COUNSBLS 


In  this  sense  the  wor<J,  when  applied  to  a  whole 
church,  is  in  Scotland  almost  synonjtnotts  with 
orthodox;  and  in  the  United  States  it  has  much 
the  same  significance,  in  contrast  to  the  words 
'Uberal"  and  'rationalistic.*  In  England  the 
Evangelical  or  Low  Church  party  ii  lo<dted 
upon  as  extreme  in  its  views,  and  is  distin- 

Siiished  from  the  orthodox  party,  which  holds 
le  doctrines  above  specified  in  a  more  modem 
fomv  When  used  in  a  less  general  sense  «ome' 
thing  more  is  implied  in  the  word.    It  indicates 

Gculiar  attachment  to  sound  doctrine  and  pecu- 
r  fervency  in  advocating  it  In  another  sense 
the  term  is  applied  in  Germany  to  Protestants 
as  distinguished  from  Roman  Catholics,  inas- 
much as  the  former  rcci^nize  no  standard  of 
faith  except  the  writings  of  the  evangelists  and 
the  other  books  of  the  Bible,  and  more  espe- 
cially to  the  national  Protestant  Church,  formed 
in  Prussia  in  1817,  tn*  a  union  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Calvinistic  churches. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE,  a  voluntary 
association  of  members  of  the  different  sections 
of  the  Christian  Church,  organi):ed  in  London 
19-23  Aug.  1846.  At  this  meeting  was  adopted 
a  doctrinal  basis,  which  is,  in  effect,  the  reco^i- 
tion  by  the  members  of  the  divine  inspiration, 
authority  and  sufficiency  of  the  Holy  Scriptures ; 
the  right  of  private  judgment  in  their  interpre- 
tation ;  the  unity  of  the  Godhead  and  the 
Trinity  of  persons  therein ;  the  doctrine  of 
human  depravity  in  consequence  of  the  fall;  Uie 
incarnation,  atonement,  intercession  and  media- 
torial reign  of  the  Son  of  God;  justification  by 
faith  alone:  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  con- 
verektn  and  santificatioa ;  the  inunortatity  of  the 
soul,  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  die  final 
judgment  of  the  world,  resulting  in  the  eternal 
blessedness  of  the  righteous  and  the  eternal 
punishment  of  the  wicked ;  the  divine  institution 
of  the  Christian  ministry;  and  the  obligation 
and  perpetuation  of  the  ordinances  of  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  organization  thus 
commenced  has  since  been  extended  tbrou^out 
Protestant  Christendom.  Branch  alKaoces  have 
been  formed  in  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
France,  Switzerland,  Sweden,  the  United  States, 
Australia,  and  among  missionaries  in  Turkey, 
India,  Brazil  and  Japaa  These  nadooal 
branches  are  related  to  each  other  as  members 
of  a  confederation  having  equal  rights.  The 
whole  alliance  appears  in  active  operation  only 
when  it  meets  in  general  conferences  having 
the  character  of  Protestant  ecumenical  councils, 
but  claiming  only  moral  and  spiritual  power. 
The  American  branch  of  the  alliance  was  or- 
ganized in  1867.  Conferences  of  the  entire 
alliance  have  been  held  in  1851,  18SS,  1857,  1861, 
1867,  1873,  1879,  1885,  1891,  1896  1907,  that  of 
1873  having  met  in  New  York.  The  American 
branch  held  a  conference  at  Chicago  in  October 
1893.  The  alliance  has  aided  largely  in  the 
promotion  of  religious  liberty  in  Europe  and 
UieEast.  Consult 'Reports' of  the  conferences; 
and  Arnold,  'History  of  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance' (London  1897). 

WANGBLICAL  ASSOCIATION,  a  re- 
ligious denomination  founded  in  Pennsylvania 
about  the  breinning  of  the  19th  century  by 
Jacob  Albngfit,  a  member  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  (Surch,  who  was  bom  in  Pennsyl- 
vania 1759,  and  from  about  1790  traveled  among 
the  German  population  as  an  evangelist,     M- 


brigbt  founded  a  society  oi  converts  in  1800^ 
whicli  so  increased  in  ntmibers  that  it  was 
finally  organiicd  in  1807  as  the  Evangelical 
Association  of  North  America,  with  Albright  as 
bishop.  The  theok^O'  of  the  association  as  de- 
fined in  its  21  articles  closely  resembles  that  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  from  which, 
also,  it  differs  little  in  government  and  form  of 
worship.  The  Church  was  divided  in  1691, 
when  a  minority,  nmnbcring  40,000,  organized 
the  United  Evangelical  Church.  In  1916  the 
association  had  27  annual  conferences,  including 
one  in  Japan,  one  in  Switxerland,  and  two  in 
Germany;  1,663  preachers,  115,243  communi- 
cants, and  property  valued  at  about  $11,000,000. 
Besiaes  its  German  elements  it  has  a  relatively 
large  English-speaking  membership  and  pub- 
lishes English  periodicals  and  English  books. 
It  has  four  bishops,  a  well-equipped  publishing 
house  at  Cleveland  and  another  at  Stuttgart, 
Wiirtembcrg;  a  biblical  institute  and  North- 
western College  at  Naperville,  111.;  two  semi- 
naries; an  orphan  home  at  Flat  Rock,  Ohio;  a 
charitable  society;  a  missionary  society,  sus- 
taining domestic  and  foreign  missions  in  Japan 
and  China  and  assisting  the  European  churches ; 
a  Woman's  Missionary  Society ;  a  Church 
Extension  Society.  Hospitals  are  maintained  in 
various  cities  in  Germany,  and  in  Chicago  and 
in  Bismarck,  N.  Dak.  Its  periodicals  are  The 
Evangelical  Messenger  (weekly)  ;  The  Mis- 
sionary Messenger  (monthly)  ;  Der  Christliehe 
Bolschafter  (weekly).  Consult  Plitt,  'Die 
AJbrechtsleute>  (Erlangen  1877)  ;  Carroll,  'Re- 
ligious Forces  of  the  United  States'  (New 
York  1912)  ;  Orwig,  'History  of  the  Evangeli- 
cal Association*  (1858). 

EVANGELICAL  CHURCH,  The  United. 
Sec  United  Evangelical  CHtncH,  THfc 

EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  CONFER- 
ENCE, the  name  of  the  general  meetings  of 
representatives  of  the  Protestant  bodies  of  Ger- 
many and  Austria.  The  first  general  confer- 
ence met  at  Berlin  in  1846  and  was  followed  by 
the  Eisenach  Conference  of  1852.  Since  1854 
these  conferences  have  been  held  every  two 
years  at  Eisenach.  The  object  is  the  promotion 
of  unity  among  the  several  evangelical  bo<Uc8 
which  send  representatives  to  the  conference. 
The  official  organ,  Allgemeinei  Kirchenblatt  fSr 
dot  rvangelUche  Deuischland,  is  issued  rceu- 
larly  at  Stuttgart  Consult  Braun,  'Zur  Frage 
der  engem  Vereinigung  der  Deutschen  evan- 
gelbchen  Landeskirchen'   (Berlin  1902). 

EVANGELICAL  COUNSELS,  in  Catho- 
lic theology,  are  distinguished  from  divine  com- 
mandments in  this,  that  the  commandments  are 
of  universal  obligation  for  whoever  would  be 
saved,  while  the  Evangelical  Counsels  point  to 
the  readiest  and  surest  means  of  attaining  that 
end  When  a  certain  ruler  put  to  Jesus  Christ 
the  question  "What  good  thing  shall  I  do  that  I 
may  inherit  lite?*  and  received  the  answer  "If 
thou  wilt  enter  into  life,  keep  the  command- 
ments,* he  was  taught  the  condition  of  salvation 
whidi  applies  to  allmankind  But  he  wanted  to 
know  whether  there  is  not  a  more  excellent 
way:  he  had  'observed  all  those  things  from  his 
youth  up";  was  there  not  some  other  "^ood 
thing'  for  him  to  do?  Then  Jesus  prescribed 
to  him  the  perfect  way:  •Sell  all  that  thou  hast 
and  distribute  unto  the  poor*  (Matt,  tax,  21), 


.lOOg  Ic 


SVAHGBLICAL  UNION— BVAHg 


fmng  turn  one  of  the  Evangelical  CoiinMl*,  (he 
counsel  of  voluntary  povcity.  The  celibate  life 
if  commended  by  Saint  Paul  as  more  favor- 
ite to  entire  devotion  to  the  service  of  Qod 
than  the  state  of  marriage;  that  Evangelical 
Cbunscl  is  tbc  principal  Uqnc  of  tbe  etastle  of 
1  Corinthians.  Finally,  entire  obedieDce  is  tbe 
third  of  those  counsds  —  rentmctalion  of  self- 
will,  cheerful  submission  to  the  rule  of  supe- 
riors. Members  of  the  religious  orders  of  the 
Catholic  Church  bind  themselves  tiy  solemn 
vows  to  practise  the  three  Evangelical  Coun- 
sels: poverty,  chastity  and  obedience. 

EVANGELICAL  UNION,  the  name  of  a 
religious  body,  also  familiarly  known  as  the 
hlorisonians,  from  the  Rev.  James  Morison,  of 
Kilmarnock,  by  whom,  with  three  other  clergy- 
men, it  was  founded  in  Scotland  in  1843.  The 
fnimders  were  soon  joined  by  a  nimiber  of 
ministers  and  churches  of  the  Congregational 
t'nion  of  Scotland,  and  extended  themselves 
considerably  in  Scotland  and  the  north  of  Eng- 
land. The  Morisonians  maintain  the  univer- 
'nliiy  of  the  atonement,  combining  with  this 
the  doctrine  of  eternal  personal  and  uncondi- 
tional election.  In  point  of  church  government 
fhc  members  of  Che  Evangelical  Union  are 
independent,  but  many  congregations  have  rul- 
ing elders.  In  1896  nearly  all  the  churches  were 
absorbed  by  the  Congregational  Union.  The 
body  had  in  1899  between  90  and  100  con^ega- 
tions,  chiefly  in  Scotland,  and  712  ministers. 
Consult  Ferguson,  'History  of  the  Evangelical 
Union'  (1876);  and  Adamson,  <Life  o£  Dr. 
James  Morison'  (London  1898). 

EVANGELINE.  'Evangeline:  a  Tale  of 
Acadie'  is  based  upon  a  true  story  which 
traveled  from  Canada  to  New  England  by  word 
of  mouth,  reached  Hawthorne,  who  did  not 
care  to  use  it  for  a  romance,  and  was  by  him 
turned  over  to  Longfellow,  who  published  his 
poem  in  1S47.  It  instantly  won  the  widest 
public,  and  has  ever  since  remained  among  the 
most  popular  narrative  poems  in  the  English 
language.  Hawthorne's  disinclination  to  use 
the  inodent  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
he  did  not  find  tt  denily  tragic:  the  fate  of 
the  innocent  lovers  who  are  separated  by  a 
purely  external  force  but  who  remain  faithful 
till  death  is  hardly  more  than  pathetic.  The 
tenderness,  however,  with  which  Z,ongfe[low 
handled  the  pathos  of  the  theme  quite  con- 
ceivably appealed  to  a  larger  varieW  of  read- 
ers than  a  stem  tragic  handling,  sudi  as  Haw- 
thorne's might  have  been.     In  form  the  poem 


._....  (1798)  of  Goeihe,  both  of  which  had 
attempted  to  treat  modern  sentiments  and  man- 
ners with  Homeric  simplidty.  But  'Evange- 
line' owes  nothing  essential  to  its  predecessors. 
The  hexameters  in  which  the  story  is  told, 
while  not  so  close  to  classical  hexameters  as 
those  of  A.  H.  Clough's  <£othie  of  Tober-na- 
VuoUch'  .(1SM8)    or    Kingsley'a    'Andromeda' 


rhythm.  The  language  of  'Evangeline.*  while 
rarely  vivid,  is  pure,  sweet  and  melodious ; 
its  landscapes,  though  full  of  charm  and  color, 
like  its  characters,  resemble  its  characters  also 
in  belonging  lets  to  any  particular  soil  than  to 


tbe  general  worid  of  rownnce.  StiB.  m  apile  of 
its  lack  of  ladness  and  actuality,  Ifae  pocaa 
fotmded  a  nauonal  legend  nAiich  has  kept  ahve 
the  memory  of  an  epi&ode  that  would  odtenrise 
have  beam  forgotten;  and  by  sometfabig  nm- 
versal  in  its  gracious  manner  has  iiii  iiul 
modem  hteralure  with  a  story  cvery^xrc  read 
and  reaicmbered. 

Cabl  Vax  DoiKH. 

_    ANGBLIST    fa  1 
ings), 

the  gospel,  distinguished  (Eph.  iv,  11)  from 
the  apostles,  pro^ets,  pastors  and  teachers. 
The  term  came  ultimately  to  refer  to  only  the 
authors  of  tbe  four  GcKpels,  but  in  modem 
times  has  been  extended  to  indicate  also  an 
unattached  preacher  whose  specific  work  is  the 
arousing  of  personal  interest  in  matters  of 
religion. 

EVANGELISTARION,  a  book  of  sdee- 
tions  from  the  Gospels,  used  as  a  service  book 
in  the  Greek  Church.  It  contains  the  Gospel 
lessons  for  each  day  in  the  year.  The  hodk 
which  contained  the  lessons  from  the  Acts  and 
Epistles  was  called  the  Fraxapostolos.  If  both 
were  included  in  a  single  worl^  the  latter  was 
termed  a  Euxologia.  There  are  hundreds  of 
manuscripts  of  these  service  books  in  existence, 
datiiK  from  the  6lh  century  onward.  Con- 
sult Gregory,  C  R,  'The  Canon  and  Text  of 
the  New  Testament'  (New  York  1907)  and 
Scrivener,  'Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criti- 
cism of  the  New  Testament*  (4th  ed,  London 
1894). 

EVANGELISTS,  STmbola  of  the  Four. 
These  symbols  take  dieir  or^n  from  Irensens, 
who  identified  the  four  living  creatures  before 
tiie  throne  of  God  (Rev.  iv,  64)  with  the  four 
Evangelists.  For  a  long  time  there  was  little 
agreement  as  to  the  order  in  whidi  the  creatures 
were  assigned  to  each  EvangelisL  Later  in  the 
Western  Church  the  following  order  became 
general:  the  man  represmts  Saint  Matthew; 
the  lion,  Saint  Mark;  the  calf.  Saint  Luke; 
and  the  eagle.  Saint  John.  Consult  Goldsmith, 
E.  E,  'Sacred  Symbols  in  Art'  (New  York 
1911)  and  Jeimer,  Mt^.  Henry,  'Christiaa  Sym- 
bolism*   (Chicago  1910). 

EVANS,  Alexander  William,  American 
botanist:  b.  Buffalo,  N.  Y..  17  May  1868. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1890  and  in 
1894-95  studied  at  Munich  and  Berlia  In 
1895  he  began  his  connection  with  the  botanical 
department  of  Yale,  becoming  professor  of 
botany  there  in  1906.  He  is  an  ex-president  of 
the  Botanical  Society  of  America.  He  has 
made  extensive  investigations  of  the  bryophtyes 
of  Connecticut  and  the  hepaticae  of  Alaska. 
He  is  a  Fellow  of  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 

EVANS,  Sra  Arthnr  (John),  English 
ardueologist :  b.  Nash  Mills,  Hertfordshire, 
1851.  rfe  is  a  son  o£  Sir  John  Evans  (q.v.). 
He  was  educated  at  Harrow,  Oxford,  and 
Gottingen,  and  was  keeper  of  the  Ashmolcan 
Museum,  Oxford,  from  1834  to  1906.  Since 
1893  he  has  superintended  archaeological  re- 
searches in  Crete,  excavating  in  190(M)8  the  pre- 
historic palace  of  Knossos.  He  has  published 
'Through  Bosnia'  (1895);  'Illyiian  Letters' ; 
'Antiquarian  Researches  in  Illyricum'    (ISSS- 


mzo^hy  Google 


85);  'Cretan  Fictographs  an4  Pras-Phaaoidaii  ' 
Script'  (1896) ;  'Further  Discovuies  of  Cretan 
and  Mgam  Script'  (18%);  'The  UycenKan 
Tree  and  Pillar  Cult'  (1901),  etc  He  was 
kni«^ted  in  1911. 


EVANS,  ChriBtmu,  Welih  Baptist  divine  : 
b.  Isgaerwen,  Cardiganshire,  25  Dec  1766;  d 
Swansea,  19  July  1838,  He  was  at  first  a 
Presbyterian  but  joined  the  Baptists  in  178^ 
and  in  the  following  year  was  ordained  a  mis- 
sionary among  the  Baptists  of  Carna  von  shire. 
After  three  or  four  years  there  he  removed  to 
Anglesey  where  he  lived  until  1826,  In  Anglesey 
he  practically  exercised  episcopal  functions  and 
his  removal  to  Glamorganshire  in  1826  was 
occasioned  by  his  arbitrary  conduct.  He  re- 
moved to  Cardiff  in  1828  and  four  years  later 
to  Carnarvon.  He  was  an  able  and  eloquent 
preacher  and  was  well  known  throughout  Wales 
where  he  did  much  in  behalf  of  church  build- 
ing. Consult  the  biography  by  Hood  (London 
IfSl). 

EVANS,  Edward  Panoo,  American 
author:  b.  Remien,  N.  Y.,  8  Dec  1831.  He 
graduated  at  tbc  Universitr  o£  Michigan  ia 
IBM,  where,  after  several  years  of  teaching  in 
Mississippi  and  Wisconsin,  he  was  professor 
of  modem  languages  and  literatures  in  1862^7. 
He  has  made  a  special  study  of  Oriental  Ian- 
gnages;  in  1884  became  connected  with  tbe 
'Allgcmeine  Zdtung,'  of  Mnnich  in  Europe^ 
to  which  he  contributed  many  articles  on  the 
literary,  artistic  and  intellecttial  life  of  the 
United  States.  He  has  published  'Summary  of 
the  History  of  German  Literature'  (1869); 
'Progressive  German  Reader'  (1870);  'Animal 
Symbolism  in  Ecdestasti(al  Architecture' 
(1896);  'Evolutional  Ethics  and  Animal  Psy^ 
chology*  (1898) ;  'Beitrage  zur  Amerikanischen 
Litteratur  und  Kulturgeschidite'  (2  vols,  1898- 
1903) ;  'The  Criminal  Prosecution  and  Capital 
Punishment  of  Animals'  (1906), 

EVANS,  Edward  RadcliBa  Garth  Riusell, 
English  explorer  and  naval  officer:  b.  1881. 
He  was  educated  at  Merchant  Taylors'  School 
and  entered  the  navy  in  1897,  becoming  sub- 
lieutenant in  1900.  He  served  on  the  Mommfi, 
the  relief  ship  to  the  Discovery  expedition  in 
1902-04.  In  1907  he  was  awarded  the  Shadwdl 
Testimonial  Prize  by  the  I.ord9  Commissioners 
of  the  Admiralty.  In  October  1909  he  joined 
the  British  Antarctic  Expedition  as  second  in 
command,  and  was  made  commander  in  1912. 
He  returned  in  command  of  the  expedition 
after  the  death  of  Captain  Scott.  He  lectured 
on  the  Scott  expedition  in  the  United  States  in 
1914,  commanded  the  Mokmek  in  the  bombard- 
ment of  the  right  wing  of  the  German  army 
on  die  Belgian  coast  in  1914.  In  thb  year  he 
received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  was 
made  CB.  in  1913  and  recdved  the  D.S.O.  in 
1917. 

EVANS,  Elizabeth  Edson  Gibson,  Ameri- 
can prose  writer ;  b.  Newport,  N.  H.,  8  March 
1832;  d.  10  Sept.  1911.  She  was  married  to 
Edward  Payson  Evans  (q.v.)  1S68.  She  has 
lublished  'The  Abuse  of  Maternity'  (1875) ; 
I^ura,   an   American   Girl'    (1884)  ;    'A   His- 


?L_ _         .     . 

toiy  of  Rdigions'    (1892);   'Story  of  Kasper 


ILNS  Ml 

Hau»er>  (18B2)  ;  <The  Story  of  Louis  XVII  of 
France'  (IWi);  'Traasplvited  Maimers' 
(1895);  'Confession'  (1*5);  'Ferdinand  La- 
salle  and  Helen  von  Donninger'  (1897)  ;  'The 
Christ  Myth'  (1901). 

EVANS,  Evan  Heber,  Welsh  Congrega- 
tional clergyman:  b.  near  Newcastle,  Cardigan- 
shire, 1836T  d.  Bangor,  1896.  He  recdved  his 
education  at  Swansea  Normal  College  and  Bre- 
con Memorial  College.  In  18W-6S  he  was 
pastor  of  Lebanus  Church,  Morriston,  and  from 
1865  to  1894  of  Salem  Churdi,  Carnarvon.  In 
1886  he  served  as  dergyman  of  the  Welsh  Con- 
gr^tional  Union  and  in  1892  of  the  Congre- 
gational Union  of  England  and  Wales.  In 
1894  he  was  appointed  head  of  the  Bangor  Con- 
gregational Cortege.  He  edited  the  Welsh  Con- 
greKalional  magazine,  Y  Dysgedydd.  Consult 
the  biography  by  H.  Elvet  Lewis. 

EVANS,  Frederick  WiUiam,  American 
writer:  b,  Bromyard  or  Leominster,  England, 
9  June  1808;  d.  Mount  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  6 
Mardi  1893.  He  removed  to  the  United  States 
in  1820;  joined  the  United  Sodety  of  Believers 
(Shakers)  at  Mount  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  in  1830, 
and  became  a  recognized  leadei'  in  that  sodety. 
The  best  known  of  his  works  are  'Compen- 
dium of  the  Origin,  History,  and  Doctrines  of 
the  Shakers'  (1859) ;  'Autobiography  of  a 
Shaker'  (18»)  ;  'Shaker  Communism'  (1871); 
'The  Second  Appearing  of  Christ'   (1873). 

EVANS,  Sib  Georga  de  Lacy,  British 
general:  b.  Moig,  Ireland,  1787;  d  London,  9 
Jan.  1870.  He  entered  the  army  in  1S06,  took 
part  in  the  later  ita^s  of  the  Peninsular  War 
and  in  the  beginning  of  1814  was  sent  to 
America,  and  at  the  battle  of  Bladensburg  (24 
Aug.  1814)  had  two  horses  shot  under  him. 
At  the  head  of  200  men  he  farced  the  capitol  at 
Washington.  He  was  present  at  the  attack  on 
Baltimore,  and  was  twice  wounded  before  New 
Orleans  in  December  1814,  and  was  on  that 
account  sent  home  to  England,  where  he  re- 
covered just  in  time  to  be  able  to  join  Welling- 
ton at  Quatre-Bras  and  Waterloo.  He  served 
with  distmction  on  the  side  of  the  queen  regent 
In  the  Carlist  War  of  1835-37.  In  1846  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Crimean  War  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  die  second  division  of  the 
British  army,  and  disting:uished  himsdf  at  the 
battle  of  the  Alma,  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  and 
the  battle  of  Inkerman.  He  was  made  a  gen- 
eral in  1861.  He  served  as  a  Liberal  member 
in  the  House  of  Commons  between  1S31-65,  but 
not  continuously. 

EVANS,  George  Essex,  Australian  poel: 
b.  London,  18  June  1863.  He  went  to  Australia 
in  1881  where  he  eventually  became  district 
reffistrar  at  Toowoonby,  Queensland  He  has 
written  extensively  for  me  Australian  press. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Antipodean  (1893-97) ;  and 
he  won  the  50  guinea  prize  offered  by  the  gov- 
ernment of  New  South  Wales  for  the  best  ode 
on  the  inauguration  of  the  Commonwealth  in 
1901.  He  was  founder  of  the  Astral  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Music,  Art,  Liter- 
ature and  Science'  (1901).  Amonji  his  pub- 
lished works  are  'Maddene  Despar  and  Other 
Poems'  (London  1891);  'Loraine  and  Other 
Verses'  (Mdboume  ISfe) ;  'The  Garden  of 
Queensland*    (1898);    'The    Secret    Key   ai>d 


V.Google 


Other  Venes>  (Sidney  1906).  Tbe  greater  part 
of  bis  work,  most  ol  which  has  been  contribnted 
to  ma^zines  and  newspapcn,  hai  not  bem  pub- 
fished  in  book  form. 

EVANS,  Henry  CUy,  American  politidan : 
b,  Juniata  County,  Pa.,  18  Jane  1643.  He 
MTved  in  the  51st  Wisconsin  Infan^,  enlisting 
18M,  and  subsequently  settled  in  Chattanooga. 
Tcnn.,  as  an  iron  and  railway-car  manufacturer, 
and  was  may^ir  of  Chattanooga  for  two  tcims. 
He  sat  in  Congre&s  in  1889-91,  and  was  assistant 
Postmaster- General  1889..93.  His  election  as 
governor  of  Tennessee  1894  was  disputed  and 
me  opposing  Democratic  candidate  was  seated 
He  stood  second  in  the  vote  for  Vice-President 
at  the  National  Republican  Convention  1896,  was 
appointed  United  States  Commissioner  of  Pen- 
aions  in  1897,  and  was  consul-general  in  London 
from  1902  to  1905.  He  is  now  commissioner  of 
education  and  health  of  die  cih'  of  Chattanooga 
—J..  *i, :._:._  ( of  government. 


EVANS,  Hugh  Davy,  American  author: 
b.  Baltimore,  MdT,  26  April  1792;  d  there,  16 
July  1868.     He  studied  tow,  began  practice  in 

■      1815   and  beca "  -   - 


&1 


a  code  of  laws  for  the  Maryland  colony  ii. 
Liberia;  and  in  1S62-.64  lectured  on  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  law,  AmonK  his  writings  are 
*Essays  on  Pfeading>  (1827)  ;  'Maryland  Com- 
mon-Law Praciice>  (1837);  •Theophilus  Angli- 
canus>  (1851)  ;  'Essays  on  the  Episcopate  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
Slates'  (1855) ;  'Treatise  on  the  Christian 
Doctrine  of  Marriage'  (1870).  Consult  memoir 
by  Harrison  (1870). 


ton,  D.  C,  13  April'  1861.    He  servt 
State  and  Temtorial   geolo^cal   < 


served  on  several 
,.  cal  surveys,  and 
discovered  remarkable  fossil  deposits  in  the 
Bad  Lands  of  Nebraska.  He  was  afterward 
commissioned  by  the  United  States  govemment 
to  carry  on  the  geological  surveys  of  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon. 

EVANS,  John,  American  philanthropist:  b. 
Waynesville,  Ohio,  9  March  1814;  d.  Denver, 
Colo.,  3  July  1897.  He  was  graduated  at  the  med- 
ical department  of  Cincinnati  College  in  1838:  in 
1848  became  a  professor  in  the  Rush  Medical 
College  of  Chicago,  in  which  city  he  accumulated 
a  large  foriune  by  investments  in  real  estate. 
Much  of  this  he  gave  to  philanthropic  objects. 
He  established  the  Northwestern  University,  and 
endowed  two  chairs  in  it  with  $50,000  each.  In 
1862-.6S  he  -was  governor  of  the  Colorado 
Territory.  Later  he  established  the  University 
of  Denver,  to  the  construction  of  which  he  gave 
$200,000  and  a  large  endowment.  He  gave 
largely  for  the  erection  of  the  Grace  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  Denver,  and  aided  almost 
every  educational  institution  and  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  State. 

EVANS,  Sii  John.  English  archsoloeist : 
b.  Britwfll  Court,  Buckinghamshire,  17  Nov. 
1823;  d.  31  May  190a  His  publications  include 
'The  Coins  of  Ancient  Britons' ■  'The  Ancient 
Stone  Implements.  Weapons  and  Ornaments  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland'  (1872)  ;  'Andent 
Bronze  Implements,  Weapons  and  Ornaments 


of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland'  (18S1).  From 
1878  till  1896  Sir  John  was  treasurer  of  die 
Royal  Socienr,  and  be  presided  over  the  Toronto 
meetitis  of  me  British  Association  in  1897.  He 
was  president  of  the  Geological  Society  (1874- 
76).  of  the  Numismatic  &dety  (1874>^190B), 
and  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  (18K-92). 
His  great  work  on  stone  implements  received  a 
priie  from  the  French  Academy,  and  bodi  it 
and  his  other  work  on  bronze  implements  were 
translated  and  published  in  Paris  shortly  after 
they  appeared  m   En^and 

EVANS,  John  Gwenogvryn,  Welsh 
scholar:  b.  Ffynon  Velved,  Carmarthenshire, 
1852.  He  was  educated  at  Ponishan  Grammar 
School,  the  Presbyterian  College.  Carmarthen, 
and  Owens  College,  Oxford.  He  was  editor 
of  the  'Series  of  Old  Welsh  Texts,'  was 
inspector  of  documents  in  the  Welsh  lao^age 
for  die  Historical  Manuscripts  Commission 
from  1894  to  1906.  He  was  nominated  gover- 
nor and  member  of  the  council  of  the  Llniver- 
sity  College  of  Wales,  and  governor  and  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  the  National  Library  of 
Wales  by  the  lord  president  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil. His  publications  indude  'Hcnneward 
Bound'  (1882) ;  'Red  Book  Mabinogion' 
(1887)  :  'Facsimile  of  the  Black  Book  of  Car- 
marthen' (1888);  'The  Bruts'  (1890);  'The 
Book  of  Llandav'  (1893)  ;  'IHidomatic  Text, 
with  Notes  and  Introductions,  of  the  Black 
Book  of  Carmarthen'  (1906)  ;  'Editio  Princeps 
of  the  White  Book  Mabinogion,  and  Romances 
from  the  Peniarth  MSS.'  (1907):  'Facsimile 
and  Text  of  the  Book  of  Aneiris'  (1908); 
'Facsimile  of  the  Chirk  Codex  of  the  Welsh 
Laws'  (19091;  'Faciinule  and  Text  of  the 
Book  of  Taliessen,  with  a  revised  text  and 
translation  into  English'  (1914). 

■VANS,  Margaret  J.  See  HinmHGTDN, 
Marcarct  Evans. 

EVANS,  Mary  Ann,  or  Marian.  See 
Eliot,  Gborgc 

EVANS,  Oliyer,  Atnerican  inventor:  b. 
Newport,  Del.  17SS;  d  New  York,  25  April 
1819,  In  1877  Evans  invented  a  machine  for 
piaking  card-teeth.  Two  years  later  he  entered 
into  business  with  his  brothers,  who  were 
millers,  and  in  a  short  time  invented  the 
elevator,  the  convwor,  the  drill,  the  hopper- 
boy,  and  the  descender,  the  application  of  which 
two  mills  worked  by  water-power  effected  a 
revolution  in  the  manufacture  of  flour.  For 
some  years  after  these  improvements  were  per- 
fected die  inventor  found  much  difficulty  in 
bringing  them  into  use,  although  in  his  own 
mill  the  economy  of  time  and  labor  which  they 
effected  was  very  manifest.  About  1799  or 
1800  he  set  about  the  construction  of  a  steam- 
carri^e;  but  tindmg  that  his  steam  engine  dif- 
fered m  form  as  well  as  in  principle  from  those 
in  use,  it  occurred  to  him  that  it  could  be 
patented  and  applied  to  mills  more  profitably 
than  lo  carriages;  and  in  this  he  was  completely 
successful  Tliis  was  the  first  steam  engine  con- 
structed on  the  high-pressure  principle ;  and  to 
Evans,  who  had  cotkceived  the  idea  of  it  in  early 
life,  and  in  1787  and  again  in  1794-^5  had  sent 
to  En^and  drawings  and  specifications^  the 
merit  of  the  invention  belongs,  although  it  has 
been  common  to  assign  it  to  Vivian  and  Treve- 
thick,  who  had  had  access  to  Evans'  plans.  In 
18(»-04,  by  order  of  tiie  board  of  healA  of 


.lOOgle 


BVANS  —  BV  AH8Vn.LB 


Phlladelphta,  fae  constructed  the  first '  steam 
dret^ing  machine  Died  in  America,  consistiiu 
of  a  flat  scow  with  a  small  engine  to  work 
the  machinery  for  raising  the  mud.  Evans 
also  invented  the  'Comish  boiler.* 

EVANS,  Robley  Dtmslisan.  American 
naval  officer:  h.  Floyd  Court  House,  Va.,  IS 
Aug,  1846;  d.  Washington,  3  Jan.  19U  He  was 
appointed  io  the  United  States  Naval  Academv 
from  Utah  in  1860,  promoted  ensign  in  1863, 
and  in  1864-65  was  on  board  fhf  Powhatan 
of  the  North  Atlantic  blockading  squadron. 
He  participated  in  both  attacks  on  Fort  FiAer; 
in  1868  was  commissioned  lieutenant-commander, 
in  1870-71  was  on  duty  at  the  navy  yard,  Wash- 
ington, in  1871-72  at  the  Naval  Academy.  Hav- 
ing served  in  1873-76  successively  on  the  Shen- 
andoah and  the  Congress,  of  the  European 
station,  he  was  made  commander  in  1878;  in 
1891-92  was  in  command  of  the  Yorktown  at 
Valparaiso,  Chile,  where  American  sailors  were 
killed  by  a  mob,  and  in  1893  became  captain. 
He  policed  the  Bering  Sea  sealing  grounds. 
During  the  Spanish- American  War  he  was  in 
command  of  the  Iowa,  and  at  the  naval  battle 
of  Santiago  he  took  an  important  part  in  the 
destruction  of  Cervera's  fleet  In  1901  he  was 
commissioned  rear-admiral;  in  1902  was  made 
commander  of  the  Asiatic  fleet  with  the  flag- 
ship Kentucky ;  was  escort  to  Prince  Henry  of 
Prussia,  during  the  tatter's  visit  to  the  United 
States;  commanded  the  Atlantic  fleet,  1905-07, 
taking  it  in  1907,  as  commander-in-chief,  on 
toui'  of  the  world.  After  rounding  Cape  Horn, 
and  on  reaching  San  Francisco,  ill  health 
forced  him  to  give  up  the  command.  He  wa5 
retired  18  Aug,  1908.  He  published  <A  Sailor's 
Log>  (1901);  and  <An  Acfmiral's  Log'  (1910). 
SVANS,  Thomas  WiUianii,  American  den- 
tist: b,  Philadelphia,  23  Dec  1823;  d.  Paris,  14 
Nov,  1896.  He  studied  dentistry  and  practised 
in  Maryland  and  later  in  Lancaster.  Pa.,  and 
made  a  specialty  of  saving  teeth  by  filling.  In 
seeking  a  substitute  for  gold  foil  he  mixed  nib- 
ber  and  sulphur,  which  made  a  blade  substance 
instead  of  a  white  one.  Because  of  the  tm- 
favorable  color  he  laid  the  substance  aside  and 
gave  it  no  more  thought  till  his  mixture  was 
used  by  others  for  producing  commercial  gutta- 
percha:, which  he  declared  he  had  discovered. 
In  1848  he  went  by  invitation  to  Paris,  as  the 
most  skilful  American  dentist,  to  attend  lo  the 
teeth  of  President  Louis  Napoleon.  During  his 
career  in  Paris  he  accumulated  a  very  large 
fortune.  He  also  won  an  international  repu- 
tation as  an  expert  in  military  sanitation,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Red  Cross 
Society.  His  home  was  the  refuge  of  the 
Empress  Eugenie  from  the  mob  on  the  ni^t 
of  4  Sept,  1870.  Dressed  in  his  wife's  clothes, 
she  was  taken  by  him  to  the  Normandy  coast, 
where  he  secured  her  escape  to  England.  He 
bequeathed  all  of  his  fortune,  estimated  at 
from  $8,000,000  to  $12,000,000,  exceftin^  ^250,- 
000,  to  establish  a  museum  and  mstitnte  m 
Philadelphia. 

BVANSTON,  111.,  city  in  Cook  County,  on 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway,  12miles 
north  of  Chicago  on  Lake  Miciugan.  It  has 
electric  surface  and  elevated  railroads  to  Chi- 
cago ;  Hollj"  system  of  waterworks,  with  com- 
plete filtration  plant,  daily  newspapers  and  diree 
banks,  deposits  over  $6,000,00a     It  is  the  seat 


of  Northwestern  University  (U.E.^  founded 
in  1854,  largely  endowed  and  of  high  repnte, 
with  a  library  of  25,000  volumes  and  a  museum. 
It  Is  the  seat  also  of  the  Garrett  Biblical  Insti- 
tute. The  Dearborn  Observatory  was  trans- 
ferred here  from  Chicago  in  1888,  Evanston 
was  the  home  of  Frances  Willard  (q.v.).  It  ii 
really  a  residential  suburb  of  Qucago,  and 
called  "City  of  Churches.*  The  Evanston  Com- 
mercial Association  —  over  300  members —  has 
much  influence  in  civic  and  business  affairs. 
Pop.  30,000. 

EVANSTON,  Wyo,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Uinta  County,  76  miles  east  of  Ogden,  on 
tiie  Bear  River  and  the  Union  Pacific  Railway. 
There  are  valuable  coal  mines  in  the  vicinity, 
and  the  surrounding  region  is  also  largely  de- 
voted to  stock-farming  and- agriculture.  Oil  has 
been  discovered  in  the  neighoorhood.  Among 
the  local  industries  are  a  large  flouring-mill, 
ice  plant  and  railway  repair  shops.  The  State 
Asylum  for  the  Insane  is  situated  here.  The 
city  contains  a  public  library  and  owns  the 
waterworks.    Pop.  2,583. 

EVANSVILLE,  Ind.,  a  dty  and  jmrt  of 
entry  of  Vanderburg  County,  of  which  it  is  the 
county^seat,  about  185  miles  west  of  Louisville, 
192  nules  northeast  of  Cairo,  and  180  miles 
southwest  of  IndiatULpolis,  on  the  Ohio  River, 
and  the  Louisville,  E.  &  St.  L,  the  Louisville 
ft  N.,  the  Evannille  &  T.  H.  and  other  rail- 
ways. It  is  pleasantl3r  located  on  a  high  bank 
of  the  river.  Evansville  is  the  chief  shipping 
point  for  southwestern  Indiana,-  and  ranks 
highly  among  the  commercial  centres  of  the 
State.  The  nei^boring  region  abounds  in  coal 
and  the  local  coal  trade  is  a  large  one.  There 
is  also  an  important  trade  in  flour,  pork,  to- 
bacco, grain  and  timber.  There  are  machine- 
shops  and  foundries,  plow- works,  furniture 
factories,  flouring-mills,  and  manufactures  of 
cottons  and  woolens,  brick  and  tile,  pottery, 
terra-cotta  and  fire-clay  products,  malt  liquors, 
and  saddlery  and  harness.  The  United  States 
census  of  manufactures  for  1914  showed  -with- 
in the  city  limits  297  industrial  establishments 
of  factory  grade,  employing  11,^^  persons: 
10,333  being  wage  earners,  receiving  a  total  of 
$5,168,000  annually  in  wages.  The  capital  in- 
vested aggregated  $24,666,000,  and  the  year's 
output  was  valued  at  $31,427,000:  of  this,  $13,- 
427jOp0  was  the  value  added  by  manufacture. 

The  prominent  buildings  include  the  United 
States  custom-house,  the  courthouse,  the  city 
hall,  the  Willard  Library,  the  State  Hospital 
for  the  Insane,  Evans  "remperance  Hall,  Citi- 
len's  National  Bank  Buildi^  and  the  United 
States  Marine  HoEpilal,  "There  are  also  10 
parks.  Daily  and  weekly  newspapers  are  pub- 
lished. Evansville  was  founded  l^  Gen.  R.  U. 
Evans  in  1817,  became  the  county-seat  of  Van- 
derburg County  in  1819,  and  was  incorporated 
in  1847.  The  government  is  administered  by 
a  charter  of  3  March  1893,  with  amendments 
of  II  March  1895.  This  instrument  provides 
for  a  mayor,  elected  for  four  years,  and  a  com- 
mon council,  one  member  from  each  ward  for 
one  year  and  four  councilmen  at  large  for  two 
years.  The  annual  expenditure  of  the  munici- 
Nlity  is  about  $700,000,  the  annual  income  about 
$940,000.  The  municipality  owns  the  water- 
works, which  are  operated  at  a  yearly  expense 
of  about  $30,000.    Pop.  96,737. 


V.Google 


EVAMSVJLLB— BVBLETH 


BVANSVILLB,  Wis.,  a  village  of  Rock 
County,  17  miles  northwest  of  Janesvilie  and  2Z 
miles  south  by  east  of  Madison,  on  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  Railway.  Amoog;  its  indus- 
e  wind-mill  factory. 


Fop.  2,061. 

EVAPORATION  (Lat.  evaporatio,  from 
evaforare,  to  emit  vapor),  the  formation  of 
vapor  at  the  free  surface  of  a  liquid.  In  evapo- 
ration a  ponion  of  the  liquid  escapes  in  the 
gaseous  form  from  the  general  mass,  and,  rising 
into  the  space,  spreads  through  it  according  to 
the  laws  of  diffusion  of  gases.  Supposing  the 
temperature  of  the  space  above  the  liquid  to  be 
uniform,  the  evaporation  proceeds  (provided 
there  is  a  sufHcicnl  quantity  of  liquid)  until  the 
Space  is  uniformly  filled  with  vapor.  A  space 
thus  filled  with  the  maximum  quantity  of  vapor 
corresponding  to  the  temperature  of  it  is  said  to 
be  saturated.  If  the  dimensions  of  the  space 
be  diminished,  a  portion  of  the  vapor  is  forced 
to  condense;  if  the  temperature  of  the  space 
falls,  a  portion  of  the  vapor  condenses  also; 
while  if  the  temperature  of  the  space  is  in- 
creased, the  dimeasions  remaining  unchanged, 
the  space  ceases  to  be  saturated,  because  the 
quantity  of  the  vapor  that  corresponds  to 
saturaUon  is  greater  the  higher  the  temperature. 
When  there  is  not  a  sufficient  quantity  of  liquid 
present  to  saturate  the  space  completely,  the 
whole  of  the  liquid  evaporates  and  the  v^por 
diffuses  uniformly  through  the  space.  The 
space  is  then  said  to  be  non-saturated.  Consult 
the  United  States  Monthly  Weather  Review  for 
March  1914.    See  BotuNC  Poikt;  Vapor, 

EVARTS,  Jeremiah,  American  editor  and 
missionary  secretary;  b,  Sunderland,  Vt.,  3  Feb. 
1781;  d.  Charleston.  S.  C,  10  May  1831.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  1802,  and  settled  in  Mew 
Haven  as  a  lawyer.  His  life  was  largely  devoted 
to  the  interests  of  missions,  he  being  editor  of 
the  Missionary  Herald  for  a  long  term  and 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  American  Board 
of  Commissions   for  Foreign  Missions  1821-31. 

EVARTS,  William  Maxwell,  American 
lawyer  and  statesman  :  b.  Boston,  Mass,  6  Feb. 
1818 ;  d.  New  York,  28  Feb.  1901,  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Yale  in  1837,  studied  law  in  the 
Harvard  Law  School  and  the  office  of  Daniel 
Lord  of  New  York,  in  1841  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  in  1849-53  was  assistant  district  attor- 
ney in  New  York.  In  1851  he  was  successful 
in  the  conduct  of  the  prosecution  of  the  Cuban 
filibusters  of  the  Cleopatra  expedition.  He  was 
retain«d  in  18S7  and  1860  to  argue  the  Lemmon 
slave  case  on  behalf  of  the  State  of  New  York 
against  Charles  O'Conor,  counsel  for  Virginia. 
An  active  and  prominent  Republican,  he  made 
the  speech  nominating  Seward  for  the  Presi- 
dency al  the  Republican  National  Convention  in 
Chicago  in  1860,  though  subsequently  moving 
to  make  the  nomination  of  Lincoln  unanimous. 
In  1861  he  and  Horace  Gr^ley  (q.v.)  were 
rival  candidates  before  the  Slate  legislature  for 
appointment  to  the  senatorship  vacated  by  Sew- 
ard, newly  made  Secretary  of  State.  As  a  com- 
promise, Ira  Harris  was  finally  appointed. 
Evarts"    legal    knowledge    was    frequently    em- 

E loved  in  the  service  of  the  administration.  On 
ehalf  of  the  government  he  conducted  numer- 
ous important  cases.  Among  such  were  that  be- 
fore the  Supreme  Court  to  establish  the  right 


of  th^  United  States  during  the  Civil  War  to 
deal  with  the  captured  ships  as  maritime  prizes 
(18^),  and  that  maintaining  the  unconsdtu- 
tional  character  of  the  State  laws  taxing  United 
States  bonds  or  stock  of  the  national  banks 
without  authorization  of  Congress  (1865-66).  He 
was  principal  counsel  for  Andrew  Johnson 
(q.v.)  in  the  President's  trial  for  iinpeacbnient, 
and  Dy  his  lofty  judicial  argument  contributed 
much  to  a  result  which  has  since  been  regarded 
as  most  fortunate.  He  then  went  into  John- 
son's Cabinet  as  Attorney- General  for  the  re- 
maining year  of  the  term.  In  1872  he  was  chief 
counsel  for  the  United  States  before  the  Geneva 
tribunal  for  settlement  of  the  Alabama  claims. 
As  chief  counsel  for  the  Republican  party 
before  the  electoral  commission  (q.v.)  that 
settled  the  Hayes-Tilden  Presidential  dispute, 
Evarts  based  his  argument  on  the  constitutional 
idea  that  sovereign  States  must  conduct  thdr 
elections  and  govern  themselves  without  Federal 
interference,  pointing  out  that  the  electoral  re- 
turns from  Louisiana  revealed  the  choice  of 
Haj^s  electors.  During  Hayes'  administration 
he  was  Secretary  of  State.  He  made,  in  1880,  a 
report  upon  the  matter  of  American  control  of  a 
trans- isthmian  canal,  whether  at  Nicaragua  or 
Panama,  His  administration  of  the  office  was 
maiked  by  skill  in  diplomatic  questions,  the  im- 
Itrovement  of  the  consular  service  and  the  pub- 
lication of  consular  reports  on  the  economic  and 
commercial  status  of  foreign  lands.  In  I88I  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  international  monetary 
conference  at  Paris,  and  in  I88S  entered  the 
United  States  Senate,  his  term  expiring  3 
March  1891.  He  was  the  senior  partner  in  the 
law  firm  of  Evarts,^  Qioate  and  Beaman,  and 
was  frequently  retained  in  important  corpora- 
tion cases.  Wnile  in  the  Senate  he  made  several 
noteworthy  seeches  and  he  also  pronounced 
many  distinguished  occasional  addresses,  includ- 
ing the  Centennial  oration  at  Philadelphia  in 
18?6. 

EVE.    S«e  Adau. 

EVE,  Ful  Fitzainunoiu,  American  phy- 
sician; b.  near  Augusta,  Ga.,  1806;  d.  1877.  He 
was  graduated  at  Franklin  Colle^  in  1826  and 
at  the  medical  college  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1828.  He  then  studied  for 
two  years  in  Europe,  and  in  1831  was  sur- 
geon during  the  Polish  Revolution.  In  1832-49 
fie  was  professor  of  surgery  in  Georgia  Medi- 
cal College,  and  in  Louisville  1849,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Nashville  1850-68,  and  the  University  of 
Missouri  in  1868-77.  He  was  elected  president 
of  the  American  Medical  Association  in  1857. 
He  published  over  600  articles  on  medical  sub- 
ject5,  including  'Remarkable  Cases  in  Surgery' 
(1857). 

KVECTION  (Lat.  evecUo,  'a  turning 
upward"),  the  second  inequali^  in  the  motion 
of  the  moon,  due  to  the  attraction  of  the  moon 
by  the  sun.  Owing  to  the  evection  the  position 
'  ■'  may  vary  1.20  degrees.    It  was  dis- 

,    Hip        •  •    — 

the  Chri-itian  e 
mined  by  Ptolemy. 

EVELETH,  ev'e-leth,  Minn.,  city  of  Saint 
Louis  County,  70  miles  norihwest  of  Duluth.  on 
the  Duluth  and  Iron  Ran^e,  and  the  Dututh, 
Missabe  and  Northern  railroads.  It  has  ex- 
tensive dairying,  lumber  and  iron-mininii  in- 
terests, a  public  library,  etc.    The 


joogle 


BVBLtHA — BVBHINO 


ionn  of  Kovenunent  was  adopted  in  1913.  The 
waterworks  are  the  property  of  the  mimid- 
pality.     Pop.   7,036. 

EVELINA.  When  'Evelina'  appeared.  In 
1778,  its  originality  created  a  iiterary  sensation. 
That  Fanny  Bumey,  a  young  woman  of  25,  in  a 
period  of  mediocre  and  frequency  indecorous 
imitations,  should  have  produced  a  novel  keen  in 
observations,  seemly  in  humor  and  spirited  in 
execation,  won  admiration  everywhere.  To-day 
some  of  the  newness  has  worn  oFF  and  the 
artistry  has  been  partially  eclipsed  by  the  genius 
of  later  writere.  But  'Evelina'  will  alwava 
possess  distinction  as  an  early  example  of  tne 
novel  of  domestic  manners  as  seen  through 
clear  and  subtle  feminine  eyes;  time  cannot  rob 
it  of  its  intrinsic  freshness,  and,  indeed,  en- 
riches it  with  a  certain  charming  quaintness. 
The  story  is  told  in  the  form  of  letters,  con- 
tinuing in  this  respect  the  tradition  of  'Pamela.' 
Bnt  most  of  the  Richardsonian  analytical  psy- 
chology is  omitted  and  the  incidents  are  not 
as  exceptional  as  diose  that  were  necessary  to 
regale  an  earlier  generation.  With  these  modi- 
fications,  the  stress  is  laid  upon  the  presenta- 
tion of  contemporary  English  life  as  it  would 
impress  an  Evelina.  The  result  is  a  degree  of 
immaturity  and  externality  as  compared  with 
the  penetration  of  Jane  Austen ;  however,  the 
surface  of  society  as  it  is  reflected  in  the  mind 
of  the  youthful  fetter- writer,  is  portrayed  with 
undeniable  vivacity  and  comic  power.  The 
comedy  arises  chiefly  from  the  juxtaposition 
of  contrasting  ridiculous  characters.  They  are 
simplified  and  exaggerated  almost  to  the  point 
of  caricature,  but  they  possess  truth  enough  to 
make  them  human;  and  the  comedy  to  which 
they  give  rise,  though  verging  upon  farce,  is 
always  amusing  and  wholesome.  Among  the 
varied  types  moves  Evelina,  finally  successful  in 
winning  the  recognition  of  her  deceived  father 
and  the  love  of  her  noble  admirer.  She  is  in 
essence  Miss  Bumev  herself ;  and  to  the 
spontaneity  and  vividness  of  her  reactions  to 
the  life  about  her  the  novel  in  the  last  analysis 
owes  its  vitality  and  charm.  Consult  Dobson, 
Austin  'Life  of  Fanny  Bumey' ;  Macaulay, 
Lord,  'Essays  on  Madame  D'Anjlay,'  passim; 
'The  Early  Diary  of  Francis  Bumey,'  passitn. 
Gecoge  B.  Dirrroif. 


Feb.  1706.  After  completing  his  course  at 
Oxford  he  began  to  study  law  at  the  Middle 
Temple.  He  made  some  efforts  in  favor  of  the 
royal  cause  in  165^  on  which  account  he  was 
much  favored  by  Charles  II  after  his  restora- 
tion. In  1662  he  published  'Sculptura,  or  the 
History  and  Art  of  Chalcography  or  Etigraving 
on  Copper.*  On  the  foundation  of  the  Royal 
Society  he  was  nominated  one  of  the  first  Fel- 
lows and  at  its  meetings  he  read  a  discourse 
on  forest-trees,  which  iorracd  the  basis  of  his 
most  celebrated  publication,  'Sylva,  or  a  Dis- 
course of  Forest-trees'  a664).  He  continued 
in  favor  at  court  after  the  Revolution  of  1688 
and  was  made  treasurer  of  Greenwich  Hospital. 
He  lived  for  many  years  at  Sayes  Court,  Dept- 
ford,  and  subsequently  succeeded  to  his  brother's 
estate  of  Wotton,  his  life  being  that  of  a  loyal, 
worthy,  public- spirited  country  gentleman, 
E.vtlya  left  a  most  interesting  diary,  picturing 
his  life  from.  1641  to  1706,  first  published  with 


his  correspondence  in  1818.    A  new  edition  of 

the  'Diary'  was  issued  in  1827;  another,  with 
life,  by  Wheatley,  in  1879;  and  one  by  Austin 
Dobson  in  1906. 

EVENING  GROSBEAK,  a  large  finch 
{HespeHphona  vespertina)  or  western  North 
America.  It  is  olivaceous,  with  the  crown, 
wings,  tail  and  feet  black;  forehead  and  rump 
yellow;  bill  yellowish  and  a  white  patch  on  the 
wing.  It  inhabits  the  forests  of  northwestern 
Canada  and  the  Rock]-  Mour 


years  ago,  but  since  about  1905  the  bird 
has  extended  its  winter  migration  to  eastern 
Canada,  New  England  and  New  York,  where 
it  annually  appears  in  increasing  numbers  and 
is  reported  to  have  bred  in  a  few  instances.  Its 
nest  is  a  rather  rude  structure  placed  In  a  tree; 
eggs,  greenish,  blotted  with  pale  brown.  This 
grosbeak  feeds  by  preference  on  berries,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  mountain  ash,  bittersweet  and 
the  like;  also  on  buds,  seeds,  frozen  apples,  etc 
It  goes  about  in  small  flocks^  uttering  a  variety 
of  calls,  and  in  spring  sings  in  a  loud,  odd  way, 
more  striking  tnan  beautiful.  Full  accotmts 
of  the  extraordinary  winter'spread  eastward 
of  this  interesting  bird  may  be  found  in  recent 
files  of  the  ornithological  magazines. 

EVENING  PRIHSOSE,  the  common 
name  of  American  plants  belonging  to  the  vari- 
ous genera  of  the  family  Onagracea,  or  evening 
Erimrose  family.  They  are  annual  or  biennial 
erbs,  the  yellow  flowers  opening  either  during 
the  night  or  at  evening.  There  are  upwards  rf 
40  species  to  which  the  name  is  applied,  nearly 
all  natives  of  North  America,  but  some  of  them 
naturalized  in  Europe,  particularly  in  En^and. 
Evening  primroses,  especially  Oenothera  btetmis 
and  related  species,  have  attracted  much  interest 
because  of  experiments  in  plant  breeding  con- 
ducted with  thent. 

EVENING  or  NIGHT  SCHOOLS, 
schools  in  which  instruction  is  given  to  pupils 
debarred,  generally  by  reason  of  being  wage- 
earners,  from  the  advantages  of  the  day  schools. 
Evening  schools  arose  at  a  time  when  compul- 
sory education  was  not  as  widespread  as  at 
present  and  when  more  children  were  conse- 
quently growing  up  without  instruction.  Be- 
ginning with  the  idea  of  imparting  the  more 
rudimentary  branches,  such  schools  have  ex- 
tended their  scope  until  in  some  cases  they  form  ' 
departments  of  institutions  devoted  to  the  study 
of  art,  science  or  technology.  In  some  of  its 
wider  aspects  their  work  has  become  allied  to 


the 


Central  Eoropc— The  evening  schools  in 
central  Europe  are  largely  the  outgrowth  of 
Sunday- schools  which  shortly  after  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century  began  to  add  elementary 
secular  instruction  to  religious  teaching.  The 
school  age  limit  being  less  than  at  present,  a 
review  or  continuation  of  school  studies  seemed 
of  greai  importance.  In  Germany,  beginning 
with  lessons  in  arithmetic  and  the  mother 
tongue,  the  range  of  instruction  gradually 
widened.  Some  states  made  attendance  obliga- 
tory at  such  Simday-schools  in  certain  cases. 
At  present  the  term  Fortbtldttngsschulen  (liter- 
ally 'further  developing  schools')  is  applied 
in  Germany  and  Switzerland  to  schools  intended 
for   pupils   who    have   passed  the   elementary 


„8le 


BVBNING  STAR  — EVKREST 


school  age  and  yet  study  the  elementarj' 
branches.  These  Forlbildttngsickulcn  are  open 
only  in  winter  and  rarely  require  more  than 
six  hours  of  attendance  in  the  week.  Their 
object  is  to  give  boys  a  practical  turn  of  mind 
Iq-  instruction  fitted  to  bear  upon  their  future 
culings.  They  do  not  furnish  instruction  in 
foreign  or  dead  languages  or  the  higher  mathe~ 
matics.  In  Switzerland,  all  the  25  cantons  have 
systems  of  FortbildunBsschulen  held  on  Sun- 
days, holidays  and  in  the  evening.  The  evening 
schools  of  France,  now  numbering:  many  thou- 
sands, appear  not  to  date  back  farther  than 
IffiO.  The  tendency  is  toward  technical  train- 
ing rather  than  liberal  studies,  but  there  are 
also  evening  classes  or  lectures  open  to  those 
who  desire  a  broader  culture. 

Great  Britain.— In  1806  a  benevolent  asso- 
ciation founded  an  evening  school  in  Bristol, 
England,  for  young  persons  who  were  working 
for  a  living.  In  1811  a  school  for  adults  was 
started  in  Bala,  Wales,  and  others  shortly  fol- 
lowed in  London  and  other  towns.  Such  schools 
were  originally  supported  by  private  benevolence 
or  local  funds,  but  the  government,  after  a  time, 
saw  the  wisdom  of  ai<Ung  them  by  grants.  Since 
1861  this  aid  has  been  greatly  increased,  but  is 
not  intended  to  supersede  local  effort.  Accord- 
ing to  regulations  issued  by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion of  Great  Britain  for  the  school  year  ending 
31  July  1903,  local  funds  were  expected  to  meet 
25  per  cent  of  expenditure  for  the  evening 
schools  and  such  expenditure  to  be  approved 
by  the  board.  The  schools  must  not  be  con- 
ducted for  private  profit.  They  are  under  super- 
vision and  examination  by  the  board,  are  subject 
to  its  examinations  and  must  report  to  it. 
Schools  charging  no  fees  are  not  generally  rec- 
ognized. Instruction  must  begin  after  4  p.  u.  or 
on  Saturday  after  1  p.  u.  Students  under  12  are 
not  admitted  nor  those  who  attend  day  schools 
under  government  inspection  (art  students  beine; 
excepted).  The  courses  are  as  follows:  (1) 
Literary  and  commercial ;  (2)  art ;  (3)  manual 
instruction;  (4)  mathematics  and  science;  (S) 
home    occupations    and    industries.     The^  last 


bulance  training,  in  gardening,  etc  Through- 
out London  the  evening  schools  give  instruc- 
tion in  gymnastics  and  swimming  and  life-sav- 
ing methods  have  been  taught  to  some  of  the 
pupils.  Evening  classes  have  been  held  in  Lon- 
don at  various  institutions  such  as  University 
College,  King's  College,  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum, etc.  In  Che  so-called  provincial  colleges 
evening  classes  constitute  an  important  part  of 
the  work.  Special  schools  give  instruction  in 
commercial  branches,  courses  for  women,  art, 
technology  and  advanced  science.  The  Edu- 
cation Department  of  Great  Britain  reported 
1911-12  for  the  evening  schools  of  England  and 
Wales  7,749  schools  inspected  and  222,776  pupils 
enrolled. 

In  Scotland  the  Parliamentary  grants  for 
evening  schools  are  administered  by  the  Scotch 
Education  Department,  and  are  used  as  in  Eng- 
land to  supplement  locally  raised  funds.  The 
courses  of  study  cover  about  the  same  ground. 
Gaelic  is  found  on  the  curriculum,  and  agricul- 
ture, horticulture,  navigation,  military  drill  and 
swimming  may  alt  be  learned. 

Evening  schools  also  exist  in  most  of  the 
--■--.   (jj   Europe   and  republics  of   Latin 


:    speciall; 


America;    and   in    Canada   Aey  i 

flourishing. 

Utiited  States, — The  first  successful  evening 
schools  of  the  United  Stales  began  near  the 
middle  of  the  19tb  century,  although  an  attempt 
without  permanent  results  was  made  in  New 
York  in  1834.  Boston  and  other  large  cities 
soon  followed  and  evening  schools  gradually  be- 
came a  recognized  part  of  the  common  school 
system.  The  aims  of  the  pupils  in  the  evening 
schools  being  generally  very  practical  and  their 
minds  more  mature,  the  methods  and  subjects 
of  instruction  are  varied  from  those  of  the  day 
schools.  Branches  relating  to  commercial  and 
industrial  occupations  are  naturally  preferred. 
Free  evening  schools  for  instruction  in  drawing 
exist  in  some  cities  and  drawing  is  included  in 
the  curriculum  of  some  of  the  regular  schools. 
Evening  high  schools  have  become  common  and 
in  addition  to  these  extensions  of  the  public 
school  system,  various  important  institutions; 
such  as  Cooper  Union,  New  York;  the  Mary- 
land Institute,  Baltimore,  and  the  Drexel  Insti- 
tute, Philadelphia,  offer  evening  courses  of  a 
highly  varied  and  very  valuable  character,  and 
of  a  range  resembling  that  of  the  day  classes. 
Free  lectures  also  connect  such  schools  with 
university  extension  methods. 

The  evening  schools  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  in  the  United  States,  in 
1914,  had  83,771  students,  while  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association  had  65,129.  In 
the  business  and  commercial  schools  reporting 
to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  in 
1912,  there  were  134,818  students  in  evening 
classes.  The  evening  schools  connected  with 
the  city  school  system  of  the  United  States 
reported,  in  1912,  for  cities  over  10,000  inhabit- 
ants, a  total  of  204  cities,  9,476  teachers.  Forty- 
one  of  these  schools  were  in  Massachusetts  and 
the  remainder  were  scattered  over  the  other 
States.  In  1911  Massachusetts  added  greatly 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  State  vocational  educa- 
tion by  extending  its  help  in  a  very  liberal  and 
broad  manner  to  the  night  schools.  The  great- 
est number  of  night  schools  are  still  to  be 
found  in  the  North  Atlantic  States  and  the 
smallest   number  in   the   South   CentnJ   States 

EVENING  STAR  (also  called  HES- 
PERUS and  VESPER),  the  name  given  to 
any  one  of  the  planets  seen  above  the  horizon 
beiore  midnight ;  especially  applied  to  the  planet 
Venus  on  account  of  its  orighlness,  Mar^ 
Jupiter  and  Saturn  are  the  other  chief  evening 

EVERDINGEN,  ev'er-dlag-en,  Aldart  or 
Allart  van,  Dutch  landscape  painter:  b. 
Allonaar,  1(2\ ;  d.  Amsterdam,  November  1675. 
His  sea  pieces,  in  which  he  represents  the  dis- 
turbed elements  with  great  truth  to  nature,  are 
particularly  celebrated  In  forest  scenes,  too, 
he  was  a  master.  He  b  known  also  as  an  able 
engraver  by  his  plates  to  'Reynard  the  Fox.' 

EVEREST,  Sjk  George.  English  militaty 
engineer:  b.  in  Wales,  ITW;  d.  1866.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Royal  Mlutary  Academy  at 
Woolwich,  was  commissioneil  second  lieutenant 
in  the  Bengal  artillery,  and  tcok  part  in  a  sur- 
vey of  Java  and  in  engineering  work  on  the 
Ganges,  Later  he  was  engageAon  a  survey  of 
India  and  in  1830  was  appoNtcd  surveyor- 
genentl  of  India,  from  vriiich  ^t  he  retired 


B  VBR^ST — BVBRETT 


in  1843.  He  was  knitted  in  1861  and  was 
elected  vice-president  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  in  1862.  Mount  Everest  was  named  in 
his  honor.  He  published  'An  Account  of  the 
Measurement  of  Two  Sections  of  the  Meridional 
Arc  of  India"    (1847). 

EVEKjSST,    Hoimt,    the    h^est    known 


n  the  V 


.rid,  i 


alays.  in  Nepal  near  the  Tibet  frontier.  It 
is  29,002  feet  high,  or  about  ftve  and  one-half 
miles.  It  was  named  in  honor  of  Sir  George 
Everest,  an  Englishman  who  for  a  time  was 
surveyor-general  of  India.  This  mountain  has 
been  confused  with  Gaurisankar,  whose  twin 
peaks  lie  36  miles  west  of  Everest. 

EVERETT,  Alexander  Hill,  American 
diplomatist :  b.  Boston,  Mass„  !9  March  1792 ;  d. 
Canton,  China,  29  May  1847.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  in  1806,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar,  and,  after  serving  as  chargf-d'affaires 
ai  The  Hague,  was  Minister  to  Spain  in  182S-29. 
He  then  became  editor  of  the  North  American 
RevUw,  and  was  elected  to  the  State  legisla- 
ture of  Massachusetts.  In  1840  he  was  ap- 
pointed special  agent  to  Cuba,  and  from  184S 
until  his  death  he  was  a  commissioner  to  China. 
To  the  North  American  Review  he  contributed 
a  large  number  of  essays.  While  resident  in 
Cuba  he  was  appointed  to  the  presidcncv  of 
Jefferson  College,  but  ill  health  compelled  his 
return  north.  He  was  at  first  a  member  of 
the  National  Republican  or  Whig  par^,  but 
later  supported  Jackson.  His  work  on  'Europe, 
or  a  General  Survey  of  the  Political  Situation 
of  the  Principal  Powers,  with  Conjectures  on 
their  Future  Prospects'  <ia22)  was  highly 
esteemed  in  its  time,  and  was  published  in 
French,  Spanish  and  German.  In  1827  appeared 
his  somewhat  similar  book  on  'America.' 
Among  his  other  volumes  are  'Critical  and  Mis- 
celbneous  Essays*  (Ist  series,  1845;  2d  series, 
1847)  and  'Poems*  (1845).  He  wrote  also 
biographies  of  Patrick  Henry  and  Joseph  War- 
ren for  Sparks'  series  of  'American  Biography.* 
Other  works  were  'New  Ideas  on  Population' 
(1822);  and  orations  on  'The  French  Revolu- 
tion'; 'The  Battle  of  New  Orleans,'  and  'The 
Battle  of  Bunker  HiIL> 

EVERETT,  Charles  Carroll,  American 
Unitarian  clergyman:  b.  Brunswick,  Me.,  19 
Jnne  1829;  d.  Carabridg^  Mass.,  17  Oct  1900. 
He  was  graduated  at  Bowdotn  College,  and 
afterward  studied  at  the  University  of  Berlin. 
He  returned  to  Bowdoin  College,  wnere  he  was 
tutor  for  two  years,  librarian  For  five  and  pro- 
fessor of  modem  languages  1855^57.  He  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Independent  Unitarian 
Congre^honal  Church  in  Bangor,  Me.,  1859, 
but  resigned  in  1869  to  become  professor  of 
theology  in  Harvard  Divinity  School,  and  was 
dean  of  the  school  from  1879  till  bis  death. 
Among  his  published  works  arc  'The  Science 
ol  Thought'  (1869);  'Relij^ons  Before 
(Hiristianity'  (1883)  ;  'Fichte's  Science  of 
Knowledge)  (1884);  'The  Gospel  of  Paul* 
(1893);  'Psychological  Elements  of  Religious 
Faith'  (1902)  ;  'Immortality  and  Other  Essays' 
(1902)  ;  'Theism  and  Christian  Faith'  (1909). 

EVERETT,  David,  American  writer:  b. 
Princeton,  Mass.,  29  March  1770;  d.  Marietta, 
Ohio,  21  Dec.  1813.  He  studied  law  in  Boston, 
and  while  there  wrote   for  RusselFs  Gwsellt 


and  a  literary  paper  called  lite  NigkHngalt. 
He  edited  the  Boston  Patriot  (1809).  and  the 
Pilot  (1812).     His  works  include  'The  F"   " 


and  Duties  of  Nations,'  an  essay;  'Darenzel,' 
a  tragedy  (1800)  ;  'Common  Sense  in  Desha- 
bille, or  the  Farmer's  Monitor.'  He  wrote  the 
well-known  lines   beginning  — 

You'd  vane  unect  one  of  mir  »ce 
To  ipak  m  publio  oa  the  (tSEc. 

EVERETT,  Edward,  American  statesman 
and  orator,  brother  of  A.  H.  Everett  (q.v.) :  b. 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  II  April  1794;  d.  Boston, 
IS  Jan.  1865.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
in  1811,  pursued  studies  in  divinity,  became  in 
1813  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  Church,  Brattle 
street,  Boston,  and  in  1814  published  his 
'Defence  of  Christianity'  in  reply  to  the. 
'Grounds  of  Christianity  Examined'  ot  George 
G.  English.  In  1814  he  was  also  chosen  to 
occupy  the  newly  established  chair  of  Greek 
literature.  To  qualify  himself  for  the  post 
he  went  to  Europe  in  1815  for  a  course  of  travel 
and  study.  He  was  for  two  years  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Gottingen,  and  later  sojourned  in 
France,  England,  ttalv  and  Greece.  In  1819  he 
returned  to  enter  on  the  duties  of  his  professor- 
ship. He  became  also  in  1820  the  editor  of  the 
North  Atnerican  Review,  and  in  1820-24  con- 
tributed to  it  about  50  papers.  He  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1824,  and  by  successive  re- 
elections  held  his  seat  until  1834.  Throughout 
this  period  ht  was  a  member  of  the  Committee 
on  Foreign  Relations  and  in  the  20th  Congress 
its  chairman.  He  drew  either  the  majority  or 
the  minority  report  of  many  select  committees. 
In  politics  he  was  a  National  Republican 
(Whig).  He  declined  a  renomination  to  Con- 
gress in  1834.  In  1835  he  was  elected  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  subsequently  was  three  times 
re-elected,  holding  the  office  for  four  years,  and 
in  1839  was  defeated  by  a  majority  of  one  vote. 
While  in  Europe  in  1840  he  was  appointed 
Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  England.  At  a  time 
when  there  were  many  points  of  controversy  be- 
tween England  and  the  United  States  be  was 

portant  questions.  He  declined  in  1843  an  ap- 
pointment as  commissioner  to  China,  and  tn 
1845  was  recalled.  In  I846-»9  he  was 
president  of  Harvard,  and  in  1852  he  be- 
came Secretary  of  State  in  Fillmore's 
Cabinet  for  the  last  four  months  of  Hie 
latter's  administration.  During  this  brief 
term  of  ofRce  he  settled  several  dinicult  matters. 
In  a  diplomatic  note  he  declined  the  joint 
proposition  of  Great  Britain  and  France  that  the 
United  Slates  should  enter  a  tripartite  conven- 
tion whiiA  should  guarantee  to  Spain  exclusive 
possession  of  Cuba  in  perpetuity.  Before  he 
left  the  Department  of  Slate  he  was  elected  to 
the  Senate.  There  he  vigorously  opposed  the 
Kansas- Nebraska  bill  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Missouri  Compromise.  He  resigned  his  seat  in 
May  1854.  From  18S6  to  1859  he  pronounced 
his  well-known  lecture  on  Washington  in  all 
on  122  occasions,  realising  thereby  nearly 
$60,000,  which  he  turned  into  the  treasury  of 
the  Mount  Vernon  Association  for  the  pur- 
chase of  Mount  Vernon  by  private  subscrip- 
tion. He  prepared  a  collective  edition  of  the 
orations  and  speeches  of  Daniel  Webster,  with 
an  introduaory  biographical  notice;  wrote  a 
life  of  General  Stark  for  Sparks'  'American 
Biography' ;  and  prepared  for  the  <Encyclopg:dia 


„8le 


Britaimica,'  at  the  Instance  of  Macaulay,  a  life 
of  Washington,  afterwards  separately  published 
(I860).  In  1860  he  reluctantly  became  a 
candidate  for  the  Vice- Presidency  on  the  Con- 
stitutional-Union, or,  as  it  was  sometimes 
known,  the  Bell-Everett  ticket  — John  Bell 
(q.v.)  bein^  the  Presidential  candidate.  The 
ticket  received  39  electoral  votes, —  those  of 
Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Virwnia.  During  the 
Gvil  War  he  was  a  staunch  Unionist,  but  dis- 

gsed  also  toward  a  policy  of  reconciliation. 
•  delivered  the  address  at  the  dedication  of 
the  national  cemetery  at  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  19 
Nov.  1863,  and  in  the  Presidential  election  of 
1864  as  an  elector-at-largc  he  cast  his  ballot  for 
Lincoln  and  Johnson,    His  last  public  appear- 


Everett  was  noteworthy  in  his  versatility, —  a 
preacher  and  theologian,  a  Greek  scholar,  an 
editor  and  author,  orator,  diplomat  and  states- 
man. He  attracted  mtjch  attention  by  his  pul- 
pit eloquence.  As  a  Grecian  he  was  tnoroughly 
equipped  and  gave  in  his  time  a  considerable 
stimulus  in  America  to  the  study  of  Greek  let- 
ters, antiquities  and  history.  His  literary  pro- 
ductions were  carefully  wrought  and  marked  by 
his  scholarship;  but,  through  interruptions  1^ 
other  activities,  they  were  limited,  so  far  as  pub- 
lished, chiefly  to  his  North  American  articles 
and  the  above-mentioned  'Defence  o£  Chrislian- 
i^,'  He  did  not  complete  a  treatise  on  public 
law  —  a  subject  he  was  eminently  fitted  to  ex- 
pound,—  on  which  he  was  for  some  time  at 
work.  His  utterances  in  Congress  showed  him 
rather  the  orator  than  the  debater,  and  while 
a  member  of  the  lower  house  he  stood  apart 
from  much  of  party  contention  as  it  there  a{>- 
peared.  He  took,  however,  a  prominent  part  in 
discussion,  and,  as  indicated  above,  was  a  most 
valuable  committee  member.  While  he  was  a 
forei^  minister  the  general  negotiations  re- 
garding the  northeastern  boundary  and  Oregon 
difficulties  were  transferred  from  him  through 
the  appointment  by  Great  Britain  of  Ashburton 
as  special  ambassador,  yet  many  of  the  points 
in  dispute  were  left  to  Everett's  sldlful  adjust- 
ment. As  representative,  secretary  and  senator 
he  held  to  the  possibility  of  saving  the  Union 
l^  compromise  on  the  slavery  question,  but,  the 
war  once  begun,  he  was  among  the  ablest  sup- 
porters and  advisers  of  the  Federal  government. 
It  is  as  an  orator  that  Everett  is  best  known. 
His  addresses  were  generally  written  with 
elaborate  care,  and  were  of  the  Ciceronian  type 
in  the  knowledge  and  culture  displayed  as  well 
as  in  their  finished  rhetoric.  Uore  fully  than 
xny  other  American  orator  he  combined  the  re- 
sources of  learning  with  the  arts  of  the  speaker. 
He  lacked  Webster's  fire  and  Phillips'  magic, 
but  his  manner  was  always  impressive  and  well- 
poised.  Even  in  his  own  time,  however,  his 
oratory  did  not  escape  criticism  for  lack  of 
(firectness  and  artificialily,  and  this  charge  has 
frequently  been  made  against  it.  He  may  be 
cftlled  the  pioneer  in  the  American  "lyceum,' 
which  long  had  such  a  reputation.  His  'Ora- 
tions and  Speeches  on  Various  Occasions'  were 
collected  in  four  volumes  in  1853-68.  Consult 
also  Dana,  'An  Address  upon  the  Life  and 
Services  of  Edward  Everett'  (Cambridge 
1865) ;  'A  Memoir  of  Edward  Everett'  (Bos- 
ton 1865)  ;  and  Whipple's  remarks  in   'Char- 


acter and  (^racteristic  Uen,*  pp.  243-2S2 
(1866). 

EVERETT,  James,  English  clergyman:  b. 
Alnwidc,  Northumberland.  16  May  1784;  d. 
Cumberland,  10  May  1872.  In  ISiff  he  began 
to  preach  as  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  minister. 
In  1821  be  retired  until  1834  and  was  in  the 
book  business  at  Sheffield,  later  at  Manchester. 
In  1842  his  health  compelled  a  second  retire- 
ment From  1846  to  1848  he  published  dK 
notorious  'Fly  Sheets'  intended  to  expose  the 
inefficiency  in  the  affairs  of  the  Wesleyan 
Methodist  Connection,  This  led  to  his  expul- 
sion from  the  Wesleyan  ministry  along  with 
his  friends  William  Griffith  and  S.  Dunn.  They 
formed  the  Wesleyan  Reform  Union  which  later 
united  with  other  liberal  Methodists  and  formed 
the  United  Methodist  Free  Churches,  He  was 
president  of  the  Conference  of  this  body.  He 
was  a  voluminous  author  and  a  poet  of  no  mean 
ability.  His  most  noted  book  was  'The  Vil- 
lage Blacksmith*  (1831),  which  passed  through 
many  editions.  He  was  also  the  biographer 
of  his  friend  Adam  dark,  the  great  commen- 
tator. He  assisted  John  Holland  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  life  of  the  poet  James  Mont- 
gomery (7  vols,  1854), 

EVERETT,  Joseph  David,  English  phys- 
icist: b.  Rushmore,  near  Ipswich,  11  Sept.  1831; 
d.  9  Aug.  19()4.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow 
University ;  was  professor  of  mathematics. 
King's  College,  Nova  Scotia,  \S>9-(A;  assistant 
in  mathematics,  Glasgow  University,  1864-67; 
and  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  Queen's 
College,  Belfast,  1867-97.  He  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  selection  and  naming  of  dynamical 
and  electrical  units,  and  drafted  a  report 
(1873),  the  adoption  of  which  originated  the 
C.G.S.  system  now  generally  employed.  His 
'Universal  Proportion  Table,'  was  the  first  ap- 
plication of  the  parallel  column  arrangement 
for  obtaining  a  slide-rule  with  very  open  scale. 
His  English  version  of  M,  Privat-Deschanel's 
'Physics'  (1870)  was  so  largely  rewritten  as 
to  be  almost  an  original, work  Other  of  his 
publications  are  'Ccnti mitre-Gramme-Second 
System  of  Units'  (1875);  'Elementary  Text- 
Book  of  Physics'  (1877)  ;  'Shorthand  for  Gen- 
eral Use'  (1877);  'vibratory  Motion  and 
Sound'  (1882);  'Batteries  of  Natural  Phi- 
losophy'  (1887),  etc 

EVERETT,  WQliam,  American  educator, 
youngest  son  of  Edward  Everett  (q.v.):  b. 
Watertown,  Mass,,  10  Oct.  1839;  d.  Quincy, 
Mass,,  15  Feb.  1910.  From  1870  to  1877  he 
was  assistant  professor  of  Latin  at  Harvard. 
He  was  master  of  Adams  Academy  at  Quincy, 
Mass.,  1877-93  and  in  1897,  and  was  member 
of  (xingress  1893-95.  He  was  the  author  of 
'On  the  Cam'  (1865);  'Changing  Base'  (1868), 
'Double  Play'  (1870),  two  books  for  boys;  a 
poem,  'Hesione,  or  Europe  Unchained'  (1869)  ; 
'School  Sermons'  (1881);  'Thine,  Not  Mine'; 
and  many  pamphlets  on  political,  literary  and 
religious  subjects. 

EVERETT,  Mass.,  city  in  Middlesex 
County,  three  miles  north  of  Boston,  on  the 
Boston  and  Maine  Railway  and  with  connection 
by  electric  surface  lines  with  Lynn,  Salem, 
Qielsea,  Boston  and  adjacent  towns.  Accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  the  13th  United  Stales 
census  there  were  in  Everett  62  establishment^ 
with  a  capital  of  $22,905,000,  employing  2,680 


EVEKKTT — KVKRGL  ADBS 


wage-earners  at  w^es  amounting'  to  $1,979,000 
and  having  a  product  valued  at  $8,747,000.  The 
most  important  manufactories  are  a  chetitical 
plant,  structural  iron  foundries,  steel  works  and 
gas  and  coke  works,  radiators,  shoes,  coal-tar 
products,  leather,  beds,  concrete  blocks,  tools, 
wagons,  boxes,  trunks,  etc.  The  United  States 
census  of  manufactures  for  1914  showed  within 
the  dty  limits'  8S  industrial  establishments  of 
factory  grade,  employing  3,788  persons;  3,226 
being  wage-earners  receiving'  annually  a  total 
of  $2,047,000  in  wages.  The  capital  invested 
aggregated  $26,409,000  and  the  year's  output 
was  valued  ai  $13,219,000;  of  this,  $6,708,000 
was  the  value  added  by  manufacture.  There 
are  two  public  libraries,  the  Shute  Memorial 
and  the  Parlin  Memorial,  and  the  Whidden 
Memorial  Hospital  is  also  located  here. 
Everett  was  settled  in  1643  and  until  1870 
it  was  a  part  of  Maiden.  It  received  its  city 
charter  in  1892.  Its  chief  development  was 
in  the  decade  1890-1900.  The  government 
is  administered  by  a  mayor,  chosen  annually, 
and  a  municipal  council  in  which  members 
of  the  lower  chamber  are  elected  by  wards 
for  one  year,  those  of  the  upper  chamber  at 
large  for  two  years.  The  more  important  of 
the  subordinate  officials  are  nominated  by  the 
mayor  and  confirmed  by  the  council;  the  others 
are  chosen  by  the  coundt.    Pop.  37,381. 

EVERETT,  Wash.,  city,  county-seat  of 
Snohomish  County,  oti  Fuget  Sound,  on  the 
Northern  Pacific,  the  Great  Northern,  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  railroads, 
about  55  miles  east  by  north  of  Tacoma  and  30 
miles  north  of  Seattle.  It  has  an  excellent 
harbor  with  water  communication  with  the. 
Pacific  and  agricultural  lands,  forests  and  val- 
uable mines  nearb/.  Such  a  combination  of 
natural  resources  is  not  common.  Everett  is 
the  entrepot  of  the  towns  and  camps  in  a  rich 
mining  belt.  Within  a  district  36  miles  long 
and  20  miles  wide,  the  Monte  Cristo,  Great 
Lake,  Silver  Creek,  Troublesome,  Sultan,  Stilla- 
guamish  and  North  Fork  district  send  ores  to 
the  great  smelter  in  Everett  and  in  various 
ways  contribute  naturally^  to  the  substantial 
growth  of  the  dty.  The  ci^  trades  extensively 
in  lumber,  having  some  of  the  largest  plants 
in  the  Northv^est.  Red-cedar  shingles  are  the 
most  important  products.  The  smelter  and 
refinery  plant  obtains  mineral  from  all  over  the 
Northwest.  The  city  contains  railroad  shops, 
flour-  and  lumber-mills,  large  shipyards,  sash 
and  door  factories,  saw  and  shingle  mills  and 
one  of  the  two  plants  in  the  United  Slates  for 
saving  arsenic  from  smeller  fumes.  There  are 
several  well-built  brick  buildings,  churches,  a 
theatre,  graded  streets,  electric  ligjit  and  motor 
power,  sewers,  school  houses,  newspapers^  a 
Carnegie  library,  two  hospitals  and  the  United 
States  customs  and  assayer's  offices,  etc.  Its 
school  system  is  excellent.  Everett  was  settled 
in  1891,  incorporated  in  1893.  Its  growth  has 
been  rapid  because  of  its  favorable  situation 
as  a  commercial  port,  its  transportation  facilities 
and  its  nearness  to  extensive  forests.  It  has 
adopted  the  commission  form  of  government. 
Pop.  32,048. 

EVERETT-GREEN,  Evelyn,  English 
■writer:  b.  London,  17  Nov.  1856.  She  is  the 
daughter  of  Maty  Wood  ^vereti-Green  (qv.). 
Slw  .was  educated  at  Bedford  College^  London ; 


studied  music  at  the  London  Academy;  and  for 
two  years  was  a  nurse  in  a  London  hospital. 
Since  1883  she  has  devoted  herself  entirely  to 
writing.  Among  her  many  published  works  the 
best  known  are  'The  Last  of  the  Dacres* 
(1886)  ;  'Si.  Wynfriths*  (1893)  ;  'Dare  Lori- 
mer's  Heritage'  (1892)  ;  'Dominique's  Venge- 
ance';  'Shut  In>  (1894);  "Over  the  Sea  Wall' 
(1894)  ;  'Arnold  Inglehurst  the  Preacher' 
(1895);  'Squib:  His  Friends'  (1896);  'French 
and  English'  (1898);  'Odcyne's  Marriage' 
(1899);  'The  Heir  of  Haskett  Hall'  (1899); 
'Monica'  (1900) :  -'After  Worcester'  (1901); 
'For  the  Faith*  (1901);  'Olivia's  Experiment' 
(1901);   <In  Fair  Granada'    (1901);   'Fallen   ' 


Keep'  (I90S) ;  "The  Magic  Island'  (1906) ; 
'Married  in  Haste'  (1907);  'The  House  of 
Silence'  (1910);  'The  Evolution  of  Sara' 
(1911);  'Blackladies'  (1914);  'The  Double 
House'    (1915);   'Confirmed  Bachelor'    (1915). 

EVERETT-GREEN.  Mary  Anne  (Wood), 
Engtiih  author:  b.  Shetfield,  1818;  d.  London.  1 
Nov.  1895.  She  moved  lo  London  in  1841  and 
for  nearly  40  years  was  emploj-ed  in  the  record 
office  as  one  of  the  editors  of  the  'Rolls  Series 
of  Slate  Paper  Calendars.'  The  works  edited 
by  her  include  'Letters  of  Royal  and  Illus- 
trious Ladies  of  Great  Britain'  (1846)  ;  'Diary 
of  John  Rous'  (1856);  'Letters  of  Henrietta 
Maria'  (1857) ;  'Life  of  William  Whitinehara' 
(1870).  Her  only  original  work  was  the  'Lives 
of  the  Princesses  of  tjigland  from  the  Norman 
Conquest.    (1S50-SS). 

EVERGLADES.  The  name  given  lo  a 
vast  tract  of  land  and  water  in  the  southernmost, 
part  of  Florida,  a  region,  though  tmder  the 
very  eyes  of  the  early  pioneers  and  bordered  by 
our  own  advanced  lines  of  commerce  and  travel, 
remained  practically  undiscovered  until  the 
first  decade  of  the  20tb  century.  It  is  not  a 
marsh,  a  swamp  nor  a  stagnant  pool ;  neither 
land  nor  water.  No  white  man  had  penetrated  it 
for  any  great  distance,  either  bv  boat  or  on  toot, 
owing  to  the  variance  in  the  depths  of  the. 
water  and  the  dense  tangle  of  saw-grass,  scrub- 
willow  and  custard-apple  which  abounded  there. 
The  State  of  Florida  is  one  immense  mountain 
top  of  limestone  formation,  covered  with  a  net- 
work of  pot-holes  varying  in  size  from  a  few 
feet  to  thousands  of  acres;  it  has  countless 
lakes  of  fresh  water,  fed  by  springs  and  sub- 
terranean streams,  and  among  these  is  Lake 
Okeechobee,  named  by  tfie  Indians  Lake  May- 
aimi;  at  the  southern  end  of  the  lake  be^an  the 
district  known  as  the  Everglades.  This  vast 
marsh  lay  in  Dade,  Lee,  Monroe  and  Palm 
Beach  counties,  extendioK  southward  from  the 
lake  about  110  miles  and  having  a  breadth  of. 
about  45  miles.    Over  the  rocky  bottom  of  this 


thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet,  and 
in  this  muck  the  saw-grass  found  its  origin, 
took  ropt  and  sometimes  grows  to  a  height  of 
10  feet.  This  saw-grass  is  one  of  the  most 
peculiar  and  interesting  features  of  the  Ever- 
glades. Shooting  up  rapidly,  pale  green  jn 
color,  as  it  goes  through  the  water,  fading  in 
the  sunlight  to  a  dull  golden  tint,  its  blades  are 
iou^  as  bamboo, -ilsv wages  sharp  and  jagged  as 
%  sftWi    Tow^d  tte  Western  end  of  the  lake  it 


■8l^ 


1  with  wild  myrtle  and  fonncd  an 
almost  impassable  barrier,  running  through  the 
entire  length  of  the  lake,  although  there  are 
some  passiLges  thiough  it,  known  familiarly^  to 
the  Seminole,  but  wEicfa  are  almost  impossible 
to  locate  by  the  explorer. 

Scatteied  along  the  eastern  and  western 
edges  of  the  marsh  are  numerous  islands,  some 
very  small,  others  hundreds  of  acres  in  extent, 
covered  with  luxuriant  growths  o£  live  oaks 
and  bays,  interspersed  with  wild  cucumber, 
lemon  and  orange  trees.  The  papaya,  the  cus- 
tard-apple and  prkkly-ash  are  of  frequent  oc- 
currence, and  here  and  there  may  be  seen  the 
'  cabbage  palmetto,  the  pine  and  the  rubber-tree. 

The  first  white  man  to  enter  this  mysterious, 
silent  country  was  a  Spaniard,  one  Escalente 
de  Fontenada,  who,  after  being  shipwrecked  in 
the  Strait  of  Florida,  was  made  captive  and 
slave  by  the  great  cacique,  Calos,  but  he  has 
left  us  only  a  lew  meagre  details  of  his  experi- 
ences dunng  his  17  years  of  captivity.  Fre- 
quent expetmions  of  exploration  were  sent  out 
in  the  United  States  government  from  J&17  to 
1900  to  penetrate  this  wilderness  if  possible,  but 
all  failed,  each  bringing  the  explorers,  after 
days  of  hardships  and  privations,  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  Everglades,  though  fascinating 
in  its  wildness,  was  a  region  to  be  avoided;  a 
forest  of  trees,  rank  undergrowth  and  saw- 
grass,  impenetrable  and  practically  valueless; 
and  the  lake  a  mixture  of  currents  which' 
seemed  to  begin  without  reason,  led  nowhere  in 
I>artJcu1ar  and  generally  ended  in  a  compara- 
tively still  pool,  with  a  labyrinth  of  passages 
from  which  there  seemed  no  direct  egress. 

Animal  life  in  the  Everglades  is  fairly  abun- 
dant, deer  being  found  on  both  eastern  and 
western  shores,  otter  are  plentiful,  alligators 
and  crocodile  quite  numerouSjWhile  the  snake 
is  there  in  lar^  numbers.  The  Glades  were 
once  the  breeding  place  for  the  egret,  the  ibis 
and  die  heron,  and,  while  many  of  them  are 
yet  to  be  found,  the  plume  hunter  has  made 
such  inroads  that  all  are  nearly  extinct.  Small 
flies  and  gnats  are  found  where  the  foliage  is 
thick,  as  in  all  regions. 

Probably  the  most  interesting  of  the  deni- 
zens of  the  Everglades  are  the  Seminole  In- 
dians, divided  into  two  clans  or  families,  the 
Muskokis  and  the  Uikasukes,  who  for  hundreds 
of  years  have  inhabited  this  section  of  Florida, 
defying  all  attempts  to  dispossess  them,  and  in 
1835,  during  the  Seminole  War,  killing  a  large 
number  of  troops,  under  Major  Dade,  sent 
against  them.  The  shores  of  the  streams  by 
which  the  Glades  are  entered  are  covered  with 
the  cocoa-plum  tree,  which  also  grows  about 
the  edge  of  the  Glades,  producing  a  blue  fruit 
on  the  eastern  and  a  \ratte  fruit  on  the  western 
edge.  Wherever  the  land  is  sufficiently  dry, 
the  coontie-plant,  really  the  Florida  arrow-root, 
grows,  and  from  these  the  Indian  gets  his  sus- 
tenance, extracting  flour  and  staroi  from  the 
roofs. 

The  physical  features  of  the  Everglades  are 
beyond  description,  beauty  and  charm  blending 
in  a  strange,  sweet  sense  of  mystery.  In  diy 
weather,  when  the  water  is  low,  it  is  possible 
to  drive  irtto  the  Glades,  but  the  most  beautiful 
and  ideal  approach  is  by  water,  al!  the  rivers  of 
the  Glades  finding  their  way  to  the  sea,  some  by 
the  rocky  channels  worn  by  their  own  a«e-long 
floods,  and  some  through  miles  of  wandering 


curves,  their  shores  lined  with  forests  of  man- 
Looking  into  these  forests,  only  the  dark 
waters  are  to  be  seen.  Ascending,  the  fresh 
water  of  the  Glades  overcomes  the  brackish 
tidal  water,  and  the  cocoa-plum  takes  the  place 
of  the  mangrove.  Still  farther  up  the  river, 
the  cocoa-plum  gives  way  to  the  cypress,  and 
pond  lilies  abouncC  the  whole  panorama  of  shift- 
ily green, —  the  lemon-like  foliage  of  the  cocoa- 
filum,  the  dark  olive  of  the  mangrove,  and  the 
ighter  green  of  the  cypress,  enlivened  by  the 
sunlight, —  making  a  scene  of  unique  beauh. 

In  the  persjiective,  when  the  water  is  low, 
the  Glades,  with  its  numerous  islands  and 
with  the  tall  golden  grass,  gleaming  in  the  sun- 
shine, waving  over  a  field  of  silver,  entUng  with 
a  sky-line  of  blue,  has  a  charm  for  the  eye; 
unequaled,  perhaps,  by  any  other  spot  in  the 
world,  and  |^ves  to  me  sightseer  or  explorer 
that  subtle  impulse  and  uncontrollable  desire 
to  adventure  into  this  never-ending  pJain  of 
grass  and  water,  never  reaching  the  goal  but 
always  seeking  for  something  that  lies  just  be- 
yond the  horiion. 

The  climate  of  the  Everglades  is  faultless, 
showing  no  extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  nor  is  it 
subject  to  sudden  change.  There  are  two  sea- 
sons in  the  year,  the  rainy  and  dry,  the  tatter 
including  June  and  September,  althou^  light 
showers  may  be  expected  at  any  season.  :  ' 
the  a  


best  assurance  of  healdi,  and  it  is  small  wonder 
that  the  ancient  explorers  spent  years  here  try- 
ing to  find  the  'Fountain  of  Youth.* 

The  title  to  the  Everglades  is  vested  in  the 
trustees  of  the  Internal  Improvement  Fund  of 
Florida,  under  patents  from  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  of  the  United  States,  by  virtue  of 
an  act  of  Congress  of  1850,  and  they  promoted 
efforts  to  drain  the  Glades  and  open  it  to  actual 
settlers,  the  cost  of  reclamation  being  small 
compared    to    the    great    agricultural    value 

A  private  company  set  about  building  a 
drainage  canal  from  Lake  Okeechobee  to  the 
New  River  in  1881,  but  owing  to  faulty  plan- 
ning the  project  failed.  A  definite  plan  was 
finally  outlined  by  the  State  in  1906  and  wofk 
was  promptly  begun.  This  plan  provided  for  a 
series  of  main  canals  to  be  dredged  from  the 
coast  to  the  lake,  with  the  purpose  in  view  of 
lowering  the  level  of  the  lake  sufficiently  to  Stop 
the  overflow  of  its  waters  into  the  Everglades, 
and  to  lower  the  water  level  there  by  means  of 
these  same  canals.  At  the  present  time  five 
canals  of  a  total  length  of  over  200  miles  and  of 
an  average  depth  of  S  feet  with  a  60-foot  width 
have  been  completed  and  have  served  to  reclaim 
about  1,000,000  acres,  although  certain  acres 
have  not  received  sumcient  protection  against 
overflow  during  heavy  raining  season.  The 
success  of  this  work  ^;oved  that  a  great  part 
of  the  remainder  —  2,700,000  acres  — could  in 
time  be  reclaimed  by  the  natural  incline  of  the 
surface,  from  the  flood  source  to  the  rivers 
entering  the  sea.  A  contract  was  let  to  a 
dredging  company  of  Baltimore  to  excavate 
nine  canals  a^regatinc  425  miles.  All  of  these 
waterways  are  now  under  construction,  with 
widths  ranging  from  50  to  60  feet  for  the  larger, 
and  an  average  of  25  feet  on  three  smaller  ones. 
The  depth  of  the  main  canals  ranges  from  five 
to  seven  feet,  while  sotne  averse  fonr  feet 


S  VBKORBBN  ~  KVKSGKUNS 


Ml 


The  excavktion  is  accomplished  i^  husie  dredges 
and  ditching;  machines  of  the  clamshell,  dipper 
and  suction  types  accorilii^  Lo  the  nature  of  the 
fonnation  in  which  they  are  employed.  Float- 
ing dynamite  plants  are  employed  for  rock  ex- 
cavation, and  are  equipped  with  steam-driven 
shovel  buckets  for  removii^  the  rock  blown 
out  from  the  bottom  of  the  cut.  The  work  is 
proceeding  at  such  a  pace  that  soon  about 
one-third  of  the  entire  area  will  be  ready  tor 
the  farmer  and  the  settler.  The  Everglades, 
where  drained,  are  being  occupied  by  settlers 
from  all  parts  of  the  country.  Every  kind  of 
fruit  and  vegetable  raised  in  the  temperate  zone 
can     be    cultivated    at     a    profit    in     Florida, 


the  reclaimed  portion  prove  the 
truth  of  this.  The  new  land  is  being  sold  in 
large  tracts  by  the  State  authorities  to  b* 
divided  into  truck  and  other  farms,  but  the 
possibility  of  producing  sugar  is  perhaps  the 
most  im^rtant.  The  total  cost  of  tne  reclama- 
tion protect  under  the  plan  of  1906  has  been 
about  $4,500,000  or  $1,125  per  acre.  For  acts, 
reports  and  official  papere  relating  to  the  recla- 
mation scheme,  ana  giving  much  valuable  in- 
fonnation  concerning:  the  region,  consult  'The 
Everglades,'  Senate  Doctiment  No.  89,  62d  Con- 
gress. 1st  Session  <Washington  1911);  'Florida 
Everglades,'  Re^rt  of  the  Everglades  Engi- 
neering Commission,  Seitate  Document  No.  379, 
63d  Congress,  2d  Session  (ih.  1914^  ;  Rhodes 
and  Dumont,  'Guide  to  Florida*  (New  York 
1912)  also  WiUey,  D.  A.,  "Draining  the  Eyer- 
gladei"  in  Scientific  American,  Vol.  CIV,  No.  2 
(21  Jaa  1911);  id,  "Reclaiming  the  Ever- 
glades," in  Scientific  American.  Vol.  CXV,  No. 
12  (16  Sept  1916) ;  and  Dimock,  'The  Passing 
of  a  Wilderness"  in  Scribner't  Magasiiu,  Vol. 
XLI  (March  1907). 

EVERGREEN,  Ala.,  town,  county-seat  of 
Conecuh  County,  on  the  Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville Railroad,  about  100  miles  northeast  of 
Mobile.  An  agricultural  school  and  experi- 
ment station  and  the  State  Baptist  Orphan 
Asylum  are  located  here.  Its  mineral  springs 
and  agreeable  climate  make  it  a  winter  resort. 
The  towt:  is  interested  chiefly  in  agriculture, 
lumbering  and  market  gardening,  and  contains 
a  veneer  mill,  box  factory  and  saw  mill.  The 
waterworks  and  electric-light  plant  are  owned 
by  the  municipality.     Pop.  l.SSJ. 


EVERGREENS.  Those  plants  which  im- 
perceptibly shed  their  leaves  and  acquire  new 
foliage,  without  noticeable  chan^  in  their 
aspect,  and  those  which,  like  certain  biennials 
and  alpines.  maintain  their  leaves  throu^out 
the   winter   season   so   that    they   may   make   a 

Juick  start  in  the  spring,  are  called  evergreens, 
n  the  northern  countries  cultivated  evergreens 
are  roughly  divided  into  two  groups  popularly 
called  conifers  and  •broad-leaved'  evergreens, 
the  latter  including  laurels,  rhododendrons, 
hollies,  box,  etc.  The  tropical  flora  .is  chiefly 
evergreen,  and  some  trees,  like  the  Magnolia 
glauca.  that  shed  their  foliage  in  the  north, 
retain  it  tn  the  south. 

This  evergreen  character,  especially  where 
the  plants  are  subjected  to  extremes  of  drought 
and  wetness,  or  of  heat  and  cold,  has  given 


rise  to  many  devices  for  regulatii«  tiaiupira- 
tion  or  the  deleterious  effects  of  too  much 
moisture,  such  as  the  rolling  of  leaves,  waxy 
deposits  on  the  leaves,  and  various  curious 
arrangements  of  pits,  hairs  and  cells.  Wher- 
ever the  foliage  is  persistent  for  several  years, 
as  is  the  case  of  the  holly  and  of  many  tropi- 
cal trees  and  epiphytes,  it  is  often  thick  and 
leathery,  being  provided  with  a  thickened  cuticle, 
especisdly  where  the  leaf  undergoes  drought 
periodically.  Other  evergreens  like  cacti  and 
rock-plants  become  fleshy  or  succulent,  when 
living  i^i  arid  coaditions,  storing  water  in  their 
tissues  and  sometimes  retaining  it  there  with 
mucilaginous  juices  and  salts.  Furthermore 
they  are  apt  to  assume  a  more  or  less  cylindrical 
shape  in  both  leaf  and  stem,  the  foliage  often 
being  reduced  to  mere  needles  and  scales,  or 
being  absent  entirely.  This  rodlike,  nearly  leaf- 
less, condition  is  particularly  noticeable  in  the 
so-called  whip-plants  of  arid  regions,  which 
are  reduced  to  switch  branches  with  scales  for 
leaves,  thus  greatly  reducing  the  evaporating 
surface  during  the  heated  term.  They  often 
occur  on  the  Mediterranean  shores  where  an- 
other ty^  of  device  for  controlling  exhalation 
is-  conspicuous ;  for  there  the  evergreens  are 
really  gray,  like  the  lavender,  hoary  with  their 
envelopes  of  hair,  just  as  some  alpine  plants, 
notably  the  edelweiss,  are  smothered  in  felted 
hairs.  In  the  shadowless  forests  of  Australia 
many  trees  reduce  their  evaporating  surfaces 
by  presenting  only  the  edges  of  their  leaves  to 
the  midday  sun. 

Coniferous  evergreens  furnish  some  of  our 
most  valuable  forest  products  in  the  way  of 
timber,  naval  stores  and  tanning  materials,  and 
also  various  food  products  as  nuts  and  bark, 
chiefly  of  value  to  the  aborigine.  One  or  two, 
as  the  West  Indian  yacca  and  the  yew,  furnish 
cabinet  woods,  but  the  latter  seems  to  have 
been  used  wherever  it  grows,  chiefly  for  bows. 
Most  of  them  also  are  useful  for  windbreaks, 
hedges  or  for  ornamental  planting,  where  shelter. 
concealment  or  winter-color  is  desired;  various 
species  being  adapted  for  diffenug  soils  and 
climates.  Some  of  them,  as  the  arbor-vitae 
and  yew,  stand  shearing  well,  and  can  he  pruned 
into  sundry  geometrical  forms ;  hotly  and  box 
share  this  distinction,  and  the  custom  was 
formerly  carried  into  grotesque  excess  in  topi- 
ary gardening.  _^ 

Laurel,  rhododendrons  and  other ''broad- 
leaved'  evergreens  are  often  valuable  in  shrub- 
beries not  only  on  account  of  their  winter  ver- 
dure but  because  they  also  have  handsome 
blossoms  or  fruit;  they  moreover  afford  shelter 
for  birds. 

Their  long  life  and  perpetual  verdure  have 
caused  many  of  the  evergreen  tribe,  particularly 
the  fir  and  mistletoe,  to  be  included  among 
sacred  plants;  and  they  have  become  adopted 
as  symbols  of  immortality,  of  resurrection  and 
of  perennial  remembrance,  at  funeral  services 
and  in  graveyards.  Several  kinds,  as  the 
yew,  served  as  "palms*  on  Palm  Sunday. 
On  the  other  hand,  yews  and  cypresses,  espe- 
dalJy  the  latter,  serve  as  emblems  of  eternal 
deadi  and  are  frequently  referred  to  in  this 
connection  in  classical  literature  'with  every 
baleful  green  denoting  death.* 

Evergreens  are  favorite  plants  for  decorat- 
ing during  the  Cliristmas  holidays ;  in  Ei^^and 


eoB 


EVSRHAST— BVXRLASTINO  HBRCY 


a  certain  order  was  observed  in  Ihdr  disposal, 
as  we  find  in  Herrick's  'Ceremonies  for  Can- 
dlemas Eve' : 

Down  vitb  the  rmenwrr  und  btjra, 
Initfflri  of  holly,  duw  upnUe, 

Then  youthful  box  which  now  h^h  grace 

Grown  old,  sunmAer  must  hia  plEce 
Unto  tlie  criipad  yew. 

Presumably  these  holiday  garlands  and 
decorations  of  evergreens  —  rosemary,  ivy, 
laurel,  box,  holly  and  mistletoe  —  were  sur- 
vivals, with  the  Christmas  tree,  of  pagan  cere- 
monies and  tree-worship,  more  or  less  incor- 
porated in  the  rites  of  the  early  Christian 
churches ; ,  the  mistletoe,  however,  was  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  Dniidical  rites  that  it 
was  excluded  from  the  Church  decorations. 
There  is  a  large  trade  in  these  Christmas  greens, 
both  of  the  foreign  and  native  kinds,  the  latter 
including  southern  smilax,  long-eared  pine, 
ground-pine  and  hemlock. 

Helek  lNGEBScn.1. 

EVBRHART,  Benjuniii  Matlack,  Ameri- 
can botanist:  b.  West  Chester,  Pa„  24  April 
1818;  d.  22  Sept.  1904.  After  a  successful  busi- 
ness career  in  his  native  town  and  Charleston, 
5.  C,  he  retired  in  1867  and  devoted  himself  to 
botanical  study,  becoming  a  recognized  author- 
ity on  cryptogamic  botany.  With  I.  B.  Ellis, 
of  New  Jersey,  he  published  in  50  parts  a 
notable  work  entitled  'The  Century  of  North 
American  Fungi,'  describing  5,000  species,  many 
of  which  were  discovered  by  EverharL  With 
W.  A.  Kellerman,  professor  of  botany  in  Ohio 
State  University,  he  founded  and  edited  'The 
Journal  of  Mycology,'  to  which  he  contributed 
numerous  articles  on  his  specialty.  Several  new 
fungi  discovered  by  him  have  been  named  after 
him  by  his  fellow- scientists. 

EVERLASTING  FLOWERS,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  certain  plants  belonging  to  the  family 
Asttraceie,  from  the  fact  that  when  dried  they 
suffer  little  change  in  their  appearance.  B^ 
the  French  they  are  called  immortelles,  and  this 
name  has  been  introduced  into  our  own  lan- 
guage as  applied  to  wreaths  made  of  such  flow- 
ers to  be  placed  beside  recent  graves  as  emblems 
of  immortality.  The  plants  to  which  this  name 
is  most  commonly  applied  belong  to  the  genus 
Helichryjum,  and  are  natives  of  southern 
Africa  and  Australia;  but  it  is  also  given  in 
America  to  members  of  allied  genera,  such  as 
Antennaria^  Gtwphalium,  Anaphalis,  etc.  The 
native  women  ot  Australia  are  fond  of  deco- 
rating their  hair  with  the  flowers  of  Helichry- 
rum  elalum  and  Htlichrysmn  bracleatvm.  See 
Amakantrus. 

EVERLASTING  GOSPEL,  The.  See 
Joachim  de  Floris. 

EVERLASTING  MERCY,  Th*.  <The 
Everlastng  Mercy'  (1911),  by  John  Masefiel± 
is  a  poem  of  some  1,800  lines,  telling  the  old 
story  of  a  man's  deeradation  and  redemption. 
Life,  while  nithiessTy  bringing  every  man's 
sowing  lo  the  harvest,  is  always  merciful 
enough  to  keep  open  the  wav  that  leadeih  out 
of  evil.  Mascfield  prefers  the  familiar  simile 
of  the  Christ  knocking  at  the  door  of  one's 
inner  self.     It  is  the  story  of  one  Saul  Kane 


(the  name  is  suggestive  of  two  UMical  chai^ 
acters  and  incidents),  who  at  the  age  of  20 
'was  tokened  to  the  devil.*  The  crisis  in  his 
depravity  is  hastened  by  the  fi^t  with  Billy 
Myers,  precipitated  by  a  poaching  adventure 
and  succeeded  by  a  drunken  debauch  at .  'the 
Lion."  After  'three  long  hours  of  gin  and 
smokes'  with  every  nerve  on  edge  and  mind 
a-swirl  in  a  tumult  of  accusing  thoughts  his 
reason  reeled  and  a  madness  that  was  not 
wholly  from  'Hot  Hollands  punch  on  top  of 
stout*  seized  him.  Throwing  boots  and  torn 
clothes  and  glasses  through  the  window  he  leaps 
out  and  rustics  through  the  street, 

A  naked  mmdnun  waviiu  pand 

A  blaiiiig  lamp  b eitberhand 

He  wakens  the  sleeping  town  with  a  furious 
ringing  of  the  fire  bell.  When  the  firemen 
rush  toward  him  he  flees  and  tl  , , 
his  nakedness  and  his  wild  yelling, 

I'm  fln  al  Ml  come  up  thU  minute 
To  bun  thii  town  and  bH  tbat'i  in  it. 
think  him  an  escaped  lunatic.  Having  shaken 
his  pursuers  he  returns  to  'the  Lion'  and 
sleeps.  On  waking  a  second  spell  of  madness 
rushes  him  to  the  street  On  seeing  'old  puffing 
parson,*  with  exaggerated  rudeness  he  bars  his 
path  and  pours  out  a  scathing  criticism  of  the 
established  religious  and  social  order,  not  spar- 
ing even  the  par»>n : 

O.  what  an  you,  and  what  you  pnach, 
Aiid  what  you  do.  and  what  you  teach 
la  not  God  i  Word,  nor  hmwit  schicm. 
But  Davil'a  cast  and  paupctiam. 

Masefield  is  at  his  best  when  criticiring 
the  social  order,  but  the  sanity  of  his  spirit  is 
well  disclosed  in  the  parson's  pointed  and  effect- 
ive reply.  Saul  Kane  drunk  and  exaggeratedly 
boastful  in  his  degradation  is  not  bad  aU 
through.    Before  the  fight  began  he  looked  at 

The  Ev«  and  forW  human  facea 
InAamed  by  dnnk  and  going  to  nc^ 


It  is  a  man's  sympathy  rather  than  a  drunkard's 
that  prompts  Kane  to  comfort  little  Jimmy  Jag- 
gard  who  has  lost  his  mother  in  the  market 
place.  Jimmy's  mother  hurries  to  the  scene 
'     '  led  that  'Saul  Kane,  the 


Kane   to   himself  and   t_ _. 

sembled  crowd  with  pitiless  accuracy,  so  that 

he  confesses  that 

Tbii  old  mother  mads  ma  lea 
What  harm  I  dons  by  b«in(  me. 

And 

Summat  ihe  wu.  or  looked,  or  (aid. 

Went  home  and  made  me  hang  my  head. 

I  dunk  away  into  the  ni^t 

Knowing  deep  down  that  she  wai  right. 
Put  thus  to  shame  before  himself  and  the  peo- 
ple he  drowns  the  mortification  he  felt  in  deeper 
drunkenness  which  spurs  him  to  a  more  brazen 
assertion  of  depravity  as  exhibited  in  the  insult 
offered  to  Miss  Bourne,  who  regularly  visited 
the  saloons  "To  bring  ihe  drunlurds'  souls  to 
grace,'  an  act  which  shocked  even  his  com- 
panions in  drunkenness.  This  insult  recoiled 
upon  him  with  such  force  from  the  clean  soul 
and  simple  word  of  Miss  Bourne  that  it  caused 
something  to  snap  Inside  his  brain.  The  re- 
maining part  of  the  poem  describes  hts  wander- 
ing 'out  into  darkness,  ovt  to  night,'  mergmg 


BVBSLASTINO  PBA— BVIDBNCE 


ao8 


into  the  dawn  of  a  new  day,  the  birth  of  a  new 
self,  and  the  finding  of  the  'everlasting  ^ercy, 
Qirist.*  The  whole  poem  grips  and  holds  the 
reader  with  the  intensity  of  its  realism  and 
Speed  of  action.  One  forgets  that  it  is  verse 
UiJ  feels  the  touch  of  flesh  and  blood. 

EVERLASTING  PEA,  a  popular  name 
for  plants  of  the  ^enus  LathyruSi  of  the  pea 
family.  In  the  United  States  it  is  applied  to 
the  beach  pea  (L.  mariiinut),  because  it  often 
blossoms  until  late  in  (he  fatL  In  Europe  the 
everlasting  pea  is  L.  lalifolim,  a  cultivated  plant 
tike  the  sweet  pea,  sometimes  cultivated  for 
omam.eni  in  North  America. 

EVERHANN,  Barton  Warren,  American 
ichthyologist :  b.  Monroe  County,  Iowa,  1853.  In 
1886  he  was  graduated  at  Indiana  University, 
after  which  he  spent  10  ycATs  as  teacher  and 
superintendent  of  schools  in  Indiana  and  Cali- 
fornia. In  1888  he  began  his  connection  with 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  was 
made  ichthyologist  in  1891  and  from  1903  to 
1911  was  chief  of  the  division  of  scientific 
inquiry.  Thereafter,  until  1914,  he  had  charge 
of  the  Alaska  Fisheries  Service.  In  1892  he 
was  also  United  States  fur-seal  commissioner 
and  in  1908  was  made  chairman  of  the  fur-seal 
board.  At  various  times  he  lectured  at  the 
universities  of  Cornell,  Stanford  and  Yale. 
He  is  the  author  of  several  bulletins  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission  and  has  con- 
tributed to  the  proceedings  of  several  learned 


EVERSLEY,  Ist  Barok  (George  John 
Shaw-Lefevre),  English  statesman:  b.  12  June 
1832.  He  received  his  education  at  Eton  and 
at  Cambridge  University.  In  1855  on  the  com- 
pletion of  bis  studies  in  taw  he  was  called  to 
the  bar.  He  unsuccessfully  contested  Winches- 
ter at  the  election  o£  1859,  but  was  successful 
in  1863,  when  he  was  elected  member  for 
Reading,  which  seal  he  held  until  1885,  when  he 
was  elected  from  Bradford.  In  1856  he  became 
civil  lord  of  the  Admiralty  and  in  1858  was 
appointed  commissioner  to  negotiate  a  conven- 
tion on  fisheries  with  the  French  government. 
He  carried  the  vote  in  the  Commons,  in  1868 
for  the  arbitration  of  the  claims  arising  from 
the  Alabama.  From  1869  to  1871  he  was  sec- 
retary of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  made  undersecretary  at  the  Home 
Office.  In  1871-74  he  was  secretary  to  the 
Admiralty;  in  1881-83  first  commissioner  of 
works  and  in  1883-84  postmaster  general.  In 
1892-93  he  was  a  member  of  the  Gladstone 
ministry  and  in  1894-95  was  president  of  the 
Local  Government  Board.  While  in  the 
Commons  he  sponsored  man^  important  legis- 
lative bills,  especially  deahng  with  modem 
social  legislation.  He  was  created  first  baron 
in  1906.     He  published  'English  and  Irish  Land 

guestions' ;  'Incidents  of  Coercion' ;  'Peel  and 
'ConnelP ;  'Agrarian  Tenures' ;  'En^ish 
Commons  and  Forests';  'Gladstone  and  Ire- 
land' (1912);  'The  Partitions  of  .Poland' 
(1915). 

BVERY  MAN  IN  HIS  HUMOUR,  the 
first  comedy  of  Ben  Jonson,  which  has  come 
down  to  us.  It  was  produced  at  the  Globe 
Theatre  in  1596,  with  Shakespeare  in  the  cast 


and  was  printed  in  1601.  David  Garrick  later 
revised  it  and  achieved  a  great  success  in  the 
prindpal  role, 

EVERY  MAN  OUT  OF  HIS  HUMOUR, 

a  satirical  comedy  by  Ben  Jonson,  first  pro- 


1S99. 


EVESHAM,  evzluun  or  evz'sm.  England, 
municipal  borough  and  market  town  in  die 
county  of  Worcester,  on  the  Avon,  IS  miles 
southeast  of  Worcester,  beautifully  situated  in 
the  vale  of  Evesham.    It  is  an  ancient-place  and 


celebrated  abbey,  of  which  a  fine  1 

some  other  structures  still  remain.  Fruit  grow- 
ing and  market  gardening  are  the  chief  indus- 
tnes.    Pop,  8,340. 


EVIDENCE.  «The  word  evidence  con- 
sidered in  relation  to  law  includes  all  the  legal, 
means  which  tend  to  prove  or  disprove  any  mat- 
ter of  fart  the  truth  of  which  is  submitted  to 
jodicial  investigation,"  (Taylor),  Evidence 
may  be  either  oral  or  documentary.  Oral  evi- 
dence is  the  statements  made  by  witnesses  dur- 
ing the  trial ;  and  documentary  evidence  con- 
sists of  the  production  of  papers,  on  which  is 
writing,  marks  or  characters  capable  of  being 
read,  which  are  submitted  durins  the  course  of 
the  trial.  Oral  evidence  must  m  all  cases  be 
dirert :  if  it  is  of  something  that  was  seen,  by 
the  person  who  saw  it ;  if  of  something  heard,  ' 
by  the  person  who  heard  if;  if  of  an  opinion, 
by  the  person  who  holds  that  opinion;  or  if 
the  knowledge  was  acquired  in  any  other  man- 
ner, by  the  person  who  perceived  it  in  that 
manner.  The  general  rule  is  that  hearsay  evi- 
dence is  not  admissible.  Documentary  evidence 
may  be  either  primary  or  secondary.  Primary 
evidence'  of  a  document  is  where  the  document 
itself  is  produced  for  the  inspection  of  the 
court.  When  a  document  has  been  executed  in 
counterparts,  each  counterpart  is  ^primary  evi- 
dence against  the  party  executing  it,  and  where 
a  document  has  been  made  by  printing  or  any 
other  means  that  will  ensure  an  exact  repro- 
duction, each  copy  is  primary  evidence  of  the 
other  copies,  but  none  of  them  is  primary  evi- 
dence of  the  original  Secondary  evidence  of 
a  document  would  be  counterparts  of  the  docu- 
ment as  a^inst  the  party  who  did  not  execute 
them,  copies  made  from  the  ori^nal  and  com- 
pared with  it,  'office  copies,  official  copies  and 
oral  evidence  of  the  contents  of  a  document 
by  a  person  who  has  seen  the  original.  Before 
secondary  evidence  will  be  received  the  party 
offering  it  must  show  a  legal  reason  why  the 
original  is  not  produced,  such  as  being  lost, 
destroyed,  in  possession  of  the  adverse  party 
who  refuses  to  produce  it  after  notice  to  do  so, 
or  when  it  is  a  public  document,  or  when  it  is 
in  a  country  or  place  from  whitji  it  is  not  per- 
mitted to  be  removed. 

Either  oral  or  documentary  evidence  may  be 
ffveti  of  any  fact  in  issue  or  relevant  to  the 
issue;  and  where  two  facts  are  so  connected, 
although  one  fact  is  and  (he  other  fart  is  not 
the  issue  or  relevant  to  the  issue,  yet  evidence 
of  both  may  be  g^ven  if  tint  fart  will  render 
probable  the  existence  or  non-existence. of  the. 


ao4 


BVIDBNCBS  OP  CHRISTJANITY 


other  fact  which  is  in  isfue  or  rdevant  to  the 
issue. 

Admissions  are  statements  made  by  a  party 
to  any  proceeding  and  in  reference  to  that  pro- 
ceeding, and  They  are  admissible  against  the 
patty  making  them,  but  not  in  his  favor.  Ad- 
missions may  also  be  made  by  an  agent,  but  to 
bind  the  [inncipal  they  must  be  made  by  the 
^^t  in  his  regular  course  of  business  or  em- 
ployment If  an  admission  is  made  after  an 
agreement  has  been  entered  into  between  the 
parties  not  to  use  it  as  evidence,  it  is  not  ad- 
missible, nor  is  it  admissible  in  evidence  made 
under  duress.  A  confession  is  a  statement  made 
by  a  person  charged  with  a  crime  stating  or 
suggesting  that  he  committed  .that  crime.  If 
made  voluntarily  it  is  admissible 


given  by  a  person  in  authority,  it  is  not  admis- 
sible. Confessions  may  be  made  during  the 
course  of  the  trial,  but  if  the  question  which 
protluced  the  confession  is  an  improper  one,  and 
after  the  witness  had  refused  to  answer  it  he 
had  been  compelled  to  do  so.  it  is  not  a  volun- 
tary confession  and  therefore  inadmissible.  But 
if  he  made  no  objection  to  answering  the  ques- 
tion, it  is  admissible  as  a  voluntary  confession. 
A  witness's  opinion  is  received  in  evidence  when 
it  falls  under  the  head  of  expert  testimony ;  as, 
when  the  question  is  of  some  science  or  art, 
the  opinions  of  persons  specially  skilled  in  that 
art  or  science  are  relevant.  Any  subject  on 
which  special  study  or  experience  is  necessary 
to  the  formation  of  a  correct  opinion  is  a 
science  or  art.  The  most  frequent  illustrations 
are  medical  and  handwriting  experts.  Before 
the  testimony  of  a  person  called  as  an  expert  is 
received,  he  must  satisfy  the  court  as  to  his 
ability  to  form  a  correct  opinion  on  the  partic- 
ular subject  on  which  he  is  to  testify.  The  gen- 
eral rule  is  that  evidence  as  to  a  perso«'s  diar- 
acter  is  not  admissible  unless  it  is  the  fact  in 
issue,  except  in  criminal  cases,  but  if  a  person 
introduce  evidence  to  show  good  character,  the 
other  side  may  produce  witnesses  to  show  the 
contrary.  Al!  facts  should  be  proved  by  the 
best  or  highest  evidence.  If  a  fact  can  be 
proved  by  a  written  instrument,  the  writing 
should  be  produced  and  the  party  alleging  a 
fact  must  prove  it. 

In  the  United  States  the  rules  of  evidence 
are  laid  down  by  State  enactments  which  apply 
in  State  courts  in  civil  cases,  and  in  Federal 
courts  also,  in  the  absence  of  Federal  enact- 
ments. There  is  no  bar  to  the  giving  of  testi- 
mony, either  of  color  or  nationality.  In  crim- 
inal trials  evidence  follows  common-law  rules 
as  interpreted  by  the  Federal  courts,  modified 
by  Federal  enactments.  Consult  Chamberlayne, 
'Treatise  on  Evidence'  (4  vols.,  Albany  1911); 
Greenleaf,  'Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Evidence' 
(16th  ed.,  Boston  1899)  ;  Stephen.  J.  F..  'Di- 
gest of  the  Law  of  Evidence'  C7th  ed.,  London 
190?)  ;  Thayer,  'Preliminary  Treatise  on  Evi- 
dence at  Common  Law'  (Boston  1898);  Wig- 
more,  'System  of  Evidence  in  Trials  at  Com- 
mon Law'  (Boston  1904) ;  Mills,  'Theory  and 
Practice  of  the  Law  of  Evidence'  (London 
1907). 


broadly  into  two  great  classes,  namely,  external 
evidences,  or  die  Dody  of  historical  testimonies 
to  the  Christian  revelation;  and  internal  evi- 
dences, or  arguments  drawn  from  the  nature 
of  Christianity  itself  as  exhibited  in  its  teach- 
ings and  eilects. 

Among  the  earlier  Christian  apologists  were 
Justin  Martyr,  Minucius  Felix,  l^rtuliian  Ori- 
gen,  Amobius  and  Augustine.    Thdr  work  was 


of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation 
gave  rise  to  a  sjHrit  of  inc^uiry  and  criticism 
which  developed  English  deism  as  represented 
by  Herbert  and  Hobbes  in  the  17th  century,  and 
Collins  and  Bolingbroke  in  the  tSth.  The  gen- 
eral position  of  English  deism  was  the  accept- 
ance of  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  God,  and 
the  profession  of  natural  religion  along  tvith 
opposition  to  the  mysteries  and  special  claims  of 
Christianity.  It  was  in  confutation  of  this  l>o»- 
tion  that  the  ^eat  English  works  on  the  evi- 
dences of  Christianity  of  Butler,  Berkeley  and 
Cudworth   were   written.     In   France   the   new 


Christianity  mainly  on  the  ground  titat  it  was 
founded  on  imposture  and  superstition,  and 
maintained  by  sacerdotal  trickery  and  hypocrisy. 
No  reply  of  any  great  value  was  produced  in 
the  French  Church,  thou^  in  the  previous  age 
Pascal  in  his  'Thoughts'  had  biougfat  together 
some  of  the  pro  found  est  considerations  yet 
offered  in  favor  of  revealed  religion.  The  19Ui 
century  was  distinguished  by  the  strongjy 
rationalistic  spirit  of  its  criticism.  The  works 
of  such  writers  as  Strauss,  Bauer  and  Feuer- 
bacfa,  attempting  to  eliminate  the  supernatural 
and  the  mysterious  in  the  origin  of  Christianity, 
were  answered  by  the  works  of  Neandcr, 
Ebrard  and  Ullmann.on  the  other  side.  The 
historical  method  of  investigation,  represented 
alike  by  the  Hegelian  school  and  the  Positivists 
in  philosophy,  and  by  the  Evolutionists  in 
science,  is  the  basis  of  the  chief  attacks  of  the 
present  lirtK  against  die  supernatural  character 
of  Christianity,  the  tendency  of  all  being  to 
hold  that,  while  Christianity  is  the  hi^cst  and 
most  perfect  development  to  which  the  religious 
spirit  has  yet  attained,  it  differs  simply  in  de- 
gree of  development  from  any  other  religion. 
Notable  amone  later  apologists  of  (Christianity 
have  been  Paley  ("Natural  Theology'),  Chal- 
mers ('Natural  Theology'),  Mansel,  Liddon 
and  others,  lecturers  of  the  Hampton  Founda- 
tion ;  in  Germany,  Luthardt,  Ewald,  Baumstark 
and  others.  The  evidence  of  the  miraculous  is 
not  so  much  insisted  on  as  it  was;  hfe  and  con- 
duct and  the  fruits  of  (Hiristian  grace  make  a 
stronger  appeal  to  the  age.  Consult  Bruce, 
'Apologetics'  (London  1902);  Burton,  'Our 
Intellectual  Attitude  in  an  Age  of  Criticism* 
(Boston  1913);  Fisher,  'Grounds  of  Theistic 
and  Christian  Belief  (1883,  rev.  ed,  1902); 
and  'Manual  of  Christian  Evidences*  (New 
York  1888) ;  Foster,  'The  Finality  of  the 
Christian  Reli^on'  ^dicago  1906);  Garvie, 
'Handbook  of  Christian  Apologetics'  (New 
York  1913)  ;  Robbins.  'A  Christian  Apologetic' 
(London  1902) ;  Rowland.  'The  Right  to  Be- 
lieve* (Boston  1909) ;  Steams,  'Evidence  of 
(3iristian  Experience'  (New  York  1891).  See 
ArOLOCKTICS;  CBUSnANITV;  HlfiHEB  (jtincisM. 


EVIL — EVOLUTION 


EVIL,  King's.    See  Scbofula. 

EVIL,  Orwin  of,  the  subject  of  <. 

theological  ana  philosophical  speculation.  The 
difRcuIly  of  the  question  lies  mainly  in  the  fact 
that  the  existence  of  evil  in  the  world  seeras  in- 
consistent with  the  view  that  it  was  created  and 
is  maintained  by  an  omnipotent  and  beneficent 
creator.  The  various  theories  on  the  subject 
have  all  sou^t  to  elude  this  difficulty  either  by 
the  supposition  of  some  principle  of  evil  equally 
eternal  with  that  of  ^ood,  or  by  regarding  evil 
as  having  only  a  relative  existence,  being  a  kind 
of  good  in  an  imperfect  and  immature  stage. 
But  the  problem  remains  inscrutable  and  m- 
soluble. 

'  Perhaps  the  oldest  theory;  on  this  subject  is 
that  of  Parseeism,  or  the  religion  of  Zoroaster, 
according  to  which  there  were  two  original  an- 
tagonistic principles,  one  good  (Ormazd)  and 
the  other  evi!  (Ahriman).  This  is  the  doctrine 
that  b  now  very  often  spoken  of  as  Maniclis- 
ism.  In  contradistinction  to  this  dualistic  theory 
with  reference  to  the  oriein  of  evil  stand  the 
Monistic  theories  of  Br^manism  and  Plato- 
nism.  According  to  the  Brahmanic  doctrine  of 
the  emanation  of  all  things  from  one  original 
being  (Brahma),  this  original  being  wa's  re- 
garded as  the  sole  true  existence,  and  the  phe- 
nomenal world,  with  all  the  evils  a^pearins  in 
it,  was  held  to  be  mere  illusion.  Similarly  Plato 
held  that  the  good  was  the  essence  of  all  thin^, 
and  that  the  evil  and  imperfect  contained  in 
them  had  no  real  existence.  The  theory  enun- 
ciated by  Leibnitz  in  his  'Theodicie'  ('Vindica- 
tion of  God' )  resembles  that  of  Plato.  In  that 
work  he  assigns  to  the  evil  existing  in  the 
world  created  by  God,  which  he  holds  to  be  the 
best  of  all  possible  worlds,  a  merely  relative 
existence;  all  that  we  call  evil  is,  he  holds,  only 
evil  to  us  because  we  do  not  see  it  in  relation  to 
the  rest  of  the  universe,  for  in  relation  to  the 


tional  Christian  account  of  the  origin  of  evil  i 
that  given  in  Genesis.  In  the  theology  based 
thereon,  Satan,  the  personal  principle  of  evil, 
differs  from  the  Zo roast rian  Ahriman  only  in 
not  being  co-ordinate  with  the  personal  prin- 
ciple of  good.  Consult  Orchard,  'Modem 
Theories  of  Sin>  (1911);  Rashdall,  'Theories 
of  Good  and  Evil'  (1907)  ;  Royce,  'Studies  of 
Good  and  Evil'  (1898). 

EVIL  EYE.    See  StipntSTmoN. 

EVIL-MERODACH,  e'vil-me-ri>'dak,  Idng 
of  Babylonia  and  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar  TL 
He  reigned  for  less  than  a  year  in  561-560  B.C., 
and  was  put  to  death  by  his  brother  Neriglissar. 
His  name  has  been  found  on  some  contract 
tablets.  According  to  2  Kings  xxv,  27  he 
liberated  Jehoiachin,  king  of   Judah. 

EVOLUTE.  The  evolute  of  a  curve  is 
the  locus  of  its  centres  of  curvature.  The 
tangents  to  the  evolute  will  be  normals  to  the 
curve,  if  it  lies  in  a  plane,  and  principal  nor- 
mals, if  it  lies  in  a  three-dimensional  space,  so 
that  the  curve  may  be  traced  by  the  unwinding 
of  a  cord  stretched  along  its  evolute.  A  curve 
is  said  to  be  the  involute  of  its  evolute.  In 
general,  every  curve  has  an  infinitude  of  in- 
volutes. Different  involutes  of  the  same  curve 
are  said  to  be  parallel.  The  equation  of  the 
evolute  of  the  plane  curve  y^fcx  is  obtained 


by  eliminating  ir  and  y  between  the  equation  of 
the  curve  and  *i=*—y'    -t;i2-M,    yi  =  y  + 

■  •  (y')' 


BvohiU  and  iti  Spinl  iDVolulc.  UNRSA. 


In  the  geometry  of  surfaces,  the  so-called 
surface  of  centres  corresponds  to  the  evolute. 
This  consists  of  two  sheets,  corresponding 
respectively  to  the  centres  of  maximum  and 
minimum  curvature  wf  the  various  points  of 
the  surface  with  reference  to  which  it  is 
described.    See  Curves;  Subfaces,  Theohy  op. 

EVOLUTION.    See  Man,  Chmstian  An- 

THBOFOLOGY. 

EVOLUTION,  Hittorjr  of.  In  travers- 
ing the  history  of  natural  science  as  in  travers- 
ing the  history  of  any  phase  of  human  thought 
and  activity,  we  seek  constantly  for  new  things, 
for  the  precise  time  of  the  discovery  of  me 
new  fact,  the  announcement  of  the  new  idea, 
the  formulation  of  the  new  understanding  or 
philosophy.  But  nothing  comes  wholly  new 
mto  the  world;  the  world  and  its  content  are 
all  the  result  of  development  and  growth.  So 
correspondingly  very  little  comes  wholly  new 
into  history;  and  the  history  of  evolution  is  no 
exception  to  the  rule.  The  history  of  evolution 
clearly' reveals  that  the  evolution  idea  is  the 
result  of  a  long  evolution  itself ;  it  is  impossible 
to  say  just  when  the  .idea  came  first  mto  its 
more  primitive  form  of  being,  or  just  when  its 
principal  modifications  or  accretions  occurred, 
or  when  its  present  form  was  finally  determined. 
In  tracing  the  history  of  the  unfolding  of  the 
evolution  idea  we  shall  find  that  the  conspicuous 
achievements  in  connection  with  it  have  not 
been  the  discovery  of  absolute  newness,  but  the 
recognition  and  determination  and  general 
establishment  of  the  important  ideas  and  con- 
ception germs  among  the  host  offered. 

An  eminent  American  naturalist  has  defined 
three  stages  in  connection  with  the  discovery 
of  the  laws  of  science;  First,  a  stage  of  dim 
suggestion  and  pure  speculation  with  little  ref- 
erence to  facts ;  second,  a  stage  of  the  statement 
of  a  working  hypothesis  to  explain  certain 
facts;  and,  third,  the  proof  or  demonstration 
of  the  law  by  facts.  These  stages  can  be  recog- 
nised in  the  history  of  evolution.  The  first 
corresponds  with  the  period  of  the  Greek  phi- 
losophers ;  the  second  with  the  post-Greek,  pre- 
Darwinian  period,  and  the  third  with  the 
Darwinian  and  post-Darwinian  period. 

The  evolution  theory  was  largely  anticipated, 
at  least  by  suggestion,  by  the  Greeks.     They 


.glc 


eoe  EVOL 

have  left  writings  that  can  easily  be  iifterpreted 

as  more  or  less  clearly  outlining  the  essential 
conception  of  organic  evolution.  Empedodes 
(493-435  B.c),  for  example,  who  has  been 
called  "the,  father  of  the  evolution  idea,"  be- 
Ueved  in  spontaneous  generation  as  the  explana- 
tion of  the  origin  of  life,  and  he  believed  that 
different  forms  of  life  were  not  produced 
simultaneously.  Plant  life  came  first  and  animal 
hfe  only  after  a  lon^  series  of  trials,  but  the 
origin   of   the   organisms   was   a   very   gradual 

Process.  "AH  organisms  arose  through  the 
ortuitous  play  of  the  two  great  forces  of 
nature  upon  the  four  elements.  Thus,  animals 
first  appeared  not  as  complete  individuals,  bat 
as  heads  without  necks,  arms  without  shoulders, 
ms  without  their  sockets.  As  a  result  of 
the  triumph  of  love  over  hate,  these  pans  be- 
ran  to  seek  each  other  and  unite,  but  purely 
fortuitously.  Thus  out  of  this  confused  play 
of  bodies  all  kinds  of  accidental  and  extraor- 
dinary  beings  arose."  But  the  unnatural 
prodiicts  soon  became  extinct  because  they  were 
not  capable  of  propagation.  After  the  ex- 
tinction of  these  monsters  other  forms  arose 
which  were  able  to  support  themselves  and 
multiplj;.  Thus,  if  one  cares  to,  one  may  see 
in  the  ideas  of  Empedoples  the  germ  of  the 
theory  of  the  survival  oi  the  fittest,  or  natural 

Aristotle  (384-322  B.C.),  the  greatest  of  the 
Greek  natural  philosophers,  believed  in  a  com- 
plete gradation  in  nature,  a  progressive  de- 
velopment corresponding  with  the  progressive 
life  of  the  soul.  Nature,  he  says,  proceeds  con- 
stantly by  the  aid  of  gradual  transitions  from 
the  most  imperfect  to  the  most  perfect,  while 
the  numerous  analogies  which  we  find  in  various 
parts  of  the  animal  scale  show  (hat  all  is  gov- 
erned  by  the  same  laws;  in  other  words,  nature 
is  a  unit  as  to  its  causation.  Man  is  the  highest 
point  of  one  long  and  continuous  ascent  Aris- 
totle perceived  a  marvelous  adaptation  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  world,  and  felt  compelled 
to  assume  intelligent  design  as  the  pnmary 
cause  of  things.  Nothing,  he  held,  which  occurs 
regularly  can  be  the  resnlt  of  accident:  Aris- 
totle rejected  the  crude  conception  of  Empe- 
dodes of  the  survival  of  adapted,  and  the  ex- 
tinction of  unadapted,  beings.  'It  is  impossible 
that  these  adapted  parts  should  arise  in  this 
manner  fof  Empedocles] ;  for  these  parts  and 
everything  which  is  produced  in  nature  are 
either  always,  or  for  the  most  part,  adaptively 
produced ;  and  this  is  not  the  case  with  any- 
thing which  is  produced  by  fortune  or  chance 
even  as  it  does  not  appear  to  be  fortune  or 
chance  that  it  frequently  rains  in  winter  .  ,  . 
As  these  things  appear  to  be  either  by  chance 
or  to  be  for  some  purpose,  and  we  have  shown 
that  they  cannot  be  by  chance,  dien  it  follows 
that  they  must  be  for  some  purpose  There  is, 
therefore,  a  purpose  in  things  which  are  pro- 
duced by  and  exist  from  nature.* 

The  Greeks,  taken  altogether,  su^ested 
more  or  less  crudely  the  idea  of  the  gradual 
development  of  organisms,  the  idea  of  the 
elimination  of  mistakes  in  production,  and 
therefore  the  idea  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest, 
the  idea  of  the  adaptation  of  parts  or  the  fit- 
ness of  certain  structures  to  certain  ends,  the 
idea  of  intelligent  design  constantly  operating 
in  nature,  as  also  the  idea  of  nature  being  con- 
trolled by  the  operation  of  natural  causes  due 


in  the  beginning  to  the  laws  of  chance.  After 
all,  however,  in  how  far  are  we  justified  in 
reading  into  a  happy  suggestive  phrase  or 
sentence  of  any  Greek  speculative  thinker  a  real 
conception  of  that  idea  of  the  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  organic  nature  that  we  hold  to-day 
under  the  name  of  Evolution? 

Following  the  Greeks  the  evolution  idea  was 
left  in  the  nands  of  the  theologians,  natural 
philosophers  and  naturalists  of  the  long  period 
from  Augustine  (1st  century  a.d.)  to  the  end 
of  the  17th  century,  a  period  chiefly  ruled  by 
the  Mosaic  interpretation  of  the  origin  of 
Clonic  life  and  its  variety.  Augustine,  him- 
self, large-minded  man  that  he  was,  gave  a 
liberal  and  naturalistic  interpretation  of  the 
Mosaic  record,  favoring  potential  rather  than 
special  creation  and  teaching  that  in  nature  we 
should  not  look  for  miracles,  but  laws.  But 
opposed  to  him  were  almost  all  the  other 
churchmen,  and  their  rigid  adherence  to  the 
Mosaic  interpretation  controlled  almost  all 
thinking  about  hfe  for  many  centuries.  The 
great^  Evolution  idea  lay  practically  dead  from 
the  time  of  its  foreshadowings  by  the  Greeks 
until  the  time  of  the  speculative  natural  philoso- 
phers of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries. 

Bacon  (1561-1626)  pointed  out  the  evidence 
for  variation  in  animals  and  the  bearing  of  this 
upon  the  production  of  new  species  and  upon 
the  gradations  of  life  forms.  Descartes  (1S96- 
16S0)  advocated  a  strong  medianistic  concep- 
tion of  the  physical  universe  and  all  life  wilhm 
it.  Leibititz  (1646-1716)  advocated  a  doctrine 
of  continuity  of  life  forms,  and  said  that  the 
different  classes  of  animals  are  so  connected  by 
gradatory  forms  that  it  was  practically  impos- 
sible either  by  observation  or  imagination  to 
determine  where  any  one  begins  or  ends.  These 
ideas  of  continuity  in  nature  were  also  reiterated 
and  strengthened  by  Spinoia,  Pascal  and  New- 
ton. It  is  interesting  to  note  that  all  these  con- 
tributions to  the  establishment  of  the  evolution 
idea  came  from  the  speculative  natural  philoso- 
phers rather  than  from  the  naturalists. 

Chief  among  all  the  natural  philosophers 
who  have  attempted  to  express  the  early  idea  of 
evolution  was  Kant  (1724-1804),  but  he  was 
staggered  by  the  thought  that  any  human  in- 
vestigation could  ever  reach  an  understanding 
of  the  laws  which  have  governed  the  derivation 
of  all  or^nic  beings  from  the  lowest  up  to  man. 
*lt  is  quite  certain,'  he  wrote,  'that  we  cannot 
become  sufficiently  acquainted  with  organized 
creatures  and  their  hidden  potentialities  by  the 
aid  of  purely  mechanical  natural  principles; 
much  less  can  we  explain  them;  and  this  is  so 
certain,  that  we  may  boldly  assert  that  it  is 
absurd  for  man  even  to  conceive  such  an  idea, 
or  to  hope  that  a  Newton  may  one  day  arise 
■even  to  make  the  production  of  a  blade  of 
grass  comprehensible,  according  to  natural  laws 
ordained  by  no  intention.  Suoi  an  insight  we 
must  absolutely  deny  to  man.* 

However,  certain  naturalists  of  the  I7lh 
and  ISth  centuries  did  make  their  contribu- 
tions of  fact,  or  alleged  fact,  to  the  evolu- 
tion idea.  For  example  Bonnet  (1720-03), 
who  is  reputed  to  be  the  author  of  the 
term  "Evolution"  in  connection  with  the  de- 
velopment of  life,  is  famous  for  his  extraor- 
dinary 'encasement  theory*  of  embryology,  ac- 
cording to  which  all  the  future  progeny  w>i 
successive    after-generations    derived    from    a 


joogle 


EVOLUTION 


eoT 


feniate  aninwl  extsted  in  miniatnre  in  tbe  csgi 
in  her  body,  with  lesser  eggs  within  the  minia- 
ture young,  containing  the  next  generatioii,  and 
so  on  od  infinihtm. 

But  it  is  with  the  great  French  naturalist 
BuSon  (1707-88)  that  the  real  contribution  of 
naturalists  to  and  participation  in  the  develop' 
ment  of  the  evolution  idea  importantly  begins. 
He  has,  indeed,  been  called  by  Osbom  the 
naturalist  founder  of  the  modem  applied  form 
of  the  evolution  theory.  But  with  other  hia- 
toriaas  of  evolution,  he  has  no  such  standing. 
RadI,  for  example,  says  that  'the  best  tliii% 
about  Buflon  is  his  st^le.*  However  it  may 
truthfully  be  said  of  him  that  he  was  the  first 
great  naturalist  to  point  out  on  a  broad  scale 
Qie  mutabili^  of  species  in  relation  to  changes 
of  environment  Veiy  early  in  his  studies  of 
comparative  anatonv  he  found  diflicultj  in  the 
special  creation  theory.  "The  pig  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  formed  upon  an  original 
special  and  perfect  plan  since  it  is  a  compound 
of  other  animals.  It  has  evidently  useless  part^ 
or  rather  parts  of  which  it  cannot  make  any 
use,  toes,  the  bones  of  which  are  perfectly 
formed  and  which  nevertheless  are  of  no 
service  to  iL  Nature  is  far  from  subjecting 
herself  to  final  causes  in  the  formation  of  her 
cieatures.'  Buffon  believed  in  the  direct  modi- 
fying influence  of  enviionment.  'How  many 
species,  being  ^rfected  or  degenerated  by  tbe 
great  changes  in  land  and  sea,  by  the  favors 
or  disfavors  of  nature,  by  food,  by  the  pro- 
longed influence  of  climate,  are  no  longer  what 
they  formerly  were?  He  also  fairly  clearly 
expressed  the  conception  of  a  struggle  for  ex- 
istence, an  elimination  of  the  least-perfected 
species  and  a  contest  between  the  fecundity^  of 
certain  species  and  their  constant  destruction. 
This  is  anticipating  more  or  less  definitely  the 
prodigality  of  production  ideas  of  Matthus,  and 
the  natural  selection  doctrine  of  Darwin.  But 
he  was  not  of  the  stuff  of  which  martyrs  are 
made.  When  the  authorities  of  the  Church 
called  for  an  explanation  of  his  views  he  said: 
•I  declare  that  1  have  had  no  intention  of 
denying  the  Holy  Writ;  I  declare  that  I  firmly 
believe  all  that  is  written  there  concerning  crea- 
tion, as  weII  concerning  the  time  as  the  pro- 
cedure; and  I  willingly  retract  whatever  is  is 
my  book  that  in  any  way  is  contradictofv  of 
the  Mosaic  relation,  as  I  hold  my  hypotnesis 
concerning  the  formation  of  the  earth  and  other 
planets  as  a  purely  philosophical  conception.* 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  fact  that  another 
great  naturalist,  Linnxus,  exactly  contcrnpo- 
raneous  with  Buffon,  a  botanist,  and  the  nrst 
great  systematist  or  classifier  of  organisms,  was 
an  absolute  believer  in  the  fixity  of  species. 
Species  were,  b  his  mind,  ihe  units  of  direct 
creation;  each  ^ecies  bore  the  impression  of 
the  thought  of  tbe  Creator  in  all  its  structure 
and  functions.  Later  in  his  life  Linneus  did 
give  up,  in  some  little  measure,  this  idea  of  the 
special  Divine  creation  and  absolute  fixity  of 
species.  *AU  the  species  of  one  Benus,"  he 
wrote  before  his  death,  'constitutecT  at  first  a 


tercrossing  with  other  original  species.^ 

Following  BulTon,  the  next  two  most  im- 
portant names  to  be  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  history  of  evolution  are  those  of 
Erasmus    Darwin    (1731-1802),    and   Lamarck 


(1744-1839).  Erasmtis  Darwin  was  a  poet  and 
naturalist,  and  the  grandfather  of  Charles  Dar- 
win.  He  was,  in  his  late  years  at  least,  a  firm 
evolutionist,  with  conceptions  concerning  the 
factors  or  causes  of  evolution  strangely  like  those 
afterward  proclaimed  by  Lamardt,  and  quite 
opposed  to  those  chiefly  insisted  on  t^  Charles 
Darwin.  After  stating  his  beiief  that  all 
organisms  have  been  produced  by  'one  and  the 
same  land  of  living  filament,*  and  setting  out 
strong  arguments  for  the  mutability  of  species, 
he  says :  'All  animals  undergo  transformatians 
which  are  in  part  produced  bythdr  own  exer- 
tions, in  response  to  pleasures  and  pains,  and 
many  of  these  acquired  forms  or  propttisities 
are  transmitted  to  »heir  posterity.'  This,  ac- 
cording to  Osbom,  is  the  first  clear  and  defi- 
nite statement  of  the  theory  of  the  transmission 
of  acquired  characters  as  a  factor  of  evolution. 
He  provides  against  the  charge  of  irreverence 
in  substituting  evolution  for  special  creation  by 
saying:  *{f  we  may  compare  infinities,  it  would 
seem  to  require  a  greater  infinity  or  power  to 
cause  the  causes  of  effects,  than  to  cause  the 
effects  themselves :  that  is  to  establish  the  laws 
of  creation  rather  than  to  directly  create." 

Lamarck  may  fairly  be  called  the  first  to  set 
out  in  detail  a  full  and  logical  theory  of  descent 
with  explanations  of  the  causes  of  this  descent 
With  full  justice  he  is  referred  to  as  the  most 
prominent  figure  in  the  history  of  evolution  be- 
tween the  Greeks  and  Charles  Darwin.  But  no 
one  has  been  more  misunderstood  nor  jud^d 
with  more  partiality  by  over  or  under  praise. 
He  had  as  contemporaneous  antagonist  the 
great  anatomist  Cuvier  (1769-1832)  who  pve 
all  the  heavy  weight  of  his  name  and  position 
to  the  attach  on  the  Lamarcldan  doctrines  in 
particular  and  evolution  in  general.  Indeed, 
Cuvier,  though  he  added  enormously  to  our 
ktiowledge  of  comparative  anatomy,  almost  as 
enormously  hindered  the  progress  and  post- 
poned die  acceptance  of  the  evolution  theory, 
which  actually  finds  a  large  part  of  its  proof  in 
the  facts  of  (»mparative  anatomy. 

Lamarck's  exposition  of  the  evolution  theory 
and  particularly  of  its  causes,  with  the  great 
stress  laid  upon  the  principle  of  the  inheritance 
of  acquired  characters,  ano  hence  the  all-import- 
ant influence  and  effect  of  varying  environment 
in  the  modification  of  species,  has  come  to  be 
known  in  evolution  literature  as  "Lamarckism" 
in  contrast  with  "Darwinism,"  or  Charles  Dar- 
win's contribution  with  its  special  emphasis  on 
natural  selection  as  the  explanation  of  the 
•origin  of  species.'  'Darwinism"  is  loo  often 
popularly  used  synonomously  with  evolution, 
but  it  should  not  be  so  used.  'Darwinism*  is 
a  convenient  inclusive  name  for  Darwin's  ex- 
planations of  evolution;  his  theories  of  natural 
and  sexual  selection. 

Contemporary  with  Lamardc  were  Goethe 
(1749-1832)  who  contributed  somewhat  to  the 
evolution  theory  by  his  studies  and  generaliza- 
tions on  the  metamorphosis  of  plants  and  the 
vertebrate  theory  of  the  skull,  and  Saint  Hilaire 
(1772-1844)  who  maintained  insistently  the 
truth  of  the  evolution  theoiy,  then  being  ob- 
scured by  the  antagonism  of  Cuvier^  but  who 
denied  the  inheritca  influences  of  habit,  holding 
that  the  direct  modifying  action  of  environment 
on  organisms  was  die  sole  cause  of  species- 
forming. 

But  it  was  diaries  Darwin  (1809-82)  who 


.lOOgle 


was  first  able  to  restore  and  extend  enor- 
mously the  prestige  of  the  evolution  corception. 
This  was  due  first  to  his  tremendous  marshal- 
ing of  facts  to  support  it.  and.  second,  to  his 
contribution  of  a  new,  or  practically  new, 
causo'tnechanical  explanation  of  species  chaise, 
or,  as  usually  expressed,  "origin  of  species.'  It 
is  Darwin's  great  merit  to  have  wholly  re-estab- 
lished the  theory  of  descent  and  to  have  ofiered 
the  first  explanation  of  it  that  made  a  really 
winning  appeal  to  biologists  generally.  It  was 
also  his  fortune  to  bring  the  evolution  rornxp^ 
tion  home  to  the  people.  Up  to  the  publication 
of  his  'Origin  of  Species'  (18S9)  but  few  per- 
sons believed  in  evolution,  and  the  great  mass 
of  the  people  knew  nothing  about  it.    ■ 

Part  of  the  general  acceptance  of  Darwin's 
ideas  was  due  to  the  polemic  ability  of  various 
immediate  friends  and  champions  of  Darwinism 
among  contemporary/  naturalists.  Intimately 
associated  with  Darwin  and  his  presentation  of 
the  natural  selection  theory  were  such  men  as 
Huxley,  Lyell,  Asa  Gray,  Agassiz  and  others. 
Huxley,  Lyell  and  Asa  Gray  were  adherents 
and  defenders  of  Darwinism,  while  Agassiz  was 
among  the  more  conspicuous  of  the  antagonists. 
The  actual  weight  of  personal  debate  and  po- 
lemic struggle  on  behalf  of  Darwin  fell  largely 
on  Huxley.'  It  could  have  rested  in  no  better 
hands.  Eiespite  the  fact  that  the  time  was  ripe 
for  Darwin,  and  despite  his  extraordinary  mass- 
ing of  facts,  and  his  marvelous  anticipations 
and  refutations  of  criticisms,  the  swift  winning 
of  the  acceptance  of  Darwinism  was  largely  due 
to  the  diampionship  of  Huxley,  Haeckel,  the 
RTcat  zoologist  and  bold  speculative  monist  phi- 
losopher of  Jena,  was  the  principal  continental 
contemporary  champion  of  Darwinism. 

A  curious  incident  in  the  history  of  the  Dar- 
winian evolution  exposition  and  explanation  is 
that  of  the  extraordinary  coincidence  of  th« 
formulation  of  the  natural  selection  theory  by 
Alfred  Russel  Wallace  at  the  very  same  time 
of  its  utterance  by  Darwin.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  both  men  published  papers  formulating  tlUG 
theory  in  1858  in  a  sinfrle  number  of  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Linnsean  Society  The  name  of 
Wells  (1813),  Matthews  (1831)  and  Nandin 
(1852),  are  often  mentioned  as  those  of  men 
who  anticipated  in  some  measure,  at  the  various 
dates  indicated,  Darwin's  utterance  of  the  selec- 
tion theory,  by  more  or  less  clear  statements  of 
its  essence,  but  none  of  them  carried  conviction 
to  the  world. 

The  post-Darwinian  history  of  evolution  has 
chiefly  to  do  with  the  further  development  of 
the  Darwinian  theories,  together  with  the  rise 
of  the  so-called  "mutations  theory"  of  spede»' 
origin,  associated  with  the  name  of  De  Vriea, 
as  an  addition  to  Lamarck's  and  Darwin's  ex- 
planations, and  the  stressing  of  the  significance 
of  the  new  knowledge  of  heredity,  beginning 
with  the  discovery  by  present-day  biologists  or 
the  experimental  work  and  conclusions  of  Men- 
del, achieved  some  30  years  prior  to  their  com- 
ing to  be  generally  known.  But  as  these  later 
developments  are  treated  in  some  detail,  to- 
gether with  Lamarck's  and  Darwin's  own  the- 
ories, in  an  article  elsewhere  in  this  work 
{see  EvOLimoN.  Theokies  or),  this  sketch 
of  the  history  of  evolution  may  suitably  close 
with  the  period  of  Charles  Darwin.  The  pres- 
ent status  of  the  evolution  conception  is  still 
that  so  solidly  established  by  Darmn  and  his 


coutempoiaries.  As  Co  the  ex^lanatiani,  or 
factors,  of  evolution,  also,  Darwin's  still  hcdd 
chief  place,  e^ecially  in  the  minds  of  the  mass 
of  the  generally  educated  people.  Among  biol- 
ogists, however,  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to 
see  in  the  Darwinian  selection  theories  many 
difficulties  formerly  unporceived,  and  to  cast 
about  for  other  aiding  or  even  possibly  replac- 
ing theories. 

Bibliof raphy,^  Clodd,  Edward,  'Pioneers 
of  Evolution,  from  Thales  to  Htixley'  (New 
York  1897) ;  Locy.  W.  A.,  'Biology  and  lis 
Makers'  (New  Yoric  1908);  Osborn,  H.  P., 
'From  the  Greeks  to  Darwin'  (New  YoA 
1895). 

V&ufON  Kellogc; 
Professor    of    Entomoioifx,    Ltland    Stanford 

JumioT  University,  Caltfomia. 

EVOLUTION,  Theorin  of.  In  any  con- 
sideration of  the  'theories  of  evolution"  there 
must  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  the  distinction  be- 
tween conceptions  or  theories  of  the  origin  or 
transformation  of  species  and  of  plant  and  ani- 
mal descent  generally,  and  theories  offeriiw  ex-  . 
planations  of  the  causes  and  controls  ot  this 
species,  origin  and  descent.  The  first  is  the 
evolution  conception  proper,  and  should  'be 
what  is  primarily  meant  when  the  term  evolu- 
tion is  used  alone.  We  could  still  believe  in 
evolution,  and  recognize  it  as  a  great  scientific 
fact,  even  if  we  had  no  wholly  clear  or  gener- 
ally accepted  understanding  of  the  causes  that 
bnng  it  about  and  the  influences  that  control  it 
In  fact,  that  is  not  far  from  bdng  the  actual 
situation  to-day. 

But  in  common  usage,  and  in  many  books, 
the  fact,  or  theory,  of  evolution,  and  die  facts 
and  theories  of  the  causes  of  evolution  arc  not 
differentiated  In  the  minds  of  naturalists, 
however,  the  distinction  is  usually  maintained, 
and  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  if  it  were 
more  widely  and  popularly  made.  For  the  evo- 
lution conception  itself  is  no  longer  a  debated 
question,  whereas  the  particular  methods  and, 
above  all,  the  so-calted  factors,  or  initiatii^  and 
guiding  causes  of  evolution,  are  stilt  open  to 
debate,  and,  indeed,  are  continuously  and  vigor- 
ously debated.  When  one  reads  of  disagree- 
ments among  biologists  concerning  the  merits 
ot  "Darwinism,'  it  is  not  a  disagreement  con- 
cerning the  fact  of  evolution,  tor  which  the 
term  "Darwinism'  is  too  often  synonymously 
used  in  popular  writing  and  speaking,  but  it  is 
a  disagreement  conceminR  the  value  of  Charles 
Darwin's  explanation  of  the  causes  of  evolution, 
namely,  his  theories  of  natural  and  sexual  selec- 

However  it  is  hardly  possible  to  consider  the 
general  theory  of  evolution  apart  from  theories 
of  its  cause  and  control,  and  the  subject  of  thb 
article,  which  for  the  sake  of  brevity  is  written 
simply  as  "theories  of  evolution,"  is  really 
meant  to  cover  a  discussion  of  theories  which 
explain  evolution;  how  it  comes  to  be,  what  its 
methods  are,  and  what  are  its  causal  facton. 

In  earlier  days,  the  days  of  the  Greeks  and 
the  later  churchmen  and  natural  philosophers 
of  the  middle  centuries,  there  were  various  dif- 
ferent theories  of  evolution^  if  the  incomplete 
and  often  fantastic  speculations  of  these  tunes 
can  be  called  theories.  Some  of  these  are  out- 
lined in  the  article  Evolution,  Histckt  of.  But 
the  real  struggle  from  the  beginning  of  serious 
thinking  about  the  nmltitnde  and  varied  of 


.lOogle 


plant  and  animal  forms  up  to  the  time  of  th< 
publication  of  Darwin's  'Origin  of  Species' 
(1859)  and  the  few  years  thereafter,  when  its 
heretical  doctrine  was  getting  firmly  established 
among  scientific  and  educated  men  the  world 
over,  was  between  the  belieTers  in  special 
creation  of  all  these  forms  and  believers  in 
their  origin  by  evolution. 

To-day  there  ia  not  a  biologist  of  standing 
who  does  nol  accept  the  theory,  or  better,  fact. 
of  evolution.  And  the  great  majority  of  all 
people  who  think  about  the  matter  at  all  also 
accept  this  once  ulcnt-heretical  and  scoffed-at 
doctrine. 

The  explanatory  theories  of  evolution  are 
numerous;  some  of  them  are  not  readily  dis- 
tinguishable from  one  another-  they  overlap 
more  or  less;  but  a  number  of  fairly  well-con- 
trasted different  theories  can  be  made  out  when 
careful  analysis  is  made  of  the  whole  group. 
Each  of  these  is  distinguished  by  the  emphasis 
which  it  gives  to  some  one  factor  and  the  sub- 
ordination or  even  total  rejection  of  other  fac- 
tors particularly  stressed  m  other  theories. 

These  various  distinguishable  theories  can 
be  ffrouped  into  several  categories,  such  as  those. 
which  are  essentially  vitalistic  as  compared  with 
those  essentially  mechanistic  in  their  explana- 
tion; or  those  which  envisage  species-fonniiw 
as  proceeding  by  little  leaps  as  contrasted  with 
those  which  assume  perfect  gradation  and  conti- 
nuity in  species/  Some  oi  the  theories  are 
based  on  the  assumption  of  individual  change  in 
response  to  the  environment  and  personal  habit, 
and  the  inheritance  of  these  "acquired  charac- 
ters.^ Others  reject  this  posstbili^  in  toto,  or 
partially,  and  stress  the  effect  of  a  selection 
among  strictly  germinal  inheritable  variations 
based  on  a  rigorous  struggle  for  existence 
which  extinguishes  the  possessors  of  disadvan- 
tageous variations  and  preserves  the  lucky  pos- 
sessors of  advantageous  ones,  thus  leaving  only 
these  latter  to  leave  prt^eny,  which  will  natu- 
rally inherit  the  fortunate  characteristics  of  the 
parents.  Some  see  the  germinal  variations, 
which  in  alt  modern  theories  are  the  basic  ele- 
ments of  evolution,  produced  purely  by_  chance, 
while  others  see  them  as  the  determined  re- 
sults of  the  influence  of  an  inner  directing 
force,  or  of  the  outer  environmenL 

Only  the  more  important  and  more  strongly 
contrasted  of  these  theories  need  be  described. 
For  most  are  but  changes  rung  on  a  few  prin- 
cipal themes.  Lamardnsm  and  Neo-Lamarck- 
ism  as  contrasted  with  Darwinism  and  Neo- 
Darwinism;  Vitalism  as  contrasted  with  the 
Mechani<^ism ;  and  Chance  as  contrasted  with 
Determinism ;  these  are  the  chief  points  that 
need  to  be  taken  into  account  in  differentiating 
the  various  explanations  of  the  phenomena  of 
organic  evolution. 

Despite  the  suKgestiveness  of  the  many  Evo- 
lution and  Evolution-explaining  speculations 
made  by  various  natural  philosophers  and  nat- 
uralists before  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, it  was  not  until  Lamarck,  in  the  very  first 
years  of  said  century,  began  to  express  his  view 
of  evolution  and  its  causes,  that  a  full  and  logi- 
cally constructed  evolution  theory  may  be  said 
to  have  been  formulated.  The  nearest  approach 
to  such  an  earlier  formulation  was  that  made 
in  the  late  years  of  the  18th  century  by  Erasmus 
Darwin,  grandfather  of  Charles  Darwin.  'A 
rajnd  run  through  the  later  writings  of  Dr.  Dar- 


mON  600 

win,'  says  Clodd,  'shows  that  there  is  scarcely 
a  side  of  the  great  theory  of  evolution  which 
has  escaped  his  notice  or  suggestive  comment' 
White  Grant  Allen  notes  that  the  theory  of  nat- 
ural selection,  which  was  Charles  Darwin's 
great  contribution  to  the  evolution  conception, 
was  the  only  cardinal  one  in  the  evolutionary 
system  on  wnich  Erasmus  Darwin  did  not  actu- 
ally   forestall   his   more    famous   and  greater 

Lamarck  and  the  Lamarckian  Tbeoriea.— 

Jean-Baptiste-Pierre-Antoine  de  Monetj  Cheva- 
lier de  Lamarck,  bom  in  I?44  in  the  village  of 
Bazentin  in  Picardy  (northeast  France),  was 
in  1800  professor  of  invertebrate  zooloey  m  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  in  Paris,  He  had 
previously  been  for  many  years  keeper  of  the 
herbarium  in  the  Museum.  He  was,  therefore, 
well  grounded  in  the  facts  of  both  botany  and 
zoology,  and  he  had  a  philosophical  mind, 
which,  in  the  face  of  the  facts  of  science 
learned  by  him,  compelled  him  to  turn  from 
the  orthodox  view  of  creation  by  special  de- 
sign and  act  to  the  heretical  one  of  evolution. 
In  the  opening  lecture  of  bis  professional 
course  in  the  year  1800  he  outlined  his  views 
and  his   theory  of  the  method  and  c 


Sophie  Zoologique'  (1809). 

The  essential  feature  in  the  explanation  of 
descent  conceived  and  uttered  by  Lamarck  is 
die  inheritance  of  acquired  variations.  Lamarck 
was  convinced,  first,  of  the  certainty  that 
species  vary  under  changed  external  inniiences, 
second,  that  there  is  a  fundamental  unity  in 
the  animal  kingdom,  and,  third,  that  there  is 
a  progressive  development.  The  main  influences 
that  tend  to  change  species  come  under  the  law 
of  use  and  disuse,  for  he. believed  that  nature 
does  not  effect  her  changes  directly  (Buffon's 
belief)  but  through  the  reaction  of^  animals  to 
their  environment  Lamarck  denied,  absolutely, 
the  existence  of  any  perfecting  tendency  m 
nature,  and  regarded  evolution  as  the  final 
necessary  effect  of  surroimding  conditions  on 
life. 

Thus,  instead  of  suggesting  that  animals  had 
been  created  (or  a  certain  mode  of  life,  he 
supposed  that  -their  mode  of  life  bad  itself 
created  them.  *In  considering  the  natural  order 
of  aninuls,  the  very  positive  gradation  whidi 
exists  in  their  structure,  organiiation,  and  in 
the  number  as  well  as  the  perfection  of  tibeir 
facultiea,  is  very  far  removed  from  being  a 
new  truth,  because  the  Greeks  themselves  fully 


they  lacked  the  knowledge  necessary  to  establish 
it  In  consideration  of  this  gradation  of  life, 
there  are  only  two  conclusions  which  face  us  as 
to  origin;  The  conclusion  adopted  up  lo  to-doy: 
Nature  (or  its  Author)  in  creating  animals  has 
foreseen  all  possible  sorts  of  circumstances  in 
which  they  would  be  destined  to  live,  and  has 
given  to  each  species  a  constant  organization, 
as  well  as  the  form,  determined  and  invariable 
in  its  parts,  which  forces  each  s[>ecies  to  live 
in  the  places  and  climates  where  it  is  found,  and 
there  preserve  the  habits  which  we  know  belong 
to  it.  My  personal  conclusion:  Nature,  in 
producing  successfully  all  the  s[>ecies  of  animals, 
and  commencing  by  the  most  imperfect  or  the 
most  simple  to  conclude  its  labor  in  the  most 


,5le 


610 


SVOLUTIOH 


perfect,  has  gradually  completed  our  organiza- 
Uor;   and  of    these   animals,  while  spreading 

generally  in  all  the  habitable  regions  of  the 
globe,  each  species  has  received,  under  Ihe  in- 
fluence of  the  environment  which  it  has  en- 
countered, the  habits  which  we  recognize  and 
die  modifications  in  its  parts  which  observation 
reveals  in  it.' 

The  following  is  Lamarck's  statement  or 
explanation  of  fne  causes  of  this  descent : 
■First  Law :   Life  by  its   internal   forces   lends 

that  pt 


V  organ  or  part  results  fr 
or  want,  which  continues  to  be  felt,  and  from 
the  new  movement  which  this  need  initiates 
and  causes  to  continue.  Third  Law ;  The  de- 
velopment of  organs  and  their  force  or  power 
of  action  are  always  in  direct  relation  to  the 
employment  of  these  ot^ans.  In  every  animal 
which  has  not  passed  the  term  of  its  develop- 
ment the  more  frequent  and  sustained  employ- 
ment of  each  organ  strengthens  little  by  little 
this  o^n,  develops  it,  increases  it  in  size,  and 
gives  it  a  power  proportioned  to  the  length  of 
Its  employment ;  whereas  the  constant  lack  of 
use  of  the  same  organ  insensibly  weakens  it, 
deteriorates  it,  progressively  diminishes  its 
powers  and  ends  by  causing  it  to  disappear. 
Fourth  Law :  All  that  has  been  acquired  or 
altered  in  the  oi^nization  of  individuals  dur- 
ing their  life  is  preserved  by  generation  (hered- 
ity), and  transmitted  to  individuals  which 
proceed  from  those  which  have  undergone 
these  changes.* 

Neo-Lamarcldaii      Theorin Lamarck's 


would  furnish  the  most  satisf^ng  expla 
of  evolution  yet  offered.  But  its  great  fault  is 
that  the  basic  assumption  in  the  theory  is  not 
an  established  fact;  indeed,  it  seems  to  be  just 
opposed  to  the  facts.  Despite  a  few  plausible 
cases,  about  which  a  great  storm  of  argument 
has  raged  —  for  example,  the  famous  contro- 
versy in  1893  and  1894,  in  the  Contemporary  Re- 
view, between  Herbert  Spencer,  champion  of 
Lamarckism,  and  August  Weismann,  its  most 
destructive  antagonist  —  most  naturalists  agree 
that  the  known  facts  of  inheritance  not  only 
do  not  support  but  strongly  deny  the  La- 
marckian  assumption  of  the  tientabifity  of  char- 
acters acquired  by  an  individual  in  its  lifetime 
by  reaction  to  environment,  use  or  disuse  of 
parts,   and  person^  habit. 

And  yet  there  have  always  been,  and  are  to- 
day, biologists  of  the  ver>-  first  class  who  be- 
lieve in  most  of  the  essentials  of  the  La- 
marckian  explanation  of  evolution  as  opposed 
to  the  Darwinian.  Their  principal  reasons  for 
this  belief  arc  ;  First,  the  radical  assumptions  as 
to  almost  limitless  time,  rigor  of  the  struggle 
for  existence  and  actual  validity  of  the  minute, 
fortuitous,  germinal  variations  as  determining 
elements  in  this  struggle,  and  the  necessary  ex- 
treme variety  of  these  variations,  that  have  to 
be  made  in  connection  with  Darwin's  selection 
explanation  in  order  to  get  such  results  out  of 
chance  as  are  revealed  in  the  extraordinarily 
line  and  perfect  adaptations  of  plants  and 
animals   to   their   environment. 

Second,  it  has  beep  shown  by  the  experi- 


ments of  Klebs,  Tower  and  others,  that  the 
environment  can  sometimes  affect  the  germ- 
cells,  and  that  when  it  does  it  can  actually  pro- 
duce changes  in  the  next  generation  that  are 
inheritable,  although  it  must  be  said  that  these 
changes   are   not    necessarily   adaptive. 

Third,  it  is  a  fact  of  familiar  observation 
that  the  adaptations  of  species  are  often  almost 
exactly  of  mc  same  character  as  the  changes 
that  are  produced  in  individuals  by  their  im- 
mediate reaction  to  environment  conditions,  and 
on  this  the  assumption  is  made  that  despite  our 
lack  of  any  knowledge  of  how  this  individual 
change  is  impressed  on  the  germ-cells,  and  even 
in  face  of  our  greatSy  advanced  understanding 
of  the  mechanism  of  inheritance,  almost  all  of 
which  goes  to  indicate  the  independence  of  the 
germ-cells  from  external  influences  affecting 
the  body-cells,  this  parallelism  must  in  some 
way  be  the  result  of  an  inheritance  of  acquired 
characters. 

For  these  reasons  and  others,  therefore, 
there  is  a  school  of  biolo^sts^  who  may  be 
called  Neo-Lamarekians.  which  is  busy  formu- 
lating modifications  of  the  old  Lamarddan 
theory  to  make  it  fit  our,  more  recent  knowledge 
■of  facts, 

Charles  Darwin  and  the  Darwinian  Theo- 
ries.—  In  a  paper  presented  to  the  Linnsean 
Society  of  London  in  I8S8,  and  far  more  fully 
and  elaborately  in  the  'Origin  of  Species'  nub- 
lished  in  1859,  Charles  Darwin,  bom  in  1809,  in 
Shrewsbury,  England,  and  bearing,  without  any 
question,  the  most  distinguished  name  in  all 
file  long  roll  of  names  associated  with  the 
evolution  conception,  presented  an  explanatorr 
theory  of  species- forming  and  descent  which  is 
best  known  as  the  Selection  Theory, 

This  Darwinian  explanation  rests  on  certain 
observed  facts  and  certain  inductions  from 
these  facts.  The  observed  facts  arer-{l)  the 
increase  by  multiplication  in  geometrical  ratio 
of  the  individuals  in  every  species,  whatever 
the  kind  of  reproduction  which  may  be  peculiar 
to  each  species;  (2)  the  always  apparent  slight 
(to  greater)  variation  in  form  and  function  ex- 
isting among  all  individuals  even  thoufHi  of 
the  same  generation  or  brood ;  and  (3)  the 
transmission,  with  these  inevitable  slight  varia- 
tions, by  the  parent  to  its  offspring  of  a  form 
and  physiology  essentially  like  the  parental. 
The  interred  (also  partly  observed)  facts  are: 
(1)  a  lack  of  food  and  room  for  all  these  new 
individuals  produced  by  geometrical  multiplica- 
tion, and  consequently  a  competition  (active 
or  passive)  among  those  individuals  having 
any  cecoiogic  relations  to  one  another,  as,  for 
example,  among  those  occupying  the  same  local- 
ity, or  needing  the  same  food;  (2)  the  probable 
success  in  this  competition  of  those  individuals 
whose  slight  differences  (variations)  are  of 
such  a  nature  as  to  give  them  an  advantage 
over  their  confreres,  which  results  in  saving 
their  lives,  at  least  unt=l  they  have  produced 
offspring;  and  (3)  the  fact  that  these  'saved* 
individuals  will,  hy  virtue  of  the  already  re- 
ferred to  action  of  heredity,  hand  down  to  the 
offspring  their  advantageous  condition  of 
structure   and  physiology. 

The  competition  among  individuals  and  tdnds 
(species)  of  or^nismB  may  fairly  be  called 
a  stmcrgle.  This  is  obvious  when  it  is  active,  as 
in  actual  personal  battling  for  a  piece  of  food 
or  in  attempts  to  capture  prey  or  to  escape 


jodgic 


EVOLUnOM 


capture,  and  less  obvious  wb«n  it  is  passive,  as 
in  ,the  endurance  of  stress  of  weather,  hun- 
ger, thirst  and  untoward  conditions  of  anv 
kind.  The  stnjeg'e  is,  or  may  be,  for  each 
individual  threefold  in  nature:  (1)  an  active 
struggle  or  competition  with  other  individuals 
of  its  own  kind,  for  space  in  the  habitat,  suf- 
ficient share  of  the  food,  and  opportunity  to 
produce  offspring  in  the  way  peculiar,  and  com- 
mon to  its  species ;  (2)  an  active  or  passive 
struggle  or  competition  with  the  intUviduals  of 
other  species  which  may  need  the  same  space 
and  food  as  itself,  or  may  need  it  or  its  eggs 
or  young  for  food,  and  (3)  an  active  (or 
more  usually  passive)  struggle  with  the  physico- 
chemical  external  conditions  of  the  world  it 
lives  in,  as  varying  temperature  and  humidity, 
storms  and  floods  and  natural  catastrophes  of  ' 
all  sorts. 

The  resultant  of  these  existing  conditions  is, 
according  to  Darwin  and  his  followers,  an  in- 
evitable natural  selection  of  individuals  and  of 
species.  Thousands  must  die  where  a  few  may 
hve  to  matur!^  (i.e.,  to  the  time  of  producing 
young) .  Wh:cb  10,  say,  of  the  thousand 
shall  live  depends  on  the  slight  but  sufficient 
advantage  possessed  by  10  individuals  in  the 
complex  sfruggle  for  exisMncc  due  to  the 
fortuitous  possession  of  fortunate  congenital 
differences  (variations).  The  990  with  unfor- 
tunate congenital  variations  are  extinguished  in 
the  struggle  and  with  them  the  opportunity  for 


the  10,  of  course,  will  vary _.  _... 

will  vary  around  the  new  and  already  proved 
advantageous  parental  condition :  among  the 
thousand,  say,  offspring  of  the  original  saved 
10  the  same  lunitations  of  space  and  food  will 
again  work  to  the  killing  off  before  maturity  of 
990,  leaving  the  10  best  equipped  to  reproduce. 
This  repeated  and  intensive  selection  leads  to  a 
slow  but  steady  and  certain  modification, 
through  the  successive  generations,  oE  the  form 
and    functions   of   the    species ;    a   modification 


to  safe  conformity  with  external  conditions. 
The  exquisite  adaptation  of  the  parts  and  func- 
tions of  the  animal  and  plant  as  we  see  it  every 
day  to  our  infinite  admiration  and  wonder  has 
all  come  to  exist  through  the  purely  mechanical, 
inevitable  weeding  out  and  selecting  by  nature 
(by  the  environmental  determining  of  what 
may  and  what  may  not  live)  through  uncounted 
generations  of  unreckonablc  time. 

Associated  with  this  theory  of  natui^l 
selection  Darwin  also  advanced  a  theory  to  ac- 
count for  the  often  marked  difference?  between 
the  sexes  of  a  species,  involving  the  possession 
by  one  sex,  usually  the  male,  of  special  out- 
growttis  of  the  body,  bright  and  heavy  plum- 
age, or  conspicuous  colors  and  pattern,  etc., 
most  of  which  would  seem  to  be  elements  of 
disadvantage    rather    than    advantage 


these  characters  are  of  advantage  in  the  rivalry 
of  mating,  many  of  them  being  apparently  of 
a  land  to  attract  and  excite  individuals  of  (he 
opposite  sex.  Hence  they  might  help  their 
possessors  win  in  the  struggle  to  find  mates 
and  consequently  to  leave  prog:eny.  It  is  a 
sort  of  particular  and  limited  land  of  natural 


selection,  not  involving  a  determination  between 
life  and  death,  but  one  between  ^oing  child- 


iut  the  assumed  fact  of  choice  in  this  theory 
of  sexual  selection  involves  various  unproved 
and  hardly  probable  asstunptions  regarding  the 
esthetic  development  of  birds,  butterflies, 
spiders,  etc.,  and  has  been  strongly  attacked  both 
on  the  basis  of  actual  opposing  observation  and 
experiment  as  well  as  on  the  basis  of  general 
improbability.  On  the  whole,  Darwin's  theory 
of  sexual  selection  has  been  largely  discredited, 
although  it  must  be  said  thai  no  very  satisfac- 
tory substitute  explanation  has  been  offered 
for  it.  But  this  discrediting  of  sexual  selec- 
tion throws  a  heavier  strain  on  the  theory  of 
natural  selection,  for  it  was  to  relieve  the  lat- 
ter theory  of  the  difficulty  of  facing  these  ap- 
parently existing  disadvantageous  characters  of 
the  males  of  many  species  of  birds  and  insects 
that  the  sexual  selection  theory  was  devised. 

Nevertheless  it  is  true  that  Darwin's  natural 
selection  explanation  of  evolution  has  been,  ever 
since  its  announcement,  more  widely  and  au- 
thoritatively accepted  as  the  needed  revelation 
of  the  causes  and  methods  of  species- forming 
and  adaptation  than  any  other  explaining 
theopT  yet  offered. 

Neo -Darwinian  Theories.— Darwin  never 
claimed  for  natural  selection  that  it  was  the 
only  influence  capable  of  modifying  species  and 
explaining  descent  But  some  of  nis  followers 
have  practically  made  that  claim.  Most  notable 
among  these  Neo- Darwinians  was  August  Weis- 
mann,  professor  of  zoology  at  Freiburg  in 
Baden,  whose  strenuous  attacks  on  the  con- 
ception of  the  inheritance  of  acquired  char- 
acters did  so  much  to  discredit  the  Lamarckian 
explanation  of  evolution.  Weismann's  theories 
of  heredity  led  him  to  a  belief  in  the  almost  ab- 
solute isolation  in  the  body,  and  hence  inde- 
pendence from  influences  affecting  it,  of  the 
gcrm-cells,  and  the  consequent  belief  that  the 
only  variations  that  could  be  possibly  inherited, 
were  the  minute  germinal  ones  that  served 
Darwin  as  the  basis  for  the  working  of  natural 
selection.  From  this  to  a  belief  in  the  All-Macht 
of  natural  selection  in  determining  species- 
chajige  and  descent  generally  was  but  the 
natural  step. 

Alfred  Russell  Wallace  and  sobe  other 
prominent  English  naturalists  ranged  them- 
selves with  Weismann  a$  Neo- Darwinians. 
Most  American  naturalists,  however,  held  aloof 
from  this  extremist  attitude,  while  the  Germans 
were  divided.  In  the  later  years  of  his  life, 
Weismann  withdrew  from  his  original  most 
advanced  position,  and  was  inclined  to  admit 
the  inadequacy  of  natural  selection  as  an  all- 
sufficient  explanation  of  descent. 

Isolation  Theories. —  One  of  the  most  valid 
criticisms  of  the  natural  selection  theory  has 
been  that  it  makes  it  necessary  to  ascribe  a  life- 
and-death  determining  value  to  the  small  germi-r 
na!  variations  which  are  the  basis  of  the  selec- 
tive working  of  the  strug^e  for  existence,  and 
it  has  always  seemed  hard  in  the  face  of  the 
veiy  trivial  character  of  many  of  these  little 
differences  to  admit  this  value  for  them.  B«t 
there  is  one  way  in  which  it  seems  that  these 
little  differences  might  be  heaped  up  and  de- 
veloped into  larger  ones  in  the  course  of  s«c- 
cessive  generations,  and  that  is  by  the  isoUtlon 


612 


EVOLUTION 


from  the  main  body  of  the  spedes  of  a  group  of 
individuals  more  or  less  similar  in  germinal 
characters.  This  isolation  could  be  efrected  by 
a  migration  and  later  geographic  segregation  of 
a  group.  The  result  would  be  an  enforced  in- 
breeding and  an  elimination  of  the  swamping 
effects  of  unrestricted  wider  crossing.  The  re- 
sult would  be  a  cumulation  of  the  characteristics 
represented  in  the  group  by  originally  minute 
germinal  variations. 

Beginning  with  Moritz  Wagner  (186S), 
energetically  supported  by  Romanes  (1897)  and 
now  most  conspicuously  urged  by  David  Starr 
Jordan,  this  "isolation  theory*  has  been  much 
in  favor  with  some  biologists,  especially  those 
who  pav  especial  attention  to  the  relation  of 
geographic   distribution   of   plants  and   animals 

Theories  of  OrthogeneaiB,— As  the  char- 
acter of  the  original  small  germinal  variations 
necessarily  first  determines  the  possible  lines 
along  which  species  change  and  descent  pro- 
ceed; and  as  it  is  evident  from  careful  studv 
of  the  actual  lines  of  descent  exhibited  both 
by  the  many  living  groups  of  animals  and  plants 
and  also  the  many  extinct  ones  (made  visihie  to 
us  by  their  fossils)  that  descent  has  actually 
proceeded  along  certain  distinct  lines  and  has 
not  been  scattered  miscellaneously  and  futilely 
in  all  directions,  it  is  plain  that  the  discovery  of 
any  cause  or  form  of  control  which  would 
direct  variation  in  certain  more  or  less  definite 
directions  would  help  very  much  in  solving  the 
^eat  problem  of  the  cause  and  control  o£  evolu- 
tion. 

From  the  beginning  therefore,  the  existence 
of  such  means,  and  its  character,  have  been 
sought  for.  Many  biologists  _  have  believed 
that  the  phenomenon  of  evolution  can  only  be 
explained  by  the  assumption  of  such  a  means. 
Cope,  an  American  paleontologist  ^  and  it  may 
be  noted  that  paleontologists,  from  their 
studies  of  the  long  succession  of  life    '  ' 


simplest  life-stuff  a  sort  of  primitive  _ 

ne.ss  which  gives  it  a  capaci^  for  adaptation 
and  modification  that  results  in  definite  ortho- 
genetic  evolutionary  advance.  Naegeli,  a  great 
German  botanist  and  natural  philosopher,  pro- 
IMsed  in  1884  a  theory  of  orthogenesis  (evolu- 
tion in  fixed  lin-es^  by  assuming  the  existence  of 
an  inner  perfecting  principle,  inherent  in  all 
organisms,  which  determine  the  general  lines  of 
variation  and  makes  steadily  toward  evolution- 
ary progress. 

Both  these  theories  are  essentially  vttalisttc 
in  character  in  that  they  assume  an  inner 
mystic  something  associated  with  life  and  char- 
acteristic of  it  that  can  direct  its  evolution, 
which  makes  it  unnecessary  and  futile  to  try 
to  find  a  more  mechanical  or  physico-chemic^ 
explanation  of  this  capacity  of  living  matter. 
Uore  modern  exponents  of  this  vitalistic  be- 
lief are  such  men  as  -  Driesch  and  fiergson, 
who  may  be  called  Nco-Vitalists. 

Eimer,  a  German  zoologist,  in  1888  detued 
the  vitalistic,  automatic  inner  perfecting  prin- 
ciple of  Na^eli,  but  upheld  the  assumption  of 
ordio^enetic  evolution,  attributing  its  cause  to 
the  direct  influence  of  extrinsic  and  environ- 
mental conditions.  A  number  of  English  bi- 
ologists, as  Henslow  and  Uoyd  Morgan,  have 
ranged  themselves  in  the  ranks  of  the  believers 


in  orthogenesis,  but  they  have  not  cared  to 
admit  the  existence  of  any  peculiar  vitalistic 
factor  as  its  explanation.  The  present  dean  of 
American  paleontologists  and  evolutionists,  H. 
F.  Osbom,  is  also,  on  the  basis  of  his  extensive 
studies  of  evolutionary  progress  among  extinct 
animals,  especially  the  mammals,  a  believer  in 
orthogenesb,  but  he  is  content  to  attribute  its 
cause  to  some  as  yet  'unknown  factors  of 
Evolution.*  It  is  also  true  that  under  the 
influence  of  modern  discoveries  in  connecliwi 
with  the  mechanism  and  methods  of  heredity 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  among  many  modem 
biologists  to  lean  more  and  more  toward  an 
assumption  of  an  internal  cause  and  control  of 
variation  concerning  the  action  of  which  little 
can  be  prophesied  and  about  the  character  of 
which  little  is  known. 

Theories  of  Heterogenesis  and  Mntations. 
— All  of  the  theories  of  the  causes  of  evolution 
so  far  referred  to  agree  in  assuming  a  progress 
mostly  by  small,  cofitinuous  change,  so  that  spe- 
cies  form  series  of  perfect  gradations.  But  there 
have  always  been  naturalists  to  deny  this  as- 
sumption and  to  claim  that  change  comes  often 
by    definite    leaps,    so    that    even    the    oripnal 


lated  a  number  of  theories  of  heterogenesis  or 
rautancy.  Von  Koelliker,  a  German  zoologist, 
proposed,  in  1864,  such  a  theory,  but  only  in 
most  general  terms.  The  Amencan  naturalist, 
Dall,  in  1877,  expressed  his  conviction  that 
sudden  changes  of  species- forming  character 
sometimes  occur  in  animals,  and  Francis  Galton, 
the  great  English  anthropologist  and  couMn 
of  CTharles  Darwin,  and  in  most  of  his  beliefs 
a  thorough  Darwinian,  nevertheless  denied  that 
the  original  germinal  variations  must  necessarily 
be  small,  referring  to  the  many  known  cases 
of  "sports*  among  animals  and  plants  as  ex- 
amples   of    original    differences    appearing    as 

In  1899,  Korschinsky,  a  Russian  botanist, 
advocated  an  explanation  of  species- forming  by 
heterogenesis  as  one  to  be  preferred  to  Dar- 
win's selection  theory,  which  he  strongly  op- 
posed. However  he  presented  few  new  facts 
bearing  on  the  subject  and  made  no  particular 
impression  on  biologists.  In  1901,  however,  the 
Amsterdam  botanist,  Hugo  de  Vries,  published 
the  first  volume  of  a  large  work  called  'The 
Mutations  Theory,'  in  which  he  described  his 
observations  and  experiments,  extending  over 
many  years,  on  certain  plant  species,  especially 
the  evening  primrose,  Oencthera  lamarckiaM, 
and  definitely  proposed  a  theory  of  the  origin 
of  species  by  mutations,  or  sudden  new  fixed 
changes,  the  new  forms  thus  formed  having  no 
special  relation,  as  regards  their  origin,  to 
adaptation  or  the  struggle  for  existence.  He 
backed  up  his  theory  with  a  description  of  many 
such  new  "elementary  spedes"  which  had  arisen 
suddenly  under  his  eyes  from  the  evening 
primrose, 

De  Vriess'  theory  has  had  a  large  attention 
and  a  considerable  acceptance  from  naturalists, 
espedally  with  those  alrcitdy  dissatisfied  with 
the  Darwinian  explanation.  However,  despite 
much  observation  and  experimentation  by  other 
men,  few  other  "mutations'  besides  those  de- 
scribed by  De  Vrics  have  been  recorded,  w^ile 
as  a  general  explaining  theoiy  of  evolution  the 
theory  leaves  much   to  be  desired. 


EVOLUTION    IN    MATHEMATICS  —  BWALD 


eib 


It  is  eqiedally  helpless  in  the  face  of  the 
necessi^  of  explaining  adaptation,  and  adap- 
tation is  as  characteristic  of  evolution  as  is 
species-change. 

Influence  of  the  Modem  Knowledge  of 
Heredity  on  Theories  of  Evolatlon.—  In  1900 
three  European  botanists  working  independ- 
ently at  problems  of  inheritance  in  plants  dis- 
covered that  certain  similar  work  done  a  third 
of  a  century  before  in  the  gardens  of  an  Augus~ 
tinian  cloister  in  Brunn  (Austria)  by  a  raonk 
named  Gregor  Mendel,  had  heen  quite  over- 
looked by  naturalists  and  yet  was  of  the  utmost 


importance.  This  discovery  of  Mendel's  work 
by  the  botanists  De  Vries,  Correns  and 
Tschermak,  and  their  independent  discoveries, 
at  the  same  time,  of  facts  confirming  Mendel's 
earlier  results,  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
modem  study  of  heredity  whose  positive  re- 
suits  already  amount  to  more  than  had  been 
learned  in  all  time  before. 

A  general  summation  of  these  results  and 
consideration  of  their  bearing  on  the  validity 
of  the  various  theories  for  the  explanation  of 
evolution,  lend  much  weight  to  the  type  of 
the<»y  that  assumes  the  original  variations  to 
be  the  result  of  influences  working  from  within 
rather  than  without.  The  modem  knowledge 
of  heredity  also  is  strongly  opposed  to  any 
assumptioii  of  the  inheritance  of  acquired 
characters  and  emphasiies  the  strictly  germinal 
character  of  all  variations  that  really  count  in 
species-making.  As  has  recently  been  said  by 
Davenport,  a  leading  American  exponent  of 
Mendelism,  "a  theory  of  Evolution  that  assumes 
internal  changes  chiefly  independent  of  ex- 
ternal conditions,  i.e.,  spontaneously  arising 
,  .  .  seems  best  to  meet  the  present  state  of 
our  knowledge^  (of  heredity].  And  he  admits 
that  the  fKSRmgh- going  accepters  of  Mendel- 
ism and  the  new  heredity  generally  are 
driven  to  a  position  as  regards  the  causes 
and  fundamental  control  of  evolution  which 
is  essentially  like  Naegeli's  vital  is  tic  theory 
of  evolution  from  within  by  virtue  of  a  per- 
fecting or  progressive  tendency ;  which  is 
an  idea  that  goes  back  to  Aristotle  and  includes 
HuXley  and  Bergson  in  its  roll  of  adherents. 
In  other  words  the  most  modem  theory  in 
explanation  of  evolution  is  essentially  both  anti- 
Lamarckian  and  anti- Darwinian,  and  allies  itself 
with  that  type  of  explanation  which  may  be 
cdled  orthogenetic  and  vitalistic. 

Bibliography. —  Kellogg.  V.  L.,  'Darwinism 
Today>  (New  York  19<S)  ;  Morgan,  T.  H., 
'Evolution  and  Adaptation'  (New  York  1903)  ; 
Morgan,  T.  H.,  'A  Critique  of  Evolution' 
(New  York  1917)  ;  Osbom,  H.  P.,  'The  Ori^n 
and  Evolution  of  Life'  (New  York  1917); 
Packard,  A.  S.,  'Lamarck,  His  Life  and  His 
Work'  (New  York  1901);  de  Vries,  H, 
'Species  and  Varieties'  (New  York  1905); 
Weismann,  August,  'The  Evolution  Theory,* 
(2  vols.,  London  1904). 

Verwoh  Kellogg, 
Proftsior    of    Entomology,    Leland    Stanford 

junior  University,  Calijomia. 


r  order.    See  Tactics,  Military. 


BVONYMUS,  iv-on'i-m&s,  a  genus  of  the 
staff-tree  family  iCeiastracev),  comprisins 
about  120  species  of  shrubs,  natives  of  the  north 
temperate  lone.  Three  species  are  found  in 
America.  The  best  known  arc  the  strawberry 
bush  (£.  americanus) ,  the  buming-bush  or 
wahoo  (£.  atropurpMreus),  and  the  spindle- 
tree  (£.  ntrofffiw).  (See  Spindle-thee).  From 
the  bark  of  the  wahoo  or  buming-bush  an  ex- 
tract known  in  medicine  as  euonymin  is  ob- 
tained. It  is  used  as  a  cfaolagogue,  tonic  and 
diuretic,  and  for  its  stimulant  action  on  the 
liver. 

EVORA,  I'voo-ra  (ancient  Eboha),  cipr, 
Portugal,  capital  of  the  province  of  Alemtejo, 
75  miles  east  by  south  of  Lisbon.  It  is  a  very 
ancient  city;  Quintus  Serlorius  took  it  in  80 B.C., 
and  it  was  also  conquered  by  the  Moors  in  715, 
but  recovered  from  them  in  1139.  Among  the 
famous  Roman  antiquities  of  Evora  are  the 
temple  of  Diana,  with  fine  Corinthian  columns; 
an  aqueduct  erected  by  Quintus  Sertorius  and 
restored  in  the  16th  century,  which  still  supplies 
the  city  with  water;  and  die  beautiful  tower, 
surrounded  by  Ionic  columns,  at  the  extremity 
of  the  aqueduct,  and  which,  although  it  has  ex- 
isted since  70  B.C.,  is  in  almost  perfect  preser- 
vation. It  has  an  archiepiscopal  library,  con- 
taining, besides  some  25,tXX)  volumes,  several 
pictures  of  great  merit.  There  are  iron  fur- 
naces and  some  manufactures  of  cotton  cloth 
and  hats,  and  a  considerable  trade  in  wine. 
Pop.  17,901. 

BVREMOND,  avr-mon.    Sec  Sajkt  Evie- 

EVREUX,  ft-vr^  (ancient  Civitas  Eburovi- 
cum),  France,  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
Eure,  on  the  Iton,  57  miles  west  by  north- 
west of  Paris.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
France  and  its  ruins  and  existing  ancient  Nor- 
man buildings  show  its  antiquity.  The  most 
noted  of  the  btiildinp  are  the  church  of  Saint 
Taurin ;  the  bishop  s  palace,  dating  back  to 
1484;  the  Tour  de  rHoriope.  built  in  the  same 
century.  The  history  of  the  town  has  been  of 
the  same  tumultuous  order  as  that  of  many 
other  towns  in  that  section  of  France,  having 
been  taken  from  the  Romans  by  Oovis;  the 
Normans  under  Rollo  pillaged  the  town  in  892; 
Henry  I  of  England  captured  it  in  1119,  laying 
it  in  waste  by  lire;  Philip  Augustus  of  France 
took  it  in  1194  and  in  1199;  and  durii^  the  wars 
of  the  15th  century  between  the  French  and 
English  it  was  the  scene  of  many  bloody  con- 
flicts, being  passed  from  the  control  of  one  to 
the  other  many  times.  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  machinery,  linen,  hosiery,  leather, 
tiles  and  bricks.    Pop.  (of  the  commime)  18,957. 

BWALD,  i'val,  Carl,  Danish  novelist:  b. 
Schleswig  1856;  d.  1908.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Copenhagen,  to  which  city  his 
family  had  removed^  after  his  native  province 
had  fallen  to  the  Germans  in  1864.  After  spend- 
ing some  years  as  a  forester,  he  turned  to 
literature  in  1887,  at  first  issuing  school  texts 
and  translations.  His  principal  original  works 
are  'Singleton's  Udenlaadsrejsc'  (1894)  'Glaede 
over  Danmark'  (1898);  'Sulasmiths  Have' 
(1898)  ;  'Der  Kinderkrueizug'  (1896)  ;  'Mein 
Kleiner  Junge'  (1899) ;  'Cnimlm'  (1900>. 
Several  of  hts  works  have  been  translated  into 
English. 


■'3'^ 


ai4 


BWALD— SWAST 


BWALD,  OeoTK  Heiiirich  AnEust. 
gi-Arg  hin'riK  ow'goost  3'vali,  German  Orien- 
talist and  biblical  cr.tic:  b.  Gottinjen,  16  Nov. 
I8Q3;  d.  there,  4  Ma;^^  1875.  As  a  student  he 
publislied  his  first  cntical  work,  'Die  KompO' 
Miion  der  Genesis.'  He  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Gottingen  in  1831,  and  in  18J5 
professor  of  Oriental  languages.  As  one  of  the 
seven  professors  of  G6ttinf(en  who  signed  the 
protest  against  the  abrogation  by  King  Ernest 
Augustus  of  the  Hanoverian  constitution,  he 
was  deposed  from  his  chair  and  accepted,  in 
1838,  a  call  to  Tubingen  as  professor  of  phi- 
losophy. Id  1841  he  was  ennobled  by  the  king 
of  Wurlemberg  and  returned  in  1848  to  Gottin- 
geii  and  resumed  his  old  position.  When 
Hanover  was  annexed  by  Prussia  in  1866  he 
became  a  zealous  defender  of  the  rights  of  the 
ex-king  and  this  led  to  his  Temoval  from  his 
university  chair,  though  his  salary  was  con- 
tinned.  He  was  elected  several  times  a  member 
of  the  Diet,  where  he  spoke  strongly  in  favor 
of  the  restoration  of  the  Hanoverian  miinarchy. 
His  'Kritische  Grammalik  der  hebraischen 
Sprache*    (Critical   Grammar  of   the   Hebrew 


Spraehe,'  and  continually  enlarged  {8th  ed., 
1870),  formed  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  Hebrew 
and  placed  Ewald  in  the  first  rank  among 
scholars.  <Das  Hohe  Lied  Salomos'  (The 
Song  of  Solomon)  ;  'Die  poetischer  Biicher  des 
Alten  Bundes'  (The  Poetical  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament)  ;  'Die  Propheten  des  Alten  Bundes,' 
containing  a  translation  and  inteipretation  of 
all  the  prophets  in  chronolomcal  order;  together 
with  his  'Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel'  (His- 
tory of  the  People  of  Israel)  ;  and  'Die  Alter- 
thumer  des  Volkes  Israel'  (The  Antiquities  of 
the  People  of  Israel),  are  his  principal  woiks  on 
the  Old  TestamenL 

The  'History  of  Israel'  is  considered  his 
greatest  work,  entailed  a  labor  of  30  years  and  is 
a  work  of  rare  genius  stamped  with  the  impress 
of  its  author's  individuality.  Like  others  of 
his  more  important  writings,  it  has  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  On  the  New  Testament  he 
wrote,  among  other  works,  'Uebersetiung  und 
Erklarun^  aller  Biicher  des  Neuen  Testaments* 
(Translation  and  Explanation  of  all  the  Books 
of  the  New  Testament).  Another  important 
work  is  'Die  Lehre  der  Bibel  von  Gott,  Oder 
Theologie  des  Alten  und  Neuen  Bundes*  (the 
Doctrine  of  the  Bible  regarding  Ckid,  or  Theol- 
ogy of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments).  He  also 
wrote  philological  treatises  on  various  Eastern 
languages  and  on  subjects  connected  with  them, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  works  on  the 
book  of  Enoch,  on  Phoenician  inscriptions,  on 
Phcenician  views  regarding  the  creation  of  the 
world,  on  Arabic  Grammar,  and  'Linguistic 
Studies.'  From  1849-65  he  issued  a  serial 
almost  entirely  written  by  himself  called  'Die 
.Tahrbiicher  der  biblischen  Wissenschaft'  (Year 
Books  of  Biblical  Science).  Ewald  has  been 
called  the  ^second  founder  of  the  science  of  the 
Hebrew  language.'  Consult  Cheyne,  'Founders 
of   Old   Testament   Criticism'    (London   1893). 

EWALD,  or  BVALD.  Johuuin,  y&-han'- 
nis,  Danish  poet:  b.  Copenhagen,  18  Nov.  1743; 
d.  there,  17  March  1781.  At  IS  he  ran  away  and 
enlisted  in  the  Prussian  service.  Being  com- 
pelled to  join  a  regiment  of  artillery  at  Magde- 
burg, instead  of  being  attached  to  the  husaan 


as  he  had  been  promised,  he  deserted  die  Prus- 
sian standard  in  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and 
entered  the  Austrian  service.  After  a  few 
months  he  again  deserted,  returned  1 


was  requested  to  compose  an  degji  (1766); 
and  the  general  admiration  with  which  it  was 
received  roused  his  ambition  and  he  soon  be- 
came one  of  the  most  eminent  lyric  and  tragic 
poets  of  his  nation.  His  opera  the  'Death  of 
Balder'  (1774),  the  subject  of  which  is  taken 
from  the  northern  mythology  and  his  'Rolf 
Krage'  (1770),  a  tragedy  taken  from  the  anctent 
history  of  Denmark,  are  works  which,  not- 
withstanding many  defects,  bear  the  impress  of 
true  genius;  but  by  some  his  lyrical  drama 
'The  Fishers'  (1779),  in  which  b  included  the 
Danish  national  hymn,  is  ranked  as  the  finest  of 
all  his  works.  As  a  lyric  poet  he  is  most 
popular  at  the  present  day,  and  several  of  his 
odes  and  elegies  are  among  the  best  that  modem 
times  have  produced.  Consult  Jorgensen,  'Jo- 
hannes Ewald'  (1888). 

EWART,  a'art,  Darid,  Canadian  architect: 
b.  Scotland,  1843.  He  received  his  education  at 
the  Edinburgh  School  of  Arts,  removed  to 
Canada  in  1871  and  became  assistant  engineer 
and  architect  in  the  Department  of  Public  >!Vork» 
at  Ottawa,  rising  to  the  post  of  chief  architect  in 
1897.  He  completed  the  central  tower  of  the 
Parliament  buildings  at  Ottawa  and  erected  the 
Canadian  buildings  at  the  Chicago  World's 
Fair  in  1893  and  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1900.  He  is  a  member  of  the  board  of  assessors 
of  the  departmental  buildings  at  Ottawa  since 
1906  and  since  1909  is  councillor  of  the  Royal 
A.rclutectuFal  Institute  of  Canada. 

EWART,  James  Cosur,  British  zoologist: 
b.  Penicuik,  near  Edinburgh,  26  Nov.  1851.  He 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  where 
he  graduated  M.D,  and  was  appointed  demon- 
strator of  anatomy  1874.  in  '87S  he  became 
conservator  of  the  museum,  University  College, 
London;  in  1878  professor  of  natural  history, 
Aberdeen  University;  and  in  1882  professor  of 
the  same,  Edinburgh  University,  when  he  was 
also  appointed  member  of  the  Scottish  Fishery 
Board.  In  London  he  made  researches  into  the 
bacillus  of  splenic  fever,  etc.,  and  at  Aberdeen 
foimded  the  first  marine  laboratory  in  Britain, 
where,  with  the  late  Dr.  Romanes,  he  made 
researches  into  the  locomotor  system  of  the 
echinoderms,  which  was  the  subject  of  the 
Croonian  lecture  of  the  Roj^I  Society  1881.  He 
conducts  the  fishery  investigations  into  the  fer- 
tilization and  life  lustoty  of  the  herring,  while- 
bait  and  other  food-tishes  and  directs  a  large 
corps  of  assistants  in  the  work  at  various  sta- 
tions. He  established  lectureships  in  his  uni- 
versity in  embryology  and  the  philosophy  of 
natural  history  and  orranized,  for  the  students, 
a  union.  At  Penicuik  he  has  conducted  the 
costly  experiments,  with  which  his  name  is 
widely  Imown,  into  the  development  of  the 
horse,  and  hybridizing  of  equine  species,  in- 
cluding the  quagga,  zebra  and  island  pony,  in 


gelegony).  Among  his  publications  are  'The 
leclric  Organs  of  Skate'  (1888-89)  ;'The 
Cranial  Nerves  and  Lateral  Sense  Organs  of 
Elasmobranchs>  (1889);  'The  Development  of 


TEVART  —  EWSLL 


SIB 


of   the   Horse' 


'Guide  to  Hybrids* 


man  Fort,  near  Melrose'  (3906);  'On  a  Prej- 
valsky  Hybrid'   (1907). 

BWART,  John  Skirring,  Canadian  law- 
jrer:  b.  Toronto,  1849.  He  received  his  educa- 
tion at  Upper  Canada  College  and  was  admitted 
to  practice  in  1871.  He  practised  in  Toronto 
imtil  1882,  when  he  removed  to  Winnipeg.  He 
came  to  Ottawa  in  1904  and  was  now  recog- 
nised as  a  leader  in  his  profession.  During  the 
contest  for  separate  sdioots  in  Manitoba  he 
represented  the  Catholic  side.  He  became  in- 
terested in  political  questions  after  1900  and 
opposed  the  aims  of  the  imperialists.  At  The 
Hague  court  in  1910  he  was  chief  counsel  for 
Canada.  He  published  reports  of  cases  in  the 
courts  of  Manitoba  from  1SS3  lo  1890  and  also 
'The  Kingdom  of  Canada  and  Other  Essays' 
(1908)  ;  'Sir  John  Macdonald  and  the  Canadian 
Flag'  (1908);  'Canadian  Independence'  (1911); 
'The  Kingdom  Papers'   (1912). 

BWART,  WiUiani,  English  physirian:  b. 
London,  1848.  He  received  his  eciucation  at 
the  University  of  Cambridge  and  also  at  Paris 
and  Berlin.  He  became  consulting  phsrsician 
to  many  hospilalg  and  examiner  and  lecturer  to 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians.  He  was 
assistant  physician  to  the  Brompton  Hospital  for 
Consumption.  He  became  a  recognized  au- 
thority on  the  diseases  of  the  heart  and  lungs. 
His  works  include  "Pulmonary  Cavities' 
(1882);  'Cardiac  Outlines'  (1892);  'Heart 
Studies,  Chiefly  Clinical'  (1894) ;  "Bronchitis,* 
and  ■Bronchiectasis"  (in  Allbutt  and  RoUeston's 
'System  of  Medicine,'  London  1909),  and  a 
---J  ^f  'Report  on  Clitnates_and  Baths  of 


SWBANK,  Qltank,  Thomaa,  American  sd- 
entisi:b.  Ei^land,  11  March  1792;  d.  New  York, 
16  Sept.  1870.  He  came  to  America  about  1819 
and  engaged  in  manufacturing  metallic  tubing 
(18Z&-36).  He  was  United  States  commis- 
sioner of  patents  1849-52.  His  publi(»tions  in- 
clude 'The  World  a  Workshop>  (1855);  'Ufe 
in  Brazil,'  with  an  appendix  on  a  collection  of 
American  antiquities  (1857):  'Reminiscences  in 
the  Patent  OfRce'  (1859) ;  'Thoughts  on  Mat- 
ter and  Force'  (1858)  ;  and  'Inorganic  Forces 
Ordained  to  Supersede  Human  Slavery,'  an 
essay. 

EWE,  a  linKuistic  negro  stock,  inhatntitig 
the  coasts  of  Dahomey  and  Togoland.  It  is 
probable  that  they  came  from  Borgu  or  Gurma 
only  a  few  centuries  back.  Thw  are  agricul- 
turists and  possess  a  highly  developed  juridical 
system.  TTiey  comprise  the  Awuna,  Ataklu, 
Agbosimi,  Aflao,  Geng,  Togo,  Krikor,  Ewemi, 
Fra,  Daboman,  Mahi,  Aja.  Affakpami  and 
others.  Consult  Ellis,  'The  Ewe-Speaking  Peo- 
ples of  the  Slave  Coast  of  West  Africa'  (Lon- 
don 1890)  ;  Stanford  <Africa>  (ib.  1895). 

EWELL,  (i'cl,  Arthur  Woolsey,  American 
physicist:  h.  Bradford,  Mass.,  1873.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  where  he  was  graduated  In 
1897,  and  also  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Tohns  HopKns  and  Beriin.  From  1897  to  1910 
'n  physics  and  assistant  pro- 


fessor at  the  Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute 
becoming  professor  in  1910.  He  is  a  Fellow  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  atid  Sciences 
and  has  published  'A  Textbook  of  Physical 
Chemistry'  (1909)  ;  'Physical  Measurements' 
(1910;  2d  ed.,  1913) ;  'Artificial  Rotatory  Po- 
larization'  (1911). 

EWELL,  BenjuniD  Stoddert,  Americaa 
educator:  b.  Washington,  D.  C,  10  June  1810; 
d.  James  Oty,  Va.,  19  June  1894.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  1832,  taught  mathematics 
there  until  1836,  and  later  served  as  assistant 
en^neer  of  the  Baltimore  and  Susqudianna 
Railroad,  becoming  professor  of  mathematics  at. 
Hampden-Sidnn'  College  1839,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1846.  He  filled  a  similar  chair  at 
Washington  Universi^,  Lexington,  Va.,  1646- 
^  when  he  went  in  the  same  capacity  to  Wil- 
Kun  and  Mary  College,  becoming  its  president 
1854,  and  president  emeritus  1888.  He  was  in 
command  of  the  32d  Regiment,  Virginia  Volun- 
teers, from  1861-62  and  adjutant-general  of  the 
Confederate  army  on  the  staff  ot  Gen.  Josenti' 
E.  Johnston,  when  he  was  commander  of  Uie 
departments  of  TeDncssee  and  Mississippi  1862- 
64. 

SWELL,  UarBhall  Davia,  American  law- 
yer: b.  Oxford,  Mich.,  18  Aug.  1844.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  Law 
School  (1868),  and  was  professor  of  common  . 
law  in  the  Union  College  of  Law,  (3iicwo, 
from  1877  until  the  founding  of  the  Kent  Col- 
lie of  Law,  in  which  he  became  professor  of 
common  law,  dean  and  president.  He  is  well 
known  as  a  microscopist  and  handwriting  ex- 
Mit,  and  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Microscopical  Society  of  London  (1886),  and 
president  of  the  American  Microscopical  Soci- 
ety (1893).  He  has  edited  'Blackwell  on  Tax 
Titles'  (1875);  'lUinois  Reports'  (Vols. 
XXXII-XXXVI,  inclusive,  1877):  'Wash- 
burn's Manual  of  Criminal  Law'  (1378) ; 
'Evans  on  Agency'  (1879}  ;  'Lindley  on  Part- 
nership' (1881);  and  wntten  'Leading  Cases 
in  Disabilities'  (1S76)  ;  'Treatise  tm  fbe  Law 
of  Fixtures'  (1877) ;  'Student's  Manual  of 
Medical  Jurisprudence'  (1887;  2d  ed..  1909); 
'Essentials  of  Law'    (1882;  2d  ed.,  1915). 

SWELL,  Richard  Stoddert,  American  sol- 
dier: b.  CJeorgetown,  D.  C,  8  Feb.  1817;  d. 
Springfield,  Tenn.,  25  Jan.  1872.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military  Ackdemy  in 
1840,  and  served  durii^  the  Mexican  War  ifith 
Scott  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  City  of  Mexico. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  resided 
bis  commission  in  the  National  army;  jomed 
the  Confederates;  was  actively  engaged 
throughout  the  war  and  attained  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  He  was  at  the  battles  of 
the  first  and  second  Manassas,  where  he  lost 
a  leg.  Front  Royal,  Cross  Keys,  Port  Repub- 
lic and  Cedar  Mountain;  and  was  later  placed 
in  command  of  the  Second  Corps  of  CJeneral 
Lee's  army,  upon  the  death  of  *StonewaIl» 
Jackson.  In  this  capacity  he  was  in  personal 
command  and  led  the  charges  of  the  corps  ^t 
the  capture  of  Winchester,  at  (Jettysburg,  the 
Wilderness,  and  Spottsylvania  Court  House, 
but  was  transferred  to  the  Department  of  Rich- 
mond after  these  engagements,  owing  to  his  ina- 
bility, on  account  of  his  woutids,  to  withstand 
the  hardships  of  another  campai^.  He  was 
later  captured  by  Sheridan  at  Sailor's  Creek 


c^l^' 


eis 


BWBR  — SWING 


with  his  forces  (6  April  186S).    After  the  war 
h«  retired  to  private  life. 

EWER,  u'er,  Ferdinand  Cartwright, 
American  Episcopal  clergyman:  b.  Nantucket, 
Mass.,  22  May  1826;  d.  Montreal,  Canada,  10 
Oct.  1883.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  1848. 
After  several  years  devoted  to  journalism  he 
.entered  the  Episcopal  ministry  and  became  rec- 
tor of  Grace  Church,  San  Francisco,  1858.  In 
1862  he  was  chosen  rector  of  Christ  Church, 
New  York,  but  his  belief  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
Real  Presence  and  his  introduction  of  ceremo- 
nies and  practices  not  usual  in  Episcopal 
churches  caused  him  to  be  charged  with  Roman' 
ism  and  he  resigned.  The  majority  of  his 
communicants  followed  him  to  the  parish  of 
Saint  Ignatius,  New  York,  which  was  organized 
for  him,  and  of  which  he  continued  rector  till 
his  death.  He  was  an  able  coniroversialisi,  and 
wrote  'Two  Eventful  N^hts,  or  the  Fallacies 
of  Spiritualism  Exposed'  (1856);  'Sermons  on 
the  Failure  of  ProtestanUsm'  (1869);  'Cath- 
olicity in  its  Relations  to  Protestantism  and 
Romanism'  (1878);  'The  Operation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit'    (1880)  i  '(^-ammar  of  Theology* 


(18S 

EWING,  uTi^,  Finis,  American  cter^man : 
b.  Bedford  County,  Va.,  1773;  d  1841.  He  re- 
ceived his  license  to  preach  in  the  Cumberland 
.  presbytery  in  1802  and  for  many  years  was  a 
successful  revivalist.  In  1810,  with  two  others, 
he  formed  the  presbytery  which  later  became 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1830- 
36  he  held  a.  pastorate  at  New  Lebanon,  Ma, 
and  after  1836  at  Lexington,  Mo.  He  published 
'Lectures  on  Important  Subjects  in  Divinity* 
(1824).  Consult  Cossit,  'Life  and  Times  of 
Finis  Ewing'   (Nashville  1853). 

EWING,  Hugh  Boyle,  American  soldier; 
b.  Lancaster,  Ohio,  31  Oct  1826;  d  there,  30 
June  190S.  He  was  educated  at  the  United 
Stales  Military  Academy;  in  1849  went  to  Cali- 
fornia in  charge  of  an  expedition  sent  out  by 
his  father,  then  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  to 
rescue  emigrants  from  the  snow-bound  Sierras, 
whence  he  returned  in  1852;  practised  law  in 
Saint  Louis  1854-56  and  in  Leavenworth,  Kan., 
1856-58.  He  served  through  the  Civil  War 
becoming  a  brevet  major-general;  was  United 
States  Minister  to  The  Hague  1866-70,  and 
wrote  'A  Castle  in  the  Air'  (1887)  ;  'The  Black 
Ust'  (1893).  etc 

EWING,  James,  American  pathologist:  b. 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  1866.  In  1888  lie  was  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  College  and  three  years  later 
at  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sui^eons  of 
Columbia  University.  He  also  studied  at 
Vienna  and  after  his  return  vras'  successively 
tutor,  Fellow  and  instructor  at  Columbia  from 
1893  to  1899.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  pathology^  at. Cornell.  He 
IS  an  ex-president  of  the  Association  for  Cancer 
Research  and  of  the  Harvey  Society.  His  pub^ 
lications  include  'Clinical  Pathology  of  Blood' 
(2d  ed-,  1903)  ;  and  articles  in  'Textbook  of 
Legal  Medicine  and  Toxicology'   (1903). 

EWING,  Sir  (James)  Alfred,  Scottish 
physicist  and  engineer:  b.  Dundee,  27  March 
1855.  He  was  educated  at  the  Dundee  high 
school  and  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  For 
several  years  he  was  engaged  in  engineerinB 
work   and  was   assistant   to   Lord   Kelvin   and 


Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin.  He  vras  professor 
of  mechanical  engineering  at  the  Imperial  Uni- 
versity of  Tokio  1878-83.  While  in  Japan  he 
devoted  himself  assiduously  to  the  study  of 
earthquakes,  devising  seismographs  to  record 
the  earth's  vibrations  during  such  disturbances, 
"he  became  professor  of  engineering  at 


plied  mechanics  in  the  University  of  C^ambridge. 
From  1903  to  1906  he  was  a  member  of  & 
Explosives  Commission  and  a  member  of  the 
Ordnance  Research  Board  190&-OS.  In  1907  he 
was  made  C.B.,  and  K.CB,  in  19U.  In  1916 
he  became  principal  of  the  Universi^  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  awarded  the  royal  medal  for 
researches  in  magnetism  in  1895.  He  has  pub- 
lished many  papers  on  scientific  subjects,  espe- 
cially on  ma^pctism  and  the  physics  of  metals, 
in  'Transactions  of  the  ROTal  Society*  and 
elsewhere;  also  'Treatise  on  Earthquake  Meas- 
urement' (1883);  'Magnetic  Induction  in  Iron 
and  Other  Metals'  (1891);  'The  Steam  Enmne 
and  Other  Heat  Engines'  (1894)  ;  'The 
Strength  of  Materials'  (1899)  :  'The  Mechan- 
ical Production  of  Cold'  (1908). 

KWING,  John,  American  Presbyterian 
minister  and  mathematician :  b.  Nottingham, 
Md.,  22  June  1732;  d.  Philadelphia,  Pa..  8  Sept 
1802.  As  a  youth  he  exhibited  marked  ability 
in  mathematics  and  later  took  a  course  of  stu^ 
in  Princeton  College.  Upon  graduating  in  1755 
he  was  appointed  instructor  in  the  college.  He 
then  became  interested  in  theology  and  after 
finishing  his  course  in  divinity  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  presbytery  of  Newcastle,  Del  In 
1758  he  received  his  appointment  as  instructor 
of  the  philoso^phical  department  in  the  College 
of  Philadelphia  and  in  1759  became  pastor  of 
the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  that  city,  re- 
maining such  until  1773  when  he  was  sent  to 
England  to  solicit  pecuniary  aid  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  academy.  In  1775  he  returned 
to  his  native  land,  and  in  1779,  when  the  Col- 
lege of  Philadelphia  was  chained  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  he  was  placed  in  the 
station  of  provost  and  officiated  in  that  capacity 
until  his  death.  He  was  also  selected  to  serve 
on  more  than  one  boundary  commission.  His 
'Lectures  on  Natural  Philosophy'  (2  vols.. 
1809),  and  a  collection  of  sermons  were  pub- 
lished after  his  death. 

EWING,  Juliana  Horatia  Gatty,  English 
writer  for  young  people :  b.  Ecclesfield,  York- 
shire, 3  Aug.  1841;  d.  Bath,  Somerset,  13  May 
1885.  She  contributed  largely  to  a  magazine 
started  by  her  mother  (Mrs.  Gatty).  On  her 
mother's  death  the  magazine  was  edited  by  her 
and  her  sister  conjointly,  and  many  of  her  best 
stories  first  appeared  in  it.  Of  her  delightful 
tales  of  child-life  we  may  mention  'Mrs.  Over- 
(he-Way's  Remembrances'  (1869);  'The  Land 
of  Lost  Toy*>  (1869)  ;  'The  Brownies*  (1870)  ; 
'A  Flat-iron  for  a  Farthing*  (1873)  ;  <Lob- 
lie-by-the-Fire'  (1874)  ;  'Six  to  Sixteen' ;  'Jan 
of  the  Windmill'  (1876)  ;  'A  Great  Emet^ency' 
(1877);  'We  and  the  Worid*  (1881);  'Old 
Fashioned  Fairy  Tales';  'Brothers  of  Pity* 
(1882)  ;  'The  Doll's  Wash' ;  'Three  Little  Nest 
Birds' ;  'A  Week  Spent  in  a  Glass  House' ;  'A 
Sweet  Little  Dear*;  and  'Blue  Red*  (1883); 
and  'Jackanapes'  (1884).  A  biography  liy  her 
sister,  Horatia  K.  T.  Gatty,  was  pnblished  in 


>y  Google 


mv ina — excavation 


m 


EWINQ,  Thomu,  American  statesman: 
b.  near  West  Uberty,  Va.,  28  Dec.  1789;  d.  Lan- 
caster, Ohio,  26  Oct.  1871.  He  was  gradiiated 
at  the  Ohio  University  in  Atfaeni  in  1815;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1816;  and  practised  law 
for  is  years.  He  was  a  United  States  senator 
from  Ohio  1831-37  and  1850-51;  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  under  President  Harrison  in  1841 ; 
and  Secretary  of  the  Interior  under  President 
Taylor  in  1849-50.  In  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court  he  ranked  among  the  foremost 
lawyers  of  the  nation.  During  the  Civil  War 
his  judgment  in  matters  of  stale  was  frequently 
sought  by  President  Lincoln.  When  the  cap- 
ture of  Mason  and  Slidell  brought  England  and 
the  United  States  to  the  very  point  of  hostili- 
ties, Ewing  sent  the  famous  telegram  that  was 
really  decisive  of  the  whole  trouble ;  'There  can 
be  no  contraband  of  war  between  neutral  ports* 
—  and  it  was  his  advice  that  finally  prevailed 
over  Everett's  opinion,  and  the  envoys  were  set 
free. 

'  EX  CATHEDRA  (Ut  "from  out  the 
chair*)  :  a  phrase  originally  applied  to  deci- 
sions given  by  the  P&pe  in  the  <U3charge  of  his 
»iirltual  ofhce  as  pastor  and  bidibp  of  all 
Christians.  Hence  it  is  applied  to  every  deci- 
sion pronounced  by  any  one  in  the  exercise  of 
his  proper  authority,  as  a  bishop  in  the  spiritnal 
sphere,  a  judge  on  the  bench,  etc 

EX  PARTE,  fks  par't*  (Lat.  'from  a 
part"),  a  law  Latin  term  used  in  reference  to 
an  action  taken  by  either  party  to  a  suit  or  other 
le^l  proceeding,  or  on  behalf  of  such  party, 
without  notice  to  the  other.  Ex  parte  evidence 
or  hearings  are  frequently  made  use  of  without 
being  regarded  as  an  infnn^ement  of  the  rights 
of  tne  opponent.  In  a  derived  sense  the  term 
indicates  a  lack  of  accuracy  or  impartiality  in 
a  statemetit 

EX  POST  FACTO  (eks  p&st  fik  to) 
LAW  (Lat.  *from  what  is  done  afterward"), 
one  made  after  an  offense  and  latdn^  effect 
retroactively.  The  provision  in  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  Art.  I,  sec  9,  clause 
3,  that  *no  .  .  .  -  ex  post  facto  taw  shall  be 
passed,"  has  been  interpreted  to  refer  only  to 
crimes,  and  in  that  sense  the  words  are  com- 
monly used.  The  following  have  been  decided 
to  come  within  the  scope  of  the  phrase :  Every 
law  that  makes  an  action  done  before  its  pas- 
sage, and  innocent  when  done,  criminal,  atid 
punishes  such  action;  every  law  that  aggravates 
a  crime,  or  makes  it  greater  than  when  com- 
mitted; every  law  that  dianges  the  nature  of 
the  punishment,  or  makes  it  greater  than  at  the 
time  the  act  was  committed;  every  law  that 
alters  the  rules  of  evidence  so  as  to  make  it 
easier  to  convict  the  offenders;  every  law  that, 
while  not  avowedly  relating  to  crimes,  in  effect 
imposes  a  penalty  or  the  deprivation  of  a  right; 
every  law  that  deprives  persons  accuseq  of 
crime  of  some  lawful  protection  to  which  they 
have  become  entitled,  as  a  former  acquittal. 
Such  laws  are  therefore  contrary  to  the  Consti- 
tution. Consult  Cooley,  'General  Principles  of 
Constitutional  Law  in  the  United  States'  (3d 
ed,  1900). 

EXACrrONS  (from  Lat.  exaetio.  act  of 
driving  out,  forcing  out,  a  forced  contribution), 


a  legal  terra  of  eccleaiutical  jurisprudence, 
used  in  the  Middle  Ages  to  denote  such  duties 
or  contributions,  demanded  by  the  clergy  of 
their  parishioners,  as  were  extraordinary,  either 
because  tbej^  were  new  and  against  custom  or 
because  their  amount  was  unduly  increased. 
They  were  illicit,  and  it  was  found  necessary 
repeatedly  to  denotmce  their  unlawfulness.  The 
power  of  the  clergy  over  their  parishioners  or 
of  the  bishops  over  the  subordinate  clergy  was 
so  great  that  it  was  easy  for  them  to  make  the 
most  outrageous  exactions.  They  were  de- 
nounced at  the  third  Council  of  Toledo  (589). 

EXAMINERS,  Medical,  in  some  States, 
as  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  county  officials 
whose  duties  are  practically  those  formerly  dis- 
charged by  coroners,  whom  they  have  super- 
seded.   See  CoBONEB. 

EXANTHEMATA,  j>k-sfin-the'ma  t»,  a 
name  formerly  widely  employed  to  designate 
the  acute  infectious  diseases  that  were  character- 
ized by  an  eruption  —  the  eruptive  fevers.  The 
raost  important  of  these  are  measles,  scarlet 
fever,  chickenpox,  smallpox,  typhoid  fever,  and 
typhns  fever  (qq.v.).  The  terrn  is  also  used 
in  botany  for  blotches  and  eruptive  excrescences 
on  the  surface  of  leaves. 

EXARCH,  eks'ark  (Gr.  '("Rxot.  exarehos, 
leader),  a  title  equivalent  to  governor  (Lat. 
rector),  in  the  terminology  of  civil  government 
after  the  seat  of  empire  was  transferred  to  Con- 
stantinople. But  already  in  the  4th  century  it 
acquired  the  signification  of  archbishop,  metro- 
politan or  patriarch.  In  the  acts  of  the  first 
Council  of  Constantinople  (381)  the  bishops  of 
Alexandria,  Antioch  and  Constantinople  are 
styled  exarchs;  and  the  field  of  jurisdiction  of 
an  exarehos  is  exarchia.  In  the  same  period 
exarehos,  exarchia  were  in  use  as  designations 
of  civil  magistrates  and  their  jurisdictions,  the 
terms  diocese  (tfiolmjoif,  didectsis')  was  also 
used.  In  ecclesiaslicai  usage  exarch  came  in 
time  to  be  a  title  of  honor  apart  from  jurisdic- 
tion ;  thus,  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451) 
the  bishops  of  Ephcsus,  Heraclea  and  Cappado- 
cian  Qesarea,  though  deprived  of  their  juris- 
diction over  the  metropolitans  previously  suf- 
fragan to  them,  were  permitted  to  be  called  by 
the  title  exarch. 

EXAUVILLIBZ,  Philippe  litaU  BoUtel 
d,'  fe-lep  e-rc-ni  bwas-tel  deks-&-v5-(-5, 
French  author:  b.  Ami'cns,  6  Dec.  1786;  d.  Paris, 
30  March  1862.  His  essay,  'The  Saint  Gervais. 
Library'  (1831),  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the 
establishment  of  small  libraries  all  over  France. 
He  translated  Walter  Scott's  novels,  from  which 
he  eliminated  every  passage  which  could  be  in- 
terpreted as  telling  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  and  also  all  love  passages  as  far  as 

EXCALIBUR,  the  famous  mystic  sword  of 


Lady  of  the  Lake,  At  Arthur's  d?ath  it  i,-. 
hurled  by  Sir  Bedivcre  into  the  lake,  where  it 
was  seized  and  conveyed  from  sight  by  a  mys- 
terious hand.  Consult  Tennyson,  'Idylls  of 
the  King.' 

EXCAVATION,  the  removal  of  material 
in  engineering  operations  in  order  to  make 
space  for  some  structural  work.  There  is  a 
wide  variety  of  such  work  and  the  special  proc- 


joogle 


018 


EXCAVATOR — BXCHAHOB 


esses  are  described  under  Canals,  Dams,  Fouk- 
DATiON  Tunnels,  etc. 

EXCAVATOR,  a  machine  for  dig^ng, 
moving  and  transporting  gravel,  soil,  etc.  Ex- 
cavators are  made  of  two  kinds,  each  adapted 
for  different  kinds  of  work.  In  making  a  tang 
cutting  the  first  to  come  into  operation  is 
0perated  on  rails,  and  employs  a  large  'scoop* 
or  bucket,  with  a  lever  heavy  enough  to  counter- 
balance the  bucket  when  filled  with  clay.  The 
scoop  is  lowered  and  driven  into  the  bank  until 
full.  It  is  then  raised  by  the  suspension  chain, 
and  dumped  by  the  chain  on  the  lever.  The 
second  dass  of  excavator  is  employed  to 
make  the  cutting  wider.  Its  sides  are  made 
sloping  to  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  and  on  the  top 
of  the  bank  a  temporary  line  of  rails  is  laid  a 
few  feet  from  the  edge.  The  machine  is  placed 
on  (he  rails  at  the  end  of  the  cutting;  the  jib  is 
lowered  until  the  row  of  buckets  it  carries  can 
cut  into  the  clay;  these  scrape  up  the  bank, 
reaching  the  top  of  it  full  of  soil;  they  next 
pass  over  the  machine,  and  are  emptied  into 
the  wagons  beyond  it.  Excavators  were  ex- 
tensively employed  in  the  digging  of  trenches 
and  construction  of  breastworl»  on  the  Western 
front  during  the  Great  War.  Consult  McDaniel, 
'Excavating  Machinery'   (New  York  1913). 

BXCELLKNCY  (from  LaL  excellentta. 
Sttperiority),  a  title  of  honor  given  to  ambas- 
sadors, ministers  plenipotentiary,  governors  of 
British  colonies  and  their  wives  and  the  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts.  The  President  of  the 
United  States  and  the  governors  of  many  of  the 
States  have  the  same  title  by  courtesy.  In 
former  times  it  was  applied  only  to  sovereign 
princes. 

BXCELIMANS,  ek-s^I-min,  or  EXEL- 
HANS,  R£nii  Joseph  Isidore,  ri-me  zh&'zif 
8-sf-d6r,  Baron,  French  marshal :  b.  Bar-le-duc, 
13  Nov.  1775 ;  d.  10  July  1852.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1791,  served  with  distinction  at  Ausier- 
litz  in  180S,  and  gained  the  rank  of  general  of 
brigade  for  his  conduct  at  Eylau  in  1807.  In 
the  Russian  campaign  (1812)  he  commanded  a 
division.  He  directed  a  corps  at  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  after  which  he  passed  four  years  in 
exile;  was  restored  to  his  title  as  a  peer  in  1831, 
and  became  a  marshal  of  France  in  1851. 

EXCELSIOR  (Lat.  "higher")  fl)  the 
motto  of  New  York  Stale.  (2)  A  well-known 
poem  by  H,  W.  Longfellow,  published  in  1841, 
of  which  the  opening  words  are:  'The  shades 
of  night  were  falling  fast."  The  poem  in  its 
musical  setting  became  in  America  a  favorite 
academic  song. 

EXCELSIOR,  the  trade  name  of  a  ma- 
terial invented  in  America  and  widely  used  for 
Dking  and  as  stuifing  in  mattresses  and  up- 
stery.  It  is  made  from  logs  of  wood  which 
have  first  been  divided  into  18  inch  blocks.  The 
fibres  are  separated  from  the  blocks  with  great 
rapidity  by  knife-points,  and  packed  in  bales 
of  250  pounds  weight.  Not  tar  from  140,000 
tons  are  annually  manufactured  in  the  United 
States,  and  of  this  output  large  quantities  arc 
exported. 

EXCELSIOR  SPRINGS,  Mo.,  city  of 
Gay  Cminly,  25  miles  northeast  of  Kansas  City, 
on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul,  the 
Wabaih  and  other  railroads.  Because  of  its 
mineral  springs  it  is  widely  known  i 


resort ;  it  has  fine  hotels,  a  Carnegie  libniy,  an 
auditorium,  a  government  building  and  several 
pavilions.  Its  industrial  establishments  are 
limited  10  bottliiur  works  and  an  ke  factory. 
Pop.  3,900. 

EXCEPTION,  an  objection  taken  to  testi- 
mony or  any  relevant  matter  in  a  legal  proceed- 
ing, also  to  an  adverse  ruling  of  the  court  upon 
a  point  of  law.  In  general,  it  must  be  talcen 
within  a  prescribed  period  and  must  be  entered 
on  the  record.  The  term  is  also  given  to  the 
exclusion  of  some  part  of  an  instrument,  or 
statement.  It  may  mean  also  the  part  so  ex- 
cluded.   See  Plea  and  Pleading. 

EXCESS.  In  spherical  and  Riemannian 
non-Eudidean  geometry,  the  excess  of  a  tri- 
angle is  the  amount  by  which  the  sum  of  its 
angles  exceeds  180°.  Thus  the  spherical  excess 
of  a  spherical  triangle  with  angles  of  70°,  60* 
and  65"^  is  15°.  Similarly,  the  excess  of  a  poly- 
gon is  the  amount  by  which  the  sum  of  its 
angles  exceeds  the  stmi  of  the  angles  of  a  plane 
Euclidean  polygon  with  the  same  number  of 
sides.  The  spherical  excess  of  a  triangle  or 
polygon,  if  measured  in  radian,  is  equal  to  the 
area  of  the  figure  divided  by  the  square  of  the 
radius  of  the  sphere.  ~  In  l.x>bachevskian 
geometry  the  defect,  or  the  amount  by  which 
the  sum  of  the  angles  of  a  polygon  falls  short 
of  that  of  a  plane  Euclidean  polygon  with  the 
same  number  of  sides,  plays  a  pan  quite  anal- 
ogous to  that  of  spherical  excess.  The  term  ex- 
cess is  also  used  to  indicate  the  remainder  when 
one    number    is    divided    by    another.      See 

TSIGONOMETKY. 

EXCHANGE,  the  act  of  exchanging  or 
grving  one  thing  for  another.  The  term  also 
si^i&es  that  which  is  so  given.  In  commerce 
it  is  applied  to  a  place  where  merchants,  brokers, 
etc,  meet  to  transact  business ;  it  is  generally 
'  contracted  into  'Change.  The  institution  of  the 
modem  exchange  dates  from  the  ]6lh  century. 
Those  institutions  originated  in  the  important 
trading  cities  of  Italy,  Germany  and  the  Nether- 
lands, from  which  last-named  country  they  were 
introduced  into  England.  The  most  celebrated 
are  the  Royal  Exchange  of  London,  the  Bouria 
of  Paris  and  Amsterdam,  the  Borse  of  Ham- 
burg and  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  in 
Wall  street.  In  some  excbaiwes  only  a  special 
dass  of  business  is  transacted  Thus  there  are 
stock  exchanges,  corn  exchanges,  coal  ex- 
changes, cotton  exchanges,  etc  For  Bill  of  Ex- 
change, see  BiLi- 

Course  of  exchange  is  the  current  price  of 
a  bill  of  exchange  at  " "       "    " '  "  ' 

with  what  it  is  at  ai 
place  exactly  $500  a 
then  the  course  of 
places  is  at  par;  if 
second  place,  then  it 
if  less,  !•  ■■■  *•-' —  =• 


the  other  must  be  paid, 
icchange  between  the  two 
lore  must  be  paid  at  die 
s  above  par  at  the  other; 
Arbitration  of  exchange 
signifies  the  operation  of  converting  the  cur- 
rency of  any  country  into  that  of  a  second  one 
by  liieans  of  other  currencies  intervening  be- 
tween the  two.  Consult  Goschen's  standard 
work,  'The  Theory  of  Foreign  Exchange' ; 
and  Withers,    'Money  Changing'    (1913). 

In  arithmetic  exchange  is  a  rule  for  ascer- 
taining; how  much  of  the  money  of  one  countiy 
is  equivalent  in  value  to  a  given  amount  of  tluil 
of  another.  In  law,  a  mutual  grant  of  equal 
interests,  in  consideration  the  one  for  the  other. 


BXCHANGBS  —  EXCLUUON 


«1» 


it  unned  txchauge.    In  physics  the  theory  of 

exchange  is  %  hypothesis  with  regard  to  radi- 
ant heat,  devised  by  Frevost  of  Geneva,  and 


near  each  other,  each  will  radiate  heat 
other,  but  the  one  higher  in  temperature  will 
receive  less  than  it  emits.  Finally,  both  will  be 
of  the  same  temperature,  each  receiving  from 
the  other  precisely  as  much  heat  as  it  sends  it  in 
return.  This  scale  is  called  the  mobile  equi- 
librium of  temperature. 

SXCHANOES,  OoTemment  ReKtilation 
of.  This  regulation  in  no  way  differs  from  that 
controlling  other  associations,  corporations  or 
banking  institutions,  exchanges  having  no  dif- 
ferent or  special  relations  with  governments. 
They  mAV  be  held  liable  for  restraint  of  trade 
if  they  fix  prices;  their  transactions  may  be 
subject  to  special  taxes  or  they  may  be  con- 
sidered as  gambling  under  some  circumstances. 
See  Stocks  and  Stock  Exchange, 

EXCHEQUER,  Sks-chek'er,  in  Great 
Britain,  the  department  which  deals  with  the 
moneys  received  and  paid  on  behalf  of  the  pub- 
Uc  services  of  the  country.  The  puUic  revenues 
are  paid  into  the  Bank  of  England,  or  the  Bank 
of  Ireland,  to  account  of  the  Exchequer,  and 
these  receipts  as  well  as  the  necessary  payments  ' 
for  the  public  service  are  under  the  supervision 
of  an  important  official  called  the  controller  and 
auditor-general.  The  public  accounts  are  also 
audited  in  his  departmenL 

EXCHEQUER,  CbmceUor  of  the,  See 
Chancbllob. 

EXCHEQUER,  Court  of.    See  Couirr, 

EXCHEQUER  BILLS,  bills  of  credit 
issued  by  authority  of  the  British  Parliament  as 
a  means  of  raising  mone;y  for  teraporanr  pur- 
poses. They  arc  of  various  sums  and  bear 
daily  interest.  Generally  paid  off,  or  renewed 
annually  they  were  much  in  demand  and  usually 
quoted  at  a  premium,  and  were  receivable  in 
payment  of  taxes.  These  bills  pass  from  hand 
to  hand  as  money,  and  form  a  principal  part  of 
the  public  unfunded  debt  of  Great  Britain. 
Exchequer  bonds,  which  have  generally  super- 
seded them  in  recent  years,  are  similar,  but 
they  run  for  a  definite  number  of  years  at  a 
fixed  rate  of  interest.  Exchequer  bills  some- 
what resemble  the  treasury  notes  which  were 
adopted  as  a  financial  expedient  in  the  United 
States  before  the  Civil  War. 

EXCHEQUER  TALLIES,  seasoned 
wands  of  ash,  hazel  or  willow,  formerly  used 
for  checking af counts  in  the  English  Exchequer. 
Notches  cut  du  the  tally  indicated  by  their  form 
the  class  to  wh^ch  the  account  belonged, 

BXCIPIENT  (from  Lat.  exipere.  take  up, 
undertake),  in  pharmacy,  an  inert  or  slightly 
active  substance  used  to  give  form  and  con- 
sistence to  solid  preparations,  such  as  pi]1s_,  or 
to  give  paJatabilJty  and  the  necessary  qualities 
for  administration  to  any  medicine.  The  various 
conserves,  also  honey,  treacle,  simple  syrups, 
glycerin,  white  of  egg  and  mucilage  of  acacia 
are  among  the  most  useful  excipients. 

EXCISE,  an  inland  duty  or  impost  laid  on 
comtnodities  produced  ana  consumed  in  the 
country.  The  word  seems  to  be  derived  from 
a  Dutch  term  of  similar  meaning;,  which  in  turn 
may  be  of  same  origin  as  assise,  its  present 


form  being  influenced  by  a  supposed  derivation 
from  Latin  excisus.  It  must  be  differentiated 
from  customs  duty,  imposed  on  i^ods  en- 
tering a  country.  In  England  excise  duties 
were  established  in  1643,  On.  one  article,  spirits, 
the  duty  was  at  first  only  a  few  pence  per  proof 

fiUon;  in  1915  it  was  14s.  9d.  In  the  United 
tates  the  internal  revenue  duties  are  analogous 
to  the  British  excise.  For  a  more  detailed  ex- 
planation of  excise,  see  Custous;  Ikitrnal 
Revenue. 

EXCISE  LAWS  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  The  stru^le  of  the  English  people 
against  excise  was  not  due  to  any  intrinsic  ini- 
quity in  the  tax,  but  partly  to  popular  dislike  of 
all  direct  taxes  ^see  Customs;  Tariff)  ;  partly 
to  the  inquisitbriai  methods  involved,  partlv  to 
their  use  as  a  means  of  strengthening  the  royal 
power  against  popular  control.  At  any  rale,  the 
colonists  inherited  this  unreasoned  dislike,  even 
under  totally  different  conditions;  though  Con- 
necticut had  laid  an  excise  on  spirits  and  all 
use  of  foreign  articles,  and  Massachusetts  and 
Pennsylvania  on  spirits,  before  the  Revolution. 
But  all  shrank  from  giving  the  national  govern- 
ment such  power,  and  several  States  proposed 
amendments  to  the  Constitution  forbidding  the 
United  States  ever  to  lay  excises.  Hamilton, 
however,  recommended  to  Congress  in  1790  an 
excise  on  spirits,  upon  the  most  advanced  mod- 
em grounds  —  tnat  it  would  not  only  produce  a 
revenue  without  burdening  any  worthy  indus- 
try or  person,  but  would  check  the  consumption, 
to  the  great  advantage  of  the  community-  With 
great  opposition  the  law  was  passed,  imposing 
a  duty  of  9  to  25  cents  a  ^llon  (according  to 
strength)  on  all  native  spirits,  and  a  higher  one 
on  imported.  In  1792  the  lax  was  lowered  some- 
what. Later,  under  Hamilton's  advisement,  the 
scope  was  extended  to  other  articles  of  luxury, 
auction  sales,  stamp  duties  on  instruments  of 
exchange,  etc.  But  it  was  nullified  in  some 
sections  by  passive  resistance;  at  last  in  1794  a 
furious  open  defiance  began  in  Pennsylvania 
(see  Whisky  Insurrection),  which  had  to  be 
quelled  by  (he  regular  army.  There  was  no 
further  reastance,  but  no  cessation  of  the  dis- 
like, which  was  naturally  a  Democratic  tenet, 
from  the  power  it  gave  the  general  govem- 
ment;  and  when  Jefferson  became  President,  on 
his  recommendation  Congress  abolished  the  en- 
tire system,  which  was  possible  from  the  large 
increase  in  customs  receipts.  The  War  of  1812, 
however,  necessitated  a  fresh  resort  to  it ;  and 
duties  were  laid  on  spirits  (license  tax),  and 
the  same  articles  Hamilton  had  chosen  —  sugar, 
carriages,  auctions  and  exchanges  ^  with  salt 
added.  They  were  repealed  in  December  1817, 
and  no  further  excises  were  levied  till  the  sys- 
tem of  interna!  revenue  taxes  (q.v.)  was 
adopted  in  1862. 

EXCITANT.  See  Stimulant. 
EXCITO-MOTOR  ACTION,  the  action 
of  nerves  distributed  to  muscular  organs  the 
stimulation  of  which  leads  to  movement.  Thus, 
irritation  of  a  nerve  supplying  a  muscle  will 
lead  to  contraction  of  the  muscle  iy  excito- 
raotor  action,  and  irritation  of  certain  nerves 
distributed  to  blood  vessels  will  lead  to  con- 
traction of  the  vessel  by  acting  on  its  muscular 
coat.    See  Nervous  System. 

EXCLUSION,  Bill  of,  a  bill  introduced 
into  the  British  Parliament  (1679)  during  the 


■8l^ 


EXCOHHUNICATIOH— EXCURSION 


reign  of  Giarlea  It  for  the  pur^se  of  exctud' 
ing  the  Duke  of  York,  he  being  a  Roman 
Catholic,  from  the  throne.  See  Charles  II ; 
JAHES  II. 

EXCOMMUNICATION,  an  act  of  ecde- 
siastica]  jurisdiction  whereby  a  Christian  is 
separated  from  the  communion  of  the  Church. 
It  is  not,  however,  peculiar  to  biblical  religion,  a 
discipline  somewhat  analogous  being  exercised  by 
the  ancient  Romans.  The  clearest  analogy  to 
the  Christian  discipline  is  that  furnished  by  the 
rabbinical  code,  whereby  offenders  were  ex- 
cluded from  civil  and  religious  fellowship. 
Under  the  Christian  dispensation  this  power 
was  exercised  by  the  Apostle  Paul  when  in 
his  first  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  ch.  v,  he 
writes  concerning  a  man  guilty  of  incest  that 
he  'delivers  such  a  one  to  Satan.*  Authority 
for  excommunication  Is  found  in  the  words  of 
Christ  reported  in  Matt,  xviii.  "If  he  will  not 
hear  the  church  let  him  be  to  thee  as  the  gentile 
and  the  publican.*  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  there  are  two  degrees  of  excommunica- 
tion —  major  and  minor.  By  the  minor  an 
offender  is  deprived  of  the  use  of  the  sacra- 
ments;  by  the  major  one  he  is  deprived  of  all 
manner  of  communion  or  communication  with 
die  faithful.  In  the  times  when  the  laws  of  the. 
Church  were  enforced  in  their  primitive  rigor 
the  excommunicated  were  denied  communication 
with  the  faithful  not  only  in  sacred  things  but 
in  the  common  life ;  and  if  a  monarch,  his 
sabjects  were  absolved  from  all  allegiance.  This 
is  greatly  modified  now,  and  persons  who  have 
incurred  the  uttermost  ecclesiastical  censures 
suffer  only  the  spiritual  penalties  attached  to 
their  offenses.  But  though  the  Church's  ex- 
communication has  in  the  present  time  lost  all 
its  civil  effects,  a  brief  notice  of  these  effects  is 
necessary  for  an  appreciatioii  of  the  condition 
of  an  ercommunicatui  vilandui,  that  is,  of '  a 
person  under  the  major  excommunication,  who 
must  be  avoided  by  the  faithful,  under  penalty 
of  themselves  incurring  the  minor  excommuni- 

A  person  who  is  under  the  major  excom- 
munication is  disqualified  for  acting  as  judge 
or  juror,  notary,  witness  in  courts  of  law,  advo- 
cate, attorney;  but  he  is  competent  to  plead 
his  own  cause  and  to  sue  others  on  his  own 
behalf.  He  cannot  be  a  guardian  of  a  minor, 
nor  curator,  nor  executor  of  a  last  will,  nor  can 
he  make  contracts.  He  cannot  act  as  a  legis- 
lator. After  death  his  body  is  deprived  of 
Chrisdan  burial :  and  if  it  does  get  burial  in 
consecrated  ground  in  whatever  way,  it  is  to  be 
dug  up  and  cast  out.  The  excommunicate 
under  major  excommunication  must  be  shunned 
by  all  the  faithful;  they  must  not,  under  pain 


with  him  either  by  word  of  mouth  or  by  writ- 
ing; must  not  greet  him,  nor  have  exchange  of 
^fts  with  him.  If  an  excortimunicalus  lAtandus 
happens  to  enter  a  church  while  the  Mass  is 
proceeding,  hemust  forthwith  be  put  out;  if  that 
cannot  be,  then  the  service  must  be  suspended. 
Such  is  the  letter  of  the  laws;  but  long  before 
these  stern  prescriptions  went  into  desuetude 
there  were  notable  assuagements  of  their  rigor 
through  the  interpretations  of  moralists.  To 
illustrate  this  by  one  example  only;  The  serfs 
and  servants  and  the  children,  grandchildren 
and  other  relatives  (even  by  affiiiity  only)  were 


permitted  to  continue  their  relations  of  obedi- 
ence and  respect  to  their  head  even  after  he 
wai  excommunicated.  See  Bell,  Book  ahd 
Candle. 

The  Reformers  claimed  and  exercised  the 
same  rights  in  r»ard  to  excommunication  as 
did  the  Roman  CSiurch.  In  England  the  ex- 
communicated person  was  subjected  to  various 
disabilities;  he  could  not  hold  a  benefice,  or 
practise  as  a  barrister  or  attorney  in  the  courts; 
and  could  not  be  admitted  as  a  witness.  These 
were  removed  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  England 
in  18U,  and  ita  Irdaad  in  the  following  year. 
In  the  Presbyterian  churches  of  Scotland  the 
lesser  excommunication  involved  deprivation  of 
•sealing  ordinances';  the  greater  excommunica- 
tion is  now  unheard  of,  and  since  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1688  has  carried  no  civil  consequences 
with  it. 

BXCRBTION.    See  F«CEs;  Sweat  [Urine. 


EXCURSION,  The.  'The  Excursion> 
(1814),  Wordsworth's  longest  poem,  was  orig- 
inally designed  as  the  second  part  of  a  still 
vaster  worii,  'The  Recluse,'  in  which  the  poet 
intended  to  embody  in  monumental  fashion  his 
'  ripest  reflections  on  man  and  nature.  Of  this 
enterprise  'The  Prelude,'  which  was  to  have 
constituted  an  introduction,  'The  Excursion,' 
in  nine  books,  and  one  other  fragment  were 
completed.  Less  interesting,  on  the  whole,  than 
'The  Prelude*  and  the  best  of  the  shorter 
poems,  'The  Excursion'  is  yet  a  rich  and  noble 
work  of  genius,  not  to  be  neglected  by  those 
who  would  master  Wordsworth  s  philosoiriiy  or 
appreciate  the  full  compass  of  his  powers.  The 
poera  consists  of  a  series  of  dialogues,  of  which 
the  protagonist  is  The  Wanderer,  a  venerable 
friend  of  the  poet's,  who  from  long  and  loving 
contact  with  nature  and  a  deeply  sympathetic 
knowledge  of  human  life,  has  reached  the 
heights  of  optimism  and  philosophic  calm. 
Meeting  the  poet  at  a  ruined  nut  on  a  common 
he  tells  in  the  first  book  the  pathetic  story  of 
Margaret,  its  last  inhabitant.  They  then  pass 
to  the  secluded  abode  of  The  Solitary,  a  per- 
son in  whom  Wordsworth  has  onbodied  the 
disillusionment  and  despondency  characteristic 
of  the  age,  a  reflection  of  what  Wordsworth 
himself  might  have  become  after  the  French 
Revolution  had  not  the  malady  been  checked  Ijy 
a  timely  return  to  the  tranquillizing  influences 
of  his  early  years.  (See  Peeluoe,  The).  The 
conversation  of  The  Wanderer  and  the  sub- 
sequent discourses  of  a  good  Pastor,  visited  by 
the  party  in  his  parish,  are  directed  toward  a 
correction  of  "The  Solitary's  despondency. 
Standing  amid  the  graves  of  a  country  ciorch- 
yard.  The  Pastor  tells  the  simple  but  affecting 
stories  of  the  lives  of  those  who  lie  buried 
there.  In  Books  VIII  and  IX  The  Wanderer  dis- 
courses  of   -     ' 

ing  a  system  of  tmiversal  education  and  t.. 
alting  morality  as  the  true  basis  of  nationia] 
greatness  and  the  highest  fmit  of  freedom. 
Despite  some  tediousness  inseparable  from  the 
didactic  character  of  the  theme,  the  poem  is  a 
moving  record  of  a  mature  and  sobered  ideal- 
ism, firmly  held  in  the  face  of  all  the  influences 
whidi  work  against  it  ~  an  impresnve  memorial 


EXB — BXBCUTI VE 


«81 


of  the  strength  and  comfort  which  Wordsworth 

tn  th^  primal  aTinpathy 

Which  tMTJog  been  muM  tvet  be; 

Id  tha  lootluiiii  thoqghU  which  epring 

Out  oi  human  Buffering; 

In  the  hith  Uist  looka  throueh  desth, 

In  yem  that  bring  the  philoeoFdiie  mmd. 

For  reference,  see  article  on  'The  Pbelude.* 
James  H.  Hanford. 
EXE,  a  river  of  England,  rising  in  Somer- 
setshire and  flowing  southeast  to  the  Devon- 
shire borderj  thence  south  through  Devon  and 
debouching  into  the  Channel  at  Exmoulh.     Its 


EXECUTION,  in  law,  the  canytiiK  into 
effect  of  the  final  judgment,  decree  or  order  of 
the  court  Execution  is  effected  by  a  writ  or 
order  directed  to  the  proper  ollicer  and  com- 
nianding  him  to  do  a  certain  thing.  In  dvU 
law  it  is  the  means  of  obtaining  that  which  the 
court  ordered  to  be  done  by  one  of  the  parties, 
^ecution  may  be  had  for  dther  plaintiff  or 
defendant.  When  taken  out  by  toe  plaintiff 
it  depends  on  the  cause  of  action  as  to  what  is 
to  be  recovered  under  the  writ;  generally  it  is 
for  the  debt  and  costs  or  for  the  goods,  dam- 
ages and  costs.  When  taken  out  by  the  defend- 
ant it  may  be  for  goods,  damages  and  costs, 
and  in  some  cases  it  may  be  only  for  costs. 

As  soon  as  final  judgment  has  been  entered, 
the  party  entitled  to  it  may  take  out  his  writ 
of  execution,  and  be  is  entitled  to  this  writ 
until  the  other  party  has  taken  some  step  which 
is  a  supersedeas,  such  as  an  appeal  or  writ  of 
error.  The  writ  issues  from  the  court  which 
last  passed  on  the  judgment  on  which  the  writ 
of  execution  is  taken  out.  Execution  may  be 
against  personal  property,  taking  and  selling  it, 
or  it  may  be  against  real  estate,  either  holding  it 
until  the  judgment  is  paid  or  selling  it,  or  in 
some  cases  by  the  seizure  of  the  person  of  the 
defendant  and  holding  him  until  the  judgment 
is  satisfied  or  until  he  is  declared  insolvent.  If 
the  properly  is  sold  the  fund  derived  from  the 
sale  is  applied  to  pa^ng  the  judgment  and 
costs,  and  the  surplus,  if  any,  is  returned  to  the 
former  owner  of  the  goods.  At  common  law, 
however,  real  property  was  not  subject  to  ex- 
ecution except  for  a  debt  due  the  State  or  the 
king.  By  statute  of  5  George  11^  c  5,  real 
estate  in  the  colonies  became  subject  to  sale 
under  execution  the  same  as  personal  property. 
A  writ  of  execution,  although  issued  at  the 
instance  of  the  party  in  whose  favor  the  judg- 
ment b,  must  be  directed  to  the  sheriff,  who 
must  carry  out  the  direction  of  the  writ.  If 
he  fails  to  do  so  he  must  answer  iu  damages 
to  the  injured  par^. 

Originally,  at  common  law,  when  the  execu- 
tion was  against  personal  property,  such  as  goods 
and  cjiattels,  the  writ  of  fieri  facias  was  usetL 
but  to-day  this  writ  may  be  used  against  land 
also.  When  the  personal  property  consisted  of 
choses  in  action  it  was  reached  by  a  writ  of 
attachment.  If  the  execution  was  against  real 
estate  a  writ  of  scire  facias  was  used  (now 
usually  elegit  or  fieri  facias),  and  it  was  sold 
under  a  writ  of  vendttioni  exponas.  In  some 
cases,   when   the   judgment   was   confined  to   a 

Earticular  piece  of  real  estate,  the  writ  of 
^ari  facias  was  issued  first  and  it  was  sold 
under  a  writ  of  venditioni  exponas.    In  modeni 


usage,  if  the  execution  is  against  the  person  of 
the  defendant  a  writ  of  capias  ad  satisfad' 
endum  may  be  issued  in  some  jurisdictions, 
under  which  the  defendant  is  arrested  and  his 
person  held  until  the  judgment  is  satisfied  or 
until  the  defendant  is  declared  insolvent. 
Sometimes  the  defendant  is  released  if  security 
is  given  that  the  defendant  will  abide  by  the 
order  of  the  court.  Nearly  all  these  writs  and 
other  old  forms  are  obsolete  or  modified  in 
use  except  fieri  facias  and,  to  a  less  extent, 
elegit  and  capias  ad  satisfaciendum.  See  At- 
tachment; Fieri  Facias;  Scire  Facias. 

A  general  judgment  binds  all  property  owned 
by  the  person  against  whom  the  judgment  is 
recovered-  at  the  time  the  judgment  is  entered. 
and  it  also  attaches  to  all  property  he  acquires 
tip  to  the  time  the  judgment  is  satisfied,  and  if 
the  debtor  sells  any  real  estate  before  the  judg- 
ment is  satisfied,  the  property  is  not  released 
from  the  lien  of  the  judgment.  When  property 
is  sold  under  an  execution  the  purchaser  buys 
only  the  title  of  the  debtor,  and  all  equities 
under  which  he  held  it  slill  attach  to  the 
property. 

In  criminal  law  execution  Is  the  carrying 
into  effect  of  the  judgment  of  the  eourt.in  rela- 
tion to  the  person  convicted.  It  consists  in 
putting  the  convict  to  death  according  to  his 
sentence.    See  Capital  Punishment. 

EXECUTION,  MUitary,  in  drill  regula- 
tions, the  command  following  the  preparatory 
command  and  causing  the  execution  of  the  lat- 
ter. Legally,  a  military  execution  is  the  puttii^ 
in  effect  the  sentence  of  a  military  court.  See 
Military  Law. 

EXECUTIONER,  the  official  who  carries 
into  effect  a  sentence  of  death  or  inflicts  capital 

funishment  in  pursuance  of  a  legal  warrant. 
n  England  it  is  the  province  of  the  sheriff  to 
execute  the  extreme  sentence  of  the  law,  but 
in  practice  the  disagreeable  duty  is  performed 
in  nis  presence  by  an  officer  retained  for  this 
purpose.  In  Scotland  the  duty  devolves  upon 
the  civic  ma^strafy,  but  the  strict  letter  of 
the  law  is  avoided  as  in.  England  by  the  attend- 
ance of  a  magisttate  to  witness  the  proceedings. 
Several  executioners  have  become  famous  from 
their  names  being  dn^ged  into  literature ;  such 
as  Richard  Brandon,  the  supposed  headsman 
of  Charles  1 ;  Jack  Ketch,  commemorated  by 
Dryden  (Epilogue  to  the  Duke  of  Guise), 
whose  name  was  long  vulgarly  given  to  all  who 
succeeded  him  (in  London)  in  this  odious  office. 
In  America,  the  title  and  duties  of  the  public 
executioner  differ  in  the  various  States.  In 
some  States  the  sheriff  of  the  county  becomes 
the  executioner,  but  in  New  York  State  the 
warden  of  the  penitentiary  is  technically  the  , 
executioner.  The  duties  are  usually  performed 
by  one  of  his   subordinates.     In  the  arm^  the 

§rovost-marshal  is  the  military  executioner. 
ee  Capital  Punishment;  Electhocution; 
Guillotine;  Hanging. 

EXECUTIVE,  in  the  United  States,  proiv- 
erly,  though  in  the  narrow  and  restricted  sense, 
the  entire  official  body  charged  with  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  laws,  hut  popularly  the  chief 
officer,  as  President  (of  the  United  States), 
governor  (of  a  State),  mayor  (of  a  city),  etc 
BxecutiTe  Power.^ — The  executive  functions 
in  the  modem  state  are  much  more  diversified 
and  important  than  the  usual  definition  of  the 


=  h,  Google 


KXBCUTIVB 


word  'executive*  would  indicate,  since,  besides 
enforcing  the  laws  enacted  by  the  legislative 
department  of  government,  the  executive,  in  the 
larger  sense,  must  formulate  and  cariy  out 
constructive  policies,  direct  the  public  life  of 
the  state,  act  as  its  representative  in  its  rela- 
tions witfi  foreign  states,  render  many  highly- 
important  decisions  a.nd  exercise  wide  discretion 
and  judgicient.  Hence  the  executive  power 
covers  a  range  of  official  activities  wider  and 
more  significant  than  the  mere  fulfilment  of 
the  commands  of  the  legislature.  The  organiia- 
tion  of  the  legislative  and  executive  branches 
of  government  necessarily  must  diiTer  because 
the  former  is  the  body  which  deliberates  upon 
the  needs  of  the  state  and  enacts  tfae  legisla- 
tion required  to  meet  such  demands,  while  the 
latter's  primary,  though  not  its  sole,  fuoction 
is  to  execute  with  the  utmost  promptness, 
energy  and  elhciency  the  will  of  the  state  as 
formulated  by  the  legislative  body.  To  attain 
such  results  a  single  executive  is  most  desir- 
able, since  the  division  of  executive  power 
between  several  co-equal  authorities  would 
create  confusion  in  times  of  stress,  would  en- 
able the  responsibility  for  action  easily  to 
be  shifted  from  one  shoulder  to  another,  and 
would  result  in  a  lack  of  unit^  and  etSciency 
in  government  so  essential  to  its  success.  In 
ancient  Athens  executive  power  was  divided 
between  generals  and  archons ;  in  Rome  be- 
tween two  consuls,  and  in  Sparta  for  many 
years  between  two  kings,  while  in  France  be- 
tween 1795  and  1800  a  directory  (q.v.)  of  five 
persons  was  in  office  and  later  three  consuls 
held  the  executive  power.  The  general  execu- 
tive of  the  American  colonies  was  the  king; 
their  individual  executives,  the  governors,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Crown  or  (in  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut,  and  tor  a  few  years  in  Massa- 
chusetts) chosen  by  the  people.  These  were 
succeeded  de  facto  by  the  committees  or  coun- 
cils of  safety;  then  by  officials  usually  called 
governor,  sometimes  president,  and  sometimes 
not  by  single  persons,  but  by  executive  coun- 
cils, as  in  Switzerland.  (See  also  Colonial 
(>)VERNMENTS,  Phoprietahv) .  The  general  gov- 
ernment had  no  executive  till  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution  (q.v.).     The  Continental  Con- 

fress  (q.v.)  had  only  such  functions  as  the 
talc  legislatures  allowed  it,  which  were  to 
debate  and  ask  For  supplies  and  make  recom- 
mendations ;  and  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
provided  (or  no  executive.  (See  United  States 
—  The  Abticles  or  Confedekation)  .  At  the 
present  time  executive  power  is  orgatiiied  on 
the  single  person  plan  in  all  countries  save 
Switzerland  which  has  an  executive  council  of 
seven  members. 

In  general  executive  power  may  be  said  to 
include  the  execution  of  the  laws  and  treaties; 
the  conduct  of  foreign  relations  either  with  or 
without  the  aid  or  consent  of  the  legislature 
or  one  of  its  branches ;  the  command  and  dis- 
position of  the  military  and  naval  forces ;  the 
power  to  approve  or  disapprove  acts  of  the 
legislature,  to  recommend  subjects  and  meas- 
ures for  its  consideration,  ana  in  some  coun- 
tries to  summon,  open  and  prorogue  its  ses- 
sions ;  the  power  of  appointing  and  dismissing 
the  more  important  administradve  officials; 
and  the  right  to  pardon  those  who  have  of- 
fended against  the  laws,  save  in  impeachment 
cases.    The  executive  branch  of  the  government 


in  nearly  all  states,  in  a  greater  or  lesser  de- 
gree, is  empowered  to  issue  ordinances,  regula- 
tions or  decrees  establishing  rules  for  the  con- 
duct of  governmental  officials  and  affairs,  to 
interpret  statutes  for  the  guidance  of  officials 
and  to  supplement  laws  respecting  numerous 
matters  that  have  beeil  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  executive.  In  England  such  executive 
legislation  is  accomplished  by  the  'statutory 
rules  and  orders*  issued  by  the  departments  of 
state,  especially  the  home  office  and  the  local 
government  board.  In  France  the  legislature 
enacts  laws  on  broad,  genera!  principles  and 
allows  the  executive  to  insert  the  details  by 
means  of  ordinances.  The  undefined  and  now 
greatly  restricted  'royal  prerogative*  of  the 
executive  in  monarchical  states  has  no  statutory 
authority  and  may  be  considered  the  remnant 
of  the  king's  common-law  powers.  See  the 
articles  or  paragraphs  on  ^Government*  nnder 
the  titles  of  the  various  nations. 


Sepvution  of  Powers. —  When  the  Con- 
stitution was  framed  the  belief  prevailed  that 
the  executive,  legislative  and  executive  depart- 
ments of  government  should  be  separate  and  in- 
dependent, but  nevertheless  this  separation  was 
subject  to  some  modifications  in  the  Constitu- 


The  Senate  was  allowed  to  wield  a  a. 
tain  amount  of  executive  power  in  that  it  was 
entrusted  with  the  confirming  of  appointments; 
Congress  was  Riven  a  considerable  degree  of 
control  over  ue  administration  throu^  its 
right  to  establish,  regulate  and  maintain  the 
various  departments ;  and  the  President  could 
participate  in  legislation  through  his  right  to 
address  or  send  messages  to  Congress  and 
throu^  his  power  of  veto.  In  recent  years  the 
contest  for  domination  between  the  executive 
and  legislative  branches  has  resulted  in  a  strug- 
gle in  which  each  has  endeavored  to  strei^then 
Its  own  position  at  the  other's  expense. 

Patronage.— Under  Article  II,  |  II,  H  2  of 
the  Constitution  the  President  has  power,  'by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the 
Senators  present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate 
and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  pub- 
lic ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Su- 
preme Court,  and  alt  other  officers  of  the  United 
States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for  and  which  shall  be 
established  by  law;  but  the  Congress  may  by 
law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  offr- 
cers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  tfae  President 
alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of 
departments.'  Though  the  fathers  of  the  Con- 
stitution probably  intended .  that  the  Senate 
should  refuse  to  confirm  Presidential  nomina- 
tions because  of  unfitness  only,  the  Senate  faas 
not  hesitated  to  use  its  power  in  this  respect 
for  partisan  purposes,  chiefly  to  coerce  the 
President.  Under  this  senatorial  power  has 
arisen  the  practice  known  as  "Senatorial 
courtesy"  (q.v.),  the  extent  and  importance  to 
which  this  practice  may  attain  depending 
largely  on  the  President's  character  and  force- 
fulness.  The  Constitution  makes  no  provision 
respecting  removals  from  office,  bat  in  1867,  at 


the  time  of  the  dispute  between  President 
Johnson  and  Secretary  Stanton,  Congress 
passed  the  Tenure-of- Office  Act  (q.v.),  provid- 
ing ihal  persons  appointed  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate  should  hold  office  until  their  suc- 
cessors were  appointed  in  like  manner;  in  other 
words,  the  incumbent  could  be  removed  only 
with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  The  doubtful 
legality  of  the  act  caused  material  alterations 
in  1869  and  its  final  repeal  in  1887.  (See  also  De 
Facto  Govebnuent).  Impeachments  are  rarely 
used,  though  all  branches  of  the  goveniment 
have  had  occasion  to  employ  this  cumbersome 
procedure  (President  Johnson,  Judges  Pickering, 
Chase,  Humphreys,  Peck,  Swaync  and  Archi- 
bald; Senator  Btount;  Secretary  Belknap)  and 
in  the  nine  cases  only  three  convictions  have 
resulted  (Pickering,  Humphreys  and  Archi- 
bald), while  Biount  and  Belknap  were  out  of 
office  when  their  cases  came  up  for  considera- 
tion. Save  by  the  method  of  impeachment 
Congress  cannot  remove  objectionaUe  officials, 
though  it  may  investigate  and  discredit  them 
and  thus  compel  their  resignation  or  dismissal. 
See  Appointments;  United  States— The  New 
Deuockacy  and  the  Spoils  Systbu;  United 
States—  Impeachments. 

Tr^aty-Mnkiny . —  ^hc   Ic^SlatUrc   IS   Seldom 

allowed  to  participate  in  the  negotiations  of 
treaties,  but  to  exclude  errors  and  to  prevent 
the  possibihty  of  abuse  by  an  unwise,  ambitious 
or  unscrupulous  executive,  the  legislature,  or 
one  branch  thereof,  usually  possesses  power  of 
ratification  before  treaties  negotiated  by  the 
executive  may  become  the  law  of  the  land; 
hence  the  treaty-making  power  is  neither  purely 
executive  nor  legislative  in  character.  The  Sen- 
ate practically  controls  the  power  of  making 
treaties  dirou^  the  constitutional  provision,  as 
previously  stated,  that  two-thirds  of  the  Sena- 
tors must  approve  the  treaty;  as  a  result  of  the 
encroachment  of  the  legislature  on  the  executive 
the  Senate  now  to  a  certain  degree  participates 
in  the  negotiations  through  its  committee  on 
foreign  relations.  The  House  has  often  en- 
deavored to  exert  some  influence  over  the 
course  of  negotiations  but  the  President  is  not 
obliged  to  heed  the  advice  of  the  House,  its 
concurrence  being  necessary  only  when  legisla- 
tion is  required  to  render  treaties  effective. 
Sometimes,  to  circumvent  the  certain  defeat  of 
a  treaty  in  the  Senate,  the  President  has  entered 
into  an  'executive  agreement"  with  the  country 
involved,  under  which,  by  independent  action, 
the  chief  provisions  of  the  proposed  treaty 
were  carried  out.    See  Tbeaties. 

Departmental  Affairs. —  The  President's 
power  and  influence  over  the  executive  depart- 
ments vary  and  in  many  respects  are  subject  to 
Congressional  limitation.  He  is  the  head  of 
the  National  administration,  is  obliged  to  en- 
force the  faithful  execution  of  all  laws,  and 
under  Article  II,  §  II,  li  1  of  the  Constitution 
"may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the 
principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  depart- 
ments, upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties 
of  their  respective  oflSces*;  yet  the  departments, 
being  organized  by  Congress,  are  subject  to  the 
will  of  Congress  under  statutory  regulation, 
which  situation  somewhat  curbs  Presidential 
power  over  departmental  heads  and  their  sub- 
ordinates. From  a  strictly  legal  standpoint,  the 
President  does  not  possess  full  authority  in  re- 
spect to  the  control  and  direction  of  adminis- 


trative affairs  but  he  can  estabhsh  himself  as 
the  chief  executive  and  administrative  officer 
of  the  government  and  can  make  his  will  ef- 
fective by  removing  an  officer  who  refuses  to 
comply  with  his  wishes  and  appoint  one  who 
will  do  so  —  as  was  the  case' when  President 
Jackson  compelled  the  removal  of  government 
funds  from  the  United  States  Bank.  However 
potent  this  power  may  be,  it  could  not  be  said 
to  constitute  the  President's  chief  means  of 
control  over  administrative  affairs  since  his 
authority  has  been  strengthened  constantly  t^ 
an  ever-broadening  construction  of  the  consti- 
tutional provisions  requiring  him  to  execute  the 
laws.  His  power  to  issue  and  enforce  executive 
orders  pertaining  to  administrative  affairs  has 
been  sustained  by  numerous  opinions  and  the 
courts  seldom  interfere  to  upset  firmly  estab- 
lished precedents.  When  clothing  the  Presi- 
dent with  executive  power  the  framers  of  the 
Constitution  primarily  intended  that,  besides  en- 
forcing the  laws,  he  should  perform  acts  of  a 
elitic^  nature,  such  as  conducting  foreign  af- 
Irs,  which  are  not  subject  to  judicial  review. 
Hence  Congress  seldom  hampers  the  President 
in  his  conduct  of  foreign  affairs  through  the 
State  Department,  and  the  extent  of  his  per- 
sonal supervision  of  such  affairs  depends 
largely  upon  the  personality  (and  of  course  the 
capabilities)  of  the  Secretary  of  State.  But  in 
respect  to  vesting  authority  for  the  administra- 
tion of  affairs  (other  than  political),  the  intent 
of  the  framers  was  not  clearly  indicated  in  the 
■Constitution,  since  one  or  more  of  the  secreta- 
ries is  required  to  report  annually 'direct  to  Con- 
gress instead  of  to  we  President;  furthertnore, 
when  it  deems  necessary  or  wise.  Congress  in^ 
provide  for  the  management  of  certain  services 
by  joint  committees  of  the  two  Houses,  and 
may  authorize  subordinate  officials  to  perform 
certain  acts  without  the  consent,  aMiroval  or 
intervention  of  their  superiors  or  the  President 
(Among  the  administrative  services  outside  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  executive  departments  are 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  the  Gvil 
Service  Commission,  the  Government  Printing 
Office,  the  Commission  of  Fine  Arts,  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  etc.).  Congress  maintains  a 
close  control  and  regulation  over  the  Treasury 
Department  and  the  administration  of  the  finan- 
cial needs  of  all  departments.  Although  each 
secretary  annually  submits  an  estimate  of  bis 
department's  needs.  Congress  not  only  disre- 
gards the  secretary's  recommendations  but,  if 
in  the  mood,  appropriates  vast  sums  which  are 
not  only  not  requested,  but  which  are  deemed 
by  the  secretaries  and  the  President  to  be  un- 
necessary and  wasteful  Such  oftentimes  are 
appropriations  for  rivers  and  harbors  and  pub- 
lic buildings,  popularly  known  as  the  'pork 
barrel.*    See  Bitocet  Syste«,  Aueucah. 

The  executive  endeavors  to  cultivate  har- 
monious relations  with  Congress  by  complying 
with  requests  for  opinions  and  advice,  infoitna- 
tion,  documents,  etc.,  partly  because  the  success 
of  die  administration's  legislative  program  de- 
pends upon  such  harmony  and  partly  because 
Congress  controls  the  purse  of  the  nation. 
This  has  resulted  in  bringing  the  executive  and 
legislature  together  by  devious  and  extra-legal 
methods,  but  in  one  instance  an  opposite  devel- 
opment has  occurred.  In  our  early  history 
Cabinet  members  sometimes  appeared  in  per- 
son before  Congress  to  give  ii 


8lc 


EXECUTIVE 


cannot  be  members  of  either  House  though  they 
are  not  excluded  from  the  sessions,  but  the 
early  practice  was  discontinued  and  seems  un- 
likely to  be  revived,  though  this  course  tvas  ad- 
vocated by  a  Senate  cbnimittee  in  1881  and  W 
President  Ta£t  in  a  message  19  Dec  1912. 
Sec  United  States  —  The  President's  Office; 
United  States  — The  Cabinet  of  the;  United 
States  —  Beginnings  of  Executive  Depart- 
ments OF  the;  Cabinet  and  Cabinet  Gov- 
ehnucnt  ;  CoNGKESs ;  Federal  Governu  eht  ; 
Constitutional  Governuent;  and  the  various 
departments  by  name. 

PrCBidential  Influence  over  Legislation. — 
Under  Article  I,  S  VII,  .11  2  of  the  Constitution 
the  President  may  veto  an  act  of  Congress  and 
such  act  cannot  become  law  unless  repassed 
by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  Houses.  (See 
Veto;  Acts  of  Congress;  Bills,  Course  of). 
This  fact  is  im[iortant  not  because  of  the  fre- 
quency of  Presidential  vetoes,  but  because  it 
enables  the  President  to  dominate  Congress  in 
a  large  measure;  by  a  threat  to  wield  this 
weapon  he  may  prevent  the  passage  of  bad  laws 
and  compel  the  elimination  of  objectionable 
features  from  otherwise  good  ones.  Article  H, 
^  III  provides  that  the  President  "shall  from 
time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information 
of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to 
their  consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall 
jut^e  necessary  and  expedient."  No  method  of 
communicatitig  with  Congress  is  suggested  ot' 
prescribed  and  both  the  written  message  and 
the  speech  in  person  have  been  employedT  Con- 
gress is  not  compelled  to  act  upon  the  Presi- 
dent's recommendations  and  selaom  does  com- 
plete the  suggested  legislative  program,  but  as 
the  legislation  advocated  by  the  President  pre- 
sumably coincides  with  the  policy  of  the  party 
by  which  he  has  been  elected,  as  the  majority 
of  the  members  of  Congress  usually  have  the 
same  political  afliliationsl  and  as  the  outcome  of 
future  elections  is  much  influenced  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  legislation  and  the  manner  of  its 
execution,  the  President's  recommendations 
rarely  are  refused  serious  consideration  and 
generally  are  enacted  into  law.  MorcM>ver  Con- 
fess can  ill  afford  to  ignore  public  omnion  and 
if  the  President  be  a  capable  party  leader  and 
can  arouse  public  interest  sufficiently  to  consti' 
tute  a  public  demand  he  is  quite  sure  to  obtain 
the  desired  results.  In  recent  years  the  Presi- 
dent's influence  has  depended  largely  upon  his . 
ability  to  control  bis  party  whether  Oiroi^h 
force 


RELATIONS  OF  THE  national  EXECUTIVE  AND  THE 

judiciary. 
Conflicts  often  arise  in  the  relations  of  the 
executive  and  judiciary,  due  chiefly  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  separation  of  powers  . 
and  the  fact  that  unconstitutional  actions  and 
laws  are  referred  to  the  courts  for  determina- 
tion. This  conflict  of  relations  is  most  noted 
as  regards  the  Slate  executives  and  the  Fed- 
eral courts.  Amendment  XI  of  the  Constitu- 
tion provides  that  "the  judicial  power  of  the 
United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend 
to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or 
prosecuted  against  one  of  the  United  States  by 
citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  sub- 
jects of  any  foreign  Slate,"    Nevertheless  the 


courts  have  decided  that  this  amendment  does 
not  apply  to  an  injunction  or  mandamus  suit 
brought  against  a  Slate  officer  under  a  Federal 
statute  or  constitutional  -provision  {Ex  parte 
Young.  209  U.  S.  123).  On  the  other  hand 
suits  against  Federal  officers  in  the  State  courts 
have  been  rare  and  never  successful  (see,  for 
instance,  Ableman  vt.  Booth,  21  Howard  506; 
Tarble's  Case,  13  Wallace  397).  Conversely, 
in  1793  Congress  passed  an  act  pmhibitiiig 
Federal  courts  to  issue  writs  of  injunction  in 
order  to  stay  proceedings  in  State  courts,  save 
in  matters  of  bankruptcy  ('Rev.  Stat'  720). 
Broadly  speaking,  the  executive  is  not  subject 
to  judicial  control  in  cases  of  discretion  nor 
in  any  political  matter,  save  that  any  executive 
order  which  is  unconstitutional  is  null  and  void, 
even  though  it  be  issued  by  the  President  him- 
self; and  any  officer  or  ottier  person  executing 
such  unconstitutional  order  is  liable  in  dam- 
ages (Little  w.  Barreme,  2  Craneh  170).  In 
of  Marbury  ut.  Uadison  (consult  also 


interfere  with  the  prerogatives  of  the  t 
tive  it  could  and  would  ccnunand  a  head  of  a 
department  to  perform  a  duty  not  dependent 
on  executive  discretion;  but  the  qtiestion  of 
such  executive  coercion  has  not  been  extended 
to  the  President.  Furthermore,  so  far  as  the 
President  and  Secretary  of  War  are  concerned, 
the  court  has  decided  that  purely  political  ac- 
tions by  an  executive  are  not  subject  to  judicial 
review  or  injunction  (4  Wall.  475;  6  Wall.  50). 
But  while  unauthorized  and  unconstitutional 
executive  orders  are  null  and  void  and  private 
parties  have  the  right  to  sue  for  damages  those 
executing  such  orders,  the  mere  allegation  of 
unconstitutionality  is  not  sufficient  ground  for 
the  courts  to  enjoin  the  enforcement  of  a  stat- 
ute by  the  executive.  In  Wilson  vr.  Shaw  (204 
U.  S.  24)  Justice  Brewer  expressed  the  opinion, 
since  Congress  had  ratified  die  executive  action, 
that  the  courts  "have  no  supervising  control 
over  the  political  branch  of  the  government  in 
its  action  within  the  limits  of  the  Constitutioa* 
Indirectly  throu^  the  ai>pointing  power  the  ex- 
ecutive has  considerable  inQuence  over  the  judi- 
ciary. See  United  States  —  Judiciary  op  the; 
Supreme  Court;  Coukt. 


POWERS    AND    influences    of    the    state 

EXECUTIVE. 

Organizatioii   of   the    State   Executive. — 

Unlike  the  National  Govermnent,  where  the 
chief  responsibility  is  concentrated  in  the  hands 
of  a  single  individual,  the  executive  power  and 
responsibility  in  the  States  are  divided  between 
the  chief  executive  and  a  number  of  other  State 
officers,  virtually  his  colleagues,  over  whom  he 
has  little  or  no  control,  and  who,  save  in 
rare  instances,  are  elected  by  the  people,  to 
whom  alone  th^  are  responsible.  Sometimes 
the  chief  executive  may  belong  to  one  political 
party  and  his  subordinates  or  nart  of  them 
to  another,  which  renders  difficult  any  co- 
operation among  departments  or  between  de- 
partments and  the  chief  executive.  Under 
early  State  constitutional  provisions  these 
State  officers  were  either  appointed  by  the 
governor  or  chosen  by  the  legislature  and 
thus  the  governor  had  a  certain  measure  of 
control  over  the  conduct  of  Stale  business;  but 
in  late  years  these  officers  have  beeo  elected  by 


.lOogle 


the  people,  as  a  result  o£  which  the  governor 
no  longer  can  be  compared  with  the  President 
as  the  head  of  the  administration  which  has 
been  placed  in  power,  having  no  ^neral  au- 
thority to  direct,  remove  or  discipline  such 
elective  oflicers;  his  only  power  of  supervision 
is  the  ri^t  to  examine  me  -administration  of 
the  respective  offices  and  in  some  cases  to  re- 
move me  incumbents  if  found  guilty  of  mal- 
feasance, corruption  or  gross  negligence.  In  a 
few  States  (New  York  for  instance)  ihe  treas- 
urer, if  found  to  have  violated  his  duty,  may  be 
suspended  from  office  but  not  removed  by  the 
governor.  As  a  rule  the  governor  may  remove 
his  own  appointees  for  good  cause,  but  the  per- 
son removed  must  be  informed  of  the  reasons 
and  be  afforded  ample  opportunity  to  refute 
the  charges.  In  Massachusetts  and  a  few  other 
States  the  governor  at  first  appointed  all  judges, 
sheriffs,  court  clerks,  registers  of  probate  and 
the  attorney-general,  but  in  most  States  all 
these  oBiciats  (and  in  Massachusetts  all  save  the 
judges)  are  elected  by  the  people.  In  Maine  a 
few  of  the  department  heads  are  appointed  by 
the  legislature,  and  in  New  Hampshire  a  few 
are  elected  on  joint  ballot  of  the  general  court. 
In  Delaware  and  Texas  the  secretary  of  state 
is  appointed  by  the  governor,  while  in  Maryland 
the  secretary  of  state,  state  librarian  and  com- 
mission of  law  office,  in  New  Jersey  the  secre- 
tary of  state  and  the  attomc^-general,  and  in 
Pennsylvania  the  secretary  of  state,  the  attor- 
ney-general and  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  are  appointed  by  the  respective 
governors  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
senate.  In  New  Jersey  the  treasurer  and  in 
Tennessee  the  secretary  of  stale  are  appointed 
by  the  general  assemblies,  but  in  the  latter  State 
the  attorney-general  is  appointed  by  the  judges. 
Governors  still  possess  the  pardoning  power  (in 
most  States  without  restriction),  but  in  a  few 
New  England  States  the  pardon  is  incomplete 
without  the  concurrence  of  the  executive  coun- 
cil. The  governor  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Slate  military  forces  and  mar  api>oint  his 
military  staff,  but  as  a  rule  the  other  militia  offi- 
cers are  elected  by  the  votes  of  the  military 
oi^nizations. 

Relation  to  Legialatfon^  Like  the  Presi- 
dent, the  governor  is  authorized  to  convene  tile 
legislature   in   other  than  its   regular   sessions. 


s  of  public  policy  and  importance  and  his 

recommendations  of  legislation  to  be  enacted 
for  the  good  of  the  Stale.  As  is  the  case  with 
Congress  the  legislature  is  not  obliged  to  heed 
bis  advice  and  often  does  not,  but  in  many  cases 
governors  have  made  direct  and  effective  ap- 
peals to  the  people  to  arouse  public  sentiment 
in  favor  of  their  plans.  All  the  States  save 
North  Carolina  empower  their  governors  to 
veto  legislative  enactments  with  the  excep- 
tion of  constitutional  amendments,  but  when 
returning  such  rejected  measures  they  must 
state  their  reasons  for  objection.  Unless  over- 
ruled by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  branches  of 
the  legislature  the  veto  is  absolute,  but  if  re- 

Kssed  by  the  necessary  vote  the  enactment 
comes  law  without  the  governor's  signature ; 
all  other  acts  approved  by  him  bear  his 
signature. 

AdmlniBtrative  Powert. —  From  the  fore- 
going the  governor's  powers  may  be  surmised  as 

va.10— 40 


iTivx  «a» 

lying  not  so  much  in  his  constitutional  rights 
or  privileges  as  in  the  moral  atmosphere  and 

Erestige  of  his  office,  since  he  represents  the 
ighest  dignity  of  the  State.  On  all  public  oc- 
casions he  is  the  first  citiien  of  the  State,  the 
representative  of  its  political,' civil  and  military 
authority.  As  the  ofndal  head  of  the  Stale  he 
sends  and  receives  communications  in. its  name; 
issues  proclamations  to  its  people ;  and  owing  to 
a  variety  of  powers,  including  the  bestowd^  of 
considerable  patronage,  his  prominence  in  the 

Sublic  eye  and  his  relation  to  the  legislature,  he 
as  an  influence  in  shaping  legislation  far  ex- 
ceeding a  strict  interpretation  of  his  constitu- 
tional prerogatives.  He  is  the  official  and  nat- 
ural exponent  of  the  State  in  National  affairs 
and  in  its  relations  to  the  Federal  Government, 
for  which  reason  he  issues  writs  for  the  holding 
of  elections  to  fill  vacancies  in  Congress  an3 
even  under  Amendment  XVII  to  the  National 
Constitution  may  make  temporary  appointments 
of  senators  in  case  of  vaciuicies  until  the  peo- 
ple fill  such  vacancies  by  elections ;  he  trans- 
mits ratifications  of  constitutional  amendments 
and  other  acls  of  the  State  legislature  which 
relate  to  National  matters. 

Tendencieg  mnd  PropoBcd  Reforms.— The 
evils  of  the  subdivision  of  executive  power  have 
not  only  been  recognized  but  in  many  States  the 
tendency  is  to  remedy  such  defects  by  strength- 
ening the  governor's  control  over  the  adminis- 
tration through  a  wider  appointing  power;  l:^ 
reducing  the  number  of  co-ordinate  elective 
otificials ;  by  relieving  him  of  the  confirmation  6t 
his  appointment,  by  the  State  senate;  by  recog- 
nizing his  unrestncted  removal  power;  by  au- 
thoriring  him  to  make  special  inquiries  into  the 
several  executive  departments  and  during  the 
legislative  recess  to  suspend  officers  who  have 
violated  the  law;  by  empowering  him  to  require 
from  department  heads  written  statements  per- 
taining to  anything  connected  with  their  re- 
spective duties ;  in  some  cases  by  allowing  him, 
at  stated  intervals,  to  examine  the  accounts  df 
officials  stich  as  the  treasurer  and  auditor;  and 
in  some  Slates  by  requiring  the  principal  State 
officers  to  render  to  the  ^vemor  periodic  rc^ 
ports  covering  the  activities  of  their  depart- 
ments, although  such  reports,  even  if  convincing 
as  to  the'official's  incompetency,  neglect  of  duty 
or  violation  of  the  law,  in  no  way  augment  the 
governor's  power  of  supervision  over  the  ad- 
ministration because  of  his  greatly  restricted 
power  of  removal.  Although  responsible  for 
the  faithful  execution  of  the  laws,  ttie  governor 
is  often  powerless,  without  the  co-operation  of 
the  department  heads,  to  carry  out  the  constitu- 
tional injunction  owing  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  executive  power  is  divided;  as  an  exainiile, 
he  cannot  compel  the  attorney-general  unwill- 
ingly to  start  a  suit  iwainst  an  individual  or  a 
corporation  chiefly  because  he  has  neither  the 
power  of  direction  or  removal,  and  this  same 
weakness  characterizes  his  relations  with  othej 
State  officers.  The  enforcement  of  responsi- 
bility is  impossible  owing  to  the  multiplication 
of  departments  exercising  administrative 
powers,  and  this  Is  particularly  noticeable  in 
States  which  have  boards  and  commissions  the 
members  of  which  arc  often  elected  by  the 
people,  though  even  if  they  are  appointed  by  the 
governor  he  has  little  power  of  control  of  ■ 
supervision  over  the  administration  of  affairs 
entrusted  to  them.     New  York,  Pennsytvaiita 


and  Massachusetts  eacb  have  nearly  100  such 
boards  and  commissions,  but  a  movement  is 
KoicK  forward  to  consolidate  most  of  these 
boards  into  one  board  of  control  or  board  of 
ailairs.  The  creation  of  the_  ofEce  of  "state 
business  manager,"  to  organize  and  manaxe 
State  business  affairs  under  the  governor's  di- 
rection, has  also  been  proposed  One  govemor 
has  even  recommendea  a  system  of  Stale  rule 
by  commission,  similar  to  the  commission  sys- 
tem of  city  government  (q.v.).  Another  pro- 
posal is  to  authorize  the  governor  to  appoint 
the  principal  State  officers,  who,  collectively, 
shall  constitute  a  cabinet  or  council,  and  to  give 
the  governor  a  large  power  of  initiating  legisla- 
tion. In  this  waj;  the  State  executive  would 
resemble  the  President  and  his  Cabinet;  thus 
the  power  and  responsibility  would  be  central- 
ized, and  unin,  co-ordination  and  efficiency 
could  be  intro(Uiced  into  the  administratioa  of 
State  aHairs. 


POWERS   AND  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  : 
EXECUTIVE. 

Growth  ol  the  Mayor's  Powers, —  In  the 
^vemment  of  the  borough  during  colonial 
times  the  executive  and  legislative  functions 
were  not  separate.  The  council  was  the  sole 
governing  body  and  the  presiding  officer  was 
called  mayor.  He  was  merely  a  member  of 
the  council,  possessed  no  powers  other  than 
those  of  a  presiding  ofScer,  could  not  veto  en- 
actments of  the  council  and  could  make  lio  ap- 
pointments to  office,  though  in  a  few  boroughs 
he  did  have  some  minor  responsibilities,  such  as 
regulating  taverns,  supervising  markets,  holding 
coroners'  inquests  and  heariiig  petty  contesta- 
tions at  law.  After  the  Revolution  and  with 
the  advent  of  the  Federal  Government,  the 
mayor's  powers  were  increased  gradually  but 
materially,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  separa- 
tion of  powers  which  was  put  in  vogue  in  the 
National  and  State  governments.  For  the  first 
time  in  the  history  of  American  cities,  Balti- 
more in  1796  empowered  the  mayor  to  veto 
resolutions  of  the  city  council,   thou^   vetoed 


city  offices  were  also  much  enlarged.  In  1822 
Boston  authorized  the  mayor  to  appoint  whom 
be  chose,  subject  to  aldermanic  approbation. 
Bui  not  until  the  middle  of  the  li>ih  centuY  did 
the  municipal  executive  make  much  headway. 
The  government  of  cities  by  council  had  de- 
veloped inefficiency,  waste,  extravagance  and 
considerable  corruption,  whereupon  the  State 
governments  intervened,  transferring  various 
fuiKtions  from  the  councils  to  State-appointed 
and  controlled  boards,  as,  for  example,  m  I860 
the  Baltimore  police  department  was  placed 
under  the  control  of  a  State  board;  in  1866 
the  Chicago  police  suffered  the  same  interven- 
tion; and  in  1865  the  New  York  legislature 
assumed  control  of  police,  fire  protection,  pub- 
lic health  and  licensing  in  New  York  city. 
Subsequently  the  legislatures  restored  a  large 
measure  of  local  control,  but  instead  of  rein- 
stating the  city  council  in  power,  they  placed 
WHitrol  in  separate  executive  boards,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  were  appointed  by  the  mayor  or 
elected  by  the  people.  Hence  the  power  of 
'  appointment  substantially  increased  the  powers 
of  the  mayor's  office  and  in  time  even  the  con- 
firmation of  the  mayor's  apptuntecs  by  the  al- 


dermen was  eliminated  from  city  charters,  as 
was  the  case  in  Brooklyn  in  1882.  Many  other 
cities  followed  Brooklyn's  lead  and  though  a 
large  ntimber  still  retain  the  practice  it  is 
gradually  being  abandoned  It  should  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  in  no  two  cities  of 
the  United  States-are  the  mayor's  powers  alike, 
and  in  describing  the  position  and  powers  of' 
the  American  mayor  even  the  most  important 
statements  must  be  made  with  large  reserva- 
tions; in  New  York  and  Boston  the  authority 
of  the  municipal  coutudls  is  insignificant  when 
compared  with  the  powers  of  the  mayors, 
whereas  in  Philadelphia  and  Chicago  the  reverse 
is  true,  the  councils  still  maintaining  a  strong 
grip  on  local  governmental  aihairs. 

The  Mayor's  tnSucnce  upon  Legislation. 
—  Theoretically  the  mayor's  office  is  adminis- 
trative and  has  no  legislative  power  but  often 
the  ma^r  exerts  a  strong  influence  upon  local 
legislation.       In  some  cities,  like  Chicago,  he 

E resides  over  the  sessions  of  the  city  council 
ut  in  most  cities  he  not  only  is  deprived  of 
this  privilege  but  may  communicate  with  that 
body  only  through  a  written  message.  Like  the 
President  and  the  State  governor,  the  mayor 
may  and  often  does  suggest  new  legislation  for 
the  consideration  of  the  council  and  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  the  deference  shown  to  his  sugges- 
tions depends  upon  his  personal  character  and 
political  influence.  Like  the  President,  how- 
ever, the  mayor  has  an  effective  weapon  in  the 
veto  power  (but  not  the  privile^  of  the  'pock- 
et veto*),  smce  under  most  city  charters  he 
must  pass  upon  every  ordinance  or  resolution 
of  the  council,  and  in  many  cases  mayors  have 
used  this  privilege  without  scruple  to  enforce 
aldermanic  submission,  A  prescribed  majori^ 
must  be  obtained  to  override  the  mayor's  veto 
whether  the  council  consists  of  one  or  of  two 
chambers,  but  though  the  usual  practice  is  a 
two-thirds  vote,  the  requirement  is  more  rigid 
in  some  cities,  being  three-lifths  in  Philadelphh^ 
three-fourths  in  Baltimore  and  seven-ninths  in 
San   Francisco. 

The  Mayor's  AppointinE  Power. —  In  most 
cities  the  people  elect  a  few  heads  of  the  city 
departments;  in  other  cities  some  officers  are 
appointed  by  the  council;  and  in  isolated  cases 
important  city  officials  may  be  appointed  by  the 
State  executive  or  by  the  higher  State  courts. 
But  in  the  majority  of  cities  the  mayor  appoints 
the  departmental  heads,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  council  or  board  of  aldermen;  sometimes, 
as  in  New  York  city.  Denver  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, these  appointments  need  not  be  confirmed 
by  any  municipal  or  Stale  authori^,  but  in  a 
few  cases,  as  in  Boston,  such  appointments,  to 
be  effective,  must  be  approved  by  a  State  civil 
service  commission.  Recently  the  system  of 
council  confirmation  has  been  viewed  with  dis- 
favor and  the  latest  city  charters  omit  the  con- 
firmation feature.  See  Appointments,  Fedexal, 
State  and  Local. 

MiscellaneouG  Functions.^As  regards  mu- 
nicipal finance,  the  mayor's  powers  have  been 
largely  increased;  the  preparation  of  the  city 
budget,  which  formerly  was  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  council,  has  heen  transferred  to 
the  city  executive  owing,  in  a  large  measure,  to 
the  inordinate  amount  of  logrolling  in  which 
the  councilmen  indulge.  In  some  dties,  like 
New  Yoric  the  prepftration  of  the  budget  and 
the  detennining  of  the  tax  rate  are  supervited 


EXECUTIVE    AND   JUDICIASY— EXECUTOR 


by  die  board  of  estijiate  and  apportionment  and 
in  other  cities,  like  Boston,  the  mayor  has  direct 
charge  of  the  work,  but  in  all  cases  the  city 
executive  is  deprived  of  the  power  of  makins 
appropriations,  this  being:  vested  in  the  council, 
whicK  under  certain  reatrictions,  may  also  in- 
crease or  reduce  the  variotjs  items.  (See  Btn>- 
CEr  STiTRti,  Amesicak).  Some  charters  em- 
power the  mayor  to  obtain  reports  from  city 
officials  at  stated  intervals,  to  inspect  accounts 
and  to  conduct  investigations;  and  some  re- 
quire the  mayor's  approval  to  validate  contracts. 
In  a  few  cities,  when  necessary,  the  militia  may 
be  called  out  by  the  mayor  and  in  some  cities 
persons  convicted  and  fined  in  municipal  courts 
may  be  pardoned  by  the  mayor  and  he  may  also 
remit  their  lines.    See  Cities,  American,  Gov- 

EaNMENT    of;    MuNfOFAL    GOTntNlfEHT;    CaBI' 

NET  Ain>  Cabinet  Governuent;  Commission 
FosH  OF  Government;  City  Manager  Plan  op 
Government. 

BlUiography.—  Beard,  C.  A.,  'American 
Govermnent  and  Politics*  (rev.  ed.,  New  Yoilc 
1914),  and  ^Readings  in  American  Govern- 
ment and  Politics>  (New  York  1909)  ;  Bayles, 
G.  J.,  'The  Office  of  Mayor  in  the  United 
States>  (New  York  1895);  Bondy.  W.,  "The 
Separation  of  Governmental  Powers'  (in  'Co- 
lumbia University  Studies,*  Vol.  V,  No.  2,  New 
York  1896) ;  Blue,  L.  A.,  'Relation  of  die  Gov- 
ernor to  the  Organ!  Kali  on  of  Executive  Power 
in  the  United  States>  (Philadelphia  1902)  ; 
Biyce,  James,  'American  Commonwealth* 
(rev.  ed.,  New  York  1914)  ;  Belmont,  Perry. 
'Cabinet  Officers  in  Congress'  (in  North  Amer- 
ican Rtvievi,  Vol.  CXCVII,  pp.  22-30,  January 
1913)  ;  Bradford,  G.,  'The  Lesson  Of  Popular 
Government*  (New  York  1899);  Croly,  H., 
'Promise'  of  American  Life'  (New  York  1912)  ; 
E)urand,  E.  D.,  'Council  vs.  Mayor'  (in  Political 
Science  Quarlerly,  Vol.  XV.  pp.  426-51.  675- 
709,  1900);  Eaton,  D.  B.,  'The  Government  of 
Munidpaiities'  (New  York  1899);  Fish,  C,  R., 
'The  Civil  Service  and  the  Patronage'  (New 
York  1905)  ;  Flnley,  J.  H..  and  Sanderson,  J.  F.. 
'The  American  Executive  and  Executive 
Methods'  (New  York  1906);  Ford,  H.  J., 
'  Cost  of  Our  National  Government '  ( New 
York  1910)  ;  Fairlie,  J.  A.,  'The  Nattonal  Ad- 
ministration of  the  United  States' (New  York 
190S>,  'Municipal  Administration'  (New  York 
J910),  and  'The  State  Governor'  (in  Michigan 
Law  Review,  Vol.  X,  1912)  ;  (Greenlaw,  E.  A., 
'The  Office  of  Mayor  in  the  United  States'  (in 
Municipal  Affairs.  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  33-60,  New 
York  1899) ;  Gauss,  H.  C,  'The  American 
Government'  (New  York  1906)  ;  Gamer,  J.  W., 
'Introduction  to  Political  Science'  (New  York 
19J0),  and  'Government  in  the  United  States. 
National,  State  and  Local'  (New  York  1914); 
(rfant.  A.  H..  'The  Office  of  Mayor'  (in  The 
American  City.  Vol.  IV,  pp.  25-^  New  York 
1911);  Gettell,  R.  G..  'Readings  in  Political 
Science'  (Boston  1911)  ;  Goodnow.  F.  J.,  'Mu- 
nicipal (kivernmenf  (New  York  1910).  'City 
Government'  (New  York  19CM).  and  'Prin- 
ciples of  American  Administrative  Law'  (New 
York  1905)  ;  Hatton,  A.  R.,  'Digest  of  City 
Charters'  (Chicago,  1906)  ;  Hart,  A  B„  'Actual 
Government'  (rev.  ed..  New  York  1909);  Mc- 
Laughlin and  Hart  (eds. ) ,  '  Cyclopsedia  of 
American  Government'  (New  York  1914) ; 
Mason,  E.  C,  'The  Veto  Power'  (Boston 
1890) ;  Uunro.  W.  B..  'Government  of  Amer- 


ican Cities'  (New  York  1913),  and  'Bibliog- 
raphy of  Municipal  (jovemmenf  (Cambridge, 
Mass.  191S);  Powell,  T.  R.,  'S^taration  of 
Powers;  Administrative  Exercise  of  Legislative 
and  Judicial  Power'  (in  Political  Science  Q«ar- 
terly.  Vol.  XXVII,  pp.  21S-238,  June  1912,  and 
Vol.  XXVIII,  pp.  34-48,  March  1913) ;  Reinsch, 
P.  S.,  'Readings  in  American  State  Govern- 
ment' (Boston  1911) ;  Salmon,  L.  M.,  'History 
of  the  Appointing  Power  of  the  President' 
(New  York  1886);  Stoiy.  J.,  'Commentaries 
on  the  Constitution'  (Sth  ed.,  Boston  1890) ; 
Taft,  W.  H.,  'Four  Aspects  of  Civic  Duties' 
(new  ed.,  New  York  1906);  White,  F.  H 
'Growth  and  Future  of  State  Boards  and 
(Commissions'  (in  Political  Science  Quarterly, 
Vol.  XVIII,  pp.  631-656,  1903)  ;  Woolsey,  T.  D., 
'Political  Saence'  (2d  ed..  New  York  1893) ; 
Wilson.  Woodrow.  'Congressional  (Jovcmment' 
(15th  ed.,  Boston  1900).  and  'Constitutional 
Gmrerament'  (New  York  1908);  Willoughby, 
W.  W.,  'Constitutional  Law  of  the  United 
States'  (New  York  1910). 

Irving  E  Rines. 

EXECUTIVE  AND  JUDICIARY,  those 
branches  of  government  which,  respectively,  are 
entrusted  with  the  execution  of  the  laws,  and 
that  judge  or  determine  the  application  of  the 
laws  to  particular  cases,  their  constitutionality, 
etc.     See  Court;  Executive;  State. 

EXECUTIVE  OFFICER,  in  the  navy  of 
the  United  States  the  ofiicer  of  the  line  next  in 
rank  to  the  captain.  His  appointment  is 
usually  direct  from  the  Navy  De_partment,  but  • 
in  some  cases  a  senior  officer  is  detailed  as 
executive  officer  by  the  captain.  On  the  larger 
vessels  this  officer  is  generairy  of  the  rank  of 
commander,  but  in  the  smaller  vessels  is  of 
lower  rank.  Hc  is  the  aide  and  executive  of 
the  captain  in  all  matters  and  is  responsible 
for  all  drills  and  routine  work.  He  has  charge 
ol  the  enlisted  force  and  keeps  their  records. 
In  battle  the  executive  officer  has  general  su- 
pervision of  the  battery  and  of  everything  in 
regard  to  the  safety  of  the  ship  except  navi^- 
tion.  While  on  board  he  has  general  supervision 
of  the  organ izatiofl,  discipline,  exercise,  etc,  of 
the  crew. 

EXECUTIVE  POWER,  narrowly  defined, 
is  that  ^ower  wiu<:ii  enforces  law.  In  its  larger 
aspect  It  involves  the  exercise  of  wide  £3- 
cretion  and  judgment,  the  rendering  of  import- 
ant decisions,  and  the  formulation  and  carrying 
out  of  constructive  policies.  The  elcecutive 
directs  the  public  life  of  the  state,  and  in  all 
relations  with  foreign  states  is  its  representative. 
The  principal  function  of  the  executive  is  to 
administer  and  enforce  the  will  of  the  state 
as  formulated  by  the  legislature.  The  execu- 
tive should  be  characterized  by  prompt  de- 
cision, singleness  of  purpose  and  energetic 
action,  objects  which  are  only  obtained  by 
vesting  the  executive  power  in  the  hands  of  a 
single  person.  See  Ejcecutive;  CjOvernment; 
(kiVERNoa;  State;  Pkesident. 

EXECUTIVE    KEFDRM.     See    ExECU- 

BXECUTOR  (Lat  'performer").  An 
executor  is  one  to  whom  another  man  commits 
his  last  will  and  testament  for  execution  of 
that  last  will  and  testament  (2  Black.  Comm. 
503).  A  person  to  whom  a  testator  by  his  will 
'      the  execution  or  putting  in  force  of 


8l^ 


BXBCUTORY  DBVISE  —  EXBGBSIS 


that  imtruinent  and  its  codicils.    The  following 
is  a  brief  summarv  of  an  executor's  duties: 

(1)  He  must  Dury  the  deceased  in  a  man- 
ner suitable  to  the  estate  left  behind.  But  no 
unreasonable  expenses  will  be  allowed,  nor  any- 
unnecessary  expenses  if  there  is  risk  of  the 
estate's  proving  insolvent.  (2)  Within  a 
convenient  time  after  the  testator's  death,  fae 
should  collect  the  goods  of  the  deceased,  if 
he  can  do  so  peaceably;  if  resisted  he  must 
apply  to  the  courts  for  relief.  (3)  He  must 
prove  the  will,  and  take  out  administration 
papers.  (4)  Ordinarily,  he  must  make  an  in- 
ventory of  personal  property,  and  in  some  States 
of  real  estate  also.  (5)  He  must  next  collect 
i  the  eoods  and  chattels,  and  have  the  claims  in- 
ied,  with  reasonable  diligence.    And  be 


_.  t  give  notice  of  his  appoii 
statutory  Eonn  and  should  advertise  for  debts 
and  credits,  (7)  The  personal  effects  he  must 
deal  with  as  the  will  directs,  and  the  surplus 
must  be  turned  into  money  and  divided  as  if 
there  was  no  will.  An  aiuninistrator  must  at 
once  collect,  appraise  and  sell  the  whole.  The 
safest  method  of  sale  is  a  public  auction.  (8) 
He  must  keep  the  money  of  the  estate  safely, 
but  not  mixed  with  his  own,  or  he  may  be 
charged  interest  on  it.  (9)  He  must  be  at 
all  times  ready  to  actually  file  an  account  within 
the  year  generally  prescribed  by  statute.  (10) 
He  must  pay  the  debts  and  legacies  in  the 
.order  required  by  law.  Funeral  expenses  are 
preferred  debts.    See  Estate. 

EXECUTORY  DEVISE,  a  bequest  by 
testament  of  a  future  interest  of  real  or  per- 
sonal property,  which  is  such  that  it  may  not 
be  described  as  a  residuary  estate.  It  must 
take  effect  within  a  life  or  lives  in  being  and 
21  years  after.    See  Devise;  Future  Estate, 

EXEDRA,  a  seat  built  out  from  a  portico 
in  Greek  and  Roman  buildings.  Such  seats 
were  usually  simi-circular  in  form  and  some- 
times were  provided  with  a  roof.  Famous  ex- 
amples of  exedras  built  out  of  doors  were  those 
in  the  Street  of  Tombs,  Pompeii.  The  Sieges- 
Aliee.  Berlin,  contains  modem  examples  of  this 
land. 

EXEGESIS,  BiblicBL  The  word  "cxege- 
sis*  is  from  the  Greek  i?^yV"C,  primarily  a 
leading  o»t,  and  coming  to  mean,  an  inlerprela- 
lion,  an  fxplanalioTi,  a  making  clear.  The  verb 
'titiyltfiai  occurs  six  times  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, always  in  the  sense  of  revealing  a  fact 
or  of  making  clear  a  truth,  Luke  xxiv,  35 ; 
John  i.  18;  Acts  x,  8;  Acts  xv,  12,  14;  Acts  xxi, 
19.  In  John  i^  18,  we  read,  *No  man  hath  seen 
God  at  any  time ;  the  only-begotten  Son,  who 
is  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father,  that  one  became 
Us  exegete"  {tiuivo^  i^tr/icaTo).  That  is  to 
say,  Jesus  revealed  the  inmost  character  of 
God.  He  made  manifeil  what  otherwise  woflld 
have  remained  hidden.  He  interpreted  God's 
being.  He  made  clear  the  Divine  providence 
and  plan.  His  person  and  his  whole  teaching 
and  life  were  an  exegesis  of  the  invisible  and 
previously  incomprehensible  Godhead.  What 
Jesus  did  for  (>od's  being  and  providence,  the 
exegete  endeavors  to  do  for  the  Bible.  He 
searches  for  its  inmost  meaning,  explains  what 
is  obscure,  leads  out  to  the  li^t  what  is  less 
numifett,  makes  clear  all  ita  unplications  and 


sets  its  complete  import  before  the  mind's  eye. 
The  task  of  Biblical  exegesis,  therefore,  is  to 
dear  up  all  difficulties  and  to  make  plain  the 
meaning  of  the  Bible  text.  It  might  seem  a 
comparatively  easy  thing  to  do  this;  but  cen- 
turies of  endeavor  have  shown  that  while  all 
the  essentials  of  the  revelation  in  the  Bible 
are  reasonably  clear  there  are  problems  con- 
nected with  all  of  the  Bible  books  which  tax  the 
utmost  powers  of  the  greatest  minds  to  master 
them.  Then  at  least  four  temptations  beset  the 
interpreters  of  Bible  truth.  One  of  these  i> 
apparent  in  those  exegetes  who 

-■  Huh  dark  tMi««e  tbun 
And  hold  thwr  fu-ttiinff  cuidk  to  tho  lun." 

What  is  clear  in  itself  needs  no  further  ex- 
planation. The  office  of  the  exegete  becomes 
a  necessity  only  when  the  meaning  seems  ob- 
scure. Ano^er  danger  in  exegesis  is  that  of 
bringing  a  meaning  io  the  text  instead  of  draw- 
ing the  meaning  from  it.  The  text  is  forced 
into  agreement  with  previous  prejudice  or  opin- 
ion. This  is  nearly  always  fatal  to  the  truth. 
As  an  old  monk  said,  "Whosoever  seeketh  an 
interpretation  in  this  book  shall  get  an  answer 
from  God;  whosoever  bringeth  an  interpreta- 
tion to  this  book  shall  get  an  answer  from  the 
devil.*  Jerome  put  the  same  truth  more  mildly 
when  he  said,  *'He  is  the  best  teacher  who  does 
not  bring  his  doctrine  into  the  Scripture  but 
out  of  the  Scripture."  Sometimes  the  obvious 
meaning  of  the  text  is  unpalatable  to  the  exe- 
gete, for  doctrinal  or  other  reasons,  and  then 
he  is  tempted  to  explain  the  meaning  away. 
This  is  rankest  treason  to  his  calling.  He  is 
expected  to  be  loyal  to  the  truth  and  nothing 
but  the  truth.  If  he  betray  the  truth  in  behalf 
of  a  political  par^  or  a  church  organization  or 
3  doctrinal  system  he  is  no  longer  worthy  of  his 
office  or  name.  A  fourth  temptation  is  that  of 
adding  to  that  which  is  written,  improving 
upon  the  text  by  the  addition  of  unwarrantable 
inferences  and  subjective  fancies  and  unjustifi- 
able subtleties  of  every  sort.  It  represents  the 
presumption  of  the  apostle  Peter  at  Oesarea 
Fhiliroi,  who  thought  he  knew  better  than  his 
Lord  what  ought  to  be  said  and  done.  These 
are  four  fundamental  faults  of  all  ex^esis;  a 
failure  to  explain  the  meaning  that  is  obscure 
a  distorting  of  the  meaning  that  seems  obvious^ 
an  utter  perversion  o£  the  plain  truth,  and  a 
supplanting  of  the  truth  with  merely  human  ver- 
biage or  wisdom.  Wilful  miscarriage,  maiming^ 
murder  and  the  substitution  of  a  changeling  for 
the  true  child  are  crimes  in  the  realm  of  inter- 
pretation, as  well  as  under  the  civil  law.  The 
science  of  exegesis  has  sought  from  the  first  to 
free  itself  from  these  faults.  If  it  has  not  whothr 
succeeded  as  yet,  that  is  simply  to  acknowl- 
edge that  like  all  other  science  its  development 
has  been  entrusted  to  fallible  men.  We  may 
trace  various  schools  of  exegesis  throu^  tu 
history  of  the  Church,  and  In  all  of  them  some 
one  or  other  of  these  fundamental  faults  ii 
likely  to  be  manifest 

The  first  important  school  of  ezeseus  was 
founded  at  Alexandria,  and  it  flounced  front 
1  So  to  400  A.a  Its  most  distinguished  re|)rc 
sentatives  were  Cement,  Origea,  Athanasios, 
Basil  and  the  two  Gregories.  Of  these  die 
peerless  prince  was  Origen.  the  greatest  sdwlar 
and  saint  the  Christian  Church  has  produced 
since  apostolic  times.  A  great  injustice  has 
been  done  both  him  and  the  Aidandnui  icbool 


bjr  assodaling  their  names  almost  exclusively 
with  the  ailegorical  interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, in  which  they  sometimes  indulged,  as 
though  this  method  were  their  only  method  or 
were  peculiar  to  them  alone.  Neither  of  these 
things  were  true.  The  allegorical  interpretation 
was  much  older  than  the  Alexandrian  school 
and  has  persisted  in  dragging  out  its  pernicious 
existence  to  this  day.  It  was  prevalent  and 
predominant  in  the  Rabbinical  schools  of  exe- 
gesis before  the  Christian  era  began.  The  Tal- 
mudists  finally  found  a  watch-word  for  their 
mystical  exegesis  in  Pardes,  or  Paradise.  The 
four  letters  of  this  word  in  the  Hebrew,  P  R  D 
S,  were  made  to  indicate  the  four  words,  Peshat 
or  explanation,  Remcs  or  hint,  Darvsh  or 
homily,  and  Sod  or  mystei^;  and  these  in  turn 
represented  the  fourfold  interpretation  of 
which  every  passage  in  Scripture  was  capable. 
Rabbi  Ishmad  declared  that  by  means  of  these 
any  Scripture  could  be  expounded  in  49 
ways  and  the  expositor  could  break  every  text 
into  fragments  even  as  a  rock  is  broken  by  a 
hammer  (Sanhedrin,  34).  The  apostle  Paul 
carried  at  least  one  example  of  allegorical  treat- 
ment into  out  New  Testament,  probably  sug- 
gested by  his  Jewish  training  in  the  school  of 
Gamaliel,  GaL  iv,  22-31,  This  method  was 
introduced  into  Alexandria  by  Aristobulus  and 
pseudo-Aristeas,  and  it  became  authoritative  as 
a  method  of  exegesis  imder  Philo,  the  fore- 
most writer  among  the  Alexandrian  Jews  con- 
temporary with  the  Christ  Philo  found  the 
method  ready  made  to  his  hand,  not  only  by 
the  Jewish  rabbis,  but  also  by  the  Greek  philoso- 
phers who  had  allegorized  Homer  and  Hesiod 
and  the  ancient  Greek  myths  into  conformity 
with  their  more  advanced  ethics  and  faith.  The 
Alexandrian  Church  fathers  thus  found  the  al- 
legorical interpretation  in  vogue  among  their 
heathen  and  Jewish  neighbors  and  forbears. 
They  believed  it  had  a  Scriptural  sanction.  They 
accepted  it  without  question.  Their  genius  and 
wide  influence  gave  it  a  standing  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church  for  centuries;  but  the  Alexandrian 
school  never  had  a  monopoly  of  its  use.  It  is 
unfair,  therefore,  to  hold  them  responsible, 
either  for  the  origination  or  for  the  promulga- 
tion of  this  method  of  Scriptural  interpretation, 
Origen  did  teach  that  there  was  a  threefold 
sense  in  Scripture,  corresponding  to  the  body, 
soul  and  s^int  in  man — a  literal  and  a  moral 
and  a  mystical  sense.  But  Jerome  also  made  it 
a  rule  *at  the  Scripture  should  be  interpreted 
in  three  ways,  historically,  tropoIogicalW  and 
spiritually;  and  he  related  this  threefola  divi- 
sion to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  And  Au- 
pnstine  formulated  one  principle  of  his  exegesis 
in  these  words,  'Whatever  there  is  in  the  word 
of  God  that  cannot,  when  taken  literally,  be 
referred  either  to  purity  of  life  or  soundness 
of  doctrine,  you  may  set  down  as  figurative" 
(<De  Doctr.  Christ  III,  ch.  10  sect.  14).  He 
wrote  to  Hoooratus,  "All  that  Scripture,  there- 
fore, which  is  called  the  Old  Testament,  is 
handed  down  fourfold  to  them  who  desire  to 
know  it,  according  to  history,  according  to 
xtiology,  according  to  -analogy,  according  to 
allegory*  ('De  util.  credendi,'  5>.  This  four- 
fold division  was  adoptedbymany  of  the  church 
fathers  and  found  its  final  formulation  in  the 
famous  couplet  of  Nicholas  of  Lym. 

Littd  ffestA  docet,  quid  CTadaa  AUeBOiu, 
Uoi'Blis  qmd  *pi.  quo  tendu  An4Coela 


A  good  example  of  this  fourfold  sense  was 
the  Scriptural  use  of  the  word,  Jerusalem.  Lit- 
erally it  was  a  dty;  allegoricaJly,  the  church; 
morally,  the  individual  believer;  auagogically, 
the  heavenly  state. 

This  much  may  be  said  for  the  Alexandrian 
school  in  connection  with  the  allegorical  inter- 
pretation of  the  Scripture.  (1)  It  did  not 
originate  this  method  (2)  It  never  exercised 
any  monopoly  in  its  use.  (3)  It  found  what 
seemed  to  be  a  sufficient  sanction  in  the  typology 
and  allegory  of  the  Apocalypse,  the  Pauline 
epistles,  and  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  (4) 
No  other  method  of  interpretation  would  have 
availed  them,  in  their  stage  of  Biblical  knowl- 
edge and  in  their  environmeiit  for  the  defense 
of  many  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  Their 
adequate  apology  for  yielding  to  the  fourth 
temptation  mentioned  above  is  to  be  found  in 
the  necessities  of  their  case:  (S)  Their  use  of 
this  method  grew  out  of  their  very  piety  and 
snirituaiity.  These  simply  joined  forces  with 
their  poetical  imagination  and  philosophical  in- 
sight in  the  endeavor  to  save  the  Scripture  from 
contemporary  disrepute.  (6)  They  never  used 
the  allegorical  method  dogmatically  and  they 
avoided  most  of  the  excesses  of  the  later  day. 
"They  arc  always  intelligent  and  reasonable. 
They  evaporated  the  letter;  they  did  not  stereo- 
type the  spirit"  (Bigg,  'Christian  Platonists  of 
Alexandria,'  pp.  149-150),  Mafcinp  all  allow- 
ance for  fault  at  this  point,  the  fact  remains 
that  •Origen  was  the  greatest  Biblical  critic  and 
exegete  of  the  ancient  church"  (Terry,  'Biblical 
Hermeneutics,>  p.  639).  His  one  object  was  to 
find  and  set  forth  the  edifying  truth  in  the 
Scrii«ure.  He  said,  "The  passages  that  are 
in  thdr  historical  meaning  are  much  n 


adduced  many  passages  in  which  a  literal  n 

ing  seems  impossible,  he  concludes,  "Therefore 
the  exact  reader  must,  in  obedience  to  the 
Savior's  injunction  to  search  the  Scriptures, 
carefully  ascertain  in  how  far  the  literal  mean- 
ing is  true,  and  in  how  far  impossible;  and  so 
far  as  he  can,  trace  out,  by  means  of  similar 
statements,  the  meaning  everywhere  scattered 
throu^  Scripture  of  that  which  cannot  be  un- 
derstood in  a  literal  signification'  ('De  Prin- 
dpiis,>  IV,  I;  19).  This  is  seen  at  once  to  be, 
as  Davidson  said,  "not  so  absurd  or  iniurious 
represent"  ('Sacred  Hermencutics,'  p. 


68).    Bishop  Ughtfoot  is  fully  ji 
'   "  -gen,  'A  ■  * 

Juable  in  subsequent  commentaries. 


„      .    _    .     _  .y  JUS ^ 

[  of  Origen,  'A  very  considerable  part  of 
■■     '     subsw ■"     -     '- 


whether  ancient  or  modem,  ;._  _ __._.    _. 

deep  thinker,  an  accurate  grammarian,  a  most 
laborious  worker,  and  a  most  earnest  Christian,' 
he  not  only  laid  the  foundation,  but  to  a  very 
great  extent  built  up  the  fabric  of  Biblical  inter- 
pretation" ('Commentate  on  Galatians,'  p. 
227).  Farrar  declares,  "His  knowledge  of  the 
Bible  and  his  contributions  to  its  interpretation 
were  absoltitely  unrivaled"  ('History  of  Inter- 
pretation,'p,  188).  Fairwcather  adds,  'Properly 
nieaking,  Origen  was  the  first  exegete.  Every- 
thing done  in  this  direction  previously  had  been 
merely  preparatory  to  a  scientific  interpretation 
of  Scripture.  .  ...  One  of  the  great  merits 
of  Origen  is  that  he  never  shirks  a  difficulty. 
.  .  .  Nothing  could  exceed  his  passion  for 
verbal  and  ^mmatical  accuracy,  or  his  linguis- 
tic and  critical  insight  while  his  knowledge  of 


,^le 


the  andent  iheolosy  is  unique*  ('Origen,'  p. 
120).  Hamack  calls  Origcn  "the  father  of  ec- 
desiastical  science  in  the  widest  sense  of  the 
word,"  and  says  that  he  "was  an  excgete  who 
believed  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  indeed,  at 
bottom,  he  viewed  all  theology  as  a  methodical 
exegesis  of  Holy  Writ"  ('Histoiy  of  Dogma,' 
II,  pp.  332,  335).  In  Origen,  therefore,  we  find 
the  founder  of  scientific  exegesis  and  the  great 
master  in  this  field.  His  faults  were  those  of 
his  age;  his  excellences  have  been  an  abiding 
blessing  to  the  Church.  Our  age  is  coining  to 
agree  with  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  in  his  Pan- 
^Q-ric,  when  he  says  of  OHgen  as  an  exeeete, 
■That  greatest  gift  that  man  has  received  from 
God,  and  that  noblest  of  all  endowments,  he  has 
had  bestowed  upon  him  from  heaven,  that  he 
should  be  an  interpreter  of  the  oracles  of  God 
to  men,  and  that  he  might  understand  the  words 
of  God,  even  as  if  God  spake  them  to  him,  and 
that  be  might  recount  them  to  men  in  such 
wise  as  that  they  may  hear  them  with  intelli- 
gence. ...  He  explained  whatsoever  was 
oark  and  enigmatical,  .  .  .  and  set  it  in  the 
tight,  as  being  himself  a  skilled  and  most  dis- 
cerning hearer  of  God.  .  .  .  He  alone  of 
all  men  with  whom  I  have  myself  been  ac- 
quainted, or  of  whom  I  have  heard  by  the  re- 
port of  others,  has  so  deeply  studied  the  oracles 
of  God,  as  to  be  able  at  once  to  receive  their 
meaning  into  his  own  mind,  and  to  convey^  it 
to  others.  For  that  leader  of  all  men,  who  in- 
spires God's  dear  prophets,  and  suggests  all 
tneir  prophecies  and  their  mystic  ana  heavenly 
words,  has  honored  ihis  man  as  He  would  a 
friend,  and  has  constituted  him  an  expositor  of 
these  same  oracles ;  the  things  of  whidi  He  only 
gave  a  hint  by  others  He  made  matters  of  full 
instruction  by  this  man's  instrumentality;  and 
in  things  which  He,  who  is  worthy  of  all  trust, 
either  enjoined  in  regal  fashion,  or  simply 
cnimdatea,  He  imparted  to  this  man  the  ^ft 
of  investigating  and  unfolding  and  explainmg 
them ;  so  that,  if  there  chanced  to  be  anyone 
of  obtuse  and  incredulous  mind,  or  one  again 
thirsting  for  instruction,  be  might  learn  from 
this  man,  and  in  some  manner  be  constrained  to 
understand'  {Argument,  XV).  It  is  the  pic- 
ture of  the  perfect  pattern  of  the  union  of  scien- 
tific investigation  and  spiritual  insight  which 
makes  the  model  exegete.  The  transcendent 
genius  of  Origen  lifted  him  above  his  age  at 
many  points,  and  the  20th  century  is  be- 
ginning tp  see  that  his  conception  of  revealed 
truth  IS  far  superior  to  that  of  most  of  his  sue 
cessors  in  the  history  of  the  Church. 

It  has  been  cusiomary  to  denoimce  Orieen 
and  the  Alexandrian  school  for  their  indul- 
gence in  allegory  and  to  contrast  with  them 
most  favorably  the  next  great  school  of  exe- 
getes  at  AntiodL  The  most  distinguished  names 
here  were  those  of  Lucian,  Diodorus,  Theo- 
dore, Thcodoret,  and  Chrysostom.  We  are  told 
that  these  men  were  litcralista  rather  than  alle- 
gorists.  They  held  rigidly  to  the  historical  and 
grammatical  sense  ana  it  is  but  natural  that  the 
historical  and  grammatical  critics  of  the  19th 
century  shoula  applaud  their  opposition  to 
the  allegorical  flights  of  the  Alexandrians. 
However,  it  is  well  for  us_  lo  remember  that 
this  school  has  its  dangers  'and  faults  as  well 
as  the  Alexandrian.  Its  literalism  resulted  in  a 
rationalism  which  was  like  a  dry  rot  in  the 
Church.  Historically,  it  led  directly  to  Atianism^ 


whkh  threatened  to  cut  the  tap-root  of  the 
OiHstian  faith;  and  against  this  the  orthodox 
exegesis  of  Athanasius  the  Alexandrian,  proved 
to  be  the  only  safeguard  of  the  Church  at  the 
last  Its  tendency  was  to  narrowness,  rather 
than  to  richness.  What  it  gained  in  straimess, 
it  lost  in  breadth.  However,  among  all  the 
Greek  fathers,  Chrysostom  will  rank  next  to 
Origen  in  uniting  the  best  characteristics  of 
both   sdiools.     'Through  a   rich    inward   ei- 

Srience  he  lived  into  an  understanding  of  the 
oly  .Scriptures;  and  a  prudent  method  of 
interpretation,  on  logical  and  grammatical  prin- 
ciples, kept  him  in  the  ri^t  track  in  denving 
the  spirit'  from  the  letter  of  the  sacred  volume* 
(Neander,  'History  of  the  Christian  Religion 
and  Church,'  II,  p.  693).  Or^en  and  Chrys- 
ostom had  no  worthy  successors  in  the  next 
niillennium  of  church  history.  Jerome  has  been 
called  the  Origen  of  the  Western  Church  but 
he  was  too  hasty  in  composition,  too  much  in- 
fluenced by  his  personal  prejudice,  and  too 
vacillating  and  uncertain  in  his  own  opinions 
to  deserve  this  name  as  an  exeeete.  His  serv- 
ices in  other  directions  were  invahiable.  He 
was  the  greatest  scholar  in  the  West  as  Orisen 
had  been  the  greatest  scholar  in  the  East;  but 
he  lacked  the  ifcpth  of  character,  die  consistent^ 
of  prindpie,  ana  the  consequent  spiritual  intui- 
tion of  that  greatest  master  in  the  early  Church. 
Augustine  has  exerted  a  wider  influence  upon 
the  Christian  Church  than  any  other  of  the 
church  fathers.  He  was  the  chief  authority 
through  the  whole  of  the  medjeeval  age.  Mar- 
tin Luther  was  an  Angustinian  monk  at  the 
time  of  his  conversion ;  and  he  and  Melanchthon 
and  Calvin  and  Bucer  all  built  upon  the  foun- 
dations which  Augustine  had  laid  down.  The 
works  of  the  great  Latin  father  have  been  read 
and  reverenced  by  Protestant  and  Roman  Catho- 
lic alike,  and  it  is  only  in  our  day  that  serious 
question  has  arisen  as  to  his  right  to  continued 
supremacy.  In  the  present  reaction  from  the 
theology  of  the  Latin  fathers  to  the  older  and 
purer  tbeologv  of  the  Greek  fathers,  it  is  in 
me  field  of  scholarly  exegesis  that  the  inferior- 
ity of  Augustine  becomes  most  apparent.  He 
was  not  even  equal  to  Jerome  in  scholarship. 
He  knew  no  Hebrew,  He  was  very  defident 
in  his  knowledge  of  the  Greek.  He  preferred  a 
translation  to  the  original  text  He  was  con- 
tinually malang  nust^ies  as  to  the  meaning  of 
words.  He  had  all  the  defects  of  his  predeces- 
sors,' without  their  excuse  for  them.  The 
Alexandrians  had  be«n  driven  into  the  use  of 
allegory  to  harmonize  the  Gospel  teaching  with 
the  truth  of  Greek  philosoirfiy  and  to  command 
the  hearing  and  respect  of  thdr  Jewish  con- 
temporaries. But  Augustine  was  an  allegorist 
of  ue  allegorists  when  no  necessihr  was  laid 
upon  him  and  when  allegory  had  degenerated 
into  mere  imaginative  ingenuities,  Augustine 
had  genius  and  a  genuine  Christian  experience 
and  consequently  flashes  of  illuminative  inter- 
pretation are  found  in  his  bodes,  but  these  can- 
not compensate  for  the  lack  of  the  critical 
facul^  and  a  sound  basis  of  lin^stic  scholar- 
ship in  exege^s.  "Spiritual  insight  though  a 
far  diviner  gift  than  the  critical  faculty,  will 
not  supply  its  place.  In  this  faculty  Augustine 
was  wanting,  and  owing  to  this  defect,  a 


to  Christendom.  He  was  chiefly  respoiwible  for 
subordinatinK  exegesis  to  ecclesiastical  aothority. 
He  said,  *For  my  part,  I  should  not  believe 
the  gospel  except  as  moved  by  the  authoritr  of 
the  CaflioUc  Church"  <'Ep.  c.  Uanich..»  ch.  5. 
sect  6>.  He  declared,  'Now  Scripture  asserts 
DothinR  hut  the  Catholic  faith*  (<De  Doctr. 
Christ>  III,  ch.  10,  sect  15),  and  he  bent  his 
exegesis  to  make  good  that  declaration.  He 
fastened  upon  the  Qiristiait  Church  the  dofnnas 
which  have  been  die  chief  hindrances  to  its 
progress  for  1,400  years;  "the  exageerated  doc- 
trine of  total  human  depravity,*  me  giiilt  of 
innocent  infancy,  arbitrary  election  involving  a 
practical  denial  of  the  freedom  of  the  human 
wilt,  atonement  by  quantitative  eftuivalence  in 
■uffenng,  the  subtle  svslematizalion  of  divine 
counsels  and  schemes,  the  imperions  necessity  of 
sacerdotalism  and  sacramentarianism,  intoler- 
ance of  opinion  contrary  to  churchly  authorrty, 
even  when  based  upon  an  earnest  and  intelli- 
gent study  of  the  revealed  Word.  Following 
his  lead  the  Church  has  floundered  for  centuries 
through  sloughs  of  despond  and  has  almost  for- 
gotten the  broader  horiion  and  the  fi«sher  air 
of  the  high  table-lands  of  the  earlier  theology. 
Among  the  Greek  fathers  no  one  of  these  ques- 
tions which  have  afflicted  our  Latinized  Qiris- 
tianity  found  an  atmosphere  congenial  enough 
in  which  to  thrive.  We  owe  much  to  Augus- 
tine but  it  is  hard  for  us  to  believe  thai  his 
good  influence  can  begin  to  equal  his  evil  influ- 
ence upon  the  Christian  Church.  His  is  the 
last  great  name  among  the  church  fathers.  For 
a  thousand  years  little  or  no  progress  was  made 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. 

The  Schoolmen  contented  themselves  for  the 
most  part  with  copying  and  compiling  the  work 
of  their  predecessors  m  this  field.  It  became  a 
proverb  among  them,  Si  Augiistinus  adest  suf- 
ficit  ipse  tibe.  One  of  them  stated  plainly  that 
no  interpretation  of  Scripture  must  be  accepted  . 
which  ran  counter  to  the  authority  of  the 
Chureh,  'however  much  such  a  sense  may  be 
in  conformity  with  the  literal  meaning.  Indeed 
that  ought  not  to  be  called  the  literal  sense 
which  is  repugnant  to  ecclesiastical  authority* 
(Paulus  of  Burgos,  *Prol.  in  Additiones'). 
Even  Gerson  declares,  "The  literal  sense  must 
be  judged  according  as  the  Church  has  deter- 
mined*  (Propp.  de  sens.,  lit  3).  With  no  inde- 
pendence of  thought  and  with  no  fresh  scholar- 
ship the  schoolmen  added  no  new  principle  of 
exe^is  in  a  thousand  years  of  commentary 
writii^.  They  were  expending  their  enerpes 
upon  subtle  and  futile  spccnlations.  They  com- 
posed great  folios  whicli  aimed  at  nothing  orig- 
inal and  arrived  nowhere  in  particular.  They 
labored  hard  in  a  treadmill.  They  wer;  weakest 
in  exegesis.  Only  two  or  three  of  them  knew 
any  Hebrew,  and  most  of  them  knew  very 
little  if  any  Greek.  They_  were  unorigina],  un- 
conrageous,  uncertain,  uninformed.     They  had 


conception  of  tnnnration,  and  it  naturally 
lowed  tliat  they  had  a  wrong  method  of  < 
gesis.    They  had  their  merits  too,  but  not  as 

With  the  Protestant  Reformation  we  come 
to  a  new  era  in  Scriptural  exegesis.  Coleridge 
said  of  the  Reformers,  'The  least  of  them  was 
not  inferior  to  Au^stine  and  worth  a  brif|ade 
of  Cyprians,  Firmilians,  and  tiie  like'  ('Re- 
mains,' III,  p.  276).    Calvin  sweepingly  asserts,' 


asi 

*Uodesty  wit]  not  allow  me  to  speak  of  our- 
selves as  fact  would  justifv;  and  yet  I  will 
most  truly  declare  that  we  have  thrown  more 
light  upon  the  Scriptures  than  all  the  doctors 
wno  have  appeared  under  the  Papacy  since  its 
commencement.  This  praise  even  they  them- 
selves dare  not  deny  us*  ('Antid.  in  Cone. 
Trid.,>  Sess.  JV).  The  Bible  seemed  like  a 
fresh  discovery  to  the  Church  of  that  day.  For 
the  first  time  it  iMcame  the  property  of  the 
common  people;  and  the  printing  press  made 
it  possible  for  it  to  liecome  a  common  pos- 
session. It  had  been  locked  up  in  the  Latin 
tongue  and  was  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar 
property  of  the  priests.  Translations  now  made 
It  accessible  to  all  and  the  Protestant  preachers 
constantly  appealed  to  its  authority  in  flieir 
Miposttion  to  the  usurpations  and  the  abuses  of 
the  hierarchy.  That  necessitated  a  renewed 
study  of  tlie  sacred  text  on  both  sides.  It  soon 
became  impossible  for  a  man  to  be  a  doctor 
of  divinity  for  eight  years,  as  Carolstxdt  con- 
fessed that  he  had  been,  before  be  had  read  hit 
New  Testament  The  Protestants  delighted  to 
circulate  such  stories  as  Ifaat  of  Sixtus  of 
Amana  concerning  Albert,  archbishop  of  May- 
ence,  who  read  a  few  pages  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  then  jnit  it  down,  saying,  *I  know 
not  what  book  this  is,  I  only  see  that  all  things 
contained  in  it  ate  hostile  to  us*  ('Antibafb. 
Bibl'  II,  7).  The  churchmen  and  scho^men 
had  always  based  their  doctrinal  systems  upon 
the  Bible,  but  the  stereotyped  interpretation  of 
the  Scriptures  had  come  to  claim  the  authori^ 
of  the  Scriptures  themselves.  John  Nathin 
said  to  Martiti  Luther  in  the  convent  at  Erfurt, 
•Brother  Uartin,  let  the  Bible  alone;  read  the 
ord  teachers;  tbey  give  you  the  whole  marrow 
of  the  Bible;  reading  the  Bible  simply  breeds 
unrest*  (Lindsay,  'History  of  the  Reformation 
in  Germany.*  p.  200).  Heresbach  the  friend  of 
ErHsmus,  heard  it  said  that  the  study  of  the 
original  Greek  was  the  prolific  source  of  all 
heresies,  while  the  study  of  Hebrew  turned  men 
into  Jews  at  once.  (D'Aubignt,  I,  ch.  3).  It 
was  deemed  dangerous  for  the  layman  to  at- 
tempt to  understand  the  Scripture  for  himself;  . 
it  was  his  duty  to  accept  the  interpretation  of 
the  book  by  the  Church.  It  was  at  this  point 
that  the  protest  was  made;  and  all  the  Reform- 
ers insisted  that  the  Bible  ou^t  to  be  open  to 
every  man  and  tiiat  the  Spirit  of  God  would 
help  every  man  to  a  safe  and  sufficient. under- 
standing of  its  contents.  Luther  came  to  tak« 
the  position  that  no  external  autheft-ity  could 
decide  what  was  Scripture  or  what  was  the 
meaning  of  Scripture.  He  said,  'How  can  w* 
know  what  is  God's  Word  and  what  is  true  or 
false?  ,  .  .  Who  decides  me  there?  No 
man,  but  only  the  truth  which  is  so  perfectly 
certain  that  nobody  can  deny  it"  (Dods,  'The 
BiWe,  Its  Origin  and  Nature,'  pp.  38-40).  Cal- 
vin said,  "Scnpture  is  self- authenticated,  carry- 
ing with  it  its  own  evidence.  ...  It  obtains 
the  credit  which  it  deserves  with  us  by  the  testi- 
mony of  the  Spirit*  (*lnstittitio.*  I,  7;  5). 
Over  against  this  position  may  be  put  die  words 
of  Lacordaire,  'M/hat  kind  of  a  religion  Is  ttiat 
which  saves  men  by  aid  of  a  book?  God  has 
given  the  book,  but  He  has  not  guaranteed 
your  private  interpretation  of  it,  .  .  If  there 
be  a  true  religion  on  earth,  it  must  be  of  the 
most  serene  and  unmistakable  authority*  (cf, 
Lindsay  op.  dt,  p.  4S7>.    That  authority  is  not, 


.lOOglc 


according  to  Ijtcordaire.  found  io  private  judg- 
ment but  in  the  infallible  decree  of  Pope  or 
Councils.  Such  was  the  issue  drawn  by  the 
Reformation,  both  parlies  claiming  tbt  authority 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  one  as  interpreted  by  the 
Qiurcb  for  all,  and  the  other  as  interpreted 
by  the  Spirit  to  each  man.  It  was  equally  in- 
cumbent upon  all  concerned  to  show  that  their 
interpretation  was  a  true  one.  This  battle 
over  the  Book  led  to  such  searching  of  the 
Scriptures  as  had  not  been  seen  in  the  Church 
in  any  period  of  its  history. 

The  way  was  opened  for  an  intelligent  dis- 
cussion of  Ihe  Scripture  text  largely  by  the 
labors  of  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam.  His  edition 
of  the  Greek  Testament  became  the  standard 
text  among  the  reformers.  His  translations, 
annotations  and  paraphrases  entitle  him  to  high 
rank  as  an  exegete.  He  was  independent  in 
judgment,  characterized  by  good  sense,  and  a 
philoloeist  without  a  peer.  His  aim  was  to 
make  iBe  meaning  of  tne  Word  perfectly  clear 
to  all.  He  said,  "I  do  not  see  why  the  unlearned 
are  to  be  kept  away,  especially  from  the  evan- 
gelical writings,  which  were  oroclaimed  alike  to 
learned  and  unlearned,  equEuly  to  Greeks  and 
Scythians,  as  much  for  slaves  as  for  the  free, 
at  the  same  time  to  men  and  to  women,  not  less 
to  peasants  than  to  kinds'  ('Praef.  in  Para{rfi. 
in  UatL ' ) ,  Erasmus  still  clung  to  the  mystical 
or  allegorical  interpretation  of  certain  Scrii>- 
tures  and  thought  that  the  Holy  Spirit  had  in- 
tended that  some  words  should  carry  multiple 
meanings.    It  was  Martin  Luther  who  broke 


well  as  a  reformer  by  the  enunciation  of  this 
principle,  'Each  passage  has  one  clear,  definite 
and  true  sense  of  its  own.  All  others  are  but 
doubtful  and  uncertain  opinions.'  He  added, 
'The  literal  sense  of  Scripture  alone  is  the 
whole  essence  of  faith  and  of  Christian  the- 
ology. .  .  .  Allegories  are  empty  specula- 
tiotis.  .  .  .  An  interpreter  must  as  much  as 
possible  avoid  allegory  that  he  may  not  wander 
into   idle   dreams.     ...     To   allegorixe   is   to 

t'  iggle  with  Scripture.    ...    If  we  wish  to 
andle_  Scripture  aright,  our  one  effort  will  be 
I,  germanttm,  tt  cerium 


aright 


recognieed  these  truths  before  him,  he  is 

to  tliese  principles  in  his  own  exegesis.     He 

§ublished  'Notes'  on  many  portions  of  the 
cripture.  and  a  complete  'Commentary  on  Gala- 
dans.*  His  exegetical  works  were  published  in 
a  score  or  more  volumes  in  both  Latin  and 
German,  and  were  of  paramount  influence  in 
introducing  better  methods  of  exegesis  in  the 
Reformed  Churches.  Melanchthon,  Bucer. 
Zwingli,  Beza  and  many  others  did  notable 
vtoric  m  e;iegeses  in  the  Reformation  period: 
but  their  books  are  for  the  most  part  unread 
to-dav.  The  greatest  exegete  among  the  re- 
formers was  John  Calvin.  He  wrote  complete 
commentaries  on  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Bible. 
The  single  exception  in  the  New  Testament 
was  the  book  of  the  Apocalypse;  and  Judges, 
Ruth,  Kings,  Esther,  Eira,  Nehemiah,  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  and  Song  of  Solomon  were  the 
only  books  left  untouched  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. His  commentary  on  the  Psalms  was 
justly  celebrated  for  its  religious  insight;  and  in 
the  Pauline  epistles  and  the  book  of  Acts  he  is 


at  his  best  in  the  New  Testament  He  wrote 
to  his  friend  Grymeus  in  1539,  "We  were  bodi 
of  this  mind,  that  the  principal  point  of  an  in- 
terpreter did  consist  in  a  plain  briefness. 
.  .  .  ^^'e  wished  that  there  might  be  some 
one  who  gave  his  diligence  not  to  trouble  those 
who  are  desirous  of  learning  with  long  com- 
mentaries" C'Praef.  in  Rom.').  This  suggests 
one  chief  excellence  of  Calvin's  exegctica!  work. 
It  is  clear  and  concise  and  not  loaded  down  with 
references  to  a  host  of  other  authorities.  Cal- 
vin has  the  learning  necessary  for  his  task,  but 
he  makes  no  needless  display  of  it  He  uses  it 
simply  to  present  plainly  the  meaning  of  the 
text.  He  was  honest  and  independent  in  his 
comment,  intelligent  in  his  meuiod  and  com- 
paratively free  from  the  worst  faults  of  all  his 
Eredecessors  in  this  line.  He  never  agreed  vritfa 
uther  as  to  the  adequacy  of  the  private  judg- 
ment; and  yet  he  was  a  persecutor  of  those 
who  did  not  agree  with  his  own  views.  The 
prejudices  of  his  peculiar  theology  appear 
throughout  his  commentaries,  and  the  repudia- 
tion of  his  conception  of  the  decree  as  the 
central  idea  of  Christianity  bas  gone  far  to 
detract  from  his  use  and  usefulness  in  the 
America  of  the  20th  century.  However  he  is 
still  worth  consulting  for  his  good  sense  in 
most  things  and  his  good  style  in  all 

It  seemed  a  necessity  of  the  age  that  all 
Christians  should  be  dogmatists,  and  Protestant 
dogmatism  soon  became  as  deadly  an  influence 
in  the  field  of  exegesis  as  Roman  Catholic  tra- 
dition had  ever  been.  The  successors  of  the 
great  Reformers  were  like  the  schoolmen  who 
succeeded  the  great  Fathers  of  the  earlv  Church. 
They  were  subservient  to  authority  and  fettered 
by  dogma;  and  in  the  17tfa  and  18tb  centuries 
very  tew  exegetes  appeared  whose  works  are 
read  to-day.  The  scholarship  of  the  elder  Light- 
foot  is  valued.  The  practical  comments  of  Rob- 
ert Leighton  on  First  Peter  are  still  enjoyed. 
John  Owen's  Exerciiations  on  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  is  a  monument  of  erudition  and 
pious  reflection ;  but,  like  Catyl  on  Job,  it  is  too 
voluminous  to  hold  attention  in  this  modern 
age.  Robert  Hal!  said  of  Owen,  'He  alwa^ 
takes  for  granted  what  he  ought  to  prove,  wtule 
he  is  always  proving  what  he  ought  to  tidce  for 
granted;  and  after  a  long  di^ession,  he  con- 
cludes very  properly  with.  This  is  not  our  con- 
cernment- and  returns  to  enter  upon  something 
stilt  farther  from  the  point.*  Adam  Oarke 
added,  °To  me  be  is  one  of  the  most  imsatis- 
factoiy  of  writers.  His  sense  and  meaning  he 
drowns  in  a  world  of  words.  He  cannot  con- 
dense his  meaning,  and  never  comes  to  the 
point,  but  by  the  most  intolerable  circumlocu- 
tion' (Etheridge,  'Life  of  Adam  Clarke,'  pp. 
317-318).  He  may  stand  as  probably  the  last  ex- 
ample the  world  will  ever  see  of  such  intoler- 
able prolixity.  Arminius  and  Grodus  intro- 
duced the  reaction  from  Calvinistic  and 
Lutheran  and  Auguslinian  exegesis,  which  has 
been  gathering  force  ever  sitKe  and  which  has 
about  come  to  its  triumph  in  America.  Coc- 
ceius  and  Vitringa  in  their  opposition  to 
scholasticism  and  dofpiatical  bias  furnished  a 
series  of  commentaries  with  many  excellent 
qualities,  but  reverting  loo  far  in  fte  direction 
of  the_  nwstical  or  allegorical  interpretation. 
Bengel's  Gnomon  is  a  model  of  hrevitv  and 
learning  in  exegesis.  Philip  Schaff  calls  it 
"a  marvel  of  multitm  m  parvo.*    Henry,  Scott 


>y  Google 


and  Adam  Clarke  wrote  devotional   

caries  which  are  still  in  use.  Ernesti  has  been 
r^rded  as  the  founder  of  a  new  exe^etical 
school,  attempting  to  hold  the  via  media  be- 
tween the  allegbnsts  and  the  dogmatists.  His 
exegesis  was  predominanlly  ^[Taaimaticai.  Seni- 
ler,  pietist  and  ra.tionalist,  introduced  the  his- 
toric method  of  exegesis,  and  prepared  the 
way  (or  the  unparalleled  exotica)  activity  of 
the  19th  century.  The  most  dnminant  influence 
in  the  19tb  centunr  in  the  whole  field  of  theol- 
ogy was  that  of  Schleiermacher.  He  was  the 
founder  of  what  has  been  called  the  psycho- 
lo^cal  school  of  exegesis.  He  was  both  ration- 
alistic and  supemacuralistic  in  his  inlerprelation 
of  the  Scriptures.  He  aj>pealed  to  opposing 
classes  and  did  much  to  bnng  all  Germany  back 
to  a  central  emphasis  upon  the  person  and  teach- 
ing and  influence  of  Christ.  In  Germany  and, 
through  Coleridge  and  Maurice,  in  England  and 
America  his  Spirit  and  methods  have  been  fruit- 
ful of  much  good  in  Biblical  study.  'Church 
history  offers  no  parallel  to  him  since  the  days 
of  Origen*  (Farrar,  'History  of  Free 
Thought,'  p.  2441.  He  was  the  "Plato  and 
Origen  of  Germany  in  the  19th  Century*  (Philip 
Schaff).  He  based  his  religion  upon  faith  and 
feeling,  and  he  made  the  Christian  conscious- 
ness and  personal  experience  the  guiding  lights 
of  his  Scriptural  interpretation.  He  claimed  a 
Divine  compulsion  in  his  teaching  and  spoke 
and  wrote  with  prophetic  fervor  and  authority. 
He  said,  "Divinely  swayed  by  an  irresistible 
necessity  within  me,  i,  feel  myself  compelled  to 
speak.  ,  ..  .  Nor  is  it  done  from  anj^  caprice 
If  accident.  Rather.    .    .    .    it  is  a  divine  call* 


ind  earnestness,  the  genuineness  of  his  Christia 
experience,  the  remarkable  breadth  of  his  vision 
and  thought,  and  the  intensity  of  his  spiritual 
zeal  ^ve  him  a  most  extraordinary  influence 
upon  nis  own  and  succeeding  generations.  He 
vmdicated  the  right  of  Christian  experience  to 
an  equal  hearing  with  the  results  of  any  purely 
scientific  research.  His  stiirit  pervades  the 
Christian  world  to-day  ana  will  maintain  its 
Mrmanent  place  in  Christian  thought.  De 
Wette  was  the  greatest  excgete  among  the  dis- 
riples  of  Schleiermacher.  His  work  represents 
prodigious  learning  and  'perfect  loyalty  in  4ie 
search  for  truth'  (Godet).  He  expresses  him- 
self clearly,  but  does  not  ahrays 
sirably  definite  conclusion.  Cr< 
practically  the  same  standpoint. 

The  year  1835  marked  a  new  era  in  all 
scientific  Bible  study  (Pfleiderer,  ^Development 
of  Theology,'  p.  209).  In  that  year  Strauss 
published  his  'Life  of  Jesus,'  Baur,  his  woilc  on 
the  'Pastoral  Epistles,'  and  Vatke,  his  'History 
of  the  Religion  of  the  Old  Testament'  Each 
of  these  books  may  be  regarded  as  epoch- 
making. 

Elchhom  has  reduced  the  rationalistic  treat- 
ment of  the  Scriptures  to  a  scientific  system. 
Strauss  was  the  first  to  put  this  rationalism  into 
concrete  and  popular  form.  Baur  was  the 
founder  of  the  Ttibingen  or  Tendency  school, 
which  probably  represented  in  Germany  the 
^eatest  theological  movement  of  the  century. 
Baur  endeavored  to  bring  all  his  exegesis  to 
the  bar  of  historical  investifcation.  He  examined 
all  traditional  exegesis  critically  and  subjected 
the  New  Testament  books  to  a  more  thorough- 


going analvsis  than  they  had  ever  known.  He 
emphasizea  the  theological  standpoint  of  eadi 
wnter,  and  he  thought  he  detected  an  irrecon- 
cilable antagonism  between  the  Pauline  and  the 
Petrine  wings  of  the  Christian  Church.  He 
stimulated  Bible  study  to  an  astoni&hing  degree. 
His  personal  power  was  manifest  in  the  re- 
marlrable  group  of  disciples  he  gathered  about 
him.  Among  these  we  may  mention  Zeller. 
Schwef^er,  Hilgenfeld,  Holsten,  Pfldderer  and 
Volkmar.  The  entire  movement  inaugurated  by 
Baur  has  been  characterized  by  comprehensive 
and  accurate  scholarship,  the  value  of  which  has 
been  aomewfaat  im[»aired  by  the  critical  presup- 
positions u^on  whidt  it  was  based.  Strauss 
came  over  tnto  this  school  in  the  second  edi- 
tion of  his  'Life  of  Jesus.'  Ritsdil  began  his 
career  in  it,  but  later  swung  clear  of  it  and 
became  the  founder  of  a  £stinct  school  of 
thought,  to  which  Hamack  Julicher,  Kaftan, 
Hermann  and  Von  Soden  aofaere. 

Ritschl  claimed  to  repudiate  all  metaphysical 
presuppositions  and  to  found  his  system  on  the 
religious  consciousness  alone.  He  believed  that 
the  primitive  faith  sprang  from  the  person  and 
word  of  Jesus,  with  no  philosophidil  alloy  in 
the  beginning.  He  held  that  experience  limits 
the  domain  of  knowledge.  The  Scriptures  are 
luSicient  in  themselves  to  reveal  the  spiritual 
and  moral  worth  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 
whose  end  is  realized  in  love.  Dogmatics  and 
ethics  unite  in  the  higher  synthesis  of  the 
revelation  of  the  New  Testament.  Frank  was 
the  most  determined  opponent  of  Ritschlianism 
in  Germany.  He  pointed  out  the  lack  of  a  true 
and  deep  conception  of  sin  in  this  system  of 
thought,  and  its  consequently  inadequate  notion 
of  atonement  and  conversion;  and  he  claimed 
that,  instead  of  rejecting  metaphysics,  the- whole 
system  was  based  on  a  highly  developed  but 
false  and  contradictory  metaphysics  of  its  own. 

Vatke  in  1835  outlined  the  revolution  which 
has  since  taken  place  in  the  conception  of  Old 
Testament  history.  His  book,  however,  was 
overloaded  with  philosophical  terminology  and 


the   same  lines   at   Strassburg,  and   two  of  his 

Eupils,  Graf  and  Wellhausen,  published  the  new 
ypothesis  of  the  development  of  Old  Testa- 
ment ritual  and  literature.  It  was  Vatke's 
theor)[  brought  to  life  again,  and  it  has  exer- 
cised increasing  influence  upon  the  exegesis  of 
all  the  Old  Testament  books  for  the  last  half 
century.  The  prophets  have  come  into  new 
prominence  as  a  result  of  this  study.  They 
are  recognized  as  the  founders  of  the  Hebrew 
religion.  The  Law  in  its  present  form  was  of 
later  growth  in  the  Jewish  Church,  The  Penta- 
teuch has  been  resolved  into  a  number  of  docu- 
ments. Deuteronomy  is  believed  to  belong  to 
the  times  of  Josiah.  Isaiah  and  other  prophetic 
books  are  shown  to  be  of  multiple  authorship. 
The  Psalms  come  last  in  the  Hebrew  sacred 
literature.  Stade,  Budde,  Smend,  Schulu  and 
others  have  represented  this  school  of  thought 
Germany  has  been  the  great  battle-groimd 
of  the  Hi(^er  Criticism  through  the  last  cen- 
tury; and  the  exegetes  have  enrolled  themselves 
among  the  criliGafand  the  traditional,  the  more 
radical  and  the  more  conservative  camps.  Ne- 
ander  the  champion  of  spirituality,  Hengsten- 
berg  the  bulwark  of  orthodoxy,  DeUtzsdi  the 


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pre-eminent  scholar,  did  valiant  service  for  what 
tbey  deemed  the  traditional  truth.  Just  before 
his  death  Delitzsch  seemed  disposed  to  go  over 
into  the  critical  ranks.  Dillmann  and  Gunkel 
have  adopted  the  newer  views.  The  indispen- 
sable commentary  in  the  New  Testament  field 
has  been  that  of  H.  A.  W,  Meyer.  Characterized 
by  grammatical  rigor  and  literary  freedom,  and 
lu^ light  up  to  date  l^  frequent  revisions,  it  has 
maintained  itself  as  a  standard  authority  for 
two  generations.  The  principal  contributor  to 
the  later  editions  has  been  Bernard -Weiss,  the 
present  prince  of  all  laborers  in  the  exegetical 
ndd.  Having  completed  more  than  50  ^ears  of 
University  service  he  stands  to-day  without  a 
peer  in  his  record  of  worthy  achievement  as  a 
textual  critic  and  commentator.  He  is  incom- 
parable for  minute  and  searching  investigation, 
exactness  and  solidity  of  scholarship.  His  as- 
sociates in  the  Meyer  Commentary  series  have 
been  Wendt,  Heinnci,  SiefFerl,  Schmidt,  Diister- 
dieck  and  B^chlag.  Lipsius.  Weizsacker, 
Schmiedel  and  Holtzmann  have  represented  the 
more  advanced  school  of  commentators.  Bleek 
did  most  admirable  work  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the  century  and  Luthardt  and  Hotraann  have 
been  conservative  leaders  in  the  latter  days. 

Among  the  Dutch  theologians  the  dominant 
tendency  in  the  last  century  has  been  toward 
extreme  radicalism.  Scholten  and  Kuenen  have 
represented  advance  thought  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment field,  while  Loman,  Pierson,  Naber,  Volter 
and  Van  Marien  have  been  generally  considered 
hypercritical  in  the  discussion  of  New  Testa- 
ment questions.  Steck  has  represented  the  latter 
school  in  Switzerland;  while  Godet  has  noblv 
upheld  the  traditions  of  orthodoxy  in  (his  land. 
Godet  combines  a  French  felicity  of  style  with 
a  German  thoroughness  of  scholarship  and  adds 
to  these  a  genuine  spiritual  fervor  which  makes 
his  commentaries  on  Luke,  John  and  Romans 
veritable  masterpieces  of  exegesis.  It  may'  well 
be  doubted  if  the  century  has  produced  more 
luminous  and  interesting  contributions  to  this 
field. 

France  has  furnished  the  brilliant  and  ver- 
satile and  radical  Renan,  and  the  more  profound 
and  philosophical  De  Pressense;  and  it  is  mak- 
ing its  influence  fell  to-day  through  the  writ- 
ings of  the  new  Symbolo-Fideistic  school,  Stap- 
fer,  Sabatier  and  Menfgoi  being  the  chief 
theological  representatives.  This  school  em- 
phatically repudiates  ihe  infallibility  of  Pope  or 
Church  and  just  as  emphatically  renounces  the 
infallibility  of  Scripture  or  the  Christ  recorded 
in  Scripture.  It  believes  that  philosophy  can 
never  deduce  any  religious  truth  from  its  prem- 
ises, and  so  repudiates  rationalism  as  a  founda- 
tion for  faith.  It  believes  in  a  Divine  revelation 
through  the  immanent  Spirit  of  God.  It  identi- 
fies prayer  and  religion.  All  expression  of  re- 
ligious impression  must  be  through  images  or 
symbols.  "AH  religious  formulas  are  symbolic 
formulas;  and  Dogmatic  itself  is  a  great  system 
of  symbols'  (Minigoz).  The  essence  of  the 
gospel  is  to  be  distinguished  from  what  is 
merely  contingent.  Jesus  is  the  perfect  mani- 
festation of  God  in  man.  Salvation  is  by  faith 
and  faith  conusts  in  repentance  and  heart-sur- 
render to  God.  The  advocates  of  this  school 
confidently   claim    that    the    future   belongs   to 

Id.  Great  Britain  the  century  has  furnished 


some  masterly  exegetical  work.  Cambrid^ 
University  has  easily  taken  the  honors  in  Ihis 
field.  Dean  Alford  in  his  'Commentary  on  the 
Greek  Testatnent'  introduced  the  best  results 
of  German  exegesis  to  English  readers.  Bishop 
Ellicott  gave  splendid  examples  of  painstaking 
investigation  of  the  Scriptural  text.  The  great 
trio  of  later  Cambridge  scjiolars,  Li^tfoot| 
Westcott  and  Hort,  have  reached  the  high- 
water  maik  of  English  scholarship  in  their 
field.  Bishop  Light  foot's  commentaries  upon 
the  Pauline  Epistles  have  been  standard  au- 
thorities ever  since  their  publication.  Westcott 
did  equally  fine  work  upon  the  writings  of  John 
and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Hort  was  gen- 
erally reputed  to  be  the  greatest  scholar  of  the 
three,  but  his  extreme  modesty  and  his  realiz- 
ing sense  of  the  yet  urattained  perfection  pos- 
sible in  his  work  kept  him  from  the  publica- 
tion of  any  but  fragniEntary  treatises.  His  in- 
fluence lives  among  his  students  and  associates. 
Mayor  on  James  and  Second  Peter  and  Jude,  antl 
Swete  on  Mark  and  the  Apocalypse  are  worthy 
companions  of  the  other  Cambridge  University 
commentaries.  Professor  Davidson  of  Edin- 
burgh was  the  leading  Hebrew  scholar  of  Great 
Britain  In  the  century,  and  his  pupils^  W.  Rob- 
ertson Smith  and  George  Adam  Smith  and 
others,  have  done  yeoman  service  in  revolution- 
izing and  revitalizing  the  exegesis  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Sanday,  Driver,  Plum  rue  r.  Beet, 
Findlay,  Bruce  and  Dods  have  done  excellent 
interpretative  work.  The  'International  Critical 
Commenlary>  and  the  'Expositor's  Qreek  Tes- 
tament,' bid  fair  to  continue  the  best  traditions 
in  English  exegesis. 

America  has  had  a  share  in  the  exegetical 
labor  of  the  century.  Moses  Stuart,  J.  A.  Alex- 
ander Hackett,  Hodge,  Shedd,  Harper,  Mitch- 
ell, Moore,  Toy,  Vincent  and  others  have  pro- 
duced exegetical  studies  of  acknowledged  merit. 
Albert  Barnes,  Henry  Cowles,  J.  A.  Broadus 
and  D.  D.  Whedon  have  published  series  of 
helpful  and  devotional  commentaries,  Ezra 
Abbott,  Edward  Robinson,  McGiffert,  Mathews, 
Burton,  Bri^s,  Bacon,  Gilbert,  Stevens,  Allen 
and  Smyth  have  done  first-class  service  in 
special  fields. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  began  the  cen- 
tury with  two  most  worthy  representatives  of 
Biblical  learning.  Hug  ably  combated  the 
rationalistic  tendencies  of  his  day  and  defended 
the  traditional  views  of  the  origin  of  the  New 
Testament  writings.  Herbst  performed  the 
same  service  for  the  Old  Testament.  During  the 
,  greater  part  of  the  century,  however,  free  in- 
quiry has  been  more  or  leas  stifled  by  the  an- 
Uionty  of  "the  usual  exegesis  of  Scripture.* 
Scientific  research  has  been  systematically  dis- 
couraged and  any  tendency  toward  a  new  or 
modified  interpretation  of  the  Scriptural  text 
and  any  originality  of  conclusions,  such  as  may 
not  be  guaranteed  by  the  authority  of  the 
Fathers  and  the  Councils  of  the  Church,  have 
been  frowned  upon  by  those  in  Ihe  places  of 
power.  A  better  condition  of  affairs  seems  to 
be  on  the  punt  of  realization  now.  A  growing 
body  of  students  within  the  pale  of  the  Church 
have  felt  the  influence  of  the  great  onward 
movements  in  the  Protestant  world  and  are 
bc^nning  to  demand  the  privilege  of  free  in- 
quiry and  the  use  of  modem  methods  in 
exegesis.    They  point  to  the  critical  woric  in 


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the  writings  of  Origcn  and  Jerotne  and_  Euse- 
biiis  and  other  Christian  scholars  and  sajnis  as 
proof  that  scientific  research  is  no  novelt]^  in 
the  Catholic  Chwch,  and  ihejr  claim  the  right 
to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  these  illustrious 
critics  of  antiquity.  A  measure  of  freedom 
would  seem  to  be  already  granted  them  since 
Pope  Pius  X  wrote  to  Bishop  Le  Camus, 
"We  should  not  approve  the  attitude  of  those 
who  in  no  wa^  dare  to  depart  from  the  usual 
exegesis  of  Scripture,  even  when,  faith  not 
being  at  stake,  the  real  advancement  of  learn- 
ing requires  such  d«)arture.  You  follow  a  wise 
middle  course,  and  by  your  example  show  that 
therr  is  nothing  to  he  feared  for  the  sacred 
books  from  the  true  progress  of  the  art  of 
criticism,  nay  that  a  beneficial  light  may  be 
derived  from  it,  provided  its  use  be  coupled 
with  a  wise  and  prudent  discernment"  (Dated 
11  Jan.  1906).  What  this  "vrise  and  prudei* 
discernment*  may  be  is  probably  best  illustrated 
in  the  diecisiong  of  the  Biblical  Commission  ap- 
pointed by  Leo  XIII,  in  its  report  upon  the 
Pentateuch,  published  in  the  Revue  Bibtique  and 
dated  27  June  1906.  The  report  is  presented 
in  the  form  of  qnesdons  and  answers  in  cate- 
chism style.  They  may  be  summarized  as  fol- 
lows :  May  one  assert  that  Moses  was  not  the 
author  of  the  Pentateuch,  but  that  it  was  made 
up  largely  of  later  elements?  No.  Must  Moses 
then  have  written  the  whole  of  the  PentateucJi 
with  his  own  hand,  or  dictated  it  to  secretaries? 
No.  May  Moses  have  committed  the  editing  of 
it  in  whole  or  in  ^art  to  secretaries  and  have 
permitted  the  publication  of  it  under  his  name? 
Ves.  May  he  have  used  sources,  documents  or 
oral  traditions,  borrowing  sometimes  the  words, 
sometimes  the  sense?  Yes.  May  the  Pentateuch 
have  undergone  modifications,  "additions  made 
after  Moses'  death  by  an  inspired  author, 
fosses  and  parenthetical  explanations,  ancient 
.words  and  phrases  turned  into  more  modem 
language,  false  readings  to  be  attributed  to 
errors  of  copyists,  which  criticism  may  examine 
and  weigh  according  to  its  principles?  Yes,  the 
Church  reserving  judgment,"  The  rights  of 
the  newer  criticism  to  a  hearing  and  standing 
in  the  Church  are  dearly  allowed  in  this  report, 
while  the  Church  reserves  the  right  to  judge 
to  what  extent  the  findings  of  the  critics  may  be 
compatible  with  its  authority  and  peace. 

Historical  criticism  has  now  come  to  dw 
fore.  The  allegorical  interpretation  is  discred- 
ited, it  is  to  be  hoped,  finally  and  permanently. 
A  vaster  knowledge  is  at  the  service  of  the 
exegete  than  has  been  possible  in  any  preceding 
age.  The  battles  of  the  giants  would  seem  to 
have  ended  for  the  time  at  least,  and  much 
of  the  smoke  of  conflict  has  cleared  away. 
What  ought  the  20th  century  exegesis  to 
be?  It  ought  to  be  capable  of  the  production 
of  both  popular  and  critical  work.  It  ought  to 
meet  the  demand  for  edification  on  the  part  of 
the  most  humble  and  unlearned;  and  at  the 
same  time  it  ought  to  be  proficient  in  the  most 
ejdiaustive  scholarship,  it  has  at  its  disposal 
the  accumulated  wealth  of  material  collected 
in  the  preceding  centuries ;  and  it  may  profit 
by  the  defects  as  well  as  ibe  excellences  of  the 
masters  who  have  gone  before.  Biblical  knowl- 
e<tee  was  never  more  profound  or  more  preva- 
lent than  now.  The  original  text  has  been 
determined  within  approximate  accuracy.    The 


IBSIS  400 

Bible  has  been  freed  from  multiplied  errors  of 
manuscript  transcription  and  restored  to  some- 
thing like  its  original  form  and  reveladon. 
The  original  languages  are  better  understood. 
The  study  of  ancient  inscriptions  and  frag- 
ments of  newly  discovered  papyri  have  thrown 
a  flood  of  light  upon  many  new  points.  Modern 
travel  and  exploration  and  excavation  in  the 
Orient  have  taught  us  many  things  concerning 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  ancient  times. 
The  marvelous  advance  made  in  the  last  cen- 
tury along  the  lines  of  scientific  investi^tton 
and  metaphysical  research  and  literary  criticism 
has  bad  Its  beneficial  influence  upon  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Bible.  The  exegete  of  to-day 
has  an  unprecedented  equipment,  and  his  task 
is  comparatively  clear.  To-day,  "the  great  body 
of  evangelical  expositors  are  united  on  the 
fundamental  principles  of  interpretation.  They 
agree  that  a  proper  commentary  on  the  Bible 
or  on  any  part  of  it  should  clearly  set  forth 
the  true  meaning  of  the  words  and  the  train  of 
thought  intended  by  the  sacred  writer ;  and  it 
should  point  out  the  grammatico-bistorical 
sense  of  every  passage,  giving  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  context,  scope,  and  plan"  (Terry, 
'Biblical  Hermeneutics,'  p.  738).  The  great 
exegetical  works  of  the  present  are  character- 
iied  by  directness,  accuracy,  learning,  independ- 
ence of  research,  a  careful  consideration  of  the 
context  and  all  the  light  that  Wstorical  and  lit- 
eracy criticism  can  throw  upon  the  theme. 
There  is  a  better  conception  of  the  nature  of 
inspiration  and  more  freedom  in  the  exercise 
of  the  critical  faculties  of  the  coihmentator. 
Rationalism  has  come  to  its  rights,  together 
with  a  recognition  of  the  due  restraint  laid 
upon  the  student  of  a  divine  revelation.  Having 
escaped  from  the  tradition  of  an  absolutely 
: .  . — ,  — 1  .  form  of  revelation  infalh- 


spirit  that  maketh  alive.  The  tendency  of  the 
times  seems  to  be  away  from  the  dominance  of 
the  Latin  and  the  Reformation  theology  to  the 
purer  exegesis  of  the  primitive  faith.  With 
the  broader  spirit  of  the  Greek  fathers  and 
the  better  critical  apparatus  of  the  present  d^ 
the  promise  of  work  in  this  field  was  never 
brighter  than  now. 

Bibliography.— Rosenmiiller,  'Historia  in- 
lerpretationis  uborum  sacrorum  in  ecclesia 
Christiana>  (5  vols.,  1795-1814) ;  Meyer,  G.  W., 
'Geschichte  der  Schrifterklarung'  (5  vob., 
1802-08)';  Emesti,  'Institutio  Intcrpreds  Novi 
Testament!'  (5th  ed.,  1809)  ;  Marsh,  'Lectures 
on  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the 
Bible'  (1842);  Lucke,  'Grundriss  der  neutesta- 
mentlichen  Hcrmeneutik'  (1817);  Schleier- 
macher,  'Herraeneutik  und  Kritik*  (1838)  ; 
Klauscn,  'Hcrmeneutik.  German  translation 
from  Danish*  (1841)  ;  Immer,  'Hcrmeneutik 
des  neuen  TesUments*  (1873) ;  English  trans- 
lauon  (3d  ed.,  1890)  ;  Doedes,  'Manual  of  Her- 
meneutics'  (translated  from  the  Dutch,  1867)  ; 
Davidson,  Samuel,  'Sacred  Hermeneutics' 
(1843) ;  Fairbaim,  ' Henneneutical  Manual' 
(1858);  Cellerier,  'Manuel  D'  Hermfineutique 
Biblique'  (1852)  ;  Elliott  and  Harsha,  'Biblical 
Hcrmeneutics'  (chicfiy  a  translation  of  the 
foregoiiig,  18S1)  ;  Lange,  'Grundriss  der  Bib- 
lischen  Hermeneulik'  (1878);  Hofmann,  <Bib- 
lischen  Hermeneutik'  (1880);  Farrar,  'History 


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aXELMANS  —  EXBQU  ATUR 


of  Interpretaiion'  (1886) ;  Terry,  'BiWicaJ 
Hermeneuiics'  (3d  ed.,  1890),  probably  the  best 
book  on  the  subject  in  English. 

D.  A.  Hayes, 
ProfesioT  of  Ntw  Testament  Exegesis,  Garrett 
Biblical  Institute,  Evanston,  111. 

EXELMANS,  eks-el-mong,  Remy  Joseph 
Isidore,  Comte,  French  soldier.  Marshal  o£ 
France:  b.  flar-le-duc,  13  Nov.  1775;  d.  22  July 
1852,  He  entered  ihe  army  in  1791,  when  only 
16  vears  of  age,  and  by  1799  had  reached  the 
rank  of  captain.  He  subsequently  served  with 
great  distinction  under  Macdonald  and  Cham- 
pionnet  in  the  campaign  of  Naples,  and  in  1801 
was  appointed  to  the  staff  of  Murat  as  aide-de- 
camp. He  was  arrested  in  1608  while  serving 
with  Murat  in  Spain,  and  sent  to  England,  but 
after  three  years  of  confinement  there  effected 
his  escape  and  in  1812  joined  Napoleon  in  his 
Russian  campaign.  For  brilliant  conduct  dur- 
ing this  campaign  he  was  appointed  general  of 
division  bv  Napoleon  but  upon  the  emperor's 
fall  was  banished  from  France  owing  to  his 
Napoleonic  inclinations.  He  was,  however, 
permitted  to  retnm  in  1819  and  seems  to  have 
been  highly  esteemed  under  every  successive 
government  He  was  restored  to  the  Chamber 
of  Peers  in  1831  by  Louis  Philippe  and  Louis 
Napoleon  appointed  him  grand  chancellor  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  on  II  March  1851 
created  him  Mar^chal  de  France.  He  was  sub- 
sequently thrown  from  his  horse  which  resulted 
in  his  deatfi. 

EXEMPLARY  NOVELS.  Second  only 
in  imparlance  to  'Don  Qiuxota'  among  the 
fictions  of  Cervantes  are  his  tales,  published  in 
1613  as  'Novelas  Exemplares,'  or  'Exemplary 
Novels.'  Although  the  preface  spoke  of  13 
stories,  but  12  were  first  included,  the  13th 
having  evidently  been  withdrawn  at  the  last 
moment.  This  was  not  printed  until  1814,  when 
Agustin  Garcia  Arrieta  found  it  in  manu- 
script among  other  matters  of  entertainment 
prepared  from  1606  to  1610  for  the  delectation 
of  an  archbishop  of  Seville.  Published  at  first 
in  expurgated  form,  'La  Tia  fingida,'  or  'The 
Pretended  Aunt,'  it  was  soon  presented  in  fulU 
and  now  forms  part  of  all  modern  editions  of 
the  'Novelas  Exemplares,' 

The  13  stories  were  written  at  various  times, 
one  as  early  as  1605^  since  it  is  referred  to  in 
the  first  part  of  'Don  Quixote.'  Cervantes, 
who  had  spent  six  years  in  Italy,  sought  to  com- 
pete with  Boccaccio  in  tale-telimg.  although  ex- 
pressly distinguishing  his  productions  from  the 
novelfe  of  the  'Decameron'  as  being  moral  and 
instructive.  Unlike  his  contemporaries,  Cer- 
vantes drew  less  upon  Italian  sources  than  upon 
his  own  invention.  He  endeavored  to  reflect 
life  as  he  had  seen  it  and  to  avoid  the  sensa- 
tionalism of  Bandello  and  Cinthio.  Such  sen- 
sationalism appears  only  in  'La  Fueria  de  la 
sangre,'  where,  however,  he  carefully  reconciles 
the  ravished  heroine  to  her  lover.  The  exotic 
adventures  so  common  in  early  fiction  are  re- 
duced in  this  collection.  Although  an  unreal 
London  is  shown  in  'La  Espafiota  Inglesa,'  the 


the  island  of  Cyprus  is  the  scene  in  'El  Amante 
liberal,'  the  story  contains  recollections  of  Cer- 
vantes' own  experience  among  the  Moham- 
medans   of    Algiers.     If    the    setting   of    'La 


Sefiora  Cornelia*  is  Italian,  that  of  most  of  the 
tales  is  native,  and  in  the  best  it  is  stronghr 
localized.  This  is  the  case,  above  all,  with 
'Rinconete  y  Cortadillo,'  a  numorous  picture 
□f  roguery  among  the  professional  thieves  of 
Seville,  organiied  in  a  band  astutely  governed. 
Inn  life  is  smartly  shown  in  'La  ilustre 
Fr«ona,'  and  life  among  the  gullible  students 
of  Salamanca  in  'La  Tia  fingida.'  Humor  and 
satire  unite  in  'El  Casamiento  cng^oso,'  with 
its  accotmt  of  the  marriage  of  two  knaves,  each 
thinking  to  deceive  the  other,  and,  more  ad- 
mirably still,  in  'El  Coloquio  de  los  perros,' 
with  its  dialogue  between  two  dogs  of  Valla- 
dolid,  one  of  them  a  canine  Sancho  Panza,'  who 
describes  to  the  other  his  griefs  in  the  service 
of  various  masters.  Cervantes'  imagination 
finds  freest'  play  in  'El  Licenciado  Vidrieraj' 
whose  hero  suffers  from  the  delusion  that  he  is 
made  of  glass,  and  in  'La  Gitanilla,'  with  its 
gypsy  heroine  who  proves  to  be  well  bom,  after 
a  noble  youth  for  love  of  her  has  turned  Bo- 
hemian. This  story  in  particular  has  exerted 
wide  influence,  Preciosa's  adventures  being 
copied  by  Hugo  in  France  And  Longfellow  in 
America,  and  dramatized  by  Montalvin  and 
Antonio  de  Solis  in  Spain,  by  Moellcr  and 
Wolff  in  Gennany,  and  by  Middleton  and  Row- 
ley in  England,  Middleton,  also,  drew  upon 
'La  Fuerza  de  la  sangre,'  as  did  Florian  in  his 
'Leocadie,*  and  Fletcher  in  four  plays  borrowed 
from  four  talcs  of  Cervantes  —  in  'Love's  Pil- 
grimage* from  'Las  dos  doncellas*  (used  also 
by  Rotrou),  in  'The  Fair  Maid  of  the  Inn' 
from  'La  ilustre  Fregona,'  in  'The  Chances* 
from  'La  Sefiora  Cornelia,'  and  in  'Rule  a 
Wife  and  Have  a  Wife'  from  'El  Casamiento 
engaiioso.'  The  last-named  tale  was  drama- 
tized, also,  in  England  by  Tobin;  in  Germany 
bv  Schroder;  and  in  Denmark  by  Holberg.  The 
'Novelas  Exemplares'  were  early  translated 
into  French,  Italian,  English  and  German.  They 
are  most  fully  discussed  in  the  Spanish  volume 
of  Luis  Orellana  y  Rinc6n,  entitled   'Ensayo 


BXEHPTION,  the  ri^t  to  be  excused 
from  rendering  certain  services,  or  retain  prop- 
erty free  from  claims  or  taxation.  Exemptions 
are  established  b^  positive  law.  For  example, 
the  laws  designating  certain  classes  of  persons 


school  properties  from  taxation.  Exemption 
from  debt  claims  is  also  granted  in  many  cases; 
in  distress  for  rent  cases,  the  necessary  house- 
hold furniture,  the  tools  of  a  workman,  do- 
mestic animals  and  a  limited  suppl>[  of  food  are 
exempted  from  seirure  under  execution.  For  the 
various  State  exemptions  it  is  necessary  to  con* 
suit  the  codes  of  the  State  in  questioa  Con- 
sult Hubbell,  'Legal  Directory  for  Lawyers  and 
Business  Men'  (New  York,  annually). 

EXEQUATUR,    the    document    issued   by 
the  executive  department  of  a  government  re- 

Erding  ihe  consul  of  another  state  after  it  has 
en  formally  notified  of  his  ^appointment  by 
the  latter.  The  effect  of  the  "exequatur  is  to 
grant  all  the  privileges,  immunities  and  ad- 
vantages to  a  consular  officer  in  the  country  to 
which  he  has  been  appointed,  with  authority  to 
discharge  all  the  functions  of  his  office  ani  to 
constitute  him  the  lejntimate  representative  of 


.lOogle 


BXSRCISE  —  EXBTBR 


«8T 


Ills  state  in  the  locality  roentioQed  in  the  docu- 
menL  The  following  is  the  fonn  of  exequatur 
issued  to  principal  consular  olbceis  of  foreign 
countries  by  the  government  of  the  United 
Sutes : 


Pntidcnt  of  tb»  Unilad  States  of  Anwnca 


Siintmy  o^  SItti. 

To  subordinate  consular  officers  an  almost 
identical  form  is  issued  by  the  Secretary  of 
State.  When  a  state  of  war  supervenes  or  even 
when  diplomatic  relations  are  broken  between 
two  states  it  is  usual  to  cancel  all  e>Lequaiurs  of 
consular  officers  of  the  country  with  which  war 
has  been  declared  or  diplomatic  relations 
broken.  Consult  Moore,  John  Basset,  'Digest 
of  International  Law'  (1906)  ;  Slowell,  E.  C, 
'Consular  Cases  and  Opinions'  (1909). 

EXERCISE,  Physical..  The  u^buildin^  of 
the  muscular  system  of  the  body  is  of  prime 
imi>ortance  in  preservins  the  health  or  the 
curing  of  disease,  and  whether  by  passive  mo' 
tion  or  volitional  activity  is  now  recognized  as 
necessary  to  keep  the  various  functions  of  the 
body  in  normal  condition.  Artificially  devised 
methods  have  been  brought  into  use,  but  regular 
daily  out-of-doors  exercise  is  preferable.  In- 
struction in  giTTinastics  is  now  given  in  many 
educational  institutions  and  public  schools,  well- 
appointed  gymnasiums  being  maintained  for 
that  purpose.  In  these  gymnasiums  outdoor 
sports  are  often  practised,  but  ihe.chief  courses 
of  exercise  consist  of  a  systematic  use  of 
dumb-bells,  wands,  Indian  clubs,  horizontal  and 
parallel  bars,  chest-weights,  swinging  rings  and 
other  specialties.  In  many  gymnasiums  there 
are  running  tracks,  baseball  cages,  swimming 
tanks,  bowling  alleys,  etc.  The  cnief  outside 
sports  are  tennis,  golfing,  bicycling,  baseball, 
football,  rowing,  walking,  running,  skating, 
swimming  and  flie  various  forms  of  track  ath- 
letics. See  Gymnasium;  Hygiene;  Physical 
Training;  Educational  Athletics,  etc. 

EXERCISES,    Spiritual.     See    SPHrrUAL 


EXETER,  or  Bzon,  DomeBday.  See 
Doomsday  Book, 

EXETER,  England,  city,_  seaport  and 
county,  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough, 
in  the  county  of  Devon  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Exe,  10  miles  northwest  from  its  outlet  in  the 
English  Channel,  on  the  Great  Western  and 
London  and  Southwestern  railways  and  171 
miles  hy  rail  southwest  of  London.  Though 
still  presenting  many  indications  of  antiquity, 
the  city  can  now  boast  of  as  handsome  squares, 
terraces,  streets  and  houses,  all  of  modem  erec- 
tion, as  any  otiier  in  the  kingdwn.  The  princi- 
pal object  of  interest  is  the  cathedral,  a  noble 


edifice  founded  in  1112.  It  is  cruciform,  408 
feet  in  length,  and  consists  of  a  nave,  with  two 
side  aisles,  two  short  transepts  formed  out  of 
two  heavy  Norman  towers,  each  130  feet  in 
height;  a  choir  of  the  same  width  as  the  nave 
and  128  feet  in  length;  10  chapels  or  oratories 
and  a  chapter-house.  The  west  front,  erected  in 
the  14lh  century,  is  richly  decorated,  presenting 
one  of  the  most  picturesque  facades  of  any 
buildine  in  Europe.  The  interior,  restored  by 
Sir  Gilbert  Scott  in  1877,  is  magnificent  lu 
perfect  symmetry  and  the  grand  unbroken  line 
of  vaulting  are  remarkable  features.  The  epis- 
copal throne  dates  from  1320.  The  Great  Peter 
Bell  weighs  12,500  pounds.  The  chapter-house 
contains  a  valuable  library  of  manuscripts  and 
early  books.  Other  architectural  antiquities  are 
the  remains  of  the  castle  of  Rougemont,  por- 
tions of  the  ancient  city  walls  of  Athelstan,  . 
Norman  work  in  some  of  the  churches  and  the 
noble  guild-hall,  tastefully  restored.  Among 
several  fine'  modern  churches  Saint  Michael's 
may  be  mentioned.  Among  the  numerous  edu- 
cational establishments  is  the  Exeter  School, 
founded  by  the  citizens  in  the  time  of  Charles 
I,  to  which  there  are  a  number  o£  free  scholar- 
ships. It  has  16  exhibitions  to  either  of  the 
universities  of  Oxford  or  Cambridge.  The 
Exeter  Diocesan  Training  College  is  also  situ- 
ated in  the  city.  The  charitable  institutions  of 
various  kinds  are  numerous.  The  principal 
scientific  and  literary  institutions  are  the  Devon 
and  Exeter  Institution  for  the  Promotion  of 
Science,  Literature  and  -  Arts,  established  in 
1817,  and  possessing  a  valuable  library;  the 
Exeter  Literary  Society,  established  in  1835; 
and  the  Royal  Albert  Memorial  Collie,  Mu-  ' 
seum  and  Free  Library.  The  college  has  9ver 
1,000  studeuis.  Exeter  is  not  an  industrial 
town,  its  woolen  manufacture,  once  one  of  the 
largest  in  England,  being  extinct;  but  it  has 
iron  foundries,  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  paper  milts,  com  mills,  tanneries, 
etc.  Glove-m^ng  and  lace-making  are  also 
carried  on.  By  means  of  a  canal,  5  miles  in 
length  and  15  feet  in  depth,  vessels  of  AQG  tons 
can  reach  the  city,  and  there  is  a  large  floating 
basin.  The  Exe  itself  is  not  navigable  to  the 
city.  Exeter  is  a  place  of  remote  antiquity, 
having  been  a  British  settlement  long  prior  to 
the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was 
called  Isca  Dantnoniorum.  The  city  returns  one 
member  to  Parliament.     Pop.  48,664. 

EXETER,  N.  H.,  town,  one  of  the  county- 
seats  of  Rockingham  Counn',  on  the  Squam- 
Bcott  River,  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad,  26 
miles  east  of  Man<diester  and  about  13  miles 
southwest  of  Portsmouth.  Exeter  was  founded 
in  1638  by  John  Wheelwright  a  Congregation  J- 
ist  clergyman,  who  was  l^mshed  from  Masssi- 
chnsetts.  Massachusetts  claimed  control  over 
the  place  until  1680.  It  was  the  capital  of  New 
Hampshire  and  the  centre  of  militaiy  move- 
ments of  the  colony  during  the  Revolution.  The 
town  is  well  known  as  tM  seat  of  the  Phillips 
Exeter  Academy  (q.v.),  established  in  1781. 
The  Robinson  Female  Academv  is  located  in 
Exeter.  The  town  contains  a  large  public  li- 
brary and  a  number  of  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, cotton  mills,  iron,  brass  and  machinery 
factories ;  also  manufactories  of  boxes,  um- 
brellas, automobile  tnbes,  asbestos  and  rubber 
novelties,    caiiugs    and    shoes.      Popt    4,89?. 


V.Google 


EXBTBR— BXILV 


Consult  Fassett,  ^CoIoiukI  Life  tn  New  Hamp- 
shire' ;  Bell,  'Histoiy  of  the  Town  of  Exeter' 
(Exeter  1888). 

EXETER,  Fa.,  borough  of  Luzeme  County. 
10  miles  west  of  Scrantor,  on  the  Lehigh  Valley 
Railroad.  It  has  extensive  agricultural,  co^ 
and  lumber  interests.  Fort  Wintermooth 
nearby  is  the  principal  object  of  interesL  Pop. 
3^37. 

EXETER  BOOK,  or  CODEX  EXONI- 
ENSIS,  a  manuscript  anthology  of  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry  in  the  library  of  Exeter  Cathedral.  It 
was  presented  to  the  chapter  by  Leofric,  first 
bishop  of  Exeter  (1050-72),  contains  246  pages 
of  vellum,  and  is  the  extant  original  cony  of 
some  valuable  remains  of  Anglo-Saxon  litera- 
ture. The  text  with  a  translation  is  to  be  found 
in  GoUancz,  'The  Exeter  Book'   (1895).    Con- 

'  suit  Tupper  (ed.),  'Riddles  of  the  Exeter 
Book'    0910). 

EXETER  COLLEGE,  Oxford.  This  col- 
lege, or^nally  called  Stapledon  Hall  was 
founded  in  1314  b^  Walter  de  Stapledon,  bishop 
of  Exeier,  sometime  Lord  High  Treasurer  of 
England,  who  removed  to  this  place  his  scholars 
from  Hart  Hall  and  made  a  foundation  for  a 
rector  and  12  fellows.  In  1404  Edmund  Staf- 
ford, bishop  of  Exeter,  added  two  fellowships 
and  obtained  leave  to  give  the  college  its  pres- 
ent name.  In  1565  Sir  William  Petre,  Secretary 
of  State,  added  eight  -  in  1636  Charles  I  annexed 
one  for  the  Channel  Islands,  and,  lasth',  Mrs. 
Shiers  left  certain  rents  in  1770,  out  of  wWch 
two  fellowships  were  founded.    Under  the  au- 

:  thority  of  17  and  18  Vict,,  cap.  Ixxxi,  the  fel- 
lowships (a  nimiber  of  which  were  appropriated 
to  various  archdeaconries  or  counties)  were 
reduced  from  25  to  IS,  and  were  thrown  open; 
they  are  now  12  in  number,  three  of  them  in 
suspense.  From  the  revenues  of  suppressed  fel- 
lowships over  20  scholarships  were  founded, 
eight  of  which  (called  Stapledon  scholarships) 
are  limited  to  persons  bom  or  educated  in  the 
diocese  of  Exeter,  and  one  or  more  to  persons 
bom  in  any  of  the  Channel  Islands  or  educated 
at  Victoria  College,   Jersey,  or  Elizabeth  Col- 

S'     e,     Guernsey.    In     1915-16    there    were    32 
olarships  and  181  undergraduates. 
EXETER    HALL,    a   large   building    for- 
merly on  the  north  side  of  the  Strand,  London, 
opened  in  1831.    It  is  capable  of  containing  < 


the  property  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association.  In  1907  it  was  sold 
and  demolished.  'Exeter  Hall*  became  by 
metonomy  a  term  of  opprobrium,  to  indicate 
tht  views  of  aggressive  evangel: sts  in  their 
relation  to  public  questions. 

EXFOLIATION,  a  process  of  concentric 
or  spheroidal  weathering,  hereby  the  rock 
tends  to  scale  off  in  thin  and  often  curved 
plates.  It  is  usually  explained  as  follows : 
Rock  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat.  During  the 
day  a  boulder  or  ledge  becomes  heated  for  a 
few  inches  from  the  surface,  while  the  interior 
remains  unaffected.  The  consequent  expansion 
causes  the  surface  to  spall.  At  night  the  sur- 
face cools  quickly  over  an  interior  that  may  still 
he  warm  and  the  shrinkage  again  lends  to 
make  the  surface  scale  off.  In  rocks  made  up 
of  several  minerals,  like  a  granite,  this  process 


is  intensified  by  the  fact  that  each  different 
mineral  has  a  different  rate  of  expansion  and 
hence  tends  to  tear  away  from  its  neifijiborinK 
minerals.  The  process  is  particularly  character- 
istic of  deserts,  where  there  are  great  ex- 
tremes of  temperature. 

EXHAUSTIONS,  Method  of.  Tlie 
ancient  geometricians  employed  the  method  of 
exhaustion  for  determining  the  areas  of  curves 
and  for  the  solution  of  similar  problems.  The 
method  consists  in  comparing  the  magnitude  to 
be  determined  with  rectilinear  magnitudes; 
thus,  the  area  of  a  curve  with  an  area  of  a 
polygon  constructed  so  as  to  be  comparable  with 
the  curve  in  auestton.  The  use  of  the  method 
is  exemplified  in  the  second  proposition  of 
'Euclid's  Twelfth  Book.'  The  method  was  ap- 
plied with  all  the  rigorous  logical  exactness  for 
which  the  Greek  geometricians  are  so  famous. 
See  Geouetky;   Matbeuatics. 

EXHIBITION,  InifaBtTiaL  See  Exfosi- 
TION,  Industrial. 

EXILARCH.  The  title  of  an  oflker  in 
Jewish  communities  in  Persia.  In  624  the  Jews 
rendered  the  Mohammedans  considerable  as- 
sistance in  their  campaign  and  in  consequence 
the  exilarch  was  rec(%nized  as  the  chief  of 
the  Jews.  His  functions  were  civil  and  judiciaL 
Later  the  gaon  of  Sora  and  the  head  of  the 
College  of  Pumbedetha  shared  his  authority, 
the  gaon  being  of  equal  rank,  and  when  the 
office  of  exilarch  was  vacant  performed  the 
duties  of  the  office.  The  exilarch  assumed  all 
the  pomp  of  a  prince.  His  induction  into  of- 
fice was  attended  with  pomp  and  ceremony.  The 
office  was  in  existence  for  seven  centuries  and 
ceased  with  the  death  of  Saadiah  who  was  as- 
sassinated in  942.  It  was  revived  again  for  a 
few  years  about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century. 

EXILE,  voluntary  or  involuntary  pro- 
longed absence  from  one's  country;  also,  a  per- 
son long  absent  from  his  country.  Involuntary 
exile  or  expulsion  for  crime,  particularly  for 
murder  and  other  serious  offenses,  can  be 
traced  back  to  a  very  ancient  period.  It  was 
known  among  the  early  Greeks  and  was  the 
penalty  not  only  for  murder  but  for  offenses 
affecting  the  general  interests,  chiefly  the  for- 
mer. Exile  often  took  the  form  of  expulsion, 
with  death  or  some  other  penalty  as  the  alter- 
native, or  of  simple  transportation,  as  to  a  for- 
eign land.  Sometimes  confiscation  of  prop- 
erty was  an  added  penalty.  In  Rome  under 
the  empire,  exile  or  expulsion  was  knon-n  in 
two  forms ;  deporlalio  and  rele^atio.  The 
first  was  often  punishment  for  political  crimi- 
nals, but  later  its  use  was  extended.  It  in- 
volved banishment,  g;eneral!y  to  an  island,  with 
forfeiture  of  civic  rights  and  usually  of  prop- 
erty. ReUgaiio  was  a  much  less  severe  form 
of  punishment,  involving  no  loss  of  dvic  ri^ls 
by  the  offender. 

The  rights  of  aliens  who  are  voluntary  ex- 
iles in  the  country  to  which  they  flee  after  com- 
mitting political  or  other  crimes  is  usually  fixed 
by  treaty.  Generally  those  guilty  of  political 
crimes  only  are  not  subject  to  extradition.  They 
are,  however,  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  coun- 
try in  which  they  reside.    See  AuEt«s ;  CmzEM- 

Transportation  for  crime  was  abolished  in 
England  in  1S57,  but  it  still  snnrires  among 
some  nations,  as  Russia,  this  country  mtiiibin- 


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BXH0>OB  —  EXODUS 


ing  penal  setllnnents  in  Siberia.  The  tendency 
to-^sy,  in  keeping  with  adTancing  civilizAtion, 
is  toward  its  utter  abolition, 

BXMOOR,  a  wild  and  hilly  district  in  the 
extreme  southwest  of  Somersetshire,  extending 
also  into  Devonshire,  England.  It  was  formerly 
a  forest,  but,  with  exception  of  a  considerable 
portion  lately  cultivated,  it  is  row  mostly  heath 
and  marsh.  It  embraces  ranges  of  hills  of  con- 
siderable elevation  (the  loftiest  being  Dunkerry 
Beacon,  1,707  feet),  and  in  the  time  of  the 
Druids  was  a  favorite  spot  for  the  celebration 
of  their  religious  rites.  Red  deer  still  exist 
here  in  a  wild  state.  Good  descriptions  of  Ex- 
moor  may  be  found  in  Blackmorc's  <Loma 
Doone,'  and  Sir  Cotian  Doyle's  'Micah  Clatk.' 

EXMOUTH,  fks'muth,  Edward  Pellew. 
Viscount,  English  naval  officer:  b.  Dover,  Eng. 
land,  19  April  1757;  d.  23  Tan.  1833.  He  served 
as  midshipman  in  the  Blonde  frigate  during 
the  American  Revolution,  and  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  at  Lake  Champlain.  In  1808 
he  had  attained  the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  and 
in  1814  he  was  made  Baron  Exmouth.  In  1816 
he  proceeded  to  Algiers  in  command  of  a  com- 
bined fleet  of  English  and  Dutch  ships  to  en- 
force the  terms  of  a  treaty  which  the  dey  had 
violated  He  bombarded  the  city  for  seven 
hours  and  inflicted  such  immense  damage  that 
the  dey  consented  to  every  demand.  Twelve 
hundred  Christian  slaves  were  by  this  exploit 
restored  to  liberty.  Lord  Exmouth  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  a  viscount  for  this  service. 
He  was  commander-in-chief  at  Ply  month 
1817-21. 

BXMOUTH,  England,  seaport,  market 
town  in  the  county  of  Devon,  on  the  English 
Channel  at  the  entrance  to  the  estuary  of  the 
Exe.  It  is  one  of  the  favorite  resorts  on  the 
coast  of  Devon,  for  sea-bathing  and,  owing  to 
its  sheltered  situation  and  salubrious  clittkate, 
has  risen  into  favor  as  a  winter  resort.  The 
chief  industry  is  fishing,  and  the  shipping  trade 
is  considerable ;  the  new  docks  are  commodious. 
Exmouth  was  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  the 
country  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III ;  but  sub- 
sequently it  became  a  mere  fishing  hamlet.  Laie 
years  it  has  increased  steadily  in  population  and 
trade.    Pop.  11,962. 

EXNER,  Karl,  Austrian  physicist:  b. 
Prague,  1842.  He  received  his  education  at 
Vienna  and  Zurich  and  in  1885  was  chosen 
president  of  the  Chemico-Physical  Society  of 
Vienna  and  seven  years  later  became  lecturer 
at  the  University  of  Innsbruck  and  from  1894 
to  1904  held  the  chair  of  mathematical  physics 
there.  He'  retired  in  1904.  He  has  written 
'Ueber  die  Frauenhoferschen  Ringe'  (1877)  ; 
'Ueber  das  Funkeln  der  Steme'  (1881); 
'Ueber  Beugungserscheinungen*  (1885);  'Ue- 
ber die  polarisierende  Wirkimg  der  Lichtbeu- 
gung'  (1892)  ;  'Genesis  der  Erklarung  des 
Scintillation  >    (1901). 

EXNER,  Siegmnnd,  Austrian  physiologist : 
b.  Vienna,  1846.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Vienna  and  Heidelberg  and  in  1875 
■was  named  to  the  chair  of  physiology  at  the 
former  insliiutioa  In  1891  he  became  a  di- 
rector of  die  Physiological  Institute.    For  orig- 


inal researches  on  the  physiology  of  th 
ous  s^tem  he  was  twice  awarded  a  prizi 
the    Vienna   Academy   of    Sciences.     He 


written  'Leitfaden  bei  der  mikro^Kipischen 
Untersucbimg  tierischer  Gewebc'  (2d  ed., 
1878) ;  'Untersuchungen  fiber  die  Lokalisalion 
der  Funktionen  in  der  GrosshimHnde  des  Men- 
schen>  (1881);  'Die  Innervation  des  Kehl- 
kopfes'  (1884);  'Die  Physiologic  der  facet- 
tierten  Augen  von  Krebsen  und  Tnsekten' 
(1891);  'Entwurf  zu  einer  physiologischen 
Erklaning  der  physichen  Erscheinungen' 
(1894).  With  Gad  he  was  joint  editor  of  the 
Centraiblatt  fiir  Physiologie  after  1887. 

EXNER,  Wilhelm  Franz,  Austrian  tech- 
nical expert :  b.  Gltisemdorf,  1840.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  Vienna  Polytechnic 
Institute  and  in  1874  became  in  dust  rial- school 
inspector  in  the  Ministry  of  Commerce.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Vienna  Industrial 
Museum  in  1379  and  became  its  lirst  director. 
In  1882,  1885  and  in  1891  he  was  elected  to  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  has  published  'Das 
modeme  Transportwesen  im  Dienste  der 
Land  —  und  Forstwirtschaf  t>  (2d  ed.,  1880)  ; 
'Werkieuge  und  Maschinen  lur  Holzbearbei- 
tung>  (1878-83);  'Die  Hausindustrie  Oester- 
reidis'  (^1890) ;  'Das  K  K.  Technolo^scfae 
Gewerbe- Museum  in  Wien  im  ersten  viertel- 
jahrhundert  seines  Beistandes'    (1904). 

EXODUS,  Book  of.  The  book  of  Exodm 
is  the  seciHid  book  in  the  Old  Testament ;  and, 
of  course,  occupies  the  same  position  in  the 
collection  known  as  the  "Five  Books  of  Moses* 
or  the  "Pentateucix,"  which  constitutes  the  first 
division  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Its  Hebrew 
name  is  WelUek  shetnOlh,  "And  these  are  the 
names,'  or,  in  abbreviated  form,  shemOth, 
"Names"  after  the  opening  words  of  the  book. 
The  designation  Exodus,  which  means.  Coming 
out,  that  is,  from  Egypt,  originated  with  the 
eairly  Greek  translationlcnown  as  the  Septuagint, 
and  is  meant  to  be  descriptive  of  the  contents 
of  the  book. 

Contents.— The  book  falls  naturally  into 
four  divisions  of  unequal  length:  (I)  Cnipres- 
sion  of  Israel  in  Egypt  (i,  1-ii,  22)  ;  (2)  Prepa- 
rations for  the  departure  (ii,  23-iii,  29)  ;  (3) 
Exodus  and  march  to  Mount  Sinai  (xii,  30-xix, 
2)  ;  (4)  Giving  of  the  Law  and  building,  of  the 
tabernacle  (xix,  3-xl,  38).  The  closing  chap- 
ters of  the  book  of  Genesis  record  how  the 
Hebrew  nomads,  after  livii^  in  Canaan  for 
several  generations,  were  driven  by  famine  to 
Egypt,  where'  they  were  assigned  to  a  district 
in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Delta.  There  they 
remained  for  many  generations  (i,  7).  In  the 
course  of  time  a  new  dvnasty  ascended  the 
throne  of  Egypt,  under  which  a  period  of  op- 
pression set  m,  from  which  the  Hebrews  were 
delivered  under  the  leadership  of  Moses.  After 
some  wanderings  in  the  desert,  the  fugitives 
encamped  at  the  fool  of  Mount  Sinai,  where 
a  covenant  was  established  between  the  local 
God  Yaliweh  and  Israel,  a  law  was  given  for 
the  purpose  of  regulating  the  life  of  the  cove- 
nant people  in  harmony  with  the  will  of  their 
God ;  and  a  tabernacle,  in  which  the  people  or 
their  representatives  might  meet  with  their  God, 
was  built 

Composition. —  In  its  present  form  the  book 
compilation  of  material  taken  from  three 

.: — it_.    ..    commonly    desig- 


joogle 


EXOGAMY  —  BXONSRATION 


dons  can  easily  be  separated  from  the  rest; 
to  distinguish  E  from  J  is  more  difficult,  espe- 
cially after  chapter  iii.  The  J  and  E  narratives 
were  written  first,  aad  the  combination  of  the 
two  was  made  long  before  P  was  written.  The 
two  earlier  documents  contained  a  full  account 
of  all  the  important  events  connected  with 
Israel's  stay  in  Egypt  and  with  the  exodus, 
also  at  least  a  brief  record  of  the  journey  from 
the  Red  Sea  to  Mount  Sinai.  There  followed 
an  account  of  the  givine  of  the  law,  the  rebellion 
of  the  peopit  Yahweh's  anger,  Moses'  inter- 
cession  and  the  divine  response.  The  P  ac- 
count was  written  by  one  who  shared  the  com- 
mon postexilic  conception  that  the  age  of  Moses 
was  the  period  during  which  Yah w eh  was 
nearer  to  Israel  than  at  any  subsequent  time; 
consequently  he  introduced  more  of  the  mirac- 
ulcus  in  his  historv,  and  attempted  to  trace 
the   begiiuiing    of    toe    religious   practices 


fests  itself  especially  in  the  priestly  : 
l-xxxi,  18  and  chapters  xxxv-xl.  For  an  analy- 
sis  of  the  book  of  Exodus  according  to  the 
sources  used  in  its  compilation  consult  any 
modem  Commentary  on  Exodus,  or  any  Old 
Testament  Introduction,  The  contents  of  each 
source  are  printed  consecutively  in  Kent,  C  F., 
*The  Student's  Old  Testament'  ;  Carpenter  and 
Battersby,  'The  Hextateuch' ;  Brightman,  E.  S., 
<The  Sources  of  the  Hexateuch.' 

Legal  Sections.—  In  addition  to  the  his- 
torical material  derived  from  the  three  sources 
indicated,  Exodus  contains  three  groups  of 
laws,  which  at  first  existed  independently  but 
later  were  embodied  in  E  or  the  combined  JE. 


ns,  also  in  Deuteronomy  v.     In  both  cases 

some  of  the  commandments  are  expanded  by 
certain  hortatory  additions,  bnt  the  orig^ni 
form  can  easily  be  restored.  (2)  A  second 
Decalogue,  xxxiv,  10-28 ;  which  bears  a 
more  primitive  aspect  than  the  other  and 
lacks  the  ethical  emphasis.  Most  scholars 
hold  that  the  decalogue  in  xxxiv  is  earlier 
than  that  in  xx ;  the  latter  is  considered 
by  many  a  compendium  of  the  teaching 
or  the  Sth  century  prophets,  while  the  other 
is  generally  assigned  to  the  period  of  the  Judges 
or  of  the  early  monarchy.  (For  a  tuMcr  dis- 
cnasioti  of  the  two  decalogues  and  of  their 
relation  to  each  other  consult  Eiselen,  F.  C., 
<The  Books  of  the  Pentateuch.>  chap.  xvii).  (3) 
The  Book  of  the  CovettanI,  xx,  22-xxiii,  19. 
The  laws  in  this  code  deal  with  a  great  variety 
of  stibj'ects,  and  it  requires  considerable  adjust- 
ment to  make  any  systematic  arrangement  pos- 
sible. Originally  the  arrangement  may  have 
been  on  the  principle  of  the  decalogue,  in  the 
sense  that  it  contained  10  separate  cecal  ogues, 
each  containing  two  groups  of  five  laws.  Corre- 
soondine  to  the  two  divisions  of  the  decalogue 
ttie  Book  of  the  Covenant  may  be  divided  into 
two  groups  of  laws,  each  consisting  of  five 
decalogues.  (1)  Judgments,  dealing  with  civil 
and  criminal  cases ;  (2)  Religious  and  humane 
taws.  The  five  decalogues  of  the  first  group 
are  not  difficult  to  reconstrnct;  of  Uie  second 
KTOup  only  four  exist,  thoufrfi  traces  of  the 
fifth  appear.  The  Judgments  deal  with  the 
following  subjects:  (1)  The  riKhts  of  slaves, 
xxi,2-ir;  (2)  Assaults,  xxi,  12^;  (3)  Domes- 


purity,  xxii,  16-20  plus  Deut.  xxii,  13-2?.  The 
religious  and  humane  laws  deal  with :  ( 1 )  Kind- 
ness, xxii,  2,  3,  6,  7,  21-27;  xxiii,  4,  5;  (2) 
Justice,  xxiii,  1-3,  6-8:  (3)  Duties  to  God,  ii, 
23-^;  xxii,  2&--31;  (4)  Sacred  seasons,  xxiii, 
10-19. 

Many  of  the  laws  in  the  Book  of  the  Cove- 
nant arc  strikingly  similar  to  Babylonian  laws, 
chiefly  those  foimd  in  the  law  code  of  Ham- 
murapi  (a.v.),  Ung  of  Babylon  about  2100  B.C 
(Consult  Johns,  C  H.  VV.,  'The  Relation  be- 
tween the  Laws  of  Babylonia  and  the  Laws 
of  the  Hebrew  People').  This  similarity  has 
an  important  bearing  on  the  question  of  the 
date  and  origin  of  the  Hebrew  code.  One 
widely  accepted  view  is  that  the  Book  of  the 
Covenant  is  essentially  a  collection  of  Mosaic 
decisions,  expanded  and  modified  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  Hebrews  in  Canaan  during  the 
period  of  the  Judges  or  of  the  early  monarchy. 
However,  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of 
the  view  that  it  is  a  Canaanite  production, 
based  on  the  Babylonian  legal  system,  and  that 
it  came  to  the  Israelites  from  the  Canaanites 
(Luckenbill  D.  D.,  <Israers  Origins'  in  Ameri- 
can Jaumai  of  Theology,  XXII,  p.  44). 

The  Song  of  MoseB.— This  poem,  in  chap- 
ter XV,  was  originally  independent  of  its  present 
context.  From  verse  17  it  is  clear  that  the 
poem  in  its  present  form  cannot  he  earlier  than 
the  reign  ot  David  or  even  that  of  Solomon 
(compare  also  verse 
improbable,  however, 
of  a  shorter  poem  composed  ; 
events  commemorated  took  place  (compare 
verse  21). 

Bibliognphjr.— In  addition  to  the  discus- 
sions already  mentioned  the  following  works 
in  English  may  be  named :  Bacon,  B.  W.,  'Triple 
Tradition  of  the  Exodus'  (Hartford  1894); 
Bennett,  W.  H.,  'Exodus*  (New  Century 
Bible,'  Edinburgh  no  date)  ;  Comill,  C.  H., 
•Introduction*  (London  1907)  ;  Driver,  S.  R, 
*Exodus'  (<Cambrid«  Bible,'  Cambridge 
1911);  and  •  Introduction'  (1891);  new  ed, 
(1910)  ;  Gray,  G.  B.,  'Introduction'  (New  York 


■  Cfommentaries,'   London   1908)".     Also 
articles  on  'Exodus*   in  Hastings,   'Dictionary 
of  the  Bible'   and  in  'Encyclopedia  Biblica.* 
Fredekick  Cam.  Eiselev, 
Professor    of    Old    Teslarnent    Interpretation, 
Garrett  Biblical  Institute. 

BXOOAHY,  the  usage  b^  which  in  many 
primitive  races  a  man  is  forbidden  to  marry  a 
woman  of  his  own  stock  or  tribe.  See  Max- 
xiage;  Tribe. 

EXOGENOUS  (Sks-Sj'i-niis),  PLANTS, 
an  old  and  now  disused  name  for  dicotyledons. 
Monocotyledons  were  similajly  known  as  en- 
dogenous plants,  or  endogens.    Sec  Botany. 

SXONBRATZON,  in  a  general  sense,  the 
discharging  from  some  liability  or  obligatioa 
In  a  limited  sense  it  is  now  applied  mostly  to 
the  right  of  a  surety  to  call  upon  the  principa] 
debtor  to  pay  the  guaranteed  debt  ana  relieve 
the  surety  from  his  liability.  Consult  De  Col- 
yar,  'Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Guarantees  and 
of  Principal  and  Surety*  (London  1900);  Red- 
field,  'Law  and  Practice  of  Surrogate's  Courts* 


.gle 


SXOPHTHALinC  GOtTRS— BXPANSION 


(7th  ed.,  New  York  1910)  -  WillUms,  'Prin- 
ciples of  the  Law  of  Real  Property*  (22d  ed, 
Toronto  1914). 

EXOPHTHALMIC  OOITRB,  enlarge- 
ment with  turgescence  of  tbe  thyroid  gland, 
accompanied  1^  protrusion  of  Uve  eyeballs, 
breath  I  essness,  palpitation  and  anemia.  Also 
called  Basedow  s  (q.v.)  or  Graves'  disease. 

EXORCISM,  the  act  of  expelling  evil 
spirits  by  adj'uratioa  The  word  is  of  Greek 
origin,  exorkismoj,  from  the  verb  exorkieo, 
which  in  classic  Greek  means  to  put  one  on 
oath,  but  in  the  New  Testament  to  drive  out 
b^  adjuration.  Demonic  possession  was  a  no- 
tion generally  entertained  by  the  Jews  in  the 
time  of  Christ ;  and  that  it  was  entertained  by 
Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  is  as  certain  as 
any  fact  recorded  in  the  Scripture.  (Matt,  xii, 
27  J  Acts  xix,  13) .  Hence,  till  modem 
times  it  was  believed  by  all  Christians, 
thou^  now  it  is  repudiated  expressly  or  tacitly, 
or  is  explained  in  a  naturalistic  sense,  or  at 
least  ignored  by  very  many  who  profess  belief 
in  the  gospels  as  a  divine  revelation  and  the 
very  word  of  God.  The  Catholic  Church,  while 
it  does  not  stand  committed  to  the  popular 
beliefs  of  the  faithful  upon  this  matter,  nor  to 
the  views  even  of  her  most  eminent  doctor^ 
except  so  far  as  she  may  have  formally  adopted 
them  in  her  authoritative  symbols,  claims  to 
possess  and  to  exercise  in  tnese  days  no  less 
than  in  apostolic  times  the  power  to  expel 
evil  spirits  from  the  obsessed  or  possessed,  and 
exorcism  is  formally  pronounced  prior  to  the 
administration  of  baptism  and  the  blessings  of 
chrism  (or  holy  oil)  and  of  holy  water!  One 
of  the  minor  orders  of  cler^  in  the  Catholic 
Church  is  that  of  the  'exorcist,*  and  the  ritual 
of  the  Church  to  this  day  has  an  official  formula 
of  prayers  and  adjuration  for  driving  out 
demons.  Pope  Innocent  I  (d.  417)  forbade 
exorcists  to  exercise  their  mmistry  save  with 
the  express  permission  of  the  bishop,  and  that 
rule  is  still  in  force. 

BXOHCIST,  the  name  of  one  of  the  minor 
orders  of  the  clergy  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Oiurch.  See  HoLV  Okders;  Exotcmif. 
BXOSMOSIS.  See  Osmosis. 
EXOSTEMMA,  a  genus  of  American 
shrubs  and  trees  of  the  natural  order  Rubiaceit, 
several  species  of  which  yield  barks  sometimes 
used  in  medicine.  Though  closely  related  to 
the  g^enus  Cinchona  (q.v.)  which  ^^ields  quinine, 
tfie  species  of  this  genus  are  laclang  in  similar 
alkaloids.  Saint  Lucia  bark  and  Caribbee  bark, 
obtained  from  West  Indian  species,  are  prob- 
ably the  best  known, 

EXOSTOSIS,  a  bony  excrescence  from  the 
osseous  structure.  See  Tumob. 
EXOTERIC.  See  Esoteuc. 
EXOTIC,  an  appellation  applied  to  a  for- 
eign plant  not  acclimated  or  naturalized.  It  is 
implied  that  the  exotic  is  more  or  less  of  a  rare 
or  tropical  character  and  can  be  preserved  only 
in  greenhouses. 

EXPANSION.  See  Ameucah-  Expak- 
SiON  Poucv;  Tebbttowal  Exparsiok  of  the 
United  States. 

EXPANSION,  in  physics,  is  the  increase 
in  the  bulk  of  bodies,  in  consequence  of  a  rise 
in     their    temperature.      This    is    one    of    the 


liquid  or  gaseous.  Expansion  of  three 
kinds  is  recognized :  (I)  linear  (2)  super- 
ficial; and  (3)  cubical.  The  last  only  is 
applicable  to  liquids  and  gases,  as  they  nave 
no  definite  form.  Most  solids  and  litiuids  ex- 
pand unifarmly  as  their  temperature  increases, 
each  substance  having  its  own  peculiar  rale  of 
expansion.  This  statement  is  true,  however, 
only  for  usual  temperatures.  It  has  been  found 
that  as  temperatures  are  increased  beyond  nor- 
mal limits  the  rate  of  expansion  also  increases. 
The  ratio  of  increase  in  bulk  for  each  decree 
rise  in  temperature  as  referred  to  the  original 
volume  at  a  temperature  of  zero  is  called  the 
coefficient  of  expansion.  Solids  expand  equally 
in  all  directions,  so  that  the  coefficient  of  cubical 
expansion  for  solids  is  three  times  the  linear  co- 
efficient. Liquids  expand  much  more  for  the 
same  rise  in  temperature  than  do  solids,  and 
gases  still  more  proportionally.  With  gases, 
moreover,  the  bulk  depeitds  very  largely  upcm 
the  pressure  acting  upon  it,  gases  being  reaoily 
compressible.  However,  gases  do  not  difler  ma- 
terially in  their  coefficients  of  expansion.  It  is 
found  that  under  a  constant  pressure  the 
co-dEcient  of  cubical  expansion  for  all 
gases  is  about  1/490.  The  expansion  of 
liquids  varies  considerably,  but,  in  general, 
the  denser  the  fluid  the  less  the  expan- 
sion; thus  water  expands  more  than  mer- 
cury, and  alcohol  more  than  water;  and,  com- 
monly, the  greater  the  heat  the  greater  the  ex- 
pansion; but  this  is  not  universal,  for  there  are 
cases  in  which  expansion  is  produced,  not  by  an 
increase,  but  by  a  diminution  of  temperature. 
Water  furnishes  us  with  the  most  remarkable 
instance  of  this  kind.  Its  maximum  of  density 
corresponds  wiih  39.2°  F.  This  fact  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  the  economy  of  nature. 
When  the  surface  of  rivers  and  lakes  is  cooled 
the  upper  or  surface  layer  of  water  sinks  and 
warmer  water  from  below  takes  its  place  till 
the  whole  mass  is  cooled  to  40°,  After  this 
the  circulation  ceases;  the  colder  layer  being  less 
dense  remains  at  the  top  until  it  freezes.  The 
maximum  density  point  of  sea  water  is  consider- 
ably lower  than  that  of  fresh  water,  and  varies 
with  the  quantities  of  the  sail  contained  in  it 
The  expansion  of  water  is  about  the  same  for 
any  number  of  degrees  above  or  below  the  max- 
imum density  point.  Thus,  if  we  heat  water 
5°  above  39,2°  it  occupies  the  same  bulk  as 
it  does  when  cooled  down  to  5°  below 
392°.  The  force  with  which  water  ex- 
pands in  the  act  of  freezing  is  shown  when 
glass  bottle's  are  filled  with  water  and  sealed; 
the  glass  is  broken  in  pieces  when  the  water 
freezes.  A  brass  globe,  whose  cavily  is  an  inch 
in  diameter,  may  be  burst  by  filling  it  with 
water  and  freezing  it;  and  the  force  necessary  . 
for  this  effect  is  27,720  pounds.  The  expansive 
force  of  freezing  water  is  due  to  the  tendency 
which  water  in  solidifying  is  observed  to  have 
to  arrange  its  particles  so  as  to  form  prismatic 
crystals,  crossing  each  other  at  angles  of  60 
degrees  and  120  degrees.  Various  methods  have 
been  tried  to  ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of  ice 
at  32":  that  which  succeeded  best  vras  to  dilute 
alcc^ol  with  water  till  a  mass  of  solid  ice  put 
into  it  remained  in  an^  part  of  the  liquid  with- 
out cither  sinking  or  rising.  The  spednc  gravity 
of  such  a  liquid  is  0,92,  which,  of  course,  is  the 


,v  Google 


4tt 


BXPATRIATIOM  —  XXFXCTORATIOH 


specific  grtvity  of  ice,  supposing  the  specific 
gravity  of  water  at  60°  to  be  1,  This  is  an 
expansion  much  greater  than  water  experiences 
even  when  heated  to  212°,  its  boiliDK-point 
We  see  from  this  that  water  at  the  instant  oi 
solidification  rceives  a  sudden  and  consiiierable 
augmentation  of  bulk.    See  Heat. 

The  coefficients  of  expansion  of  some  of  the 
commoner  solids  and  liquids  on  the  Fahrenheit 
scale  are  approximately  as  follows: 

Glass,  1775,000;  iron,  1/50,000;  gold,  1/40,000; 
copper,  1/36,000;  silver  and  brass,  1/33,000; 
tin,  1/31,000;  lead  and  zinc,  1/23,000;  mercury, 
1/11,700;  water,  1/3,870;  ether,  1/2,570;  chlo- 
roform, l/l.lSO, 

Economically  the  importance  of  expansion  is 
very  large,  particiUarty  in  the  temperate  zone. 
Here  the  variation  of  natural  temperaturca  be- 
tween winter  and  summer  is  about  80°.  In 
all  buildinf^,  bridges,  concrete  constructions, 
etc,  expansion  joints  are  inserted  to  take  up  the 
variation  due  to  the  changes  in  temperature. 
in  instruments  of  precision  this  variation  be- 
comes of  the  utmost  importance,  requiring  deli- 
cate adjustments,  as  in  the  coinpensatiiuc  pen- 
dulum.   See  Pendulum. 

EXPATRIATION,  the  voluntary  renunci- 
ation of  the  rights  and  liabilities  of  citizenship 
in  one  country,  in  order  to  become  the  citizen 


to  adopt  another  country  as  his  own  has  and  is 
still  much  disputed.  It  seems  most  reasonable 
that  the  mother  country  and  not  the  individual 
should  decide  the  question.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  19th  century  tue  United  States  was  almost 
the  only  nation  Uiat  claimed  for  individ- 
uals the  right  of  expatriation  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  government  of  which  they  were  citi- 
zens or  subjects.  The  European  nations,  as  a 
rule,  maintained  that  the  permission  of  the 
sovereign  was  necessary;  and  the  enforcement 
by  England  of  the  claim  was  one  of  the  causes 
of  the  War  of  1812.  The  right  of  voluntary  re- 
nunciation of  allegiance  to  the  United  States  by 
one  of  our  citizens  was  unsettled,  so  far  as 
legislation  was  concerned,  till  the  Act  of  Con- 
gress of  27  July  1868  asserted  that  expatriation 
<is  a  natural  and  inherent  ri^t  of  all  people,' 
hut  the  action  of  the  Department  of  State  had 


previously  seemed  practically  to  admit  the  ri^ht. 
TTie  first   formal   recognition  of   this  principle 
secured  in  an  expatriation  treaty  with  the 


North  German  Confederation,  signed  22  Feb. 
1868.  The  position  of  Germans  with  regard  to 
nattu-alization  has  been  somewhat  altered  hy 
the  German  law  of  1913,  which  dedares  that 
•a  person  does  not  lose  his  nationality  if,  be- 
fore acquiring  a  foreign  nationality,  he  ha?  ap- 
plied for,  and  received,  the  written  permission 
of  the  competent  authority  of  his  home  State  to 
retain  his  nationality.*  England  first  recognized 
the  right  of  voluntary  expatriation  by  act  of 
Parliament  in  1870,  and  immediately  concluded 
an  expatriation  treaty  with  the  United  States. 
This  act  was  amended  in  1914  with  the  inten- 
tion of  making  the  status  of  naturalized  citizens 
uniform  throughout  the  Empire.  All  the  lead- 
ing nations  of  Europe  now  reco^iie  the  right, 
including,  besides  those  mentioned,  France, 
Austria,  Russia,  Italy  and  Spain. 

The  right  of  the  individual  to  expatriate  him- 
self has  always  been  a  cardinal  iwctrine  with 


American  statesmen.  The  whole  subject  of  ex< 
patriation  is  regulated  by  the  law  of  Z  March 
1907.  Under  this  statute  an  American  citizen  b 
assmncd  to  have  changed  his  dtaienship  when 
he  becomes  naturalized  in  any  foreign  slate. 
When  an  individual  who  has  been  naturalized  In 
the  United  States  has  resided  for  a  period  of 
two  years  in  the  foreign  state  from  whence  he 
came,  or  five  years  in  any  foreign  atale,  he  is 
presumed  to  have  divested  himself  of  his 
American  citizenship.  An  American  woman 
who  marries  a  foreigner  assumes  the  nationality 
of  her  husband.  It  a  resident  of  the  United 
States  on  the  termination  of  the  matrimonial 
bond,  she  may  rcassume  her  citizenship,  or  if  in 
a  foreign  state,  by  registration  within  a  twelve- 
month, with  the  American  consul.  A  foreign 
woman  who  acquires  through  marriage  with  an 
American  citizenship  in  the  United  States  re- 
tains her  status  if  she  continues  to  reside  in  the 
country.  The  problem  of  assimilation  has  in 
the  United  States  assumed  an  aspect  of  extreme 
gravity  since  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  Euro- 
pean War.  On  questions  growing  out  of  the 
war  there  has  been  maintained  a  persistent 
ai^tation  by  the  representatives  of  foreign  gov- 
ernments, with  the  object  of  influencing  Ameri- 
can citizens  of  their  respective  races  and 
through  them  stimulating  lo^lty  to  these  for- 
ei^  governments  so  as  to  influence  American 
opinion  on  their  behalf,  to  the  grave  endanger- 
ment  of  American  neutrality.  Pressure  has 
been  brought  to  bear  on  legislators  and  through 
them  on  the  national  administration.  Unwar- 
rantable interference  with  the  internal  concerns 
of  the  United  States  led  to  the  dismissal  of  Dr. 
Dumba  (q.v.),  the  Austrian  Ambassador,    See 

CmZENSKIP  IK  THE  UNITED  STATES;  AUEMS; 
N  ATURAUZ  ATIOM. 

EXPECTATION.    See  Psychology, 

EXPECTATION  SUNDAY,  the  Sunday 
before  Whitstuday.  Acts  i,  4,  Christ  com- 
manded the  disciples  *that  they  should  not 
depart  from  Jerusalem,  but  wait  for  the  promise 
of  the  Father.*  They  waited  till  the  day  of 
Pentecost  and  the  promise  was  fulfilled. 

EXPECTATION  WEEK,  the  week,  or 
rather  the  nine  days,  which  elapsed  between  the 
ascension  of  Jesus  and  the  Pentecostal  effusion 
of  the  Spirit,  because  during  that  interval  the 
apostles  and  early  Church  waited  in  expectation 
that  the  promised  Comforter  would  come. 

EXPECTORANT,  a  remedy  used  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  secretion  of  the  lower 
respiratory  tract  —  the  trachea  and  bronchi. 
Such  remedies  act ;  (1)  Through  nervous  influ- 
ences, like  those  of  ipecac,  antimony,  senega;  or 
(2)  they  increase  the  amount  of  blood  flowing 
around  the  bronchi;  or  else  (3)  ihey  Stimulate 
the  mucous  membranes  of  the  bronchi  as  ihey 
are  excreted  To  this  latter  class  potassium 
iodide,  chloride  of  ammonium,  the  aromatic 
balsams  and  squills  belong.  They  are  useful  in 
chronic  stages  of  catarrhal  bronchitis.  See 
Bkonchitis. 

EXPECTORATION,  technically  termed 
sputum,  is  a  physiological  secretion,  but  when 
there  is  an  excess  of  secretion  of  mucus  in  the 
bronchi  and  trachea,  which  is  expelled  ^  hawk- 
ing or  coitghing,  it  becomes  a  diseased  condition. 
Its  examination  and  determination  are  essen- 
tials in  the  diagnosis  of  diest  ailments.    Ex- 


EX    PEDB   HBRCULBH  — EXPERT  TESTIMONY 


cessive  ezpectoraitioii  is  found  in  brondutit,  in 

f>neumonia,  in  tuberculosis,  in  gangrene  of  the 
Ling  and  in  inAuenza.  In  ail  of  itaese  condi- 
tions the  sputum  carries  the  germ  of  the  disease 
and  should  be  disinfected.  Miscellaneous  ex- 
pectoration in  tbe  street  and  public  places 
should  be  prohibited  by  law.  To  prooerly  disin- 
fect the  sputum  it  should  be  received  id  a  papci 
spit-cup  or  appropriate  pocket-flask,  and  later 
destroyed.  A  mixture  of  carbolic  acid,  I  to  25 
of  water,  or  of  chlorinated  Uoie,  a  teaapoonful 
to  a  pint  of  water,  should  be  used  in  spittoons 
if  these  are  essential.  In  cases  of  tuberculosis 
and  influenza  particularly,  great  care  should  be 
taken  of  the  sputum  and  of  all  handkerchiefs, 
towels,  napkins  and  other  linen  that  come  in 
contact  with  the  patient  See  Disinfectiok  i 
Influenza  ;  Tuberculosis. 

^X  PEDB  HERCULEM,  ([know]  Her- 
cules from  his  foot),  a  proverb  meaning  that 
from  a  part  we  may  be  enabled  to  test  the 
whole  structure  of  a  thing.  Tbe  proverb  is 
founded  on  the  story  that  Pythagoras  deter- 
mined the  stature  of  Hercules  on  the  basis 
that  the  Olympic  stadium  measured  exactly  600 
times  the  length  of  Hercules'  foot  In  pro- 
portion as  this  stadium  exceeded  others  wnich 
were  600  times  the  length  of  a  normal  foot,  so 
much  larger  was  Hercules  than  the  normal  man. 
Kindred  are  the  expressions,  "Ab  una  disce 
omnes,"  'From  one   (treacherous  Greek)  know 


EXPEDITIONS  TO  LATIN  AMER- 
ICA.   See  Discoveries  of  Amekica. 

EXPERIENCE  MEETING,  a  religious 
gathering  whereat  same  of  those  present  recount 
their  spiritual  experiences.  Such  meetings  are 
common  in  the  Methodist  denomination  and 
other  sects  hold  such  meetings  at  stated  inter- 

EXFERIMENT,  an  operation  desiftned  to 
discover  some  truth,  prinaple  or  effect,  or  to 
establish  or  illustrate  it  when  discovered  It 
differs  from  observation  in  the  fact  that  the 
phenomena  observed  are,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  controlled  by  human  agency.  Expert- 
meat  distinguishes  the  modem  mediod  ot  in- 
vestigating nature  and  we  owe  to  it  the  rapid 
strides   made   in   chemistry,  physics,  and  otcier 


EXPERIMENT  STATIONS.  See  Am- 
cuLTURAi,  ExPBUKCNT  Stations. 

EXPERIMENTAL        PSYCHOLOGY. 

See  Psychological  Apparatus. 

EXPERT.  One  having  special  knowledge 
or  skill  in  a  particular  subject;  a  specialist; 
specifically,  in  taw,  one  qualified  to  give  expert 
testimony  in  a  judicial  proceeding.    See  £vi- 

EXPERT  TESTIMONY.  A  branch  of 
the  law  of  le^  evidence  which  m^  be  defined 
as  testimony  m  the  form  of  an  opinion,  based 
upon  facts  proved  in  an  action  by  other  wit- 
nesses, or  upon  facts  assumed  to  have  been 
proved,  concerning  matters  involving  scientific 
or  technical  knowledge. 

The  value  of  expert  testimony  was  recog- 
nized in  the  Roman  law  and  was  incorporated 
in  that  system  of  jurisprudence.  In  the  law  of 
some  continental  countries  the  ^stem  has  al- 


ways been  firmly  established.  Indeed,  in  those 
countries,  all  forms  of  opinion  evidJence  was 
and  still  is  freely  accepted:  the  courts  giving  it 
such  weight  as  it  seems  entitled. 

In  the  very  earUest  period  of  the  En^ish 
law,  however,  expert  testimony  was  unknown. 
At  that  time  a  jury  was  selected  from  among 
persons  already  possessing  knowledge  of  the 
facts  of  the  case  to  be  tried.  In  other  words, 
during  the  early  development  of  English  law, 
the  witnesses  composed  the  jury  and  their  ver- 
dict was  based  upon  tbe  facta  within  tbeir  awn 
knowledge,  and  no  effort  was  made  to  assist 
them.  Gradually,  however,  the  practice  of 
talong  testimony  in  open  court  came  into  vogue, 
and  it  was  later  seen,  in  order  that  an  impartial 
verdict  might  be  rendered,  that  the  jury  should 
be  composed  of  unbiased  persons,  whose  minds 
were  not  hampered  by  conclusions  theretofore 
formed. 

As  a  general  rule  in  the  English  common 
law,  which  is,  with  slight  modifications,  the  law 
of  the  United  States,  testimony  of  opinions  has 
never  been  admitted  as  evidence.  Our  courts 
require  and  allow  testimony  as  to  facts  only, 
and  consider  it  the  province  of  the  court  and 
jury  to  draw  conclusions  and  form  opinions 
from  the  facts  proved.  An  exception  to  this 
rule  is  found  in  expert  testimony.  Since  a  jury 
represents  only  the  averase  intelligence  of  the 
cammunit)^  cases  were  eanv  encountered  where 
it  was  difficult  or  impossiole  for  the  jury  to 
reach  a  reasonable  conclusion  from  tbe  facts 
proved  before  them,  and  to  obviate  the  defect 
m  the  trial  system,  the  courts  gradually  brought 
to  its  assistance  expert  witnesses,  to  aid  in  cor- 
rectly determinin?  questions  presented.  At  that 
stage  expert  testimony  was  confmed  almost  en- 
tirely to  that  of  physicians.  Causes  of  death  or 
effects  of  physical  injuries  were  then  and  still 
are  the  most  common  questions  with  which 
juries,  must  deal,  and  die  determination  of  such 
issues  is  deircndent  largely  upon  the  opinions  of 
^dlled  plQrsictans,  familiar  with  the  conditions, 
testifying  as  e3q>erts.  In  later  years  in  England 
and  in  the  United  States,  expert  testimony  has 
been  availed  of  to  assist  juries  in  various  other 
classes  of  cases.  The  theory  of  the  courts  in 
allowing  sudi  testimony  is,  that  the  jury,  or 
where  the  action  is  tried  without  a  jury,  the 
trial  judge,  is  not  competent  to  draw  its  own 
conclusiMi  from  the  facts  proved,  without  the 
aid  of  such  testimot^.    In  that  event  v  " 


idence  for  the  enUghtenmeat  of  judge  o 
jury. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  the  practice  of  em- 
ploying expert  testimony  has  grown  rapidly  and 
nas  residted  in  the  creation  of  a  class  of  wit- 
nesses who  might  be  termed  professional  ex- 
perts, and  who  command  large  fees  for  their 
services.  This  has  conduced  to  a  result  which 
has  brought  about  much  criticism,  adverse  to 
the  system,  based  largely  upon  tne  fact  that 
the  testimony  of  expert  witnesses  Involving 
lengthy  technical  discussions  is  one  if  not  the 
principal  cause  of  the  unreasonable  length  of 
modern  trials;  upon  the  further  fact  that  the 
testimony  of  the  modern  expert,  with  its  tech- 
nicalities and  extreme  lenifth,  tends  rather  to 
obscure  than  to  enliahten  the  minds  of  a  jury; 
but  principally  upon  tbe  fact  that  such  testimony 
has  proved  in  a  great  many  cases  to  be  so  pnr- 


.lOogle 


SXFIATIOH — BXPL  AMATIOH 


Iban  as  to  be  wholly  unreliable.    This  criddsm 
is  not  unmerited 

The  creation  of  the  class  of  so-called  pro- 
fessional experts  whose  services  demand  large 
compensation  has  resulted  in  a  condition  where 
opiKisite  opinions  may  be  obtained  in  any  num- 
ber. Some  of  the  recent  prominent  murder 
trials  haye  hence  afiorded  an  interesting  spec- 


tacle of  arrays  of  experts  with  conflicting  opin- 
ions  retained  by  the  respective  parties,  at  great 
expense,  whose  examination  and  cross-examina- 


tion   has  consumed  days  and  even  weeks, 
hausting  the  patience  of  the  judge,  consiuning 
the  time  of  the  courts,  perplexinit  instead  of 
clearing  the  issues,  and  weakening  the  confi- 
dence of  the  public  in  its  system  of  justice. 

Before  the  testimony  of  an  expert  witness  is 
admitted,  he  must  be  qualified  as  an  expert;  in 
other  words  it  must  be  shown  by  his  own  testi- 
mony that  he  has  a  knowledge  derived  from 
experience  or  study  not  possessed  by  the  or- 
dinary persons  in  regard  to  the  particular  sub- 
ject to  which  he  intends  to  testify.  Whether  or 
not  the  witness  has  proved  himself  an  expert  is 
determined  by  the  trial  judge  in  his  discretion. 

The  method  usually  adopted  to  get  the  tes- 
timony of  an  expert  witness  before  the  jury, 
after  his  qualification,  is  through  the  form  of  a 
hypothetical  question.  A  question  is  put  to  the 
witness  by  the  counsd  of  die  party  calling  him, 
the  question  containing  in  detail  the  facts  wbidi 
the  counsel  believes  have  been  proved  and  the 
witness  is  asked  his  opinion  upon  the  assump- 
tion that  the  facts  assumed  are  true.  Such 
hypothedcal  question  is  often  of  great  length, 
containing,  as  it  does,  a  statement  of  facts  that 
may  have  required  days  to  prove.  After  the 
qnesdon  is  answered  by  the  expert,  he  a  usually 
subjected  to  a  long  cross-examination  by  the 
opposing  counsel  to  test  his  sldll  and  knowledge 
and  the  correctness  of  his  conclusion.  That  the 
ordinary  jury  places  little  weight  upon  the  con- 
clusions of  an  expert  based  upon  the  facts  con- 
tained in  a  hypothetical  question  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  the  counsel  putting  die 
question  tnay  assume  facts  which  have  not  been 
proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  jury.  Again 
the  question  is  often  so  long  and  involved  that 
its  meaning  is  soon  lost. 

In  other  cases,  however,  where  the  witness 
has  knowledge  of  the  facts,  the  hypothetical 
question  is  not  necessary.  For  instance,  the 
opinion  of  an  expert  in  handwriting  may  be 
^ven  after  his  comparison  of  the  disputed  writ- 
mg  with  an  admitted  sample  of  handwriting 
used  as  a  standard  of  comparison ;  and  the 
physician  who  has  examined  a  ijhysical  injury, 
or  the  alienist  who  has  examined  a  person 
claimed  to  be  insane^  may  testify  as  to  his  opin- 
ion based  upon  the  knowledge  acquired  by  him 
through  such  examination  without  the  medium 
of  a  nypotbetical  question. 

The  courts  do  not  consider  expert  testimony 
of  great  inn>ortance,  or  in  any  case  binding  on 
the  jury.  "  is  allowed  solely  for  the  purpose 
of  assisting  the  jury  and  the  courts  take  oc- 
casion to  instruct  a  jury  to  attach  such  weight 
to  expert  testimony  as  in  their  minds  it  seems 
entitled  or  to  di^iregard  it  altogether  if  they 
deem  fit  so  to  do.  Such  an  instruction  will  be 
upheld  even  if  there  is  no  conflict  in  the  expert 
testimony  introduced. 

In  spite  of  the  just  criticism  to  which  the 
modern  development  of  expert  testimony  has 


been  subjected,  the  doctrine  has  its  uses  and  ij 
necessary  to  our  system  of  jurisfMudence. 

Thus,  such  testimony  is  absolutely  indispen- 
sable to  prove  the  custom  in  a  trade;  to  prure 
the  tensile  strength  of  materials;  the  probable 
cost  of  buildings  or  works;  the  chemical  com- 
position of  materials;  the  presence  of  disease 
and  the  cause  and  effects  of  (fisease  or  physical 
injury  and  the  cause  of  death ;  the  seaworthiness 
of  vessels  and  other  nautical  matters;  and  to 
assist  the  jury  in  various  other  matters  not 
within  the  knowledge  of  the  average  judge  or 
jtiryman. 

Various  remedies  through  legislation  have 
been  suggested  to  remedy  the  abuses  to  which 
exi>ert  testimony  has  been  subjected,  such  as 
limiting  the  number  of  such  witnesses  to  be 
called  upon  a  trial ;  Hmitiitg  the  length  of  the 
testimony,  forbidding  an  expert  witness  receiv- 
iiw  3By  compensation  beyond  the  or<Unary  fees 
of  witnesses  and  even  to  the  extent  of  forbid- 
ding expert  testimony  in  some  classes  of  case, 
the  most  recent  suggestion  in  connection  with 
criminal  cases  being  the  creation  of  a  board  of 
experts  retained  and  compensated  solely  b^  the 
State  whose  services  may  be  invtJced  by  ettfier 
the  people  or  the  accused. 

It  may  he  suggested  that  the  evtl  will,  in 
time,  work  its  own  remedy  through  the  agency 
of  die  courts  without  the  aid  of  legislation. 
The  judge  presiding  at  the  trial  of  an  action 
has  a  wide  aiscretion  in  allowing  or  disallowing 
the  testimony  of  experts,  and  it  may  be  said 
that  a  too  liberal  policy  of  allowing  expert  tes- 
timony without  limit  is  largely  the  cause  of  the 
abuse. 

HeHky  M.  Earle, 
Attorney,  New  York  City. 

EXPIATION,  Day  of.     See  Atonement. 

BXPLAHATION.  An  event  is  explained 
when  it  is  exhibited  as  an  instance  of  a  law, 
or  true  universal  proposition.  For  example,  the 
fall  of  a  raindrop  is  partly  explained  if  it  is 
regarded  as  an  example  of  the  tendency  of 
water  to  fall  to  tfae  earth,  and  it  is  still  further 
explained  if  it  is  regarded  as  an  example  of  the 
gnvitational  attraction  which  each  body  has  for 
every  other.  The  explanation  becomes  even 
more  satisfactory  if  the  velocity  and  course  of 
tfae  raindrop  are  found  to  conform  to  the 
mathematical  formulae  concerning  gravitational 
'a  retarding  medium.    In  other  words. 


of  particular,  disconnected  facts,  to  the 
lar  more  manageable  domain  of  a  few  reason- 
able simple  laws,  even  though  these  laws  ^ 
beyond  the  jparticular  facts  which  form  their 
basis.  The  ideals  of  explanation  are  the  same 
everywhere,  though  but  seldom  can  the  per- 
fection of  physical  explanation  be  attained 
Even  teleolo^cal  explanation,  or  explanation, 
not  by  the  causes  of  natural  science,  bol 
by  purposes,  attempts  to  reduce  what  it  re- 
gards as  the  complex  of  deeds  of  some  agent 
to  the  performances  of  some  more  or  less 
stable  character — that  is,  of  some  character 
which  acts  in  a  more  or  less  uniform  manner. 
The  criteria  of  a  good  explanation  are 
largely  dependent  on  the  particular  field  within 
which  the  explanation  is  made.  There  art 
certain  geaerai  methods  of  explanation  whidi 


EXPLOITS   RIVSR— EXPLORATION    IN   AMERICA 


046 


have  bem  found  especially  adapted  to  the  (acts 
of  physics,  others  with  a  peculiarly  psychologi- 
cal field  of  usefulness,  others  again  which  serve 
best  in  the  discussion  of  moral  conduct.  The 
^ood  new  explanation,  though  like  evei^  innova- 
tion, i(  must  in  some  way  conflict  with  estab- 
lished traditions,  will  almost  invatiabl}'   follow 


planation,  however,  which  is  almost  never  of 
service.  This  is  the  eiqtlanation  that  ^es  back 
to  some  more  or  less  occult  force,  pnnciple  or 
faculty.    See  Induction. 

EXPLOITS  RIVER,  a  river  of  New- 
foundland, rising  in  the  southwest  part  of  the 
island  and  flowing  in  a  northeastern  direction 
through  Red  Indian  Lake  and  emptying  into  the 
Bay  of  Exploits  after  a  course  of  160  miles. 
Large  steamers  ascend  it  for  about  11  miles  and 
light  draught  vessels  for  over  100  miles.  It 
almost  divides  the  island  into  two  equal  parts. 

EXPLORATION  IN  AMERICA.  As 
the  routes  followed  by  explorers  of  North 
America  were  determined  by  its  physical  con- 
■  tour,  a  brief  geographical  survey  is  necessary 
to  understand  the  progress  of  its  exploration. 
Thus  considered,  the  continent  divides  itself 
into  four  geographic  provinces :  the  Atlantic 
coast  region,  the  eastern  mountains,  the  central 
region  and  the  western  mountains.  The  first 
embraces  the  coastal  plain  and  Piedmont  pla- 
teau lying  east  of  the  Appalachians;  the  second 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  their  northern 
extension  to  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence-  the 
third  the  whole  Mississippi  Basin,  the  Great 
Lake  region  and  the  Hudson  Bay  drainage.  The 
last  province  is  the  ^eat  cor<Ullera  of  western 
North  America,  which  lies  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Basin  and  includes  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain system.  Pacific  Mountain  system  and  the 
Great  Basin  region  lying  in  between. 

The  Atlantic  seaboara,  which  wa^;  the  scene 
of  the  earliest  exploration  and  settlement,  is 
separated  from  the  central  region  by  the  Appa^ 
lachian  barrier.  Hence  the  Saint  Lawrence, 
lying  beyond  the  northern  terminus  of  this  bar- 
rier, is  the  only  easterly  flowing  river  which 
drains  any  part  of  the  central  province;  and' as 
in  an  unexplored  wilderness  watercourses  nat- 
urally offer  the  easiest  routes  of  travel,  it  was 
try  its  valley  that  explorers  first  penetrated  the 
continent.  A  way  through  the  barrier  was 
found  by  following  the  Hudson  and  its  westerly 
tributary,  the  Mohawk,  which  is  connected  with 
Lake  Ontario  by  a  lowland  area. 

The  central  province  is  covered  by  a  network 
of  waterways  extending  nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  distance  across  the  continent,  from  the  in- 
land margin  of  the  Appalachians  on  the  east 
to  the  front  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the 
west.  It  is  separated  by  low  divides  into  three. 
cBstinct  drainage  systems :  the  rivers  emptying 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through  the  Missis- 
sippi; die  waters  which  feed  the  Saint  Law- 
rence; and  the  rivers  tributary  to  Hudsoij  Bay. 

The  western  mountain  belt  stretches  north- 
ward from  Mexico  through  the  United  States 
and  Canada  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Its  southern 
section  is  interlaced  by  a  series  of  rivers  tribu- 
■e  Sio 


tary  in  part  to  the   ] 


near  the  present  northern  boundary  of  the 
United   States,   where   ihe   head  waters  of   the 

Missouri  reach  far  into  the  western  mountains, 
only  500  miles  from  the  Pacific,  and  separated 
by  but  one  divide  from  the  Columbia  River 
Basin,  which  leads  directly  to  the  Pacifia 
Geographically,  then,  the  explorations  of  our 
country  fall  into  four  groups:  (1)  those  along 
the  Atlantic  seaboard,  made  by  colonists  of 
various  nationalities;  (2)  those  along  the  Mis- 
sissippi, made  by  the  Spaniards  from  the  south, 
the  French  from  the  north  and  pioneers  break- 
ing through  the  passes  of  the  Appalachians 
from  the  toe  Atlantic  seaboard;  (3)  those  made 
by  the  Spaniards  northward  from  the  Mexican 
border;  and  (4)  those  of  the  western  mountains, 
made  by  Americans  and  of  comparatively  recent 
date. 

Though  the  Cabots  discovered  North 
America  in  1497  and  claimed  it  for  England,  it 
was  Spain  who  first  attempted  its  exploration. 
Ponce  de  Leon,  who  had  sailed  with  Columbus 
on  his  second  voyage  and  subsequently  become 
governor  of  Porto  Rico,  set  out  in  I5l3 
m  search  of  the  "Fountain  of  Youth." 
Sighting  an  unknown  coast  at  lat.  30°  8', 
he  named  the  land  "Florida,'  and  turn- 
ing south  colored  both  sides  of  the 
peninsida.  When  he  attempted  nine  years  later 
to  plant  a  colony  on  these  uiores,  he  was  driven 
off  by  Indians. 

But  Spanish  interest  was  aroused.  In  1519 
Cortes  achieved  his  infamous  conquest  of  Mex- 
ico, and  the  fame  of  its  wealth  inspired  others 
to  seek  the  New  World,  Panfilo  de  Narvaez  ob- 
tained a  grant  to  conquer  and  govern  Florida, 
by  which  was  meant  all  the  rest  of  the  con- 
tinent, stretching  indefinitely  northward  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  With  300  men  he  landed  at 
Tampa  Bay  in  1528  and  marched  northward, 
suffering  terrible  hardships.  Disappointed  at  not 
finding  the  gold  thev  sought,  they  returned  to 
the  coast  near  Appalachee  Bay  and  set  out  for 
Mexico  in  improvised  boats,  but  were  wrecked 
by  the  way.  Of  the  whole  party,  Cabcza  de 
Vaca  and  three  others  were  the  only  survivors. 
For  six  years  they  wandered:  up  through  Mis- 
sissippi, across  the  Mis$issi[q>i  River  near  Mem- 
ohis,  along  the  Arkansas  .and  Red  rivers  to 
New  Mexico  and  Chihuahua;  at  last  reaching 
Sinaloa  on  the  Gulf  of  California,  where  they 
were  found  by  Spaniards  and  taken  to  Mexico 
(1536). 

Cabeza's  written  account  of  their  experi- 
ences, published  after  his  return  to  Spain, 
falsely  attributed  great  wealth  to  Florida.  So 
when  Hernando  de  Soto,  fresh  from  the  con- 
quests in  South  America,  which  bad  given  him 
riches  and  fame,  obtained  permission  to  con- 
quer Florida,  many  flocked  to  join  him.  He 
sailed  in  nine  ships  with  620  men.  maintaining 


the  natives,  for  three  years  in  pursuit  of  gold 
through  the  wilderness  of  the  present  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  to  the 
banks  of  the  Mississippi  River.  They  crossed 
above  the  Arkansas,  penetrated  westward  until 
frightened  back  by  uie  roving  prairie  tribes,  and 
returned  to  the  Mississippi,  where  De  Soto 
died  and  was  buried  in  its  waters  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Red  River  (1542).  His  followers  under 
Moscoso  built  seven  br^antines,  descended  to 
the  Gulf  and  reached  the  Spanish  settlement  on 


8l^ 


EXPLORATION  IN  AUBRXCA 


the  river  Fanuco,  311  survivors  all  told.    Thus 

it  was  Dc  Soto  who  6rst  attracted  attention  to 
the  Mississippi.  Alonso  de  Pineda  had  dis- 
covered its  mouth  in  1519,  and  named  it 
*Esi»ritu  Santo,"  and  Cabeia  de  Vacn  crossed 
it  about  1530;  but  neither  of  them  recognized  its 
Importance. 

The  fate  of  this  expedition  discoursed 
coastal  explorations  for  a  time.  But  the  Span- 
iards in  Mexico  were  already  pushing  their  weo[ 
up  into*  the  heart  of  the  continent.  In  1539 
Marcos  de  Niia,  a  priest,  penetraled  New  Mex- 
ico and  came  back  with  reports  of  the  wealth  of 
Cibola,  a  name  which  he  applied  to  seven  cities 
somewhere  to  the  north.  These  were  long 
supposed  to  be  mylhicul,  but  liave  since  been 
identified  as  die  seven  Zuiti  villages  in  New 


water  up  the  Gulf  of  California  under  Her- 
nando d  Alar^n,  who  discovered  the  Colorado 
'River  and  ascended  it  for  85  leagues.  The 
other  part  he  led  overland  in  the  direction  of 
Cibol^  which  he  found  and  conquered  (about 
lat.  35°);  and  then  on  into  Kansas  to  about 
lat.  '10°. 

The  belt  of  country  bounding  Mexico  on  the 
north  received  the  name  'New  Mexico*  from 
Antonio  Espejo.  an  explorer  who  started  north 
in  1582  with  Indian  guides  to  the  rescue  of  three 
missionaries  who  had  been  deserted  the  pre- 
vious year.  Following  the  Rio  Grande  del 
Norte,  he  came  to  Cibola  and,  after  learrring 
that  the  missionaries  had  been  killed,  con- 
tinued to  'explore  the  region  and  returned  by 
the  river  Pecos. 

The  colonizer  of  New  Mejdco  was  Juan  de 
Ofiaie.  He  enlered  the  country  in  1597  with 
130  families  and  founded  the  first  capital,  San 
Gabriel  (second  oldest  town  in  the  United 
States),  near  Santa  Fi.  Iti  succeeding  years  he 
carried  his  explorations  westward  through  Ari- 
zona, in  1604  following  the  Gila  River  to  the 
Gulf  of  California.  The  following  year  he 
fotmded  Santa  F& 

While  this  was  going  on  in  the  interior, 
other  nations  were  interested  in  the  coast.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  Columbus  was  in 
search  of  a  western  passage  to  Asia  when  he 
came  upon  America.  But  the  idea  did  not  die. 
A  similar  quest  brou^t  the  Cabots  to  the 
shores  of  North  America;  and  later,  as  the 
vast  extent  of  the  new  country  began  to  be 
realized,  one  explorer  after  another  searched  the 
coast  for  a  water  route  by  which  to  pierce  the 
continent.  When  at  last  the  waters  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  were  found  to  lead  no  farther  than 
the  Great  Lakes,  explorers  still  pushed  west- 
ward along  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  or 
attempted  to  round  the  continent  on  the  north 
through  the  tee-blocked  seas. 

In  1524  Giovanni  da  Verrazzano,  sent  by 
Francis  T  of  France,  examined  the  shores  from 
South  Carolina  to  Newfoundland,  and  wrote  (o 
tte  king  the.  first  known  description  of  them. 
He  brought  back  a  theory  of  an  inland  sea 
approaching  the  Atlantic  coast  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  continent-  and  it  was  to  find  this 
*Sea  of  Verrazzano,'  as  a  possible  route  to 
Asia,  that  the  king  sent  Jacques  Cartier  in  1534 
to  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  (previously  dis- 
covered by  Tean  Deny*  of  Honfleur).  In  the 
tourse  of  thnc  voyages  he  expk>red  the  Saint 


Lawrence  as  far  as  Uontreal,  beUeviBg  that 
he  had  found  the  western  passage. 

Cartier  attempted  to  plant  a  colony  near  the 
site  of  Quebec;  but  for  many  years  France's 
efforts  in  that  line  were  doomed  to  failure. 
Equally  unsuccessful  were  Jean  Ribaut,  who  in 
1562  brought  over  a  band  of  Huguenot  colonists 
to  the  site  of  Beaufort,  S.  C;  and  Ren^  de  Lau- 
donniire,  who  founded  Fort  CaroUne  two  yean 
later  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John's  liiver, 
Florida.  In  1565  Pedro  Uenendez  de  Avilis 
came  to  colonize  Florida  for  Spain,  and  mas- 
sacred the  inhabitants  of  Fort  Caroline.  Lau- 
donni^re  escaped  to  France,  but  Ribaut   (who 


attempting  to  escape  along  the  coasL 

Menendez  was  the  first  to  establish  Spanish 
rule  firmly  in  Florida.  He  founded  Saint 
Auzustiue  (oldest  town  in  the  United  States)  in 
I56S,  sent  a  mission  to  the  Rappahannock  in 
1570,  and  explored  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the 
Potomac. 

England  sent  out  her  first  colonists  to  James- 
town, Va.,  in  1607,  Among  the  number  was 
Capt.  John  Smithy  an  indefatigable  explorer  of  ' 
the  neighboring  nvers  and  Chesapeake  Bay. 

Another  Englishman,  Henry  Hudson,  sent 
out  in  1609  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Coim)any, 
explored  the  coast  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Oiesa- 
peake  Bay,  and  then  ascended  the  Hudson  River 
to  Alhanv.  It  was  during  the  following  year 
that,  in  toe  search  for  a  northwest  passage,  he 
discovered  the  strait  and  bay  that  bear  his  name. 

France  first  gained  a  foothold  in  North 
America  throfi^  the  efforts  of  Samuel  de 
Champlain.  The  years  1603-07  he  spent  in  ex- 
ploring the  Saint  Lawrence  and  the  shores  of 
New  England,  making  the  first  accurate  map  of 
that  coast.  After  be  founded  Quebec  in  1606, 
he  became  interested  in  inland  exploration, 
which  twice  led  him  into  the  United  States.  In 
1609  he  set  out  with  11  men  to  aid  the  Hurons 
agunst  the  Iroquois,  descended  the  Richelien 
in  canoes,  ^ortagmgpart  of  the  way,  and  pushed 
on  through  Luce  Oiamplain  to  about  Crown 
Point;  and  again  in  1615  he  accompanied  a 
great  war  party  of  Indians  by  "way  of  the  New 
York  lakes  into  the  heart  of  the  Iroquois  coun- 
try, south  of  Lake  Oneida. 

From  this  time  for-traders  and  missionaries 
spread  over  the  country  bordering  the  Saint 
Lawrence  and  its  tributaries,  gradually  approach- 
ing the  Mississippi.  The  Spaniards  had  not  fol- 
lowed up  their  (Uscorery,  failing  to  understand 
its  importance.  Nearly  a  century  after  De 
Soto's  journey  the  French  at  the  north  beg^m 
to  have  an  interest  in  the  Indian  traditions  re- 
garding the  "Great  River."  About  1635  a 
trader,  Jean  Nicollet,  was  sent  to  a  tribe  near 
the  hrad  of  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin.  From  then 
he  went  with  Indian  guides  t:p  the  Fox  River, 
portiwed  to  the  Wisconsin  and  descended  that 
until  lie  came  'near  the  sea,*  as  he  reported; 
probably  mistaking  the  "Great  Water"  describefl 
by  the  Indians  for  die  sea.  By  1658  two  other 
French  traders,  Radisson  and  (iioseilliers, 
reached  the  bead  of  Lake  Superior  and  ex- 
plored the  surrounding  country. 

When  these  rumors  of  a  mtt  river  to  the 
west  readied  Frontenac,  me  governor  of 
Canada,  he  sent  Loins  Joliet  to  o^lore  it  in 
company  with  Jacques  Marqnette,  a  Tesmt 
Ueeting  at  Saint  Ignace,  they  set  out  widi  five 


JEXPLORATJpN  IN  AHBRICA 


MT 


men  and  two  canoes,  skirted  tbe  north  shore  of 
Lalce  Michigan  .and  Green  Bay,  and  ascending 
the  Fox  River,  were  guided  by  Indians  across 
the  portage  to  the  Wijsccmsiii,  down  which  they 
passed,  reaching  [he  Mississippi  17  June.  For  . 
one  month  they  floated  down  the  great  stream, 
notioR  the  mouths  of  its  tributaries  as  they 
passed,  until  they  came  to  an  Indian  villa^ 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  By  this 
time  they  knew  that  the  river  emptied  i 


turned  back  through  fear  of  Spaniards,  . 

\ng  by  way  of   toe   Illinois  and  the  Wi^sn^m 

shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  which  they  reached  by 

Sartage.  Two  years  later  Marauette  met  his 
eath  while  attempting  to  establish  a  mis^on  on 
the  Illinois.  Hia  woric  among  the  Ir.dians  was 
taken  up  by  Father  Claude  Allouez,  also  a 
Jesuit,  who  established  sever^  missions  and 
traversed  much  of  the  country  around  lakes 
Superior  and  Michigan  between  1665  and  1680. 
Already  another  explorer  was  searching  (or 
tbe  MississippL  Robert  Cavalier  de  La  ^alle 
was  one  of^  those  who  had  come  to  Canada 
in  pursuit  of  the  passaee  to  China,  and  suessed 
that  it  lay  by  wav  of  the  Mississimi,  which  he 
supposed  emptied  into  the  Gulf  of  California. 
In  1669  he  crossed  from  Lake  Ontario  to  a 
branch  of  the  Ohio,  and  followed  that  river 
as  far  as  Louisville.  The  next  year  he  reached 
tbe  Illinois  from  the  end  of  Lake  Michigan  and 
explored  it  for  some  distance.  For  years  he 
went  back  and  forth  through  the  region  and 
established  trade  with  the  western  Indians.  In 
1680  he  sent  Louis  Henneinn,  another  Jesuit, 
with  two  men  down  the  Illinois  to  ascend  the 
Mississippi.  On  the  way  they  were  taken  prison- 
ers by  Uie  Sioux  and  carried  up  the  great  river 
to  the  Falls  of  Saint  Anthony,  which 
Hennepin  named  There  they  were  joined  by 
the  famous  trader  Daniel  Greysolon  Du  Lhut, 
who  for  two  ve&rs  had  fearlessly  cx^orcd  the 
region  arouna  the  end  of  Lake  Superior  and 
the  head  of  the  MississippL  He  bad  just  come 
by  way  of  the  Saint  Croix  River  from  his  fort 
on  the  site  of  Dututh  and  now  joined  Hennepin 
on  his  return  journey  by  Ae  Wisconsia 

At  last,  in  l^  La  Salle'  attained  his  goal 
With  Henri  de  Toniif  and  a  targe  jiaity  he 
reached  the  MississiMii  from  the  foot  of  Lake 
Michigan  by  way  of  the  Chicago  and  the  Illi- 
nois, and  descended  to  its  mouth.  On  9  April 
La  Salle  took  possession  in  the  name  of  King 
Louis  of  France  .ind  gave  the  name  Louisiana 
to  all  territory  drained  by  the  Mississippi.  After 
hjs  return  he  sailed  for  France  ana  obtained 
permission  to  transport  colonists  to  the  new 
province.  He  reached  the  Gulf  of  Mejtico,  but 
was  unable  to  find  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
and  put  in  at  Matagorda  Bay.  There  he  built 
Fort  Saint  Louis,  and  then  started  overland  to 
find  tbe  Mississippi  and  reach  Canada  to  obtain 
SUM>l'es  for  the  colonists,  hut  was  murdered  by 
one  of  his  men  near  a  fork  of  Trinity  River, 
Texas. 

Where  La  Suite  had  failed,  Pierre  Le  Moyne 
dlberville  wa»  to  succeed.  In  1609  he  entered 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  explored  the  region 
uound  the  month  of  the  Mississin",  leaving  a 
colony  at  Bitoxi.  whidi  was  afterward  trans- 
ferred to  Mobile.  With  him  was  one  alrrady 
known  as  an  cxjJorer  of  the  northern  region, 
Pierre  U  Suwr.     He  in  1695  had  disojyered 


and  named  the  Saint  Peter  (the  Minnesota) 
River  and  observed  a  quantity  of  green  earth 
near  it;  and  now,  in  the  belief  that  it  was  cop- 
per, he  led  a  par^  of  men  up  the  river  to  work 
It  and  establish  a  fort  on  the  Blue  .Earth 
(Green)    River. 

Just  at  this  time  (1703)  Baron  La  HonUn, 
a  man  who  participated  in  many  explorations 
in  the  north  of  the  Valley,  published  an  account 
of  his  wanderings  which  contains  some  valuable 
informalioQ  with  much  that  is  false.  He  claimed 
to  have  discovered  a  river  (La  Riviere  Longue) 
entering  the  Mississippi  from  the  west  neai 
Lake  Pepin  and  to  have  followed  it  to  its  source 
in  a  large  lake  at  the  foot  of  mountains,  on 
the  other  side  of  which  was  another  river  which 
emptied  into  tbe  Pacific.  This  figured  on  maps 
for  years  before  it  was  fotmd  to  be  fictitious. 

The  right  to  'farm  out"  this  great  country 
of  Louisiana  was  granted  to  Antoiile  Crozat 
in  1714  and  aKcnts  were  immediately  dispatched 
to  explore  tne  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi; 
Before  the  year  was  out  St.  Denis  followed  tne 
Red  River  and  crossed  to  the  Rio  Grande,  where 
he  came  upon  a  Spanish  mission  and  was  im.> 
prisoned,  sent  to  Mexico  and  ordered  to  return. 
La  Harpe  in  1719  pushed  up  the  Red  River 
and  across  to  the  Arkansas,  reaching  lat.  37*  21', 
He  established  a  post  among  Uie  Indians, 
claimed  all  this  country  for  France  and  defied 
the  Spaniards  in  a  letter  to  the  Spanish  gov* 
The  exploration  of  the  Missouri  was 


of  his  life  among  hostile  Indians,  who  attempted 
in  vain  to  bar  ms  passage. 

In  this  southwestern  section  of  the  Valley 
French  intrusion  was  resented  by  the  Spaniards. 
Their  claim  to  Texas  rested  on  the  exploration 
of  its  rivers  by  Francisco  de  Urdinola  in  1575, 
and  an  expedition  led  across  its  borders  by 
Hernando  del  Bisque  in  1675.  Farther  west 
their  control  was  assured  by  the  work  of  mis^ 
sionaries.  Father  Kino  a  Jesuit,  had  entered 
Arizona  as  early  as  1658  and  by  1679  had  es- 
tablished five  missions  and  l>ecame  well  ac- 
Juainted  with  the  country.  On  one  of  his  expe- 
itions  he  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  , 
and  discovered  that  Lower  California  was  a 
peninsnla,  not  an  island,  as  was  supposed. 

With  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1767 
the  missions  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, who  inaugurated  the  era  of  Spanish 
exploration  and  settlement  in  California  by  a 
colony  at  San  Diego  in  l7fS.  Years  before 
pioneers  from  the  East  broke  throiu^  the  mouU' 
tains  and  seized  upon  the  country,  these  mission- 
aries fiad  permeated  it  and  stamped  their  in- 
fiuence  upon  it. 

Meanwhile  the  French  at  tbe  north  were 
every  year  sending  traders  and  explorers  into 
the  interior.  For  some  time  they  continued  to 
use  the  routes  followed  by  Marquette  througji 
Green  Bay  and  by  La  Salle  np  the  Chicago, 
but  in  1716  they  opened  a  new  one  by  way  of 
the  Wabash  and  another  in  1720  b_y  way  of  the 
Miami.  A  dispute  over  boundanes  arose  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  French.  Governor 
Spotswood  of  Virainia  urged  upon  the  English 
tlw  necessity  of  colonixing  the  Ohio  Valley  and 
in  1716  made  his  fantastic  ride  with  the 
•Knights  of  the  (kilden  Horseshoe"  to  see  if  a 
V3y  through  the  mountains  could  be  found. 
He  crossed  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Shenandoah 


■8l^ 


BXPLORATION  IN  AHBBICA 


Valley,  but  it  was  not  until  1732  that  the  first 
settler.  Joist  Hite,  entered  the  region. 

Other  efforts  were  being  made  to  cross  the 
mountains.  When  it  was  learned  that  the 
French  were  winning  the  allemance  of  the 
Cherokeea  from  the  English,  Sir  Alexander 
Cuming,  a  Scotchman,  sel  out  in  1730  with  a 
party  from  Charleston  and  made  a  circuit  of 
500  miles  across  the  mountains,  bringing-  back 
several  Indians  in  token  of  renewed  faith.  In 
1736  Col.  William  Mayo  and  a  party  of  sur- 
veyors followed  the  Potomac  to  its  springs  and 
discovered  a  portage  to  waters  flowing  into  the 
Monongahela.  Another  route  was  opened  to  the 
Kanawha,  an  affluent  of  the  Ohio,  in  1744  by 
Col.  James  Wood,  a  well-known  frontiersman 
and  explorer.  Dr.  Thomas  Walker  in  1748  led 
an  expedition  across  the  Virginia  mountains, 
named  Cumberland  Gap  and  River  and  made  a 
circuit  through  West  Virginia. 

As  the  country  became  better  known  public 
interest  awakened  and  in  1748  a  number  of 
Virginians  formed  themselves  into  the  "Ohio 
Company*  for  the  purpose  of  colonizing  the 
Ohio  Valley.  To  anticipate  them,  the  governor 
of  Montreal  dispatched  Bienville  de  Celeron 
down  the  Ohio  to  bury  at  the  mouths  of  its 
tributaries  plates  inscribed  with  the  declaration 
that  all  territory  drained  by  those  waters  be- 
longed to  France.  In  spite  of  this,  the  Ohio 
Company  sent  out  Walker  in  17S0  to  survey 
lands  for  settlement.  He  explored  Kentucl^ 
and  built  the  first  house  in  the  region  now  com- 
prised in  that  State.  Christopher  Gist  was  also 
sent  to  explore  routes  lo  the  north,  select  lands 
for  settlement  and  investigate  the'  Indian  tribes. 
He  made  a  circuit  of  1,^  miles  north  to  the 
Scioto  and  Miami  and  then  south  of  the  Ohio, 
visiting  all  the  Ohio  tribes  and  returning  by 
way  of  the  Licking,  Kentucky  and  Roanoke 
rivers.  On  a  second  mission  in  1751,  he  discov- 
ered a  new  gap  from  the  Potomac  to  the 
Monongahela  and  explored  the  Kanawha. 

The  next  year  Gist  acted  as  guide  to  George 
Washington  when  he  went  as  emissary  from  the 
governor  of  Virginia  to  the  French  fort  at  the 
head  of  the  Ohio  to  protest  against  the  French 
occupation  of  the  valley.  His  mission  was  fruit- 
less, but  he  brought  back  a  map  of  his  route; 
up  the  Potomac,  across  the  divide  and  along 
the  Monongahela  and  AllegCny  to  the  French 
fort  near  Lake  Erie, 

A  most  prominent  figure  in  English  explora- 
tion was  George  Croghan.  Sent  out  by  Penn- 
sylvania in  1750  with  the  half-breed  Montour 
to  win  over  the  Indians  through  the  Ohio 
Valley  to  the  English,  he  went  far  and  wide, 
from  tribe  to  tribe,  attaining  an  influence  over 
the  Indians  which  was  of  invaluable  service  to 
the  English  dnring  the  French  and  Indian  War. 
When  peace  was  declared  he  was  delegated  to 
prepare  the  Indians  for  English  occupation. 
Starling  from  Pittsburgh,  he  followed  the  Ohio 
Wabash  and  Maumce  to  Detroit  and  reported 
that  the  way  was  open;  whereupon  the  English 
troops,  under  Capt.  Thomas  Stirling  advanced 
to  Fort  Chailres  and  took  possession  of  the 
cotintry  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

And  now,  with  English  control  assured,  set- 
tlement spread  rapidly  beyond  the  Appalachians. 
Much  of  the  preliminary  exploration  was  made 
by  hunters,  trappers  and  traders  too  numerous 
to  mention;  were  they  known.  North  of  the 
Ohio  the  coiwitry  was  first  settled  by  Moravian 


Among  the  southern  pioneers, 
James  Smith  followed  the  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee rivers  in  1766  and  John  Finlay  explored 
northern  Kentucky  in  1767 ;  but  most  prominent 
was  Daniel  Boone.  His  first  venture  was  made 
in  1769,  when  he  crosBed  the  Cumberland  Gap 
with  James  Robertson  and  spent  two  years  ex- 
ploring easteiii  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Sub- 
sequently these  two  men  look  a  prominent  part 
in  the  settlement  of  this  region. 

With  the  advent  of  the  American  Revolution 
exploration  received  a  check ;  but  the   expeditions 


western  New  York  were  not  without  geo- 
graphical value.  And  in  the  Indian  wars  which 
followed  (1790-94)  the  American  expeditions 
under  Harmar,  Clark,  St.  Clair  and  Wayne 
added  to  knowledge  of  the  Ohio  Valley. 

During  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  while  ex- 
ploration and  settlement  had  been  pushed  west- 
ward from  Che  Atlantic  seaboard  over  halfway 
across  the  continent,  the  Pacific  coast  was  al- 
most unknown.  Balboa  had  discovered  the 
Pacific  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  in  1513  and 
Cortes  had  sent  several  expeditions  to  the  west 
coast  of  Mexico  (1522-24).  The  first  white 
man  to  reach  the  coast  of  California  was  the 
Spaniard  Juan  Cabrillo,  who  in  1542  traced  it 
north  as  far  as  Monterey;  and  after  his  death 
the  following  year  his  pilot  continued  to  Cape 
Mendocino.  In  1576  the  English  seaman  Drake 
reached  lat.  43°  in  his  coastal  exploration.  To 
the  north  the  coast  was  unknown  until  Vitus 
Bering  (1741^,  commanding  a  Russian  expedi- 
tion, visited  it  in  lat,  60°.  His  voyage  was 
followed  by  a  swarm  of  Russian  fvr-traders, 
■who,  tollowiug  the  chain  of  Aleutian  Islands 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  grad- 
ually worked  their  way  eastward  ancl  event- 
ually  reached    the   mainland   of    what    is    now 

In  1778  came  Capt.  James  Cook,  the  famous 
English  navigator,  surveying  the  coast  from 
Vancouver  Island  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  his 
search  for  a  northeast  passage.  When  the  pub- 
lished account  of  this  voyage  called  attention  to 
the  rich  fur-trade  in  the  northwest,  Americans 
were  among  the  first  to  take  advantage  of  it 
In  1789  Capt,  Robert  Gray,  of  Boston,  in  the 
ship  Columbia,  cruised  around  the  Horn  and 
visited  the  northwest  coast,  carried  a  cargo  of 
furs  to  China  and  returned  to  Boston  by  way 
of  the  Cape  of  (Jood  Hope,  Thus  was  the 
American  flag  first  carried  around  the  world. 
On  a  second  voyage  in  1792  he  discovered  and 
explored  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Columbia 
River,  This  all-important  achievement,  besides 
disclosing  an  easy  route  from  the  western 
mountains  to  the  sea  —  thus  paving  the  way  for 
transcontinental  exploration  —  formed  the  chief 
basis  of  our  territorial  claim  to  Oregon,  When 
GeoT^e  Vancouver,  who  was  exploring  the  west 
coast  with  two  British  vessels  (1792),  learned 
of  the  Columbia  River  through  Gray,  he  sent 
a  boat  expedition  to  investigate  it  Afterward 
he  continued  northward  to  extend  Cook's  ex- 
plorations on  the  coast  of  Alaska  and  British 
Columbia. 

As  yet  none  had  succeeded  in  finding  an 
overland  route  to  the  Pacific  north  of  Mexica 
Cabeia  de  Vaca,  in  his  transcontinental  wander- 
ings, had  turned  to  the  soudi  when  he  reached 
the  mountains.     A  Canadian,  Varennes  de  la 


SXPLOKATION    IH   AMERICA 


OiD 


Virendiye,  spent  many  ye»n  (1731-^)  in  the 
search  for  a  route ;  at  his  own  expense,  for  hta 
goveriuneat  refnsed  to  back  him.  With  his 
sons  he  mwle  extensive  explorations  west  of 
Hudson  Bay,  in  the  course  of  which  he  dis* 
covered  (1731)  the  Red  River  and  Lake  Win- 
oipcR,  and  his  son  Fierre  penetrated  to  the  forks 
of  &e  Saskatchewan  River  (1739).  In  1742 
the  tvro  sons  made  a  perilous  journey  to  the 
southwest,  across  the  Missouri  and  on  to  the 
Big  Horn  Uountains. 

In  the  struggle  for  the  Ohio  Valley  the  west- 
era  route  was  forgotten  for  a  time.  But  when 
that  contest  was  settled  the  quest  was  renewed 
by  Jonathan  Carver  of  Connecticut  In  1766  he 
made  his  way  westward  by  canoe  through  the 
Great  Lakes  and  by  Marquette's  route  to  the 
Mississippi,  which  he  ascended  to  the  Falls  of 
Saint  Antnony.  He  explored  the  Minnesota 
River,  spent  a  winter  among  the  Sioux  and  in 
1767  returned  by  ascending  the  Chippewa  River 
and  reaching  Lake  Superior  waters  by  portage. 
While  his  joumey  added  little  to  f^ogra^^cal 
knowledge,  yet  it  served  to  awaken  interest  and 
led  Richard  Whitworth  to  join  Carver  ia  plan- 
ning a  transcontinental  expedition,  which  was 
mifortunately  prevented  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution. 

Meanwhile  the  English  fur-trading  compa- 
nies, through  the  journeys  of  their  agents,  had 
contrtbutea  much  to  geographical  Iciowledge, 
not  only  of  Canada  but  of  the  United  States. 
The  Hudson  Bay  Company,  since  it  obtained  its 
charter  in  1670  and  established  its  first  post 
(Fort  Rupert)  on  the  great  bay  from  whidi  it 
took  its  name,  had,  in  spite  of  French  interfer~ 
ence,  extended  along  the  shores  of  the  bay  and 
its  tributaries.  After  the  English  conquest  of 
Canada  in  1763  it  had  a  clear  field  until  the  ap- 
pearance   in    1733    of    a   rival    'Northwestern 


Alexander  Mackenzie  in  a  journey  (1792-93) 
from  Lake  Athabasca  up  the  Peace  Itiver  and 
across  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  head  waters 
of  the  Fraser  River  and  the  Coast  Ran^e  to  the 
coast  of  British  Columbia  in  the  latitude  of 
Queen  Charlotte  Sound.  This  was  the  first  time 
the   continent  wag  crossed  north  of   Mexico. 

Thomas  Jefferson  in  1803  induced  Congress 
to  make  an  appropriation  for  the  expenses  of  a 
transcontinental  exploring  expedition,  a  project 
that  he  had  entertainerf  for  some  20  vears. 
Nominalty,  Capt.  Meriwether  Lewi?  was  leader 
of  the  party,  with  Lieut,  (generally  known  as 
Capt.)  William  Clark  second  in  command;  but 
in  point  of  fact  all  action  was  taken  jointly  and 
the  expedition  is  always  known  as  that  of  Lewis 
and  Cwrk,  While  preparations  were  under  way 
the  purchase  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana  from 
France  gave  additional  importance  to  the  enter- 
prise.  Lewis  and  Clark,  with  43  men,  left  Saint 
Loots,  then  a  frontier  trading-post,  in  three 
large  boats,  pushed  their  way  up  the  Missouri 
atid  built  a  fort  at  the  Mandan  Village,  about  SO 
miles  above  the  present  town  of  Bismarck,  N.  D. 
Prom  this  point  some  of  the  party  were  sent 
back  and  in  the  spring  of  1805  the  rest  con- 
tinued their  voyage  up  the  Missouri  with  32  men. 
At  the  falls  the  heavy  boats  were  left  and  canoes 
were  coiulnKled  to  continue  the  ascent  of  the 


river.  Near  the  head  of  what  they  named  the 
JeSerson  (the  western  fork  of  the  Missouri) 
mey  cached  their  canoes  and  with  horses  secured 
from  the  Indians  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains 
to  the  Coltmibia,  which  they  descended  to  the 
mouth,  rraching  the  Pacific  in  November  1805. 
After  wintering  here  the  party  retraced  their 
steps  to  the  east  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  there  separated;  Lewis  following  the  Mis- 
souri while  Clark  traced  the  course  of  the  Yel- 
lowstone. At  the  junction  the  reunited  forces 
continued  their  ntpid  down- stream  journey, 
reaching  Saint  Lewis  in  September  1806.  This 
was  not  only  the  most  notable  exploration  ever 
undertaken  by  the  United  States  government, 
but  its  complete  success  led  to  the  many  othen 
which  have  followed  up  to  the  present  day. 

The  head  water*  of  the  Mississippi  were  ex- 
plored by  Lieut  Zebulon  Montgomery  Pike, 
who  ascended  the  river  with  a  party  of  20 
soldiers  in  1805.  He  reached  Leach  L^ce  drain- 
age system  and  found  the  region  already  occu- 
pied by  the  agents  of  the  Northwestern  Com- 
pany. Upon  his  return  in  1806  Pike  set  out 
again  with  23  men,  with  the  idea  of  winning 
the  allegiance  of  the  Indians  from  the  Span- 
iards and  establishing  an  American  claim  to  the 
region  which  had  long  been  in  dispute  between 
the  French  and  Spaniards.  He  ascended  the 
Osage  River  in  boats  and  crossed  overland  with 
horses  to  the  Pawnee  villages,  where  he  took 
up  the  trail  of  the  Spaniard  Malgares,  who  in 
the  previous  year  had  made  an  excursion  into 
this  region  from  Mexico  at  the  head  of  several 
hundred  troops.  At  the  Arkansas  Pike  detailed 
Lieut.  James  Wilkinson  to  explore  that  stream 
to  the  Mississippi  and  continued  west  with  die 
larger  section  of  the  party,  arriving  in  Novem- 
ber at  that  high  peak  of  the  Rockies  which  now 
bears  his  name.  During  the  winter,  after  ter- 
rible suffering  from  coldand  hunger,  he  reached 
the  Rio  Grande.  The  Spanish  authorities  sent 
out  a  large  force  to  capture  the  little  band,  of 
explorers  and  they  were  conducted  back  through 
what  is  now  known  as  Texas. 

The  roving  fur-traders  were  quidc  to  pene- 
trate the  regions  pioneered  by  Lewis  and  Clark 
and  Pike,  During  the  years  1806-09  they  ex- 
tended their  excursions  well  into  the  Rocky 
Mountains  from  the  east.  In  Canada  the  North- 
western Company,  ever  active,  pushed  its  out- 
posts westward;  and  in  1808  one  of  its  agents, 
Simon  Fraser,  reached  the  Pacific  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Fraser  River. 

In  1810  John  Jacob  Astor,  a  New  York  fur- 
trader,  organized  a  company  for  the  purpose  of 
exploiting  the  trade  on  the  Pacific  slope.  A 
vessel  was  dispatched  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  River  to  establish  a  post  and  an  ex- 
pedition sent  overland  to  follow  the  Lewis  and 
Oark  route.  This  was  the  second  parri-  to  cross 
the  United  States  to  the  Pacific.  Numbering 
three  boats  and  60  men  under  the  leadership 
of  one  of  the  partners,  Wilson  Price  Hunt,  it 
left  Saint  Louis  in  the  late  summer  of  1810 
and  pushed  its  way  up  the  Missouri  about  4S0 
miles.  Here  the  party  wintered  and  in  the 
spring  continued  by  boat  to  the  big  bend  of  the 
Missouri ;  then  with  horses  purchased  from  the 
Sioux  proceeded  overland  in  a  southwesterly 
direction,  crossed  the  Rockies  near  the  head  of 
the  Big  Horn  River  and  followed  the  Snake 
River  Valley  to  the  Columbia.  With  only  a 
fraction  of  his  large  party  and  after  the  most 


■8l^ 


EXPLORATION  IH  AHXSICA 


sea.  The  American  company  was  _.  ,  .... 
time ;  the  previous  year  Etavid  Thompson  of  the 
Northwestern  Company  had  portaged  across  the 
Rockies  from  the  Saskatchewan  to  the  head 
waters  of  the  Columbia  and  followed  it  to  the 
Pacific,  where,  much  to  his  disgust,  he  found 
the  Americans  already  in   possession. 

In  1812  David  Stuart,  with  a  small  party, 
started  eastward  from  Astoria  to  make  the  diffi- 
cult and  hazardous  journey  to  Saint  Louis. 
He  ohose  a  route  to  the  head  waters  of  the 
Snake,  across  the  divide  to  the  Green  River, 
a  tributary  of  the  Colorado,  and  across  a  second 
divide  to  the  Platte,  which  he  followed  to  its 
juDCtion  with  the  Missouri  and  coittinued  down 
Stream  to  Saint  Louis,  arriving  in  April  1813, 
after  a  journey  full  of  peril  and  hardship. 

In  1814  Astoria  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Northwestern  Company,  which  extended  its 
trade  over  the  entire  Columbia  River  basin  and 
established  posts  at  various  points.  The  eastern 
slope  of  the  Rocldes  was  occupied  by  American 
traders,  with  headquarters  at  Saint  Louis  and 
posts  on  the  upper  Missouri  in  the  Green  River 
Valley. 

The  government  began  to  realize  the  im- 
portance of  exploration.  In  the  hope  of  discov- 
ering the  sources  of  the  Red  River,  a  large  ex- 
pedition under  Maj.  Stephen  H.  Long  left  Pitts- 
burgh on  a  small  steamer  in  April  1819,  wintered 
on  the  lower  Missouri  and  during  the  following 
year  made  explorations  and  surveys  in  the 
country  now  included  in  Arkansas  and  Mis- 
souri. Long  was  sent  again  in  1828  to  explore 
the  head  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  which  he 
approached  through  the  wilderness  from  the 
Miami  River  to  Lake  Michigan,  thence  to  the 
junction  of  the  Wisconsin  and  Mississippi  and 
on  to  the  Minnesota;  a  difficult  route,  but  lying 
in  a  region  which  had  been  explored  by  French 
pioneers  more  than  a  century  before. 

Still  the  source  of  the  Mississippi  had  not 
been  discovered.    The  head  water  region,  pre- 


plored  in  1820  by  Gen.  Lewis  Cass,  governor 
of  Michigan,  in  company  with  Heniy  R.  School- 
craft. It  was  not  until  1832  that  ihl^ 
finally  discovered 
and  Ueut.  J.  Alle 

Capt.  B.  L.  E.  Bonneville,  an  officer  of 
the  United  States  army,  in  1832  organized 
a  party  of  trappers  and  hunters  for  the 
ostensible  Durpose  of  taking  part  in  the 
fur- trade,  tut  more  to  gratify  his  own 
ambition  to  explore  the  Far  West.  He  left 
Fort  Osage  on  the  Missouri  with  110  men, 
transporting  his  supplies  by  means  of  wagons, 
instead  of  using  pack-animals,  as  all  previous 
parties  had  done.  Following  Stuart's  rpute  of 
20  years  before  along  the  valley  of  the  Platte 
River,  he  crossed  the  mountains  with  his  wagon- 
train  and  established  a  post  at  the  head  of  the 
Green  River.  From  this  point  as  rendezvous 
his  party  scattered  out  in  various  directions, 
be  himself  exploring  the  Bi^  Horn  and  Wind 
River  mountains  and  extending  one  journey  to 
the  English  trading'post  on  the  Columbia.  A 
party  sent  out  by  him  visited  Salt  Lake  and  con- 
tinued through  to  the  Spanish  settlement  of 
Monterey  on  the  Pacific. 


During  the  years  1833-35  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Paricer,  a  sealous  missionary,  made  several  ha*- 
ardous  journeys  from  the  Mississippi  waters  to 
those  of  the  Columbia.  At  this  time  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  which  had  absorbed  its  rival, 
the  Northwestern  Company,  controlled  the  en- 
tire Columbia  River  basin  and  claimed  it  for 
England,  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  the  few 
American  setUers.  In  1842  it  came  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Americans  that  the  English 
were  making  preparations  to  colonize  the  region 
and  it  was  necessary  that  the  authorities  at 
Washington  should  be  informed  at  once.  For 
this  purpose  Dr.  Marcus  Whitman  and  A.  L. 
Lovejoy  set  ont  in  the  dead  of  winter  on  a 
journey  of  4,000  miles  across  the  continent  They 
took  a  southerly  route  throu^  New  Mexico  to 
the  Arkansas,  and  Whitman  reached  Washing- 

in  1841  Lieut  R.  E.  Johnswi  of  the  United 
States  Exploring  Expedition,  commanded  by 
Charles  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N..  crossed  the  Cascade 
Mountains  near  Mount  Rainier  and,  after  mak- 
ing an  extended  journ^  in  the  Coliunbia  River 
Valley,  recrossed  the  Cascades  to  the  coast  A 
detachment  ascended  the  Willamette  and 
crossed  to  the  Sacramento  Valley,  which  they 
foHowed  to  San  Francisco. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Lewis  and  Clark 
expedition,  the  most  important  exploration  of 
the  century  was  done  by  Lieut  John  C.  Fremont, 
who  had  sained  his  first  experience  while  assist- 
ing J.  N.  Nicollet,  a  French  geodesist,  employed 
by  the  United  States  govenunenl  1836-40,  for 
making  surveys  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Basin. 
In  1842  Fr^ont,  with  2S  men,  among  whom 
was  the  famous  scout.  Kit  Carson,  made  sur- 
veys of  a  region  lying  between  the  Missouri 
River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  along  the  vallevs 
of  the  Kansas  and  Great  Platte  rivers.  In  1843 
he  was  instructed  to  carry  his  surveys  to  the 
Pacific  Coast  With  a  party  of  40  men  he  made 
bis  way  westward  from  the  junction  of  the 
Kansas  and  Missouri  rivers  to  the  head  waters 
of  the  North  Platte,  crossed  to  Green  River, 


the  explorations  of  Bonneville  and  others, 
crossed  another  divide  and  descended  Bear 
River  to  Salt  Lake,  which  he  explored.  From 
there  he  went  westward  to  the  Snake  River, 
and  on  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  After 
renewing  the  supply  of  provisions,  Frimont 
retraced  his  steps  to  the  Dalles  of  the  Columbia, 
then  turned  southward  to  Klamath  Lake,  and 
niade  a  hazardous  journey  through  the  Sierras 
which  brought  him  into  California  along  the 
valley  of  the  American  River,  an  eastern  branch 
of  the  Sacramento.  Traveling  southward,  he 
once  more  crossed  the  Sierras  in  lat  35°, 
and  returned  to  Saint  Louis  across  the  Great 
Basin  region  and  the  Rockies.  On  his  third 
journey  Fremont  crossed  the  Rockies  from 
the  head  of  the  Arkansas  to  the  Green  River 
Valley,  then  continued  westward  around  the 
southern  end  of  Salt  Lalce  across  the  Sierras, 
near  where  he  previously  traversed  them  and 
then  turned  northward  along  the  Sacramento 
Valley  and  across  the  mountains  to  Klamath 
Lake.  Here  he  was  impelled  to  turn  back  by 
the  news  of  the  uprising  in  California,  and 
converted  his  exploring  party  into  a  military 

The  southwest  became  better  known  throu^ 
military  operations  during  the  Mexican  Wv, 


BXPLOSIOH  — EXPLOSIVE  GELATINS 


SBl 


■nd  after  its  close  many  expeditions  were  sent 
out  by  the  government,  ui]4er  both  military  and 
aviEan  leadership,  most  of  them,  however,  in 
regions  already  explored. 

Public  interest  in  the  construction  of  a  trans- 
continental railway  led  to  five  extensive  expedi- 
tions during  the  years  1&52'S7 :  the  first  explor- 
ing along  the  32d  parallel;  the  second  near  the 
35th;  the  third  near  the  38th  and  39th;  the 
fourth  near  the  41st  and  42d;  and  the  fifth  near 
the  47tb  and  49th.  Various  military  explora- 
tions and  surveys  were  carried  on  west  of  the 
Mississippi  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War. 

In  18«  Maj,  J.  W.  Powell  made  a  daring 
exploration  of  the  Grand  Cafion  of  the  Colo- 
rado. With  only  a  few  men,  in  small  boats,  he 
followed  the  Green  and  Colorado  rivers  from 
Green  River  Station  to  the  mouth  of  the  Virgin 
River.  In  the  next  two  years  he  extended  tinis 
exptoratiou  in  the  Colorado  basin  under  gov- 
ernment auspices. 

The  Pacinc  Railroad  surveys  practically  com- 

tleted  the  purely  exploratory  work  of  the 
Inited  Stales  j  subsequent  investigation  was 
directed  to  minor  details.  During  the  years 
1867-79  this  work  was  carried  on  by  various 
organizations  which  were  created  for  both 
geographic  and  geologic  research.  Pour  of 
Oiem  were  of  special  note :  *The  Geological 
Exploration  of  the  40th  Parallel,*  under  Qar- 
ence  Kin^  (KiuK  Survey) ;  "United  States 
Geogr^hical  and  Geological  Survey  West  of 
the  lOOth  Meridian,*  under  Capt.  Gto,  M. 
Wheelerj  U.  S.  A.  (Wheeler  Survey)  -  "United 
States  Geological  and  Geographical  Survey  of 
Territories,"  under  F.  V.  Hayden  (Hayden 
Survey) ;  'Geological  and  Geographical  Survey 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Region,*  under  J.  W. 
Powell.  In  1879  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  was  created  for  this  purpose  and  the 
other  organiiations  discontinued.  The  acqui- 
sition of  Alaska  in  1867  gave  American  ex- 
plorers a  new  field     See  Aiasxah  Exfloba- 

EXPLOSION,  a  sudden  bursting,  generally 
due  to  the  rapid  production  of  gaseous  matter 
from  solids  or  liquids.  Thus  the  explosion  of 
gunpowder  is  due  to  the  sudden  formation  and 
expansion  of  gases  into  which  the  powder  is 
converted  by  chemical  agency.  Explosions  are 
often  caused  by  the  clastic  force  of  steam  con- 
fined in  boilers,  and  by  spontaneous  combustion. 
See  Explosives. 

EXPLOSION  CRATERS.  Although 
many  of  the  great  craters  on  volcanic  peaks 
arc  due  to  explosion,  the  name  is  applied  to 
lioles  not  cotmected  with  lava  outflows.  Most 
of  these  holes  are  in  plains  and  the^  are  rimmed 
Iw  a  ridge  of  fragmental  materials  evidently 
blown  out  of  the  hole  by  an  explosion.  Craters 
of  this  class  are  the  'maars*  of  the  Rhine 
Valley,  the  craters  of  Eiffel,  Auvcrne,  Montec- 
cbio,  Albani,  Nemi,  Astromi  and  Faifa  in  south- 
em  Europe,  of  Nassibe  in  Madagascar  and 
Lonar,  India.  The  latter,  as  described  by  Dr. 
Blandford,  is  a  hole  about  a  mile  in  diameter, 
300  to  400  feet  deep,  in  a  great  plam  of  old 
lava,  similar  to  the  rocks  on  the  sides  of  the 
hole.  The  latter  are  bent  up  ali^tly.  There 
are  several  notable  explosion  craters  in  Menco, 
OTi  the  plateau  near  Orizaba  Peak  in  Puebla  and 
in  Valle  Santiago  at  Xico,  Tacambaro,  and  on 
die  HOTthem  part  of  Sonora.    The  Afton  craters 


in  New  Mexico,  31  miles  northwest  of  El  Paso, 
the  crater  of  Zuili  Salt  Lake,  New  Mexico, 
and  the  wonderful  Crater  Mound  in  east-central 
Arizona  are  also  believed  by  some  geologists 
to  have  been  caused  by  the  explosion  of  vol- 
canic steam.  As  to  the  competenqy  of  this 
agent  to  cause  a  crater  there  are  some  notable 
illustrations  in  historic  time,  notably  the  great 
Bandai  Sai  eruption  in  Japan  in  18B8  which 
made  a  vast  crater  on  a  mountain  where  there 
had  been  no  volcanic  activity  for  many  cen- 
turies. It  was  not  attended  by  lava  fiow.  The 
eruption  of  Krakatoa  in  1883  is  another  im- 
pressive instance.  Consult  Darton,  N.  H, 
'Explosion  Ciaters'  (Seienft  Monthly,  Novem- 
ber 1916). 

N.  H.  Darton. 

EXPLOSION  ENGINE.  See  Intexnal 
CouBusTioK  Engine. 

EXPLOSIVE  GELATINE,  blasting  gela- 
tine or  gum  dynamite,  an  explosive  material 
resembling  wine  jelly  in  appearance.     It  was 


led  Tiy   Nobel    in    1878,  ■  and   . 
e  cellulose  nitrate  dissolved  in  nitrogly- 
Originally,  the  solution  was  effected  by 


warming  the  nitroglycerin  and  adding  the  per- 
fectly dry  soluble  cellulose  nitrate,  called  nitro- 
cotton,  little  by  little,  with  stirring,  whereby 
the  nitroglycerin  was  made  to  dissolve  from 
4  to  10  per  Cent  of  the  niiro-cotton :  Then  the 
solution  was  effected  by  the  aid  of  a  solvent 
like  acetone,  which  was  afterward  evaporated 
off.  All  of  these  processes  of  manufacture  were 
dangerous.  In  1889,  Lundholm  and  Sa^er  dis- 
covered that  if  the  nitroglycerin  and  nitro-cot- 
ton  are  mixed  with  warm  water  and  stirred  up 
by  compressed  air,  gelatinization  sets  in,  and 
may  be  completed  by  pressing  out  the  water 
and  working  the  mass  in  malaxating  machines. 
Explosive  gelatine  is  a  gelatinous  mass,  looking 


something  like  new  honey  in  color,  and  vary- 
'  on   from  a  tough  leather-hke 
oft  jelly,  in  accordance  with  t 


variety  of  circumstances,  sudi  as  die  quantity 
and  chemical  composition  of  the  nitro-cotion 
used,  and  the  methods  of  manufacture.  In 
general,  the  thinner  the  gelatine,  the  more  sen- 
sitive It  is  to  detonation ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  thin  gelatine  is  subject  to  liquefaction 
and  possibly  also  to  exudation,  which  would 
make  it  dangerous  in  storage,  transportation 
and  use.     Specially  strong  detonators  are  re- 

3 aired  to  explode  blasting  gelatine;  or  ordinary 
etonators  may  be  used  with  primers  of  dyiu- 
mite  or  gunpowder :  In  order  that  detonation 
should  be  transmitted  throu^  a  mass  of  ex- 

filosive  gelatine  it  must  b«  confined;  for,  un- 
ike  dynamite,  a  train  of  it  cannot  be  exploded 
in  the  opea,  except  by  means  of  an  extremely 
powerful  initial  detonation.  The  sensitiveness 
of  the  material  is  still  furtiier  diminished  by 
the  solution  in  it  of  camphor,  or  other  sul>- 
stances  rich  in  carbon  and  hydrogen,  like  ben- 
line  or  nitro-beniine.  While  dynamite  and 
nitroglycerin  are  much  less  liable  to  be  ex- 
ploded by  a  blow  when  frocen,  the  reverse  il 
true  of  frozen  explosive  gelatine.  Thou^ 
while  in  the  unfrozen  condition  explosive  gela- 
tine is  less  sensitive  to  shock  or  blows  than 
either  nitroglycerin  or  nitrocellulose,  it  is,  when 
exploded,  a  more  powerful  explosive  than  rither 
of  them.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  when 
nitroglyceiia  is  detmtated,  there  are  tmused  oxi- 


BXPL08IVBS 


dizing  materials  in  the  gaseous  products;  and 
when  cellulose  nitrate  is  delonate<l,  there  are 
unused  combustible  materials  in  the  products. 
When,  therefore,  these  bodies  are  mixed  in  the 
ri^l  proportions,  the  products  will  be  those 
of  complete  combustion.  Explosive  gelatine  has 
the  advantage  over  dynamite  in  that  it  is  prac- 
tically unaffected  by  water  and  therefore  can 
be  stored  in  water.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  less 
liable  to  freeze  than  dynamite.  It  possesses  an 
advantage  over  guncolton  in  being  plastic  and 
can,  therefore,  better  adapt  itself  to  the  irregu- 
larities of  the  bore-holes  in  loading.  The  spe- 
cific gravity  of  explosive  gelatine  is  from  1.3  to 
1:6.  If  heated  slowly,  beginning  at  60°  C,  it 
wil!  explode  at  20*°  C.  (399.2'  F.).  On  rapid 
heating  it  explodes  at  240°  C,  (464°  F.).  If 
ignited  when  frozen  even  small  quantities  may 
explode.  Pure  explosive  gelatine  is  used  for 
blasting  in  unusually  tou^  rock  or  for  blasting 
under   water,   or   for   military  purposes.     It   is 

[lut  up  in  cylindrical  'sticks'  in  paper  wrappers 
ike  dynamite.  For  general  use  in  blasting  it 
is  too  violent,  and  therefore  "gelatine  dynamites" 
are  made  by  mixing  this  costly  and  powerful 
material  with  diluents.  A  great  many  different 
dopes  are  used,  but  a  gooaexamole  of  a  gela- 
tine dynamite  is  'gelienite,-"  which  is  made  by 
tnixing  65  per  cent  of  explosive  gelatine  with 
35  per  cent  of  an  explosive  wood-pulp  dop<, 
giving  a  substance  consisting  of  nitroglycerin 
52.5  per  cent,  nitro-cotton  2,5  per  cent,  sodium 
nitrate  26.25  per  cent,  wood  pulp  8.4  per  cent, 
and  sodium  carbonate  0.35  per  cent.  "Forcile 
is  a  similar  modification  of  explosive  gelatine 
containing  50  per  cent  of  wood  pulp. 

EXPLOSIVES  (from  Lat.  exflosus,  p.p. 
of  exphdere,  to  drive  out,  to  drive  out  a  player 
with  clapping,  to  explode ;  from  ex,  out  + 
plaudere,  plodere,  to  clap,  strike,  applaud),  are 
substances  which  easily  react  at  comparatively 
low  temperatures  with  the  formation  of  a  con- 
siderable volume  of  highly  expanded  gas,  the 
evolution  of  heat  and  light  and  the  production 
of  sound.  At  ordinary  temperatures  they  may 
be  solid  bodies  like  gunpowder  or  liquid  like 
nitroglycerin  or  gaseous  like  fire  damp  mix- 
tures. They  may  consist  wholly  of  a  single 
chemical  compound  like  mercuric  fulminate,  or 
of  mixtures  of  combustible  substances  with  sup- 
porters of  combustion  or  oxidizing  agents  like 
btagting  powder,  which  is  a  mixture  of  char- 
coal, sulphur  and  sodium  nitrate.  Thou^  the 
temperature  is  different  for  each  explosive  they 
can  all  be  caused  to  explode  if  heated  to  the 
explosion  temperature,  which  under  given  cir- 
cumstances are  for  nitrogen  chloride,  93°  C: 
mercuric  fulminate,  152°  C. ;  emroensite,  165 
C ;  nitrostarch,  175°  C.;  dynamite  and  gun- 
cotton,  each  180°  C ;  and  blasting  gelatine, 
204°  C;  nitroglycerin,  218°  C;  blasting 
powder,  270°  C;  picric  powder,  273°  C;  rifle 
powder,  275°  C;  best  sporting  powder,  315°  C. 
Hiatorr, —  The  inventor  of  gunpowder,  the 
oldest  of  explosives,  and  the  place  where  it 
originated,  are  not  known.  The  invention  has 
been  ascnbed  by  different  authors  to  Uareus 
Grwcus,  Albertus  Magnus,  Roger  Bacon  and 
Berthold  Schwan;  to  the  Arabians,  whose 
works  were  largely  used  by  Marcus  Graecus  ip 
his  writings;  to  the  fiindus,  because  of  cer- 
tain passages  occurring  in  the  code  of  Gentoo 
laws  prepared  by  Indian  savants  by  order  of 


meanings  have  been  given  to  words  and  ^ra 
used  in  the  old  manuscripts;  (2)  because  of  the 
intentionally  confusing  methods  employed  by 
the  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages;  and  (3)  be- 
cause gunpowder  for  use  in  guns  was  not  the 
invention  of  any  one  person,  but  was  really 
the  result  of  a  progressive  development 

It  is  recorded  that  what  modems  call  'Gredt 
fire,*  and  the  ancients  called  "naphtha,^  was 
employed  in  the  defense  of  Constantinople  in 
the  7th  century  and  that  these  fiery  composi- 
tions were  propeUed  against  the  enemy  by  means 
of  arrows  from  bows,  or  in  hollow  vessels  of 
stone  or  iron  thrown  by  war  etigines.  Though 
consisting  at  first  of  pitch,  rosin,  sulphur  and 
similar  easily  ioflanunable  and  highly  combusti- 
ble substances  it  is  easy  to  imagine  that  in  the 
tentative  development  of  these  materials  of  war 
nitre  was  added  to  tfae  combustible  substances 
and  that  there  was  thus  produced  a  deflagrating 
composition  for  use  as  bursting  charges  in 
bombs  and  grenades  and  for  the  manufacture 
of  devices  analogous  to  modem  firecrackers 
and  rockets  with  which  to  frighten  and  confuse 
their  foes. 

The  supposition  that  gunpowder  was  known 
before  it  was  applied  for  use  in  guns  is  sup- 
ported by  the  older  historians.  All  the  com- 
ponents and  mixtures  for  Greek  fire  similar  to 
gunpowder  were  already  known  in  the  time  of 
Hassan-al-Itammah  (1290),  From  an  exhaustive 
search  of  the  literature  Guttmann  arrives  at  the 
conclusion  'that  gunpowder  was  gradually  de- 
veloped from  Greek  fire,  and  that  it  was  known 
for  3^3rs  before  cannons  and  guns  were  thought 
of.  The  use  of  purer  materials  in  making  it 
developed  its  propulsive  power,  and  led  to  the 
subsequent  invention  of  cannons  and  guns.  ITie 
Arabians  were  the  first  to  make  gunpowder-like 
mixtures,  probably  about  1280  A.n.,  while  the 
idea  of  utilizing  their  propulsive  force,  that  b 
the  invention  of  guns  and  cannons,  belongs  to 
the  monk,  Berthold  Schwarz,  of  Freiburg,  Sax- 
ony; the  date  of  the  latter  invention  being  prob- 
ably 1313  A.D."  It-  is  accepted  as  indisputable 
that  gunpowder  mills  existed  at  Augsburg,. Ger- 
many 1340,  and  at  Spandau,  Germany,  1344, 
and  that  the  English  used  gunpowder  in  guns  at 
the  battle  of  Cr^cj;,  1346. 

Though  many  improvements  were  made  in 
the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  such  as  in  the 
preparation  and  purification  of  the  taw  materials 
from  which  it  was  produced;  the  methods  of  in- 
corporation; and  its  granulation  to  adapt  it  to 
special  uses,  this  substance  remained  unrivaled 
until  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  when  the 
French  chemist  Berth  oil  et  proposed  the  substi- 
tution of  potassium  chlorate  for  the  potassium 
nitrate  and  produced  by  this  means  a  much 
stronger  and  quicker  powder,  but  one  which  was 
also  much  more  dangerous  than  gunpowder. 
Beginning  with  the  discovery  of  mercuric  ful- 
minate by  Howard,  an  English  chemist,  1800, 
there  was  added  to  the  achievements  of  the  19th 
century  the  discovery  of  nitrogen  chloride  by 
the  French  chemist  Ehilong,  1812;  nitrostarch  hj 
Braconnot,  1832;  guncotton  by  Schoenbein 
of  Basel,  Switzerland,  1845;  nitroglycerin  by 
Sobrero  at  Turin,  Italy.  1846;  the  invention  of 
blasting  powder  by  L.  DnPont  of  Wilmingtoti, 


EXPLOSIVES 


Dd^  18S6;  the  tfiscoveiy  of  diazo  compomids 
by  the  Gennan  chemist,  Griess,  1860;  the  in- 
ventim  of  ibiisuiiite  by  A.  Nobel  of  Sweden, 
1866;  smokeleai  sporting  powder  by  Schultze 
of  Potsdam,  Gemtany,  1867;  blastiog  gelatine 
Inr  Nobel,  1878;  military  smokeless  powder  1^ 
vidlle  of  France,  1886;  hard-grained  smokeless 
moTting  powder  by  Richard  von  Frceden  of 
Walsrode,  Germany,  1889;  homogeneous  smoke- 
less powder  composed  of  a  single  diemical  sub- 
stance  in  a  state  of  chemical  purity  by  Charlej 
E.  Munroe  of  Newport,  R.  I.,  laW;  and  the 
discovery  of  triazoic  acid  by  Ctirtius  of  Kiel, 
Germany,  1890,  while  in  the  meantime  picric 
add.  which  was  discovered  by  Wonlfe  1771, 
was  shown  to  possess  explosive  properties  aiid 
adapted  for  use  in  shell,  it  having  been  pointed 
out  by  Sprengel.  1873,  that  it  contams  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  available  oxygen  to  render  it, 
without  the  help  of  foreign  oxidizers,  a  power- 
ful explosive  when  fired  with  a  detonator. 

This  growth  has  been  coincident  with  the 
development  of  the  chemical  and  ^physical  sci- 
ences and  has  been  the  more  rapid,  the  more 
completely  experimental  methods  of  research 
have  been  perfected  and  applied.  In  addition  to 
those  enumerated  above  this  advance  in  the  sci- 
ence and  art  of  explosives  has  been  chiefly  due 
to  the  labors  and  intelligence  of  Hess,  Lauer, 
Trauzl  and  von  Lenk  in  Austria;  Abel,  Cundill, 
Debus,  Dewar,  Dixon,  Dupr^,  Majendie  ana 
Noble  in  England;  Berthelot,  Chalon  Daniel, 
Desorliaux,  Gay^Lussac,  Lavoisier,  Le  ChaCelier, 
Mallard,  Matirouard,  Roux,  Sarrau,  Turpin  and 
Violette  in  France;  Bunsen,  Dittmar,  Gutt- 
tnann,  Liebig,  Meyer,  Schischkoff,  Upmann, 
Will,  von  Forster  and  von  Romocld  in  Ger- 
many; Abbot,  Barnard,  Craig.  Emmens,  Judson, 
Hill,  Maxim,  Mixter,  fclowbray,  Quinan, 
Rodman,  Count  Rumford  and  Woodbndge  in 
the  United  Stales ;  Mendel^fF  in  Russia ;  Cron- 
quist  in  Sweden  and  Hebler  and  Lunge  in 
Switzerland.  See  the  biographical  sketches  of 
Abel  and  Berthelot  who  were  especially  prom- 


Theory  of  Explosives. —  When  wood  or 
other  combustible  substances  containing  hydro- 
gen and  carbon  are  ignited  in  contact  with  air 
they  burn,  giving  forth  heat  and  light  and  are 
converted  into  water  and  carbon  dioxide,  which 
pass  off  as  invisible  and  highly  expanded  gases. 
As  the  wood  is  subdivided  so  as  to  ex^e  a 
continually  increased  surface  to  the  atr  the 
rapidity  of  the  combustion  is  increased  until, 
when  the  wood  is  reduced'  to  dust  like  saw- 
dust and  suspended  in  the  air  so  as  to  be  inti- 
mately mixed  with  it,  the  velocity  of  the  com- 
bustion is  so  great  and  the  evolution  of  the 
gases  so  rapio  that  the  reaction  becomes  an 
explosive  one  and  such  a  mixttirc  of  sawdust 
and  air  is  an  explosive.  All  inexplosive  com- 
bustible substances  can,  when  finely  divided  and 
intimately  mixed  with  air,  form  explosives  and 
volatile  liquids  and  gases  are  especially  likely  to 
do  so.  Many  accidents  have  arisen  from  the 
ignition  of  mixtures  of  air  with  the  dust  of  char- 
coal, coal,  ffour,  malt,  soap,  starch,  sugar,  zinc, 
wood  and  other  solids;  with  the  vapors  of  alco- 
hol, ether,  gasoline  and  other  naphthas,  spirits  of 
turpentine  and  other  liquids,  or  gases  like  ethy- 
lene, coal  gas,  hydrogen  and  marsh  gas  since 
each  of  these  substances,  though  in  themselves 
non-explosive,  form  explosive  mixtures  with 
Mr  if  they  be  mixed  with  it  in  the  right  pro- 


portions. The  beat  proportions  are  those  in 
which  the  volume  of  oxygen  in  the  air  present 
is  just  stifiident  to  convert  all  of  the  hydrogen 
in  the  combustible  into  water  and  all  of  the 
oarbon  into  carbon  dioxide,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  produce  complete  combustion.  i,es3  violent 
explosions  may  occur  when  the  proportion  of 
air  is  greater  or  less  than  the  "best  proportion," 
&e  limit  being  fixed  in  each  case  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  combustible  suLtstance,  the  quantity 
of  the  mixture,  the  temperature  and  pressure  to 
which  it  is  subjected  and  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  ignited.  Mixtures  of  these  substance* 
whose  proportions  are  outside  of  these  limits 
may  be  ignited  and  may  bum,  but  do  not  ex- 
plode. 

If  pare  oxygen  in  the  proper  proportions  be 
substituted  for  air  in  the  above  mixture  the 
velocity  of  the  reactions  will  be  still  greater, 
and  the  energy  set  free  in  unit  of  time  and  con- 
sequently the  violence  of  the  explosion  will  be 
greatly  increased.  Besides  the  proportions  that 
determine  the  limits  between  explosicm  and 
CM&bustion  will  be  extended.  Such  mixtures  if 
confined  and  out  of  contact  with  the  sur  will  still 
take  fire  and  explode.  Oxygen  may  be  supt^ied 
cither  in  the  free  state  or  in  solid  bodies  which 
contain  it  and  which  give  it  up  when  heated  to 
comparatively  tow  temperatures.  Among  such 
solids  are  the  nitrates  of  metallic  radicles,  like 
ammonium  nitrate,  potassium  nitrate  (India 
saltpetre),  and  sodium  nitrate  (Chile  saltpetre)  ; 
chlorates  such  as  potassium  chlorate;  peroxides 
like  sodium  peroxide,  and  many  others.  If 
these  solids  be  dried,  finely  divided,  and  inti- 
mately mixed  with  a  combustible,  in  the  li^bt 
proportions,  a  solid  explosive  is  produced 
Often,  as  in  the  case  of  mixtures  of  charcoal 
and  saltpetre  the  temperature  to  which  tfae^ 
must  be  heated  in  order  that  combustion  shall 
begin,  called  the  point  of  ignition,  is  so  faigji 
that  they  are  difficult  to  ^ite  and  in  such  cases 
a  small  portion  of  a  substance  like  sulphur, 
vriiich  has  a  low  p(»nt  of  ignition,  is  incor- 
porated in  the  mixture. 

Another  method  by  which  oxygen  may  be 
brought  into  intimate  contact  with  combustiUe 
bodies  so  as  to  form  an  explosive  is  through 
the  action  of  nitric  add  upon  diem  by  which 
nitrogen  and  oxygen  combined  as  NOi  is  intro- 
ducea  into  the  molecule.  Three  cases  present 
themselves.  Firs^  when  the  combustible  body 
is  a  simple  or  mixed  primary  alcohol  and  the 
nitrid  acid  rea£ts  with  the  addic  hydrogen. 
Second,  when  the  combustible  substance  is  a 
hydrocarbon  or  its  derivative  and  the  nitric 
add  reacts  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  hydrocar- 
bon or  the  hydrocarbon  nucleus.  Third,  when 
the  reaction  leads  to  the  union  in  the  hydro' 
carbon  of  NOi  through  the  intervention  of  a 
nitrogen  atom.  The  products  of  the  first  case 
are  organic  nitrates  called  also  nitric  esters. 
The  products  of  the  second  case  arc  nitro- 
substitution  compounds.  Those  of  the  third 
are  called  nitroamines.  Examples  of  the  first 
case  are  ethyl  nitrate  from  ethyl  or  grain 
alccAoi,  glycol  nitiate  from  ethylene  glycol, 
rfyccryl  nitrate  (nitrt^lycerin)  from  g&cerol 
(glycerin),  mannitol  nitrate  from  mannitol 
(mannite),  starch  nitrate  (nitrostarch)  from 
staith,  and  cellulose  nitrates  (guncctton  and 
pyroxylin)  from  cotton.  Examples  of  the  sec- 
ond case  are  mono  and  di  nitro  benzene  from 
benzene,   tri  nitro  phenol    (picric  add)    from 


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BXPL0SIVB8 


carbolic  add  (phenol ) ,  nitrololuenes  from 
toluene,  and  nitro-iuipbthaleiies  from  naphtha- 
lene. An  example  of  the  third  is  ethyl.  These 
explosives  differ  markedly  from  mixtures  like 
gunpowder,  for,  whereas  in  the  mixtures  the 
comDustible  substance  and  the  oxidizing 
agents  are  in  difierent  masses,  in  the 
explosive  compounds  like  nitroglycerin,  they 
are  both  in  the  same  molecule.  Therefore  in 
\be  latter  the  contact  is  more  intimate  and  die 
reaction   takes  place  with  greater  velocity. 

In  addition  to  the  explosives  of  the  char- 
acters described  above  is  another  class  of 
chemical  compounds,  of  which  niercuric  fulmi- 
nate, silver  amine  ^fulminating  silver),  acet^ 
lene,  the  azides  ana  diazo  benzene  nitrate  are 
notable  examples,  whose  explosive  properties 
are  due  to  a  phenomenon  (namely,  a  molecular 
disruption),  which  is  quite  unlike  that  of  com- 
bustion ascribed  to  those  of  the  previous 
classes.  This  case  of  disruption  arises  from 
die  fact  that  these  substances  arc  endo- 
tbermous  compounds,  or  in  other  words,  that 
they  absorb  heat  during  their  formation  and 
are  therefore   reservoirs  of   energy. 

Clusificfttion  of  ExploBvea.—  Following 
die  foregoing  theories  of  their  constitution  and 
behavior,  explosives  may  be  classed  as 

(1)  Nitrate  tttijrtitres.— Andde  powder 
(charcoal,  potassium  nitrate,  and  ammonium 
nitrate)  ;  amidogene  (bran  or  starch,  charcoal, 
magnesium  sulphate,  potassium  nitrate  and  sul- 
phur) ;  ammonal  (metallic  aluminum  and  am- 
monium nitrate)  ;  azotine  (oetroleum,  charcoal, 
sodium  nitrate  and  sulphur) ;  blasting  powder 
(charcoal,  sodium  nitrate  and  sulphur) ;  car- 
bazotine  (bark  or  wood  pulp,  lampblack,  fer- 
rous sulphate,  potassium  nitrate  and  sulphur) ; 
Courteille's  triumph  safety  powder  (charcoal, 
peat,  coal,  oleaginous  matters  [animal  or  vege- 
table], metallic  sulphates,  sodium  nitrate  and 
stilphur)  ;  diorrexine  (sawdust,  sodium  nitrate, 
potassium  nitrate  and  sulphur) ;  fractorite 
(rosin,  dextrine,  potassitmi  dichromate,  am- 
monium nitrate)  ■  gunpowder  (charcoal,  polas- 
siiun  nitrate  and  stilphur) ;  haloxvline  (char- 
coal, sawdust,  potassium  ferrocyanide  and 
potassium  nitrate) ;  Himl/'s  powder  (hydro- 
carboi's  and  potassium  nitrate) ;  Nordenfeldt 
and  Meurling's  powder  (hydrocellulose,  potas- 
sium nitrate  and  sulphur)  ;  pyrolithe  (charcoal, 
sawdust,  sodium  carbonate  or  sulphate,  potas- 
sium nitrate,  sodium  nitrate  and  sulphur)  ;  saxi- 
f  ragine  (charcoal,  barium  nitrate  and  sulphur)  ; 
sclmeiderite    (mononitronaphthalene    and    am- 

(2)  Ckloratt  mixluret. — Asidialine  (hydro- 
carbons, potassium  sulphate,  potassium  nitrate, 
potassium  chlorate)  :  BerthoUet's  powder  (char- 
coal, potassium  chlorate  and  sulphur)  ;  bri- 
tainite  (naphthalene,  potassium  nitrate,  an> 
monium  nitrate,  potassium  chlorate)  ;  Callow's 
powder  (orpiment,  potassium  ferrocyanide  and 
potassium  uilorate);  carlsonites  (naphthalene, 
or  dinitrobenzene  and  other  combustible  sub< 
stances  with  ammonium  perchlorate)  ;  cheddite, 
(tdtro  body,  oil  and  potassium  chlorate)  ;  comet 
powder  (rosin  and  potassium  chlorate) ;  cTcene 
(cane  sugar,  paraffin  oil  or  coal  dust,  potassium 
nitrate  and  potassium  chlorate);  Ehrhardfs 
powder  (tanmc  acid,  charcoal,  rosin,  potassium 
nitrate  and  potassium  dilotate) ;  Hann's  pow- 
der (charcoal,  spermaceti,  antimony  sulphide 
and    potassium    chlorate) ;    Himly   and     von 


Trutschler-Falkenstein's  powder  (coal  tar,  po- 
tassium nitrate  and  pobssitmi  chlorate) ;  Horv 
ley's  powder  (nutgalls  and  potassium  chlorate) ; 
Kellow  and  Shorrs  safely  powder  (tanbark  or 
sawdust,  potassium  nitrate,  sodium  nitrate, 
potassium  chlorate  and  sulphur)  ;  KnafE's  pow- 
der (ammonium  ulmale,  potassium  nitrate, 
potassium  chlorate  and  sulphur)  ;  Me  Hand's 
paper  powder  (porous  paper  whidi  has  been 
soaked  in  a  paste  composed  of  starch,  char- 
coal, potassium  ferrocyanide,  potassium  chro- 
mate,  potassium  nitrate,  potassium  chlorate  and 
water  and  dried)  ;  (Jriental  powder  (gum 
gambier  and  potassium  chlorate)  ;  Parone's  ex- 
plosive (car  Don  disulphide  and  potassium 
cjilorate)  ;  Pertuiset's  powder  (sulfur  and 
potassium  chlorate) ;  pyrodialites  (mixtures  of 
coal  tar  with  chlorates  or  perchlorates  and 
with  or  without  nitrates,  nitrosubstitution  com- 
pounds, charcoal  and  oxidiiiog  salts);  pyronome 
(rye  Sour,  charcoal,  metallic  antimony,  sul- 
phur potassium  chromatc  and  potassium  chlo- 
rate) ;  rossellite  (asphalt  oil  and  potassium 
chlorate)-  Siemens  powder  (a  solid  hydro- 
carbon,    potassium     nitrate     and     potassium 


and  potassium  chlorate) ;  and  white  powder 
Augendre   and    Pohl    (cane    sugar,    potassium 
ferrocyanide  and  potassium  chlorate). 

(3)  Oxidieing  tnixlwes. —  These  are  mix- 
tures o{  combustible  substances  with  oxidizers 
other  than  the  nitrates,  chlorates  or  pcr- 
chk>rates.  Among  such  bodies  may  be  named 
sodium  peroxide,  potassium  permanganate,  po- 
tassitmi dichromate,  liquid  air  and  liquid  nitro- 
gen tetroxide.  As  examples  we  have  mixtures 
of  sodium  thiosulphate  with  sodium  peroxide; 
metallic  aluminum  with  sodium  peroxide;  cot- 
ton wool  with  liquid  air,  and  panclastite,  which 
is  a  mixture  of  carbon  disulphide  with  liquid 
nitrogen  tetroxide. 

(4)  Organic  iiitraUt  or  nitric  rsters  and 
miititres  containing  ttieitt. —  Esters :  Guncotton, 
which  is  a  cellulose  nitrate  of  hi^  nitralion 
and  practically  insoluble  in  a  mixture  of  ether 
and  alcohol  at  ordinary  temperatures;  nitro- 
cellulose, a  term  applied  to  all  cellulose  n' 


grape  sugar ;  nitroglycerin,  pyroglycerin  or 
glonoin  oil  (glyceiyl'  trinitrate) ;  nitrolactose 
(nitrated  sugar  of  milk)  ;  nitroh^in  (nitrated 
wood)  ;  nitromannite  (mannitol  mtrate)  ;  niiro- 
methyl  (methyl  nitrate)  ;  nitrostarch  or  xyioi- 
diae  (starch  nitrate);  nitrosugar  or  nitrosac- 
charose,  a  nitrate  produced  from  cane  sugar; 
pyroxylin,  collodion  cotton,  nitrocotton  or 
pyrocellulose,  are  cellulose  nitrates  of  medium 
mtration  and  practically  completely  soluble  in 
a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  In  this  class  is  also  to  be  in- 
cluded the  explosive  mixtures  into  which  these 
esters   enter  as  esseotial   components   and  of 

which  die  -■ ■' •- '- 

These  an 

the  dofie  or  absorbent,  into 

A.  Dynamiiet  with  a*  inert  frtuv.— Nobers 
dynamite  No.  1,  giant  powder  Kd.  1 ;  dynamite 
blanche  de  PatdiSes;  dynamite  de  Vonges;  E. 
C  dynamite;  S.  1,  dynamite;  Rutenbe^s  ex- 
plosive; dynamite  rouge,  all  consist  of  nitro- 
glycerin with  kiesalguhr;  Hill's  powder  (nitity 


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SXPL05IVBS 


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gj]rcerin  whh  precipitated  sUica^ ;  Mowbray's 
mica  powder  (nitr^ycerin  with  asbestos) ; 
Hercules  powder  (Extra  No.  1);  (magnesia 
powder,  nitro-magnite ;  dynamagnite ;  fulgur- 
ite ;  nitroglycerin  with  maaiHsia  alba) ;  dyna- 
mite de  boghead  (nitroglycerin  with  ashes 
from  Boghead  coal);  selenitic  powder  (nitro- 
glycerin with  plaster  of  Pans) ;  Horsky's 
powder  No.  I  (nitroglycerin,  aliim  And  ms^- 
nesiiun  ralphate) ;  metalline  nitroleum   (nitro- 

flycerin.  red  lead  and  plaster  of  Paris) :  renisb 
ynamite  (nitrof^ycerin,  Ideselgufar  apd  naph' 
thalene) ;  dynamite  noire  (nitroglycerin,  sand 
and  coke) ;  mataziette  (nitroglycerin,  sand, 
ochre,  charcoal  and  resinous  matter) ;  pori- 
fera  nitroleum  (nitroglycerin,  sponge  or 
vegetable  fibre  and  plaster  of  Paris)  ;  Bunten- 
bender's  explosive  (nitroglycerin,  spongy 
ve^table  substances  with  glycocoll  or  chon- 
drm) ;  Uorse's  explosive  (nitroglycerin  with 
rosin) ;  Borland's  carbo-dynamile  (nitro- 
IJ^rin  with  charcoal  from  cork)  ;  white  dyna- 
aute  (nitro^ycerin  with  lime-guhr) ;  bontine 
(mtro^ycenn,  kieselguhr  and  boric  add) ; 
Snorine  (nitr^ycerin,  kieselguhr  and  calcium 
fluoride). 

B.  Dynamites  witk  an  active  bau.—  a.  Con< 
listing  of  nitroglycerin  absorbed  by  a  gun* 
powder  like  dope — Ammonia  ^rnamite;  am- 
monia krut;  ammonia  powder;  Goad's  ex- 
plosive; Champion's  powder;  colonia  powder; 
Dittmar's  powder;  djrnamite  No.  2;  asfiamite 
Bu  cbarbon ;  dynamite  d'ammiMiiaQue ;  dynamite 
grieses  de  Paulilles;  extra  powder;  Fowler's 
explosive;  giant  powder  No.  2;  Gotham's 
powder;  Hercules  powder;  Horsky's  powder 
No.  2 ;  Judson's  powder ;  Jupiter  powder; 
lithofracteur;  Monakay's  explosive;  miner's 
powder  Co.  dynamite;  Neptnne  powder; 
potentia ;  petrolithe ;  sebastine ;  thunder- 
bolt powder;  Titan  powder;  virite  powder; 
Vulcan  powder. 

b.  Consisting  of  lutroglycelin  absorbed  by 
or  gelatinized  with  a  cellulose  or  llgno-cellnlose 
nitrate  —  Blasting  gelabne;  oellulose  dynamite; 
Claim's  e:q>losive;  Dean's  explosire;  Dittmar's 
explosive;  extra  dynamite;  explosive  gelatine; 
glyoxyline;  grisoutine ;  gum  dynamite;  nitrO' 
gdatine ;  paleine ;  Fuusbon's  explosive ; 
Schuhze's  dynamite;  sttaw  dynamite;  Traiul's 
dynamite. 
c.  Consisting  of  nitro^lycerm  or  an  explosive 

Selatine  incorporated  with  wood  pulp  or  saw- 
ust  and  a.  nitrate,  princinalty  sodium  nitrate. 
Such  dynamites  are  styled  Ijgnin-dynamites — 
JEtna  powder;  amidogcne;  Alias  powder; 
Brain's  powder ;  carbonite ;  diaspon ;  dualin ; 
dynamite  de  Krummel;  dynamite  de  Lanky; 
fordte;  gelatine  dynamite;  geli^te;  giant 
powder;  Hecla  powder;  megamte;  miner's 
friend  powder-  gnsoutite;  kadmitej  petralithe; 
rendroHdc;  rhexite;  safety  mtropowder; 
Schultze  dynamite;  stonite;  stowite;  vigorite. 
d.  Other  dynamites. —  Americanite  (nitrol 
glycerin  and  methyl  alcohol) ;  CasteHano's  pow- 
der (nitroglycerin,  fibrous  material,  earth  and 
nitrobenzine) ;  cerberite  (lutrogtyceriu,  wood 
oil,  nitrobenzine,  wood  pulp  and  sodium 
nitrate);  Engle's  powder  (nitrogljfcerin,  am- 
moniacal  salts,  saltpetre,  pyroxylise,  nitrcf- 
starch,  nitromannite,  nitrobenzine,  and  water 
glass) ;  glukodine  (nitroglycerin  and  nitro- 
saccharose)  ;  perunhe  or  terrorite  (nitrogly- 
cerin, nitromethyl,  nitroethyl  and  pyroxyBn) ; 


thunder   powder    (nitrogiycerin   and   nitroglu- 

e.  Low  freezing  dynamites.— Ordinary  dy- 
namites freeze  at  temperatures  prevailii^  m 
the  northern  and  middle  Atlantic  states  from 
October  to  May.  When  frozen  they  are  diffi- 
cult to  detonate  and  are  therefore  not  only 
inefhdent  but  dangerous  and  particularly  when 
being  thawed.  To  overcome  this  defect  nitro- 
subscitution  compounds  such  as  some  of  the 
nitrotoluenes  ana,  more  recently,  esters  such  as 
nitrated  di-  and  polyglyeerins  are  introduced 
as  components  of  dynamite.  These  are  styled 
L.  F.  ttytiamiUs  and  put  upon  the  market  with 
a  designating  term  of  this  kind. 

C  Organic  nitrate  mixttires  other  than 
dynamites. —  Casteau's  explosive  (nilrodextrine 
and  ammonitmi  nitrate) ;  Cooppal's  powders 
(resinous  bodies,  barium  nitrate,  and  nitrocellu- 
lose) ;  diftamyr  (metallic  nitrates  and  nitro- 
cellulose) ;  flamminore  (collodion  cotton,  am- 
monium  sulphate  and  ammonium  nitrate) ; 
grenee  powder  (paraffin ;  agar-agar,  nitorcellu- 
los^  potassium  nitrate,  and  barium  nitrate) ; 
explosive  F,  (nitrocellulose  and  ammonitmi 
nitrate) ;  potemte  and  tonite  (gnncotton  and 
barium  nitrate), 

(5.)  Nitrosubstitulion  compcmnds  and  mix- 
lures  containing  them. —  Compounds:  Nitro- 
benzenes ;  nitrocresob;  nitrociunenes ;  nitro- 
naphthalenes ;  nitronaphtholx;  niirophenols; 
nitroresordnols ;  nitrotoluenes ;  picric  add  oi 
caroazotic  add  (trinitrophenol)  \  nicramic  add; 
styphnic  add  or  oxypicric  aad  (nitroresor- 
dnol)  ;  trinitrotrinene  (T.  N.  T.) ;  trotyl;  tctra- 
nitraniline ;  tetranitronutbyl-aniline  (tetryl, 
tetralite). 

A.  Mixtures  containing  nitrosubtlitution 
com.fiounds. —  Abel's  powder;  ammonite:  amvis; 
bdhte;  borttine;  Borlinettos  powder:  Boyd's 
powder;  bronolithe;  Bnigere's  powder;  ex-  " 
plosive  A ;  explosive  C ;  explosive  N ;  ere- 
monites ;  Du  Bois-RaymoncTB  powders ;  dti- 
plexite;  ecrasite;  emmensite;  Faversham' pow- 
ders; Favier  explosives ;  ferrifractor;  Fontaine's 
powder;  Gathhurat  powder;  gelbite;  Geseridc's 
powder;  Girard's  powder;  hellhoffite;  Hill's 
powder;  Jdhntte;  joveite;  Idnetite;  lyddite; 
macarite;  melinite;  oxonite;  plastrotyl;  rack- 
arock;  robmite;  romite;  securite;  streetites; 
triplastite;  Volney  powders. 

(6)  Fulminates. — Compounds:  Copper  and 
silver,  acctylides;  diazonbenzine  nitiate;  fulmi- 
nating gold  (auramine) ;  fulminating  ulver 
(argentamlne)  ;  mercuric  fulminate-  mercuric 
triazotate;  lead  and  nitrogen  chloride  (chlora- 
mide)  ;  nitrogen  iodide  (iodamide)  ;  silver  ful- 
minate ;  and  triazoic  acid,  also  called  hydrazMC 
add  and  azoimide, 

la  addition  to  these  dasses  there  are  sevvn 
groups  of  explosives  which  have  received  such 
widespread  notice  as  to  merit  -espedal  mention 
here,  diougfa  the  members  of  each  may  all  be 
and  many  of  them  are  included  in  the  classes 
given  above.  These  groups  are  Sprengel  ex- 
plosives, safety  or  ^meless  explosives,  per- 
mitted explosives,  and  smokeless  powders,  uieU 
explosives  and  grenade  and  bomb  explosives. 

Sprcngel  Bxplosivea. —  These  exoiosive* 
were  Invented  by  Dr.  Hermann  Sprengel.  1873, 
and  he  advocated  their  use  because  of  their 
safety,  as  they  are  non-explosive  during  manu- 
facture, storage  and  transportation,  but  are 
veiy  powerful  explosives  when  prepared  and  de- 


.lOOg  Ic 


BXPLOSIVBS 


tonated.    His  plan  was  to  employ  i __ 

combustible  and  oxidiiin^  substances,  which 
should  be  kept  separate  until  needed  for  use,  the 
bodies  to  be  employed  in  the  compounding  of 
the   explosives   being   either   all   liquid   or   part 


cotild  be  realized  and  the  explosives  could  be 
compounded  on  the  spot  and  at  the  time  they 
were  wanted  for  use.  Amoi^  the  oxiditing 
agents  proposed  were  the  nitrates  and  chlorates, 
vriiich  are  sohds,  and  nitric  acid  and  nitrogen 
letroxide,  which  arc  Hquids.  Among  the  com- 
bustible substances  were  the  nitrosubstitution 
bodies,  carbon  disulphile  and  petroleum.  A 
conspicuous  example  of  a  Sprengei  explosive  is 
rackarock,  which  was  used  in  blowing  up  Flood 
Rock  in  Heil  Gate,  N.  Y,,  and  which  may  be 
made  by  pouring  mononitrobeniinc  upon  pot- 
assium chlorate  crystals.  Other  examples  are 
some  forms  of  emmensite;  explosive  A;  hdl- 
boffite;  oxonite;  panclasite;  and  Parone's  ex- 
plosive. 

Safety  or  Flameless  Exploaivei.> — These 
explosives  are  for  use  in  fieiy  mines,  particularly 
coal  mines,  where  there  is  a  chance  of  an  acci' 
dent  arising  through  the  ignition  of  the  fire 
damp  from  the  flame  or  incandescent  particles 
given  off  by  the  explosive  as  the  blast  is  fired 
Among  the  earlier  devices  employed  to  pre- 
vent this  was  the  mixing  in  the  dope  of  the 
dynamite  or  with  the  powder  of  a  quantity  of 
washing  soda,  alum,  Epsom  salts  or  other  salt 
containmg  a  large  amount  of  water  of  crystalli- 
zation that  would  be  set  free  when  the  mix- 
ture was  fired.  In  1883  Mallard  and  Le 
Chatelier  discovered  that  when  exjjlosives  were 
detonated  unconfincd  in  air  containing  10  per 
cent  of  methane  (marsh-gas),  the  fire  damp 
could  not  be  ignited  if  the  temperature  of  de- 
tonation was  below  2200°  C.,  owing  to  the  cool- 
ing of  the  gases  due  to  their  raoid  extension 
and  to  the  retardation  of  the  inflammation  of 
the  fire-damp.  An  investigation  by  the  French 
Fire  Damp  Commission  showed  that,  among 
others,  certain  salts  of  ammonia  and  especially 
anunoniom  nitrate,  were  capable  of  reducing 
the  temperature  of  the  gases  produced  by  deto- 
nation very  materially,  the  temperature  of  the 
gases  from  explosive  gelatine  being  reduced 
from  3090°  C,  when  detonated  alone,  to  1493° 
C,  if  detonated  irfien  mixed  with  88  per  cent 
of  ammonimn  nitrate.  In  August  1890  the 
French  government  prohibited  the  use  of  black 
powder  in  fiery  or  dusty  mines  and  permitted 
the  use  in  them  of  explosives  whose  gases  are 
not  combustible  and  the  detonation  tempera- 
ture of  which  does  not  exceed  1900°  C.,  where 
blasting  is  to  be  done  in  the  rock,  nor  1500°  C, 
where  the  work  is  to  be  done  in  the  coal  seam. 
Amon^  the  explosives  designed  to  meet  sixh 
conditions  and  styled  abroad  safety  or  flameless 
explosives  are:  Ammonite;  amvis,  aphosite; 
bellite ;  benedite ;  britainite ;  cambrite ;  car- 
bonite;  Casteau's  explosives;  dahmenite;  Fa- 
vier's  explosive;  fractorite;  Geseriek's  powder; 
grisoutine;  grisoutite;  nitroferrite;  progressite; 
roburite ;    securite ;    westphalite ;    wetterdyna- 

Permiulble  Sxplorires  are  those  which  have 
passed  the  tests  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Mines  and  which  have  been  placed  by  it  on 
the  Permissible  List  of  Explosives  for  Use  in 
Coal   Mines,   established   in   1908.     There   were 


137  explosives  on  the  petmissible  list  15  ^nl 
1916  classified  as  ^ammonitmi  nitrate,*  %y- 
drated."  'orranic  nitrate"  and  'nitroglycerin* 
explosives.  Rules  for  testing  and  r^ulatious 
for  use  of  these  explosives  are  supplied  in  free 
publications  of  this  Bureau.  By  the  use  of 
these  explosives  safety  in  mining  coal  is  in- 

SmokeleaB  Powders  are  hi^  powered 
propellents  used  as  substitutes  for  gunpowder  in 
firearms  and  cannon.     They  are  formed  of  the 

a  best  grade  of  cellulose  nitrate  only,  like 
urite,  or  of  the  medium  grade  only,  like 
pyrocellulose  powder,  or  they  may  be  mixtures 
of  different  grades  together  with  metallic 
nitrates  like  the  B.  N.  powders.  Another  class 
are  mixtures  of  cellulose  nitrates  with  nitro- 
glycerin and  a  restrainer,  like  vaseline ;  ballis- 
tite,  cordite  and  filite  being  examples  of  this 
kind.  In  robin-hood,  gold  dust,  and  gelbite, 
we  have  examples  of  such  powders  made  from 
nitrosubstitution  compounds  and  oxidiiing 
agents.  Other  smokeless  powders  are  ambente: 
Erackett's  powder;  catuionite ;  Curtis  and 
Andre's  powder;  Du  Pont  powder;  E.  C  pow- 
der; fulgor;  granulite;  homite;  J.  B.  powder; 
komte ;  poudre  J  ;  poudre  S ;  pyrocoUodion ; 
rifleite;  Schultze  iwwder  and  Walsrode  powder. 
■  Shell  Exploiives. —  For  charging  armor 
pierdng  and  other  high  explosives  ^11  very 
stable,  insensitive,  detonating  explosives  are 
required.  Nitroglycerin,  dynamite,  guncotton 
and  explosive  gdatin  were  tried  but  found  too 
dangerous.  Picric  acid  was  known  to  be 
powerful  and,  when  condensed  by  fusion,  so 
msensitive  that  it  could  be  safely  fired  from 
modem  guns,  but  it  was  found  difficult  to  de- 
tonate it  when  it  was  compressed  in  the  shelL 
Turpin  in  France  in  1886  solved  the  problem 
by  causing  a  mercury  fulminate  detonator  to  act 
on  pulverulent  picric  add  contained  in  a  cavity 
in  the  compressed  picric  acid.  For  attack  on 
warships  shells  are  required  that  will  pass 
dirougn  the  armor  and  explode  when  on  the 
inside.  According  to  Marshall  nitroaromatic 
explosives,  such  as  picric  acid,  generally  deto- 
nate on  the  face  of  the  armor.  This  is  accom- 
Slished  by  ammonium  nitrate  explosives.  The 
rst  complete  demonstration  was  made  at  the 
United  Slates  Naval  Proving  Ground,  Indian 
Head,  Md..  in  1897  under  Capt  W.  T.  Sampson. 
U.  S.  N.,  when  a  shell  containing  8l25  pounds 
of  Joveite  (moroniironaphthalene,  picnc  add 
and  ammonium  nitrate)  penetrated  a  sheet  of 
the  harvcyized  armor  of  the  United  States 
Steamship  Kentucky  14.5  inches  in  thickness 
and  burst  on  the  other  side  of  the  plate.  Com- 
pressed picric  acid  is  known  In  France  as 
melinite;  in  England  as  lyddite;  Germany, 
granatf  ill  lung  8B;  Italy,  pcrtite;  Japan,  shimo- 
site;  Sweden,  coronite;  Spain,  picrimte;  and 
Austria,  ecrasite.  In  many  instances  other  sub- 
stances are  mixed  with  me  picric  add.  Thus 
in  France  to  reduce  the  melting  point  and  avoid 
the  formation  of  cavities  from  crystal  ligation 
or  'piping"  trinitrocresol  is  mixed  with  the  lac- 
ric  acid.  A  mixture  of  60  per  cent  trinitrocre- 
sol and  40  per  cent  picric  acid  is  known  as 
cresylite  60/4a  It  melts  at  85°  C,  but  at  65' 
is  Bufficientb'  plastic  to  permit  of  its  being  com- 
pressed into  charges  whKh,  on  cooKng,  are  cam- 
pact,  amorphous  and  very  homogeneous.  In 
Austria  ammonium  cresylate  is  mixed  with  die 
picric  acid.    Since  picric  acid  is  corrosive,  and 


jOOgIc 


EXPLOSIVES 


da? 


may,  by  action  on  the  metal  of  its  conbiners. 
produce  dangerously  sensitive  compounds,  and 
also  because  the  supply  of  it  is  limited,  trinitro- 
toluene has  come  to  be  lat^ely  used  as  th« 
bursting'  charge  for  detonating  shells.  Sdmei- 
derite  {mononitronaphthalene  10  per  cent  and 
anunonium  nitrate  90  per  cent)  is  used  at  CreU' 
sot  for  this  purpose  also.  Macarite  (T.  N.  T, 
and  lead  nitrate)  is  also  used. 

Grensde  and  Bomb  ExploBivee.  Ammonal, 
cheddite,  compressed  gun  cotton,  picric  acid, 
smokeless  powder,  T.  ^J,  T.,  and  tonile  are  used 
for  charing  hand  grenades  and  bombs. 

Methods  of  Firing  Explosivea. —  Explo- 
sives may  be  made  to  explode  by  heating  them 
to  their'  explosion  temperatures.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  a  flame,  a  spark,  an  incandes- 
cent body,  friction,  percussion,  concussion,  pres- 
sure or  chemical  action,  provided  the  resulting 
temperature  is  sufficiently  high.  Gunpowder 
was  originally  ignited  in  muskets,  guns  and 
boreholes  by  the  application  of  a  torch,  a  glow- 
ing finder  or  a  heated  iron  rod  Later  mus- 
kets were  fired  by  the  sparks  from  a  flint  strik- 
ing steel.  Joseph  Egg,  an  English  gunmaker; 
1815,  invented  percussion  caps  and  to-day  all 
fixed  ammtmition  is  fired  by  percussion  primers. 
while  the  charges  in  very  large  guns  are  fired 
by  friction  primers  or  by  electric  primers.  In 
firing  blasts  a  (rain  of  powder  was  laid  from 
the  mine  to  a  safe  distance  by  which  to  convey 
the  inflammation.  Later  quills,  straws  or  paper 
or  wooden  tubes  were  used  to  hold  the  train 
and  permit  of  the  charge  being  tamped  so  as  to 
secure  the  advantage  which  comes  from  coti- 
fining  an  explosive.  Bickford  of  Tucldngwall, 
England,  1831,  invented  the  'running*  or  "tape* 
or  'safety*  fuse,  in  which  a  core  otguopowder 
is  enclosed  in  a  tube  of  jute  yarn  impregnated 
with  a  waterproof  composition,  and  this  is  to-daty 
largely  used  in  firing  blasts.  Dr.  Watson  of 
England,  1745,  succeeded  in  igniting  gunpowder 
by  means  of  electric  sparks,  and  in  1749  a  bat- 
tery of  11  guns  was  nred  by  means  of  a  frio< 
tional  electric  machine  at  Annapolis,  Maryland. 
Dr.  Robert  Hare  of  Philadelphia,  1832,  invented 
the  method  of  firing  gunpowder  charges  by 
means  of  the  electric  current,  using  low  tension 
fuses,  and  he  had  for  some  time  prior  to  this 
employed  the  voltaic  battery,  in  eudiometrical 
experiments,  for  igniting  explosive  mixtures  of 
gases.  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone,  1856,  intro- 
duced the  magneto-exploder  in  blasting,  and 
Moses  G,  Farmer  of  NeviTwrt,  R.  1.,  1871,  in- 
vented the  dynamo-electric  machine  with  which 
to  generate  the  current  and  applied  it  to  firing 
electric  ignitors  or  detonators,  and  to-day  great 
guns,  military  and  naval  mines,  and  torpedoes 
and  many  blasts,  especially  those  in  which  sev- 
eral charges  are  to  be  fired  simultaneously  or 
where  the  blast  is  under  water,  are  fired  by  this 

It  has  long  been  known  that  when  a  notable 
quantity  of  a  mixture  of  two  volumes  of  hydro- 
gen with  one  volume  of  oxygen  is  ignited  at  any 
point,  the  inflammation  extends  almost  instan- 
taneously throughout  the  mass  and  a  most  vio- 
lent explosion  ensues.  This  phenomenon  is 
called  detonation,  and  this  mixture  has  long 
been  known  under  the  name  of  detonating  gas. 
Certain  chemical  compounds  such  as  nitrogen 
chloride,  nitrogen  iodide  and  mercuric  fulminate 
undergo  an  almost  instantaneous  decomposition. 


giving  rise  to  violent  explosive  effects,  if  heated, 
struck  or  rubbed,  and  they  are  known  as  dc 
tonating  explosives.  At  first  guncotton,  nitro- 
glycerin and  dynamite  were  fired  by  ignition,  as 
giuipowder  had  been,  but  Nobel,  1866,  discov- 
erea  that  if  a  quantity  of  mercuric  fulminate 
was  detonated  in  contact  with  nitroglycerin  or 
dynamite  they  then  underwent  a  detonating 
explosion  also.  E.  O.  Brown  of  the  chemical 
department  at  Woolwich,  Elngland,  1868.  discovr 
ered  that  not  only  could  dry  compressed  mili- 
tary guncotton  be  detonated  in  this  way,  but 
that  if  the  dry  charge,  called  a  primer,  was  in 
contact  with  wet  guncotton,  the  latter  was  de- 
tonated also,  even  though  it  was  saturated  with 
or  submerged  imder  and  in  contact  with  water. 
There  are  then  two  Idnds  of  explosion,  namely, 
explosion  by  simple  combustion  and  explosion 
by  detonation.  Explosives  of  the  gunpowder 
class  undergo  only  the  first  kind  of  explosion. 
Explosives  of  dte  nitric  ester  or  .nitrosubstitu- 
tion  classes  undergo  both  kinds  of  explosions. 
Explosives  of  the  fulminate  class  practically 
undergo  only  the  second  kind  of  explosion.  A 
marked  difference  between  the  two  k^nds  of  ex- 
plosion is  found  in  the  velocity  with  which  the 
explosive  reaction  is  propagated  within  the  mass 
of  the  explosive.  Thus  in  detonating  gas,  which 
can  undergo  both  kinds  of  explosion,  Bunsen 
found,  when  using  very  narrow  tubes  where 
only  combustion  could  take  place,  that  the 
velocity  of  the  reaction  was  34  metres  per  sec- 
ond, while  Berthelot,  using  long  and  wide  tubes 
in  which  detonation  could  take  place,  found 
that  the  velocity  of  the  reaction  was  2,810 
metres  per  second.  Experiments  made  by  lay- 
ing trams  of  the  materials  and  firing  them 
showed  that  while  the  velocity  of  combustion  of 
gunpowder  in  the  open  air  is  but  from  1.5  to  3.4 
metres  per  second,  the  velocity  of  detonation 
of  dynamite  and  of  guncotton  is  about  6,000 
metres  per  second.  Provided  each  explosive 
gave  the  same  voltmie  of  gases,  having  the 
same  temperature  and  that  the  conditions  were 
in  all  other  respects  alike,  it  is  evident  that  the 
explosion  in  wh'cb  the  reaction  velocity  was 
the  greater  would  be  the  more  violent  one.  But 
tho'  are  not  alike,  since  guncotton,  nitroglycerin 
and  mercuric  fdminate,  besides  being  endo* 
thermos  compoimds,  are  completely  resolved 
into  gases,  while  gunpowder,  besides  being  a 
mixture,  yields  but  about  44  per  cent  of  gaseous 
products.  The  pressure  developed  by  gunpow- 
der when  fired  in  a  space  completely  filled  by  it 
is,  from  Noble  and  Abel's  experiments,  6,130 
atmospheres.  The  theoretical  pressure  de- 
veloped by  guncotton,  noiroglycerin  and  mer- 
curic fulminate  when  detonated  in  contact  with 
bodies,  are  respectively  24,000  atmospheres, 
25,000  atmospheres  and  28,000  atmospheres.  In- 
vestigation has  shown  that  no  other  explosive 
known  will  give  in  contact  an  instantam 
pressure  at  all  comparable  with  that  of  i 
curie  fulminate. 

Owing  to  these  differences  in  behavior  ex- 
plosives have  been  distinguished  as  hi^  ex- 
plosives  and  low  explosives.  Gunpowder  and 
explosives  of  flie  nitrate  class,  together  with 
smokeless  powder  are  low  explosives.  They  act 
with  comparative  slowness  and  are  used  where 
it  is  desired  to  lift  or  push  a  load  without 
cracking  it  or  in  propelling  projectiles.  Nitro- 
glycerin and  explosives  of  the  class  of  nitric 


.  Coogic 


BXPLOSIVBS 


esters  or  nitrosnbstitutioi)  bodies  are  hif^  ex- 
'  plosives.  They  are  shattering  and  crushing  in 
their  effect.  Detonators  containing  mercuric 
fulminate  are  used  to  fire  liiBJi  explosives,  the 
detonators  being  themselves  fired  by  means  of 
a  Bickford  fuse  or  by  an  electric  current  The 
high  explosives  are  usually  put  up  for  use  in 
paper  cylinders,  and,  when  loaded  for  shipment, 
these  are  called  cartridges  or  "sticks.'  Usually 
several  sticks  are  required  for  one  borehole.  In 
this  case  the  detonator  is  inserted  in  one  of 
these' sticks,  usually  the  last  one  inserted  in  the 
hole,  and  this  stick  is  then  called  the  priming 
cartridge  or  'primer.' 

Dirccdon  m  Which  Bzploiivea  Explode. 
—  There  is  a  very  common  but  erroneous  belief 
that  gunpowder  explodes  upward  and  that  high 
explosives  explode  downward.  It  arises  from 
Ae  fact  that  if  a  quantity  of  dynamite  be  laid 
nnconfined  upon  the  surface  of  the  rock  on  de- 
tonating it  the  rock  will  often  be  fractured, 
whereas  if  gunpowder  is  thus  placed  and  fired, 
it  produces  no  effect  whatever  upon  the  rock. 
The  facts  are  that  each  explosive  lends  to  act 
in  all  directioRS  about  the  centre  of  explosion. 
As  exposed  in  air  they  are  subjected  to  the 
weight  of  the  air  above  them  and  are  to  that 
extent  imdcr  confinement.    When  the  hi§^  ex.' 

Slosive  is  detonated  the  gases  are  set  free  so 
*st  that  the  air  acts  as  a  tamping  agent ;  when 
the  gunpowder  explodes  the  gases  are  generated 
so  slowly  [hat  they  have  time  to  move  the  air. 
Besides  the  ''pressure  in  contact*  exerted  by 
die  high  explosives  is  enormously  greater  than 
that  of  the  low  explosives.  That  high  ex- 
plosives exert  pressure  in  all  directions  was 
demonstrated  by  Munroe  by  fastening  blocks  of 
guncDtton  of  equal  size  and  wei^t  on  opposite 
■ides  of  a  plate  of  iron,  but  at  some  distance 
igiart,  by  means  of  light  cords  or  wires,  su^ 
pending  the  plate  in  any  position  and  detonat- 
iag  both  charges  simuhaneously  when  holes 
were  blown  through  the  plate  away  from  each 
of  the  charges.  Although  high  explosives  usu- 
ally produce  a  shattering  effect  when  fired  un- 
confined  upon  a  body  the  effect  is  markedly 
increased  by  increasing  the  confinement  Thus 
in  the  method  of  breaking  boulders  and  large 
masses  of  stone  called  "plastering,*  after  the 
charge  is  laid  upon  the  stone  and  lused,  one  or 
two  shovelfuls  of  earth  are  placed  over  it  be- 
fore firing.  In  'blockbolin^,"  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  break  the  rock  into  fragments  of 
definite  size,  a  small  hole  is  bored  in  the  rock 
and  the  explosive  inserted  in  this  cavity  whereby 
the  gases  obtain  a  greater  leverage. 

Explosions  by  Influence. —  In  detonating 
explosive  substances  it  has  been  found  that  the 
innuence  of  the  detonation  is  exerted  to  a  dis- 
tance  all  about  the  mass  depending  on  the  kind 
and  the  amount  of  the  explosive  used  and  its 
environment  and  that  a  second  charge  of  ex- 
plosive within  the  sphere  of  infiuence  may  be 
detonated  by  the  detonation  of  the  first  charge 
without  being  in  contact  with  it.  Thus  in  acci- 
dental explosions  in  explosive  works  the  initial 
explosion  occurring  in  one  buildinp  may  de- 
tonate the  explosives  in  other  buildings  unless 
care  is  taken  in  the  construction  of  the  works 
to  separate  the  buildings  by  a  safe  distance 
from  one  another.  Care,  too,  must  be  taken  in 
forming  fixed  ammunition  that  the  primers  are 
not  heavily  charged  with  fulminate,  and  that 
the  cartridge's  are  so  packed  that  the  accidental 


^u« 


plosion  of  one  cannot  explode  the  others  by 
AppUcation  of  this  principle  is  made, 

miiitaiy  engineering  in  the  operation  of 
countermining,  ue  enemy's  submarine  mines  be- 
ing blown  up  bjr  firing  a  heavy  tori>edo  charged 
with  guncoiton  in  the  vicinity  of  them.  To-day 
large  quantities  of  explosives  are  fre^uendy 
used  in  bif;  blasts.  According  to  Eissler,  it  is  an 
almost  daily  occurrence  in  California  for  20,000, 
XfiOO  and  even  50,000  pcmndt  of  explosives  to 
be  used  in  a  sin^  charge.  The  system  of  large 
blasts  has  even  become  common  in  hard  root 
excavations,  such  as  quarries  and  railroad  cut- 
tings, and  in  diese  large  blasts  it  is  common 
practice  to  dispose  the  larger  part  of  the  mass 
of  explosive  so  that  it  may  be  exploded  by  influ- 
ence and  not  by  contact  or  by  propagadon  of 
flame  or  fire. 

The  largest  sin^e  blast  ever  fired  was  that 
used  in  the  blowing  up  of  Flood  Rock  at  Hdl 
Gate  in  the  East  River,  N.  Y.,  10  Oct  1885. 
There  was  used  in  the  blast  240,399  pounds  of 
rackarock  and  42,331  pounds  of  dynamite,  or 
283,000  pounds  of  explosive.  There  were  13,000 
separate  charges  of  rackarock  embedded  in  drill 
boles  with  a  dynamite  cartridge  on  top  of  each, 
and  there  were  591  primary  charges  of  dynamite 
flaced  on  dmbers  25  feet  apart  within  the  mine. 
When  all  the  charges  hacT  been  placed  in  the 
excavation  and  the  primary  charges  coiuiected 
with  the  firing  batteries,  the  mine  was  filled 
with  water,  the  primary  charges  were  exploded 
by  the  electric  current  and  these  exploded  the 
13,000  other  charges  by  influence  through  the 
intervening  water.  Munroe  founded  on  this 
principle  a  method  of  testing  the  reladve  sen- 
sitiveness of  explosive  substances. 

Uwa  of  Szplosivet, —  The  uses  of  explo- 
sives as  propellents  in  war  and  in  the  chase;  as 
rupturing  agents  in  mining,  quarrying  and  engi- 
neering operadons,  and  as  an  esscndal  conipo- 
nent  of  fireworks  is  well  known.  It  is  not  so 
generally  known  that  they  are  employed  for  sav- 
ing life  and  property  in  signal  li^ts,  rockets 
and  guns;  in  projecting  lines  from  the  shore  to 
stranded  ships,  and,  in  case  of  fire,  to  the  upper 
stories  of  higii  buildings;  in  casting  oil  upon 
the  water  to  quell  a  raging  sea;  and  in  railrxtad 
torpedoes  to  prevent  collisions.  Gunpowder 
guns  are  also  used  in  bridge  building  to  project 
a  line  across  a  chasm  which  is  to  be  bridged, 
and  they  are  used  in  the  whale  fishery  to  project 
the  harpoons,  while  the  latter  may  carry  an  ex- 
plosive charge  with  which  to  stun  or  destroy  the 
whale.  Detonating  explosives  have  been  im- 
properly used  in  taking  fish;  in  burglarious 
operations  against  safes  and  vaults  and  in 
anarchistic  outrages.  Dynamite  has  been  used 
to  knock  the  blocking  from  the  ways  when 
laiuiching  ships.  Fired  on  an  iron  plate  placed 
on  the  top  of  a  pile  and  covered  wits  a  tamping 
of  earth  or  clay,  it  has  successfully  replaced  the 
pile  driver.  It  has  been  found  ^dent  in  ex- 
cavating holes  in  which  to  plant  telegraph  and 
telephone  poles  and  fence  posts;  in  driving 
water  out  of  quicksands  in  which  foundations 
are  to  be  laid  or  shafts  to  be  driven;  in  slan^- 
tering  cattle ;  in  breaking  down  ice  dams  to  pre- 
vent inundations;  in  blowing  ap  buildings  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  conflagrations ;  in  razing 
unsafe  walls  of  burned  buildii^s;  in  destroy- 
ing wrecks  which  endanger  navigadon,  and  m 
freeing  vessels  which  are  hard  aground  on 
shoals.     The    farmer   uses  .them    in    breaking 


SXPONBNT6  AND  BXPONZNTIALS 


bouldets,  grabbing  stumiM  and  felling  trees; 
in  jhaJdng  the  soil  to  fit  it  for  deep-soil  culd- 
vatioD,  and,  ic  wine  growing  districts,  to  free 
the  3(^s  'from  the  phylloxera:  white  their  aid 
bas  been  sou^t  tu  breakiii^  droughts  and 
divertiog  hailstorms  from  their  courses.  The 
iron  founder  uses  them  in  breaking  laige  cast- 
ings. The  iroo  smelter  employs  taem  to  clear 
out  obstructions  in  blast  furnaces  while  the  lat- 
ter are  still  in  operation.  Uunroe  proposed 
using  detonating  explosives  as  a  means  of  test- 
ing the  integrity  of  large  masses  of  metal  and 
their  resistance  to  shock. 

Truuportatioa  of  BxplotiTn.— It  is  well 
known  that  the  transportation  of  explosives  is 
a  necessary  menace.  Hunroe  pointed  out  that 
in  1904  there  was  not  less  than  600  cars  of  ex- 
plosives on  the  railroads  of  the  United  States 
each  day.  In  1905  the  matter  of  regulating  the 
transportation  of  these  and  other  dangerous 
substances  was  taken  np  by  the  American  Rail- 
way Association  and  a  bureau  of  supervision 
was  created.  I.ater  the  matter  was  taken  up 
by  the  United  States  Congress  and  by  its  acts 
of  4  March  1909  and  18  June  1910,  this  super- 
vision and  regulation  was  entrusted  to  the  In- 
terstate Commerce  Commission  which,  on  2 
July  1914,  issued  a  pamphlet  of  ]9«S  pages  con- 
taining its  regulations  for  die  safe  transporta- 
tion of  explosives,  inflammables  and  other 
dangerous  substdnces,  and  these  now  control. 

ExpIoHivet  InduBt^  in  the  United  Statet. 
—  The  reports  of  the  United  Stales  census  for 
1900,  1905  and  1909  contain  much  descriptive 
and  historical  besides  statistical  matter  regard- 
ing this  industry.  From  the  reports  of  the 
census  for  1914  it  appears  that  in  that  year 
there  wasproduced  7,685,036  pounds  of  gun- 
powder; 208,316,125  pounds  of  blasting  powder; 
3,560,581  pounds  of  nitrMaycerin ;  223.000,073 
pounds  of  dynamite  and  18,113,601  poimds  of 
permissible  explosives.  The  comparative  condi- 
tion of  the  industry  from  1840  to  1914  is  shown 
in  the  following  table; 


i 

CwM 

1 

PaoDucts 

Ptmidl 

V^ 

131 

1 

t875,STS 

I.IT9.12! 

3.305.700 

j:|:!S 
so:w7:»7< 

71.J51.<1« 

4M 

973 
1,340 

I'i 

6.30* 

».OT7.3« 

lato... 

2^s:^-j\t 

.j5:|:!S 

48T.«1.JW 
W6,B24.UT 

S:iS:1! 

2s.tia. 

The  establiahments  re^rteS  for  1914  v«re 
most  numerous  in  the  sections  where  mining  or 
engineering  operations  were  carried  on  most 
extensively.  Pennsylvania  had  33  factories, 
Ohio  11,  Illinois  9,  New  Jersey  8,  West  Virginia 
7,  Oklahoma  6  and  California  5.    The  produc- 


tion is  largest  in  the  East.  See  Dynauitb: 
FiKK-DAHi';  GuHConoH;  Gunfowdebi  Nmo- 
<iLYCE>iN;  Maxiuite;  Pickic  Acn>;  SrAsajTB; 
Tbinitrotolueke,  T.  N.  T." 

Bibliographj'^-Abbot,  H.  L.,  'Report  Upon 
Experiments  and  Investigations  to  Develop  a 
System  of  Submarine  Mines'  ^Washington 
1881) ;  Berthelot,  M.,  <Les  feu  gregois 
et  les  origines  de  la  poudre  4  canon'  (Paris 
1891) ;  Brunswig,  H.,  'Explosives,'  trans. 
from  German  by  Munroe  and  Kibler  (New 
York    1912);_qjaIori^  P.    P.,    |Les    explosifs 


ndill,  j.  P.,_ 
y  of  Explosii 


(London  189S):  Daniel,  E,   '^Dictionnairi. 

matieres  explosives'  (Paris  1902);  DeKalb,  C, 
'Manual  of  Explosives'  (Toronto  1900) ;  De- 
sortiaux,  E.,  'Dictionnaire  des  explosifs' 
(Paris  1892)  ;  Drinker,  H.  S.,  'Tunneling,  Ex- 
plosive Compounds  and  Rock  Drills'  (New 
Vorit  1882>;  Eissler,  M.,  'A  Handbook  on 
Modem  £iq>h»ives>  (London  1890) ;  'The 
Modem  High  Explosives'  (New  York  1893)  ; 
Gody,  L.,  'Traite  matieres  explosives'  (Namur 
ISHi)  ;  Guttmann.  O.,  'The  Manufacture  Of  £x- 
plouv«8>  (London  1895)  ;  Hill,  W.  N.,  'Notes 
on  Certain  Explosive  Argents'  (Boston  1875); 
Macquet,  A.,  'Explosifs  de  surct£>  (Paris  1893)  ; 
Marshal],  A.,  'Exi^ostves,  Their  Manufacture, 
Frmierties,  Tests  and  Histoty'  (Philadelphia 
191S)  ;  Mowbray,  G.  M.,  'Tri-nitro-glycerin  as 
Amiied  in  the  Hoosac  Tunnel'  (New  York 
1^4) ;  Munroe,  Charles  E,  'Lectures  on 
Chemistry  and  Explosives*  (Newport  1888); 
'Indexto  the  Literatnre  of  Explosives'  (Balti- 
more 1893)  :  'Chemicals  and  AUied  Products, 
Bulletin  92  of  the  United  States  Census  of  1905> 
(Washington  1908)  and  'Chemicals  and  Allied 
Products,  Vol.  X^  pp.  527-624,  Report  of  13th 
United  States  Census'  (Washington  1911); 
Munroe,  C.  E^  and  ChaUnl,  T.  M.,  'Chemicals 
and  AJlied  Products,  Bulletin  210  of  12th 
United  States  Census*  (Washington  1902) ; 
Munroe  and  Hall,  <A  Primer  on  Explosives  for 
Coal  Miners,  Bulletin  17,  United  Sutes  Bureau 
of  Mines'  (Washington  1911);  <A  Primer  on 
Explosives  for  Metal  Miners  and  Quarrvmen, 
Bulletin  80,  United  States  Bureau  of  Mines' 
(Washington  1915) ;  Nobel,  A.,  'Les  Explosifs 
modemes'  (Paris  1876) :  Walke,  W.,  'Lectures 
on  Explosives'  (New  York  1897);  Wisser,  J. 
P,  'Compressed  (Jun  Cotton  for  Military  Use' 
(New  York  1886). 

Charles  E.  Munmm; 
The  Gtorge  fVofkittijton  Uitivertily,  Washing- 
ton.  D.  C. 

EXP0NBNT8  AND  EXPONENTIALS. 
The  symbol  x"  is  used  in  elementary  algebra  to 
denote  the  restilt  of  multiplying  x  by  x,  the  re- 
sult by  X,  and  so  on,  till  ii-l  multiplications  have 
been  made.  It  is  read,  'x  to  the  nth  power,* 
or  simply  "x  to  the  nOi.'  n  is  said  to  be  the 
exponent  of  x.  Gearly  this  manner  of  defining 
exponents  only  applies  lo  real  integers.  While 
the  generalization  of  the  notion  of  exponents 
has  proceeded  step  by  step,  it  is  perhaps  best  to 
give  directly  the  widest  extension  of  the  notion 
tnat  is  possible  in  ordinary  complex  algebra, 
•f,  the  so-called  exponential  function,  is  defined 


which 


always  converges  when  x  is  finite,  be  it  real 


fi+r.-t 


joogle 


BXPOSITION 


or  complex.  Log  x  is  defined  as  a  value  of  y 
for  which  t^yx  is  then  de6ned  as  ey  log  x. 
It  will  in  general  be  many  valued.  By  the  selec- 
tion of  cerEain  values  of  xy  as  the  so-called 
principal  value,  the  following  laws  may  be 
established. 

•   x~.    a»  =  X"  -1-  ■ 
(jp")"     =  i«» 
I".  >-  ={x  y)."> 
It  will  be  found  that  when  m  is  an  integer,  m 
will  have  its  conventional  meaning,  and  that 

*—  will  stand  for  n  /«  where  nV*  is  a  num- 
ber which,  when  raised  to  the  nth  power,  will 
yield  X. 

While  e*  is  the  e:tponcntial  function,  func- 
tions the  argumCDt  of  which  appears  in  an 
exponent  are  often  known  collectively  as  ex' 
ponential  functions. 

EXPOSITION,  IndostriaL  The  promo- 
tion of  trade  and  manufactures  by  means  of 
collections  of  works  of  industry  and  art  has  no 
claim  to  the  merit  of  novel^.  In  modern  times, 
however,  the  idea  has  been  more  systematically 
carried  out,  and  was  probably  suggested  by  the 
good  effects  produced  by  two  institutions  of  a 
like  nature  — the  galleries, of  rare  productions 
of  art  or  nature  collected  by  the  wealthy  and 
educated,  and  the  exposure  for  sale  of  orna- 
mental and  useful  articles  in  the  stores  of 
individuals,  and  more  particulariy  on  a  large 
scale  at  the  great  fain  which  in  former  times 
were  more  important  features  of  commercial 
enterprise  than  ihey  now  are.  The  beneficial 
effect  thus  derived  from  the  exhibition  and  com- 
parison of  the  manufactured  products  of  dif- 
lerent  localities  could  not  long  escape  notice. 
In  England  this  knowledge  was  brought  to 
practical  purposes  in  the  18th  century,  when 
the  Society  of  Arts  in  1756-57  not  only  offered 

e'izei  for  specimens  of  manufactures,  but  ex- 
bited  the  works  of  the  competitors.  In  France 
an  ethibition  embracing  all  kinds  of  manufac- 
tures was  held  in  the  year  1798,  and  another 
under  the  consulate  ot  Bonaparte  in  1802,  and 
the  gratifying  results  attained  led  to  the  idea 
of  holding  Ihem  every  three  years,  which  was 
carried  out  as  far  as  the  political  troubles  of 
the  country  would  allow.  Many  exhibitions 
were  subsequently  held  at  different  cities  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  the  British 
Islands  exhibitions  of  a  more  or  less  local 
nature  were  held  in  Dublin.  Manchester,  Liver- 
pool and  Birmingham,  as  well  as  in  London  in 
the  premises  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  All  these 
twd  Deen  generally  successful,  but  the  necessity 
of  having  an  exhibition  on  an  international 
scale  had  become  with  some  a  fixed  idea.  This 
was  first  brought  fairly  before  the  British 
public  in  1848  by  Prince  Albert,  then  president 
of  the  Society  of  Arts.  In  1849  the  project 
for  an  exhibition  in  which  all  nations  might 
join  began  to  take  a  tangible  shape;  and  it  was 
at  last  determined  by  government  to  issue  a 
royal  commission  to  deal  with  the  matter,  which 
was  gazetted  3  Jan.  1850,  The  better  to  enable 
the  commissioners  to  enter  into  contracts  and 
otherwise  incur  obligations,  subscriptions  were 
procured  to  a  guarantee  fund,  the  queen  lead- 
ing the  list  with  $5,000.  A  vast  structure  of 
iron  and  f^lass,  generally  designated  the  Crystal 
Palace,  built  from  the  design  of  Joseph  Paxton, 


was  erected  in  an  incredibly  shon  space  of  tiine 
in  Hyde  Parl^  London,  and  was  opened  by  Her 
Majes^  on  1  May  1851.  The  extreme  length 
of  the  building  was  1^51  feet,  the  width  408 
and  the  height  about  64  feet  The  entire  area 
was  about  19  acres.  In  the  grotmd  door  and 
galleries  there  were  about  eight  miles  of  tables 
set  apart  for  the  exhibitors.  The  articles  sent 
for  exhibition  were  divitled  into  four  great  sec- 
tions :  Raw  materials,  machinery,  manufactures 
and  fine  arts.  The  number  ot  exhibitors  was 
about  15,000.  The  exhibition  remained  open 
until  11  October,  and  the  number  of  visitors  dur- 


balance  of  $700,1X)0  left    The  ii       

of  the  undertaking  encouraged  the  local  and 
national  exhibitions  of  Dublin  and  New  York 
in  1853  and  of  Munich  in  I&54;  and  the  French 
nation  in  1855  opened  its  first  Exposition  Uni- 
verselle.  The  main  building  was  an  imposing 
structure  of  white  stone  and  of  classic  architec- 
ture. The  buildings  were  erected  in  the  Champs 
Elysecs,  and  covered  about  24  acres.  There  were 
in  all  about  24,000  exhibitors,  and  the  contents 
were  pronounced  greatly  in  advance  of  those 
exhibited  in  London  in  18S1.  It  was  said  that 
continental  manufacturers  had  taken  lessons 
from  the  British  exhibition  which  the  British 
had  failed  in  fully  profiting  by,  and  so  exhibited 
a  vast  improvement  in  works  in  which  the  latter 
considered  themselves  unrivaled.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  national  exhibitions  of  the  Dutch  at 
Haarlem  and  the  Belgians  at  Brussels,  both  in 
1861,  and  the  following  year  by  the  second  great 
international  exhibition  held  in  London.  It  oc- 
cupied a  vast  brick  building,  lighted  by  a  roof 
and  two  immense  cupolas  of  glass,  and  erected 
in  the  garden  of  the  Horticultural  Society  at 
South  Kensington.  The  space  covered  was 
aSout  17  acres.  There  were  26,348  exhibitors  in 
the  industrial  division,  of  whom  8,487  were  Brit- 
ish, and  in  the  fine  art  division  2,305,  of  vrfiom 
990  were  British.  The  aggregate  number  of 
visitors  from  1  May  to  31  October  was  6,211,103, 
giving  an  average  of  36,328  per  day.  '  The  pro- 
ductions, which  came  from  almost  all  parts  of 
the  globe,  were  divided  into  40  classes,  and  in- 
cluded manufactures  of  all  kinds  —  machinery, 
chemical  products,  railway  plant  and  ordinary 
vehicles,  animal  and  vegetable  products  used  in 
food  or  manufacture,  architecture,  painting, 
sculpture,  engraving,  etc  This  exhibition  was 
also  eminently  successful  and  enabled  the  public 
to  judge  of  the  progress  or  shortcomings  of 
British  home  manufactures  and  art  as  com- 
pared with  others.  In  1865  a  rather  important 
exhibition  was  held  in  Dublin  which  was  a 
pecuniary  failure.  The  second  French  Interna- 
tional Exhibition  was  opened  on  1  April  1867, 
and  closed  on  3  November.  On  I  May  1871  the 
first  of  the  British  annual  international  exhibi- 
tions of  fine  arts  and  industry  was  opened 
by  the  Prince  of  Wales.  On  1  May  1873  the 
first    Austrian    international    exhibition    was 


the  Prater,  or,  as  it  may  be  called,  the  parlc 
of  Vienna  and  was  2,940  feet  in  length,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  570  feet.  A  great  exhibition 
was  opened  by  President  Grant  at  Fairmount 
Park,  Philadelphia,  upon  the  occasion  of  the 
centennial  festival  of  the  American  Declaration 
of  Independence.    It  occupied  60  acres  and  had 


BXPOSITION  OP  0RACLB3  OP  THE   LORD  — EXPRESS  SERVICE       661. 


nearly  10,000,000  visitors.  A  third  French  In- 
ternational Exhibition  was  held  at  Paris  in 
1878;  area  oceupied  140  acres;  visitors  17,000,- 
000.  A  fourth  French  International  Exhibition 
was  opened  by  President  Camot  in  1889  to 
commeniorate  the  centenary  of  the  Revolution, 
the  visitors  to  which  numbered  over  25.000,000. 
One  of  its  chief  features  -vas  the  Eiffel  tower, 
of  iron,  984  feet  high.  The  series  of  exhibi- 
tions which  were  held  at  South  Kensington, 
London,  included  The  Fisheries  (18S3),  The 
Health  (1884).  The  Inventions  (1885)  and  the 
Exhibition  of  Colonial  and  Indian  products 
(1886);  the  latter  of  which  was  visited  by 
5,550,749  visitors.  Besides  these,  exhibitions 
have  been  held  in  Edinburgh  (1886).  at  which 
there  were  2,7W,632  visitors ;  Manchester 
(1887)  at  which  there  were  4,765,000  visitors; 
and  Glasgow  (1SS8),  with  5,748,379  visitors.  In 
1899-1900  a  huge  International  Exhibition  was 
held  at  Paris,  but,  though  visited  by  about 
47,000,000  persons,  was  not  a  financial  success. 
It  occupied  the  Champ  de  Mars  and  extensive 
areas  on  both  sides  of  the  Seine. 

Jn  1893  the  fourth  centenary  of  the  discovery 
of  America  by  Columbus  was  celebrated  by  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition,  at  Chicago.  It 
excelled  all  predecessors  in  conception,  scope 
and  grandeur.  Every  nationality  contributed  to 
the  exhibits  and  many  countries  possessed  their 
own  buildings.  .The  'White  City,'  as  it  was 
called,  was  opened  by  President  Oeveland  1 
May  and  dosed  30  October.  It  occupied  about 
600  acres,  at  Jackson  Park,  on  the  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  including  the  "Midway  Plaisance.* 
Nearly  every  State  m  the  Union  was  represented 
by  its  own  edifice.  The  principal  buildings  were 
Machinery  Hall,  the  Art  Palace  and  those  de- 
voted to  transportation,  mirung.  electricity,  agri- 
culture, manufacture  and  liberal  arts  (cover- 
ing 44  acres),  government,  administration,  fish- 
eries, horticulture  and  anthropology.  The  total 
admissions  tor  the  period  named  were  27,- 
539,521,  and  the  receipts  from  this  soutcf 
$10,317,814.  The  largest  attendance  on  any  one 
day — Chicago  day,  9  October  — was  716,881. 
Other  notable  exhibitions  in  the  United  States 
were  the  California  Mid-Winter  Exhibition, 
held  in  San  Francisco  in  1894;  the  Cotton 
States  and  Industrial  Exposition  held  in  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  September  to  December  1895;  the  Ten- 
nessee Centennial  Exposition,  held  in  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  1  May  to  31  Oct.  1897;  the  Trans- 
Mississippi  Exposition  in  Omaha,  Neb.,  1  June 
to  1  Nov.  1898;  the  Pan-American  Exposition, 
in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  from  1  May  to  2  Nov.  1901 ; 
the  South  Carolina  Inter- State  and  West  Indian 
Exposition,  held  in  Charleston,  from  1  Dec. 
1901  to  1  June  1902,  and  the  World's  Fair  at 
Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  in  1904,  in  celebration,  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase,  drew  19.694,855  attend- 
ance and  cost  $15,000,000;  the  Lewis  and  Dark 
Exposition  in  Portland,  Ore.,  1  June  to  15  Oct. 
1905;  the  Jamestown  Tercentenary  Exposition, 
at  Hampton  Roads,  Va.,  26  Aoril  to  30  Nov. 
1907;  the  Alaska-Yukon-Pacific  Exposition 
at  SeatUe,  Wash.,  1  June  to  30  Nov.  1909;  the 
f^nama- Fact  fie  Exposition,  to  celebrate  the 
opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  held  at  San 
Francisco,  20  Feb.  to  4  Dec.  1915,  drawing  a 
total  attendance  of  18,871,957;  the  Panama- 
California  Exposition,  at  San  Diego,  Cal.,  1 
Tan.   to  31  Dec.  1915. 

The  Brussels  Exposition  in  Belgium,  23 
AprU  to  14  Nov.  1910,  drew  13,000,ClOO  people; 


the  Turin  Exposition,  30  April  to  31  Oct.  1911, 
celebrated  the  50th  anniversary  of  Italy  as  a 
kitigdom.    See  Faiks  and  Shows. 

EXPOSITION  OF  ORACLES  OF  THE 
LORD  by  Papias  of  Hierapolis,  an  important 
Greek  work  in  five  books  to  which  the  date 
145-60  is  assigned.  It  is  described  by  Lightfoot 
as  "among  tne  earliest  forerunners  of  com- 
mentaries, partly  explanatory,  partly  illustrative, 
on  portions  of  the  New  Testament,"  and  is  a 
connecting  link  between  the  Apostolic  and  the 
Apologetic  ages,  explaining  the  less  understood 
of  Christ's  sayings  in  the  light  of  definite  Apos- 
tolic traditions  concerning  them.  No  comjileie 
copy  of  the  work  has  been  discovered,  but  it  is 
kntjwn  through  the  excerpts  quoted  by  the  early 
Christian  Fathers  Irenseus  and  Eusehius.  See 
Papias. 

EXPOSITION  OF  THE  SACRAMENT, 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  ritual,  the  public  showing 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  accompanied  with 
certain  ceremonies,  for  the  veneration  of  the 
faithful.  Until  the  16th  century  the  practice 
was  not  general,  taking  place  only  on  the  feast 
of  Corpus  Christi,  but  within  the  last  300  years 
the  practice  has  become  general.  Formerly 
permission  of  the  bishop  was  required  for  an 
exposition.  The  40-hour  adoration  is  now  a 
common  practice  in  the  larger  Catholic  centres 
even  in  the  United  States.  The  ceremony  is 
befpin  and  ended  with  a  mass.  Consult  Maier, 
'Die  liturgische  Behandlun^  des  Allerheiligsten 
ausser  dem  Opfer  der  heiligen  Messe*  (Ratis- 
bon  1860)  and  Raible,  'Der  Tabemakel  einst 
und  jetzt>  (Freiburg  1908). 

EXPRESS  SERVICE.  A  transportation 
system  for  parcels  which  require  a  safer  and 
quicker  delivery  Uian  can  be  bad  throi^  the 

The  creation  and  development  of  express 
service  in  the  United  States  and  the  extension 
of  the  American  express  system,  under  Ameri- 
can control,  throughout  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  civilized  world  and  beyond,  affords  con- 
vincing proof  of  unique  conglruclive  and  ad- 
ministrative genius  along  the  lines  of  greatest 
utility  to  mankind. 

One  of  the  most  prominent,  succcsful 
and  progressive  express  companies,  now  operat- 
ing on.  every  continent,  began  some  70  years 
ago  with  a  smiple  service  for  delivery  of  pack' 
ages  between  a  few  Elastern  and  Western  points. 
To-dav,  the  same  organiiation  has,  in  addition 
to  traffic  in  the  United  States.  British  North 
America  and  the  Latin- American  republics,  at 
least  a  dozen  agencies  with  commodious 
quarters  on  leading  thoroughfares  in  principal 
European  cities,  eEich  fully  equipped  with  men, 
wagons  and  horses  for  the  most  rapid  and 
effective  express  service. 

As  part  of  its  routine  business,  the  company 
is  in  touch  with  30  of  the  world's  largest 
hanking  institutions  and  has  shipping  and  bank- 
ing correspondents  at  all  lat^e  cities  and  ports 
in  both  hemispheres.  As  a  means  of  comparsion 
with  express  conditions  of  half  a  century  ago, 
when  the  system  was  merely  an  adjunct  to  the 
railroads,  a  brief  outline  of  the  work  now 
being  carried  on  in  progressive  express  com- 
panies will  be  of  interest.  Since  the  express 
plan  first  began,  in  1838,  the  relations  of 
the  railroads  toward  the  express  compuiiee 
have,   by  mutual   consent   and  to   meet   ever- 


8l^ 


eaa 


BXPRBSS   SESVICE 


growing  demands,  been  reversed.  The  rail- 
roads, in  their  own  interests,  so  far  as  carri^e 
of  express  freigSit  is  concerned,  are  now  ad* 
juncts  of  tbe  express  companies. 

The  most  modem  American  express  serv- 
ice, when  conducted  on  a  large  scale,  is  con- 
ducted under  five  divisions;  (1)  The  transporta- 
tion of  merchandise;  (2)  transfer  of  money, 
precious  stones  and  other  valuables,   securities, 


issuance  of  money  orders,  letters  of  credit, 
travelers'  checks  and  the  transmission  of  money 
by  telegraph. 

The  "check"  system  has  been  so  perfected 
that  travelers  in  foreign  countries  save  time  and 
avoid  delay  by  their  use,  as  they  are  promptly 
recognized  and  cheerfully  cashed  or  accented 
by  the  principal  hotels,  steamship  and  sleepmg- 
car  companies,  by  many  railroad  companies  and 
by  merchants,  shopkeepers  and  others,  in  settle- 
ment of  accounts.  They  are  issued  in  the 
denominations  $10,  $20,  $50,  $100  and  $200. 

For  those  traveling  in  the  United  States, 
Canada.  Mexico,  Central  and  South  America, 
diese  cnecks  afford  the  advantages  of  a  secure 
and  convenient  means  of  carry L^  funds  imme- 
diately available,  combined  with  the  avoidance 
of  the  risk  of  loss  of  money  by  fire  or  destruc- 
tion and  of  annoyance  of  negotiating  personal 
checks  in  places  where  such  may  be  unaccept- 


able. Being  cashed  by  agents  of  the  companies 
and  by  banks  in  all  the  principal  cities  and 
pleasure   resorts   of  the  United  State 


Canadas,  Mexico,  Cuba,  Central  and  South 
America,  accepted  in  payment  of  fares  by 
the  principal  steamship  companies  and  many 
railroad  companies  throughout  the  United 
States  and  received  as  cash  by  agents  and  con- 
ductors of  the  Pullman  Palace  Car  Company 
and  by  many  hotels  tn  settlement  of  account, 
travelers'  checks  are  found  to  be  a  most  satis- 
factory form  of  credit  for  use  during  a  tour. 
"Letters  of  Credit*  now  form  a  usual  ex- 
press oflice  specialty.  These  documents  are 
drawn  in  sterling  and  are  available  in  all 
parts  of  the  worFd.  Through  the  Letters  of 
Credit  system,  checks  may  be  obtained  from  ex- 

?ress  agencies  at  all  important  points.  Every 
oreign  express  correspondent  has  a  cable 
address,  also  every  express  agency. 

The  "C.  O.  D."  system  and  bank,  of  ac- 
o>unt  collection  are  among  the  useful  develop- 
ments of  express  service.  "C.  O.  D.*  shipments 
are  subject  to  collection  of  bill  or  invoice  for 
the  goods,  with  prompt  return  of  proceeds  made 
at  a  small  charge  for  such  service.  C.  O.  D. 
shipments  to  foreign  countries  are  usually  made 
under  the  same  system  as  applies  to   domestic 

Several  of  the  big  express  companies  at- 
tend to  the  collection  of  accounts,  bills,  notes, 
drafts,  etc.,  in  any  part  of  the  commercial 
world.  Collections  in  United  States  and  Canada 
are  effected  with  unusual  promptness  and  at 
less  riik  and  cost  to  payee  than  by  other  meth- 
ods. Collections  in  foreign  countries  of  drafts 
or  deposits,  or  by  powers  of  attorney,  are 
undertaken  by  express  compatiies  throuRh  their 
own  organizations  in  Europe  or  throu^  bank- 
ing correspondents.  The  proceeds  of  C  O.  D.'s 
or  collections  are  transferred  W  cable  when 
patrons  desire,  with  a  charge  for  collecting, 
plus  Mily  the  cost  of  cablegrams. 


The  transfer  of  money  is  another  useful 
and  much  appreciated  feature  of  express  serv- 
ice. Purchases  are  made  and  commissions 
executed  for  patrons,  in  the  quickest  possMe 
time,  at  places  in  United  States,  Canada  and 
Europe,  by  a  special  department.  Besides 
attending  to  orders  for  the  purchase  or  sale 
of  goods  and  property,  including  household 
supplies,  this  department  pays  tax  bills,  re- 
deems articles  pawned,  collects  baggage  at 
railroad  stations,  secures  seats  at  theatres, 
berths  on  sleeping  cars,  staterooms  on  steam- 
boats, baggage  and  staterooms  on  European 
steamers.  Rare  goods  or  books  or  articles 
requiring  exact  matching,  or  the  maker  or 
seller  of  which  is  unniown,  are  obtained 
without  annoyance  or  loss  of  time  to  patrons. 

Imports  and  exports  of  every  class  and 
size  are  handled  by  express  companies  as  a.  part 
of  their  regular  business.  Bills  of  lading,  IhUs 
of  exchange  and  aD  other  documents  of  that 
character  are  prepared  and  attended  to  from 
first  to  last. 

Money  orders  and  drafts  are  issued  by  sev- 
eral express  companies  for  any  amount,  at  the 
posted  rate  of  exchange,  in  sterling,  francs,  lire, 
lei,  marks,  kroner,  rubles,  kronen,  gulden,  fin- 
marks,  Turkish  pounds,  Mexican  dollars,  local 
dollars,  pesos,  rupee^  yen  and  United  Stales 
dollars  on  all  parts  of  the  commercial  world. 

The  regular  transportation  service  of  ex- 
press companies  includes  merchandise,  par- 
cels, produce,  money,  bonds,  valuables  and 
baggage.  The  routes  extend  over  250,000 
miles  of  railroads  in  the  United  States  alone. 
Shipments  are  frequently  made  in  through 
express  cars  with  burglar  and  fire-proof  safes 
for  valuables  and  iron  express  trunks  for  par- 
cels, all  in  charge  of  special  armed  messengers. 
The  swiftest  trains  are  almost  invariably  used 
for  express  service.  The  aim  of  the  com- 
panies IS  to  cover  the  ground  in  the  least  time 
at  tbe  lowest  rates.  They  accept  entire  respon- 
sibility for  loss  or  damage.  Some  express  com- 
panies run  special  express  trains  to  facilitate 
business  during  very  busy  seasons.  Other  com- 
panies have  this  feature  as  a  permanent  arrange- 

Novel  and  hi^ly  useful  features  of  tbe  most 
modern  express  service  are  the  securing  of 
ocean  passages,  European  railroad  tickets  and 
passports  for  patrons  at  a  nominal  charge.  It 
IS  only  necessary  for  those  who  desire  to  utiliie 
express  companies  in  this  way  to  state  their 
wishes  —  tbe  companies  do  the  rest  rapidly,  per- 
fectly and  inexpensively. 

So  much  for  the  work-sco]ie  of  express  com- 
panies to-day  as  compared  with  that  of  earlier 
periods.  Before  reviewing  briefly  the  evolu- 
tionary processes  connected  with  express  serv- 
ice developments  it  may  be  well  to  mention 
what  has  been  brought  about  through  the  use  of 
express  enterprise  and  by  such  methods  as  are 
peculiar  to  the  service. 

1.  The  creation  of  wagon  service,  and,  in 
connection  with  this,  special  cars  and  trains  for 
transportation  of  express  matter  at  high  speed. 

2.  The  creation  of  transportation  business 
for  carriage  to  and  from  all  advantageous  pro- 
ducing points  of  ^me,  poultry,  fiso,  oysters 
and  fnut  to  localities  where  these  commddtties 
are  not  easily  obtainable. 

3.  The  creation  of  a  novel  method  of  selling 
goods  for  merchants  by  collecting  on  delivery 


BXPRB8S  8SRVICE 


the  atnouiU  of  invoice  and  returning  cash  to 
the  shipper. 

4.  The  creation  of  a  method  of  collecting 
the  proceeds  of  negotiable  paper  and  assuming, 
for  the  time  being,  responsibility  of  endorsers. 

5.  The  creation  of  an  efficient  means  of  safe 
'    transportation  of  moneys  and  valuables  shipped 

by  individual  citiiens  and  by  finns,  banks,  rail- 
roads and  the  government  As  much  as  $4,000,- 
000,000  have  been  slupped  in  the  United  States 
through  the  express  companies  in  a  single  year 
'  in  this  manner. 

6.  The  creation  of  a  vast  and  perfect  net- 
work of  money-order  agencies.  The  present 
number  of  these  agencies  is  estimated  at  40,000. 

7.  The  creation  of  improved  facilities  for 
itnniediate  transportation  of  foragn  goods  from 
ports  of  entry  to  destination.  Heavy  bonds  are 
demanded  by  the  government  and  given  for 
proper  execution  of  this  service. 


the  cars  on  wfaidb  its  traffic  is  carried  These 
cars  ate  usually  attached  to  the  regular  passen- 
ger trains,  and  the  emploj^ees  of  the  express 
company  accompany  the  shipments,  and  attend 
to  the  delivery  to  local  agents  along  the  route. 
The  contract  with  the  railroad  cornpany  secures 
to  die  express  company  exclusive  rights  to  oper- 
ate over  that  line.  For  the  privileges  conveyed 
the  railroad  company  receives  from  45  to  SS 
per  cent  of  the  gross  collections  on  the  mer- 
chandise traffic  In  some  instances,  however, 
the  share  of  the  railroad  reaches  W  per  cent^ 
and  even  70  per  cent,  and  in  a  few  exceptional 
cases  all  of  the  express  eamii^s  in  excess  of 
the  actual  expenses  are  paid  to  the  railroad. 

Under  the  law  the  express  company  is  a 
common  carrier,  and  its  rales  are  -under  the 
supervision  and  control  of  the  Interstate  Com- 
inerce  Commbsion  —  as  well  as  under  the  ju- 
risdiction of  State  Railway  Commissions  in 
most  of  the  States.  For  the  purpose  of  iijting 
rates  the  interstate  Commerce  Commbsion  has 
divided  the  area  of  the  United  States 


.1  this  zone  the  minimum  rate  per  100  pounds 
has  been  fixed  at  60  cents.  (2)  The  country 
lying  south  of  the  Ohio  Biver  and  east  of  the 
Mississip^  together  with  a  small  section  west 
of  this  river:  in  this  zone  the  minimum  rate 

5r  100  pounds  is  65  cents.  (3)  The  trans- 
bsissippi  country  extending  to  the  intennonn- 
tain  section :  in  this  zone  the  mtnimum  rate  per 
100  pounds  is  70  cents.  (4)  The  tntermountain 
country,  in  this  zone  the  minimum  rate  per 
100  pounds  is  $1.05.  (5)  The  Pacific  Coast 
States,  in  which  the  minimum  rate  per  100 
pounds  is  70  cents.  The  whole  terntory  Is 
divided  into  950  •Tjlocks*  having  a  uniform 
length  of  69  miles,  and  widths  which  vary  from 
45  miles  along  the  northern  border  to  62  miles 
along  the  southern  border ;  in  about  100  of  these 
blocks  there  are  no  express  offices.  The  Mocks 
are  subdivided  into  'squares'  or  sub-blocks. 
The  hlocia  are  designated  by  numbers  rumring 
in  series  from  right  to  left  across  the  map,  the 
northertunost  row  begifming  with  101  the  next 
row  toward  the  south  beginninjf  with  201,  the 
next  southerly  row  bepnning  with  301,  and  so 
on.  Transportation  is  then  designated  as  from 
403F  (Portland.  Oregon)  to  952A  (New  York, 
N.  Y.). 


Express  charges  are  bated  h 

into  three  divisions :  (1)  «    *" 
(2)  specials;  and  (3)  w1l_  _  ^    _. _,  , 

'Section  D>— newsp^ters,  bock,  j^mc.  -m^r- 
ter,  seeds  and  scions,  etc  BaHky  uc  vt^if 
merchandise  is  charged  muliiplct  m  ^  fr*.- 
class  rates;  as,  for  example,  canoac^,  a:  Mr 
times  first-class,  and  racing  sbelk  or  ii  -  aiin  ai* 
ei^t  limes  the  first-class  ratm  At  it  ^  '.aur 
with  freight  traffic  on  railroads  there  iaa  mw 
established  by  the  express  loiiiiniiin  a  v^MJinv 
of  'commodity  rates*  whtcb  al^ws  At  *nH*- 
portation  of  merchandise  of  relatirdy  knr  twik 
at  a  reduction  from  the  Tegnlar  izta  'vkKt. 
would  be  prohibitive)— a  lower  daw  raw  vc 
carload  lots,  or  a  first-class  rate  on  good*  wMct 
would  regularly  take  several  times  dnt  laM 
On  the  regular  tariff  the  limit  of  lialMlity  on  -fc 
part  of  the  express  company  is  (50  on  a  ikM' 
ment  not  exceeding  100  pounds  in  wci^h^  If 
the  property  shipped  is  valued  at  nwrc  lk» 
this  ^n^re  the  rate  is  higher,  and  the  biiilKr 
rate  must  be  paid  to  secure  the  full  value  «f 
the  package  in  case  of  loss  or  damage.  Tbt 
express  company  is  liable  only  to  the  extent  'jf 
the  valuation  declared  by  the  shipper,  and  Wbea 
the  full  charges  have  been  paid  or  charg^  on 
that  valuation. 

Origin  and  Evolution  of  the  Ezpreu  Idea, 
—  The  'Express"  idea  sprang  from  the  system 
of  sending  parcels  in  care  of  coach -drivers,  by 
■  stage-coach,  and  from  the  shipping  of  such  par- 
cels in  care  of  captains,  bv  coasting  vessels. 

When  the  railroads  took  the  place,  gradually, 
of  the  coaches,  much  parcel  traffic  was  per-  ' 
formed  by  means  of  the  steam  cars.  Then  the 
conductors  of  these  cars  had  to  assume  respon- 
sibiliiy  for  safe-keeping.  Eventually,  this 
transfer  overcrowded  them  with  work  A  divi- 
sion of  duties  naturally  followed  Finally,  the 
railroads  insisted  that  their  employees  should 
choose  between  railroad  and  the  supplemental 
delivery  trafRc 

The  principal  events  following  this  decision 

1838-39.  The  starting  of  an  express  com- 
pany to  operate  in  New  England.  Alvin 
Adams,  who  later  began  business  tor  himself  in 
New  York,  was  with  this  company. 

1839.  "Hamden's  Express*  started  between 
New  York  and  Boston, 

1840.  'Adams'  Express^  began  operations 
between  the  same  points. 

1&4(M5.  Other  expresses  opened  up  busi- 
ness, extending  service  to  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Washii^ton,  Buffalo,  Pittsburgh,  Detroit, 
Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  Saint  Louis  and 
New  Orleans. 

The  men  most  active  in  the  new  field  at  this 
time  were  WilUam  F.  Harnden  William  R 
Dunsmore.  Henry  Wells,  Edward  P.  Sanford, 
Samuel  M.  Shoemaker,  Johnston  Livingston, 
and  William  G.  Faigo. 

Almost  all  of  the  western  transportation  was 
carried  on  over  the  Ohio,  Mississippi  and  Mis- 
souri rivers,  widi  their  tribntaries,  which  in- 
cluded canals  then  recently  completed  in  several 
of  the  States  to  connect  those  rivers  with  the 
lakes. 

From  1840  the  construction  of  railroads  con- 
rinucd  unintemiptedly,  express  business  ex- 
panding in  proportion.  Then  came  the  inaupi- 
ration  of  express  'continuous  lines,*  enabling 


lyGoot^Ie 


664 


BXPRB8S   SKSVICS 


goods  to  be  carried  qnicUy  between  many 
points  without  transfers. 

At  this  period  people  sent  their  letters  by 
express  as  being  safer  than  the  government  s 
mail  service.  In  course  of  time  the  authorities 
at  Washington  protested,  and  finally  prohibited 
by  taw  the  private  conveyance,  without  United 
States  contract,  of  private  letters. 

1848.  The  stampede  of  gold-seekere.  1848- 
49,  to  California,  brought  out  a  great  i 


em  points  throi^h  the  express  companies,  many 
new  u^encies  bang  established  for  the  purpose. 

1854,  In  this  year  a  consolidation  of  express 
interest*  took  place.  'Adams  &  Co.»  bought 
u^  Ham  den's  business  and  worked  several 
minor  Ea&tem  routes  and  secured  the  right  to 
much  Southern  traffic 

During  the  same  year  the  "American  Ex- 
press Co."  first  established  in  1841  was  formally 
organized,  to  operate  from  the  East  to  the  Far 
West.  .    . 

The  "United  States*  express  also  came  into 
existence  in  1854  to  operate  along  the  New 
Yoric  and  Erie  Railroad  and  the  route  running 
westward. 

1854-55.  About  this  time  'Wells,  Fargo  & 
Co.'  were  organized.  They  started  the  famous 
"Pony  Express*  and  several  stage  lines  Other 
firms  competed  in  these  special  forms  of  rapid 
transportation. 

1855.  The  "National*  Express  Company  be- 
gan operations  in  this  year,  with  routes  between 
New  York,  Albany,  Troy,  Saratoga,  Whitehall, 
Rutland  and  Montreal. 

1858.  Wells,   Fargo  and  Company  and   the 


Union  Pacific  Railroad,  carried  the  whole  of 
the  United  States  mails  between  the  Missouri 
River  and  the  Pacific  Coast.  By  this  time  the 
express  had  become  a  recognized  necessity  in 
the  commercial  and  individual  transactions  of 
the  country.  Its  lines  had  amplified  in  every 
direction.  It  had  attracted  to  itself  sufficient 
capital  to  place  it  on  a  firm  financial  basis. 
Obligations  to  ensure  the  safe  and  speedy 
transmission  of  merchandise,  valuables  and 
money  were  readily  assumed.  When  loss  or 
damage  occurred,  due  reparation  was  promptly 
made.  Thieves  were  and  are,  tc-day,  followed 
up  by  them  until  caught  and  punished. 

1861.  Henry  S.  Plant  and  associates  organ- 
iied  the  'Southern  Express  Co.,*  wnich 
Operated  principally  in  the  Southern  States. 

1861-65.  Upon  the  breaking  cut  of  hostilities, 
the  express  was  the  only  means  of  communica- 
tion between  soldiers  m  the  field  and  their 
friends  at  home.  Government  securities,  being 
purchased  largely  by  the  people,  were  sent  l^ 
government  through  (he  express,  it  being  offi- 
cially recognized  that,  during  thai  critical 
period,  the  express  was  mach  safer  than  the 
cAiciat   mail   service. 

After  the  war  a  contract  was  made  by  the 
United  States  government  with  the  Adams  Ex- 
press Company,  acting  for  itself  and  other 
companies,  to  transmit  all  securities  and  moneys 
of  the  government  by  express. 

1865-1918.  This  period  represents  a  phe- 
nomenal growth  of  the  express  movement  The 
present  organization  of  ihe  great  companies, 
each  with  experience  of  over  naif  a  century  to 


seemed  likely  to  affect  the  financial  conditii 
the  companies.  The  United  States  Elxpress 
Company  retired  from  business  on  30  June 
1914.  But  the  later  vears  have  witnessed  but 
little  diminution  of  tne  bulk  of  tbe  traffic  and 
the  profits.  For  valuable  packages  and  for 
promptness  in  transmission  and  delivery  the 
express  company  is  an  unequalled  public  utility. 

The  first  statistics  of  tne  express  business 
were  gathered  in  1890.  In  that  year  16  c<xn- 
panies  were  operatuig  over  routes  which  afrffre- 
gated  174,060  miles.  At  the  close  of  the  fiscal 
year  which  elided  30  June  1916,  the  general 
business  was  in  the  hands  of  eight  companies 
operating  over  a  total  of  297,139  mites :  at  this, 
253,750  mites  were  on  steam  railivads,  and 
43,389  miles  on  otiier  routes— electric  railways. 
steamboats  and  stage  routes.  The  mileage 
served  was  divided  among  the .  companies  as 
follows:  Wells,  Fargo  and  Company.  107.529 
miles;  American,  74.280  miles;  Adams,  45.153 
miles;  Southern.  34,765  miles;  Canadian,  12,050 
miles;  Great  Northern,  9338  miles;  Northern, 
6^275  miles;  and  Western,  5,249  miles.  The 
combined  revenues  of  alt  the  companies  for  the 
fiscal  year  were  $173,709,411,  of  which  sum 
$172,655,204  was  from  the  ordinary  domestic 
express  transportation  business.  Out  of  these 
revenues  the  express  companies  paid  for  ex- 
clusive privileges ,  and  transportation  of 
merchandise  to  the  carrying  companies,  |87,- 
971,137,  leaving  their  net  revenues  at  S85.971,- 
136.  To  this  was  added  an  income  of  $5,497,238 
from  the  money-order  and  similar  non-trans- 
portation business.  Out  of  the  net  revenues, 
$68,020,529  was  paid  out  in  expenses,  and  $4,- 
527,474  for  maintenance.  Taxes  amounted  to 
$1,548,761,  and  the  total  net  profit  on  the  year's 
business  was  $10,560,650. 

The  largest  carrying  business  was  done  liy 
the  American  Express  Company,  amounting  to 
$57,039,124;  Wells,  Fargo  and  Company  were 
second,  with  $45,366,216;  and  Adams  Express 
Company  third,  with  $42,018,735.  The  -largest 
net  profit  was  made  by  the  Southern  Express 
Ccmipany,  9.5  ^  cent  on  the  year's  business; 
as  compared  with  6.3  per  cent  by  Wells,  Fargo 
and  Company;  5.8  per  cent  by  the  American 
Express  Company;  and  5  per  cent  by  Adams 
Express   Company. 

The  latest  available  of!icial  statistics  as  to 
the  capital,  property  and  ^uipment  of  express 
companies  in  the  United  States  are  those  for 
the  fiscal  year  ended  30  June  1914.  In  that 
year  tbe  combined  working  capital  of  all  the 
large  companies  amounted  to  $186,615,717,  of 
which  sum  $75,760,300  was  stock.  The  real  es- 
tate owned  was  valued  at  $16,446,269,  and  the 
equipment  at  $17,547,8*5;  the  latter  sum  in- 
cluded 155  railroad  cars  valued  at  $603,787. 
The  number  of  money  orders,  travelers'  checlok 
letters  of  credit,  telegraphic  transfers  of 
money,  etc.,  was  24.209.695,  representing  the 
aggregate  sum  of  $537,099,796. 

Consult  Chandler,  W.  C,  'The  Express 
Service  and  Rates'   (Chicago  1914);  Intersute 


.lOOg  Ic 


BXPRESSBD   OILS  — EXPULSION 


Commerce  Commisrioii,  Document  4198,  'Ex- 
press Ratea,  Practices,  Accounts  and  Revenues' 
(Washington  1913) ;  and  the  annual  reports 
of  that  commission. 

EXPRESSED  OILS,  in  chemistry,  oils 
obtainable  from  bodies  by  pressing,  to  distin- 
gnish  them  from  mineral  and  essential  oils, 
which  last  are  obtained  by  distillation. 

EXPRESSION.  Our  mental  states,  and 
particularly  our  emotions,  are  closely  linked 
with  certain  muscular  and  physiological  asso- 
ciates, which  are  exhibited  in  perhaps  the  great- 
est detail  and  variety  %y  the  muscles  and  blood 
vessels  of  the  face.  These  associates  are  de- 
nominated expressions;  they  include  not  only 
the  visible  muscular  and  vascular  phenomena 
which  have  already  been  indicated,  but  also  a 
vast  number  of  more  or  less  obscure  respiratory, 
circulatory  and  secretory  changes.  These 
changes  and  movements  are  at  times  striking 
in  their  apparent  inutility,  so  that  much  labor 
has  been  spent  in  the  eitort  to  elucidate  their 
reason  for  being.  The  first  explanation  of  the 
expressions  which  possess  much  interest  at  the 
present  day  is  that  of  Darwin.  In  accordance 
with  his  evolutionism,  he  regards  many  emo- 
tional expressions  as  mdiments  of  actions  which 
have  been  useful  to  the  animaJ  either  in  its 
individual  history  or  in  the  history  of  the  race. 
An  acquired  example  of  this  sort  is  the  point- 
ing of  the  pointer  dog.  Other  expressions  are 
held  to  be  the  result  of  tendenaes  opposing 
those  which  would  be  called  into  play  by  the 
opposing  emotion.  A  dog  approaching  its 
master  playfully  will  evince  in  its  relaxed 
muscles,  in  its  bent  back,  in  its  flexed  limbs, 
in  its  wagging  tail  and  ears  laid  back,  actions 
exactly  the  opposite  of  the  tense  sinews,  the 
straight  back  and  forward  pointed  head,  the 
rigid  extended  limbs,  the  uplifted  tail  and  ears 
which  betoken  its  desire  to  attack  anodier  dog 
and  serve  to  frighten  its  antagonist  or  to  facili- 
tate its  attack.  The  third  factor  in  the  produc- 
tion of  emotional  expression,  according  to 
Darwin,  b  the  direct  overflow  of  the  excited 
nervous  system  into  motor  channels,  as  in  the 
case  of  trembling  from  fear. 

Wundt  retaios  Darwin's  third  principle  of 
expression,  but  replaces  the  other  two  by  the 
principle  of  associatian,  which  causes  an  ex- 
perience to  assume  the  physical  correlates  of 
related  experience,  and  the  principle  of  the 
connection  of  movement  with  sense-ideas,  which 
includes  all  cases  of  movements  which  indicate 
or  symbolise  the  object  of  the  emotion  or  its 
desired  result.  The  facial  cxpres»on  of  dis- 
like is  an  example  of  the  former  of  these  prin- 
ciples; it  represents  an  attempt  to  eliminate  a 
bitter-tasting  substance  from  Oiose  parts  of  the 
mouth  where  it  will  be  tasted  most.  Exempies 
of  the  second  principle  are  the  stare  of  surprise 
or  the  clenching  of  the  fist  in  ai^er. 

James  retains  Darwin's  first  principle  that 
many  expressions  are  rudimentary  purposeful 
actions,  and  Darwin's  third  principle  of  nervous 
overflow.  He  adds  to  these  what  is  equivalent 
to  Wundt's  principle  of  the  association  of 
analogous  sensations,  and  two  new  explana- 
tions of  expression.  The  first  of  these  is 
that  not  only  are  formerly  useful  emotional 
expressions  retained  as  rudiments,  but  that  their 
physiological  consequences  and  concomitants 
undergo  a  like  atrophy  and  schematisation.    Be- 


sides all  these,  there  is  a  class  of  reactions  sus- 
ceptible to  no  very  simple  explanation.  These 
have  been  perpetuated  in  a  more  or  less 
mechanical  manner,  independently  of  their  mode 
of  origin.  Perhaps  the  greater  number  of  facial 
expressions  belong  to  Uiis  class. 

In  accordance  with  the  James-Lange  theory 
of  the  emotions,  which  holds  that  they  are  con- 
stituted by  their  expressions,  James  maintains 
that  there  are  distinct  and  different  expressions 
of  every  emotion.  This  has  been  denied  hf 
Cannon,  who  has  made  perhaps  the  most 
thorough  physiological  investigation  into  the 
actual  nature  of  emotional  expression.  He 
finds  that  all  intense  emotions  are  characterized 
by  the  increased  secretion  of  adrenalin  and  the 
liberation  of  the  carbohydrates  stored  in  the 
liver.  These  reactions  are  directly  serviceable 
to  die  individual  in  whom  they  happen  (1)  be- 
cause they  cause  the  blood  to  be  ariven  from 
the  abdominal  viscera  to  the  muscles,  heart,  brain 
and  lungs,  where  it  is  more  needed  in  any 
sudden  action ;  (2)  because  they  release  an  im- 
mediately available  store  of  energy;  (3)  because 
tbtj  cause  the  heart  to  act  more  vigorously 
and  more  rapidly^  (4)  because  they  mcrease 
the  clotting  power  of  the  blood  and  decrease 
luemorrbage  in  case  of  injury.  The  milder 
emotions,  on  the  other  hand,  are  characterized 
by  a  directly  antithetical  physiological  process, 
in  which  the  normal  action  of  the  digestive 
system  and  other  abdominal  vicera  is  helped 
rather  than  hindered.  The  milder  emotions  are 
associated  with  a  preponderant  activity  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  nervous  system,  while  the  violent 
ones  belong  rather  to  tfie  sympathetic  system. 
See  Emotion. 

Bibliography. —  Cannon,  W.  B.,  'Bodily 
Change  in  Pam,  Hunger,  Fear  and  Rage'  (New 
York  191S)  ;  Darwin  'The  Expression  of  the 
Emotions  in  Man  and  Animals'  (London  1&73)  ; 


Expression'  (3d  ed.,  London  19{M) ;  Warner, 
F.,  'Physical  Expression>  (New  York  1886)  ; 
Wundt,  'Grundzuge  der  Physioiogischen  Psy- 
chologie'  (Leipiig  1911)  ;  'Volkerpsychologie' 
(Leipzig  1900). 

EXPULSION.  Usually  this  word  is  used 
to  describe  the  act  of  depriving  one  or  more 
members  of  a  political  or  corporate  organiza- 
tion, or  of  a  society,  of  their  right  of  member- 
ship. The  act  is  frequently  brought  about  by  a 
vole  of  the  organization  or  society  after  the 
submission  of  a  committee  report,  for  some 
violation  of  duty  or  some  other  offense  render- 
ing such  member  or  members,  in  the  opinion 
of  their  associates,  unlit  or  unworthy. 

!i  is  provided  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  that  the  members  of  the  Senate 
or  House  of  Representatives  may  expel  mem- 
bers of  their  respective  bodies,  by  a  two-lhirds 
vote,  for  disorderly  conduct. 

Corporations  have  the  right  of  expulsion  in 
cases  where  good  order  and  proper  control 
make  the  exercise  of  such  power  essential  as, 
for  example,  (1)  when  the  offense  is  not  within 
corporate  duties,  but  nevertheless  disgraceful 
or  infamous,  or  (2)  when  the  offense  is  against 
his  duty  as  a  corporation  member  or  officer  or 
director,  or  (3)  when  the  offense  is  of  such  a 
character  as  to  infringe  corporation  rules  and 
the  statutes  at  the  same  time. 


.yGooi^le 


EXPUNGING   RESOLUTION  — EXTENSION  TEACHING 


Before  a  person  can  be  expelled  from  a  cor- 
poratian  or  sodety  for  disgraceful  conduct  out- 
side of  the  jurisdiction  of  such  oiganizatiotis,  a 
previous  conviction  by  jury  is  necessaiv.  If 
the  offense  is  against  or  in  violation  of  cor- 
poration or  society  rules  or  duties,  a  trial  and 
conviction  may  be  had  before  the  authorities  of 
the  organization. 

The  word  "expulsion"  is  also  used  to  de- 
scribe the  ejection  of  people  from  meetings 
when  they  create  a  disturbance  or  otherwise 
make  their  presence  obnoxious.  Those  who 
convene  meetings  have,  under  the  law,  the  right 
to  expel  objectionable  persons,  providing  they 
use  only  as  much  force  as  is  necessary  for  the 

Club  members  are  liable  to  expulsion  under 
the  rules  of  the  club  to  which  they  belong. 
They  have  an  appeal  to  the  courts  for  reinstate- 
ment on  the  ground  that  membership  in  a  club 
is  a  form  of  property. 

Non-members  of  any  org^ization,  if  present 
at  any  meetini;  of  such  organizations,  are  liable 
to  expulsion. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  pro- 
vides that  Federal  judges  cannot  be  expelled 
from  their  posts   during  good  behavior.    See 

DiSFRANCH  I S  EUENT. 

EXPUNGING  RESOLUTION.  See 
Cms  USE,  Congressional. 

EXTENDED    ORDER.     See   Infancy; 

Tactics,  Military. 

EXTENSION,  in  physics  and  metaphysics, 
that  property  of  a  body  by  which  it  occupies  a 
portion  of  space.  Extension  is  an  essential  as 
well  as  a  general  property  of  matter,  for  it 
is  impossible  to  form  a  conception  of  matter, 
however  minute  may  be  the  particle,  without 
connecting  with  it  the  idea  of  its  having  a  cer- 
tain bulk  and  occupying  a  certain  quantity  of 
space.  Every  body,  however  small,  must  have 
length,  breaath  and  thickness;  that  is,  it  must 
possess  the  property  of  extension.  Figure  or 
form  is  the  result  of  extension,  for  we  can- 
not conceive  that  a  body  has  length,  breadth 
and  thiclmess  without  its  having  some  kind  of 
fignre,  hewever  irregular.  In  logic,  extension 
is  the  extent  of  the  application  of  a  general 
term,  that  is,  the  objects  collectively  which  are 
included  under  it;  thus  European  is  more  ex- 
tensive than  French,  Frenchman,  German,  etc. 
Matter  and  mind  are  the  most  extensive  terms 
of  which  any  definite  conception  can  be  formed. 
Extension  is  contrasted  with  comprehension  or 
Intension,     Sec  PHYSICS. 

EXTENSION.  While  our  spatial  experi^ 
ences  imdoubledly  contain  many  elements  which 
are  noted  for  a  peculiarly  spatial  nature,  the 
predominance  of  psychological  opinion  is  that 
certain  experiences  possess  the  unanalyiable 
primitive  attribute  of  extension,  Thou^  the 
existence  of  this  attribute  is  denied  by  Wundt 
and  is  attributed  to  all  sensations  by  James,  it 
is  generally  held  that  it  exists  and  is  confined  to 
cutaneous,  visual  and  possibly  to  kinesthetic 
sensations.  The  "vastness"  which  James 
mentions  as  pertaining  to  such  experiences  as 
those  of  hearing  is  in  all  probabilily  a  complex 
of  various  degrees  of  intensity,  clearness  and 
other  sensory  attributes. 

While  sight  and  touch  are  endowed  with 
tiie  attribute  of  extension,  this  extension  is 
only  two-dimensional.    Everything    which    wc 


see  is  stretched  out  over  tihe  surface  of  the  ret- 
ina, and  eveiywhere  we  feel  is  stretched  out 
over  the  surface  of  the  sldn.  The  transitioD 
from  two  to  three  dimensions  involves  an  ap- 
peal to  experiences  which  are  neither  visual  nor 
cutaneous,  and  which,  in  a  large  measure  are 
not  specifically  sratial.  In  the  case  of  visi<Mi 
these  are  <1)  The  diflterence  between  the 
images  on  the  two  retinae.  (2)  The  experience 
of  strain  in  the  muscles  which  make  the  two 
hnes  of  vision  converge.  (3)  The  experienw 
of  strain  in  the  muscles  of  accommodation. 
(4)  The  experience  of  clearness  of  vision  when 
tne  eye  is  focused  on  an  object,  and  of  blurred- 
ness  when  it  is  not.  (5)  Geometrical  perspec- 
tive. (6)  Atmospheric  perspective.  (?)  The 
partial  obliteration  of  more  remote  objects  by 
nearer  ones.  (8)  The  parallax  of  the  various 
objects  of  vision,  consequent  upon  motion  of 
the  head  or  of  the  entire  body.  (9)  The  visual 
angle  subtended  by  known  objects.  (10)  The 
effect  of  light  and  shade. 

In  the  case  of  touch,  the  muscle  and  joint 
sensations  indicating  the  positioa  of  the  variotu 
parts  of  the  body  are  of  the  utmost  importance 
m  gving  knowledge  of  the  third  dimension. 

The  various  tactile  and  kiiuesthetic  limina 
of  extension  are  discussed  under  Locautt 
(q.v,).  At  the  fovea  of  the  eye,  the  lower 
limen  of  visibility,  or  "minunum  visihile,*  is 
probably  the  angle  subtending  a  single  cone 
or  from  half  to  a  whole  minute  of  arc  Ob- 
jects subtending  smaller  angles  can  be  per- 
ceived, am]  even  compared  in  size,  but  it  ap- 
pears that  this  is  due  to  the  differences  in  the 
intensity  of  the  stimulus  exert  and  the  sensation 
they  cause,  quite  apart  from  the  extensity  of 
the  latter,  and  that  me  real  area  stimulated  is  at 
least  an  entire  cone.  The '  least  distance  at 
which  two  objects  can  be  distinguished  is  about 
a  minute  of  arc  at  the  fovea,  but  near  Ae 
periphery  of  the  retina  it  is  as  great  as  two 
degrees  or  thereabonts.  The  sensation  experi- 
enced when  a  small  pouit  of  light  is  seen  often 
lades  all  colors.  It  takes  a  larger  area  of 
stimulus  to  evoke  color,  and  often  a  still  larger 
area  to  evoke  the  color  which  we  should  nor- 
mttlly  associate  with  the  source  of  light. 

Extension  obeys  Weber's  law  (q.v.).  The 
least  noticeable  increment  of  a  linear  visual  ob- 
ject is  about  one-fiftieth  the  length  of  the  latter, 
if  movement  of  the  eye  is  allowed.  It  is  con- 
uderably  larger  when  the  eye  is  kept  at  rest; 
but  as  IS  obvious,  measurements  with  the  eye 
at  rest  are  by  no  means  easy.  The  field  of 
vision  is  rather  irregular  in  outline.  It  extends 
(from  a  line  connecting  the  centre  of  the  pupl 
to  the  macula  lutea)  about  80  d^:rees  outward, 
65  de^eei  inward  and  6S  degrees  downward. 
Of  this,  about  two-tfairds  can  be  seen  by  boA 
eyes.  (See  Space).  Consult  James  W.,  'Prin- 
ciples of  Psychology*  (New  York  1890); 
Kuipe,  'Outhnes  of  Psychology'.  (London 
1909);  Tltchener,  E.  B.,  <Text-Bookof  Psychd- 
ogy>  rNew  York  1910) ;  Wundt,  W.,  <Gmnd- 
zugc  oer  physio loj^schen  Psycholt^e'  (Ldp- 
zig  1908-11);  'Introduction  to  Psychology' 
(London   1912). 


.lOOgle 


BXTBHUATINO    CIRCUMSTANCSS— BXTINCT  ANIMALS 


«eT 


BXTBNUATING     CIRCUH8TANCBS, 

in  legal  practice,  those  circtim stances,  in  connec- 
tion either  with  the  position  of  the  prisoner  or 
with  the  act  alone,  which  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration by  the  coart  in  mitigation  of  the 
punishment.  The  prerions  good  character  of 
the  person  convicted  may  always  be  proved  as 
a  arcumslance  ^ving-  him  some  claim  to 
leniency  of  pumshment  Besides  character, 
there  are  other  circumstances,  the  presence  of 
'  which  in  a  case  sometimes  serves  to  mitiKate 
the  sentence,  sometimes  to  take  the  act  done 
out  of  the  category  of  crime  altogether.  One 
is  vouth.  Thus,  no  act  done  by  any  penon 
nnder  seven  yeare  of  age  is  a  crime.  Defectivie 
mental  power  in  the  person  convicted  will 
always  be  considered  in  detemiining  the  (ever- 
ts of  his  sentence.  Such  disease  of  mind  as 
trevents  a  man  from  knowing  that  the  act 
e  does  is  wrong  will  excuse  him  from  the 
consequences  of  an  act  otherwise  criminal. 
Dmnkenness,  when  volontaiy,  is  not  held  an 
«Xtent»ting  circumstance,  but  if  a  man  is  made 
drunk  by  the  fraudulent  administration  of 
drugs,  and  while  under  their  influence  kills 
another,  not  knowing  what  he  does,  the  act  is 
not  a  crime.  It  is  a  good  excuse  for  persons 
diareed  with  crime  that  they  have  been  com- 
pelled by  others  by  threats  of  death  or  great 
violence  to  do  the  criminal  act;  and  the  acts 
of  a  married  woman  in  presence  of  her  husband 
are  presumed  to  be  done  under  his-  coe'rdon, 
and  so,  unless  the  presumption  is  rebutted,  will 
be  excused.  Ignorance  of  the  law  is  no  excuse 
for  an  offense.  Nor,  in  general,  will  ignorance 
of  facts  be  a  good  excuse,  though  in  particular 
circumstances  it  might  form  a  valia  defense. 
Sir  James  Fitzjames  Stephen  states,  in  lan> 
guage  purposely  vague,  to  represent  the  vague- 
IKSS  01  the  law,  a  principle  under  which  the 
Stress  of  necessity  is  held  to  excuse  acts  other- 
wise criminal :  *An  act  which  would  other- 
wise be  a  crime  may  in  some  cases  be  excused 
if  the  person  accused  can  show  that  it  was 
done  only  in  order  to  avoid  consequences  which 
could  not  otherwise  be  avoided,  and  which, 
if  they  had  been  followed,  would  have  inflicted 
on  him  or  on  others  whom  he  was  bound  to 
protect  inevitable  and  irreparable  evil,  that  no 
more  was  done  than  was  reasonably  necessary 
for  that  purpose,  and  that  the  evil  inflicted 
hy  it  was  not  disproportionate  to  the  evil 
avoided* 

EXTERIOR   BALLISTICS.     See   Guh- 

NEBV. 

BXTBRIOR        BOUNDARIES.         See 

BouNDAKiES  OF  THE  UNrrED  States. 

BXTBRIOR  MURAL  PAINTING.  S« 
MuBAL  Painting. 

EXTINCT  ANIMALS.  Many  animals 
which  inhabited  the  earth  tn  bygone  periods 
have  entirely  disappeared,  leaving  not  even  a 
modem  representative  of  their  race.  Others,  no 
doubt,  were  known  to  prehistoric  peoples,  con- 
cerning which  no  record  has  come  down  to  as. 
But  within  the  period  of  recorded  observations, 
many  animals  have  lived  and  died  out;  various 
causes  contributing  to  their  extermination,  not 
least  among  these  being  the  presence  of  man- 
Idnd.  Man  reconstructs  the  face  of  the  earth 
to  suit  his  needs :  he  cuts  down  forests,  plows 
or  bums  over  prairie  lands,  cbai^Ees  the  course 


of  rivers,  diruns  the  swamps  and  thus  destroys 
the  natural  environment  of  many  of  nature's 
wild  children.  Then,  too,  he  destroys  crea- 
tures directly;  he  kills  them  for  food,  for 
clothing  or  for  other  utilitarian  purposes;  he 
hunts  them  because  he  fears  them,  as  dangerous 
foes  to  himself  or  to  hia  agricultural  pursuits ; 
he  destroys  them  for  his  sport;  and,  finally,  he 
draws  them  from  feral  conditions  by  domestica- 
tion. Not  only  thus  does  man  directly  injure 
the  wild  creatures,  but  his  coming,  accompanied 
hy  exterminating  influences,  kills  out  certain 
other  creatures.  These,  when  man  has  destroyed 
their  natural  prey,  practically  die  of  starvation 
before  they  can  adapt  themselves  to  dianged 
conditions.  Then  the  domestic  dogs,  cats,  etc., 
help  on  the  work  of  slaughter  in  certain  w^l, 
by  preying  upon  wild  lite. 

That  prehistoric  man  was  partially  respon- 
sible for  the  extinction  of  certain  animals, 
scientists  are  agreed;  but  they  are  also  assured 
that  except  in  the  cases  of  the  horse,  the  camel, 
and  perhaps  the  domestic  dog,  the  extinction 
was  due  more  to  their  inability  to  adapt  them- 
selves readily  to  the  changes  of  climate  of  that 
remote  time  than  to  human  agency.  The  wild 
progenitors  of  the  horse  and  camel  have  not 
been  known  in  historic  times.  That  aboriginal 
man  in  Europe  aided  the  elemental  forces  in 
their  work  of  destruction,  by  bunting  to  death 
the  mastodon  and  the  great  cave-hunting  lioni, 
bears  and  hyenas,  and  other  huge  creatures  of 
his  time,  is  most  probable;  but  in  America 
this  is  not  at  all  likely  to  have  been  the  case. 

Since 'the  earliest  records  were  made,  how> 
ever,  various  species  have  been  eliminated  from 
the  European  fauna;  many  from  that  of  the 
other  continents  as  well.  In  the  days  when  the 
Romans  fought,  the  Dacians,  various  members 
of  the  cat  family  were  common  along  the  Rhine- 
Danube  frontier,  among  them,  lions,  tigers, 
leopards  and  wild-cats.  They  found  also  the 
great  herds  of  wild  cattle,  which  have  entirely 
vanished.  The  ibex,  too,  is  gone,  and,  but  for 
the  protective  legislation,  the  chamois  aiid  the 
deer  would  have  been  exterminated  as  welt. 
The  bear,  the  beaver,  the  wolf  and  the  wild 
boar  have  all  gone  within  the  last  10  centuries, 
from  Britain,  the  wild-boar,  which  was  hunted 
by  rc^l  cavalcades,  disappearing  at  the  close 
of  the  17th  centnry. 

Records  concerning  Asiatic  animals  ^ow 
few  cases  of  extinction  except  those  of  a  few 
cases  of  a  spedes  of  sea-cow  native  to  the 
Commander  islands,  off  the  Kamchatlmn  coaSL 
"liiis  animal,  the  rhytina,  was  pursued  for  its 
flesh,  chiefly,  and,  so  far  as  is  known,  the  last 
survivor  was  killed  in  1768.  Among  the  same 
islands  lived  the  now  extinct  Pallas's  cormorant 
a  great  bird  also  exterminated  because  of  its 
edible  quality. 

Animals  which  are  restricted  in  habitat  to 
small  islands  seem  liable  to  suffer  from  the  in- 
roads of  man,  more  surely  and  swiftly,  because 
they  have  no  adequate  means  of  escape,  many 
sudi  examples  being  furnished  of  birds  whose 
p<)wer  of  flight  is  limited.  Such  species,  espe- 
cially in  the  Australasian  and  South  Sea  islands, 
have  been  in  almost  all  cases  destroyed;  not- 
ably several  representatives  of  the  moa  tribe  in 
New  Zealand,  the  dodo,  the  solitaire  and  certain 


■8l^ 


EXTINCT   RACES  — EXTINCTION 


of  the  IndUn  Ocean  and  from  the  Galapagos 
presents  another  striking  instance  oi  the  ex- 
tertninatian  of  animals  owing  to  man's  dep- 
redations. 

Both  Africa  aad  America  have  presented 
fields  for  indiscriminate  slaughter.  In  the 
former  continent,  where  once  there  roamed 
great  herds  of  antelope,  countless  huffaloes  and 
dephants  the  slaughter  has  been  so  great  since 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century  as  to  leave  many 
of  these  denizens  of  plain  and  forest  extremely 
rare  if  not  altogether  extinct.  The  search  tor 
tUdes  was  perhaps  the  strongest  destructive 
force;  but  the  European  hunters  for  "big  game" 
and  iheir  followers  have  done  much  in  the 
same  directioa  The  mountain  zebra,  the  quagga 
and  various  species  of  antelope  are  examples 
of  this ;  while  the  giraffe  to  escape  entire 
extinction  has  retired  to  almost  inaccessible 
regions  in  the  Kalahari  Desert  and  northward. 

As  for  America,  with  her  long  list  of  lost 
species,  most  people  are  more  or  less  acquainted 
with  the  efForts  that  have  been  made  (and 
sometimes  with  signal  success),  within  the  past 
few  years,  to  save,  by  protective  legislation, 
such  of  her  native  birds  as  are  still  found,  and 
to  prevent  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  her 
wild  denizens  of  field  and  forest. .  The  best- 
known  example  of  extinction  is  furnished  by 
the  bison  (q.v.),  which  roamed  in  vast  herds 
over  the  grass  lands,  until  it  was  destroyed  by 
hide-gatherers ;  so  that  now  there  are  no  wiid 
bison  except  one  small  herd,  carefully  protected 
by  law,  dwelling  beyond  the  North  Saskat- 
chewan River.  In  1903  it  was  estimated  that 
only  34  wild  bison  were  left  in  the  United 
States,  and  about  600  in  Canada;  and  even 
dlese  remnants  had  more  or  less  degen- 
erated from  the  superb  original  t^pe  of 
the  plains.  Such  large  animal  species  liv- 
ing under  strenuous  conditions  and  necessarily 
breeding  slowly,  urgently  require  protection  at 
this  time.  The  unremitting  warfare  against 
all  the  animal  kind  that  began  with  the  de- 
struction of  the  great  land  turtles  and  moas 
in  prehistoric  times,  now  extends  to  the  remot- 
est places  of  the  earth.  With  the  arming  of 
every  savage  tribe,  and  with  shooting  expedi- 
tions often  organized  on  a  large  scale  and  even 
carried  out  under  the  guise  of  scientific  explo- 
ration, all  large  animal  types  are  to-day  threat- 
ened with  a  speedy  extinction.  A  typical  case 
of  natural  restriction  accelerated  by  man  is 
that  of  the  muskox  (q.v.).  Circumarctic  in  the 
Pleistocene    this    curious    animal,    yielding    in 

Juantily  a  strong  underwool  with  a  texture  as 
ne  as  silk,  is  now  confined  solely  to  the  tree- 
less arctic  wastes  of  North  America  and  the 
islands  to  the  north.  Cut  off  by  the  white 
hunter  everywhere  to  the  south,  the  Eskimo 
rabbit-catchers  of  the  far  north,  always  hard 
on  the  mtiskox,  are  now  killing  with  modem 
rifles  the  northern  remnants  of  the  original 
herd.  The  American  sea-elephant  and  the 
monk- seal  are  also  practically  gone.  The 
long    '-- -     -'    '-'-^-     ' -'       -  -  ■ 


condor,  give  evidence  how  much  thi) 
has  been  depicted  as  to  its  wild  life.  Many 
fishes,  too,  have  decreased  or  wholly  disap- 
peared; and  there  is  no  doubt  that,  but  for 
timely  protection,  many  species,  now  small, 
would  soon  follow  these  vanished  representa- 


tives of  the  earlier  fauna  and  swell  the  already 
lamentably    long    list    of    extinct    animals. 

On  the  high  seas  the  reckless  killing  of 
larger  animals  goes  on  as  relentlessly  as  on 
land.  The  great  Cetaceans  were  abundant 
down  both  coasts  when  America  was  discov- 
ered. Since  then  the  Biscayan  whale,  Balaena 
glacialis,  the  Greenland  whale,  Balaena  mysli- 
cetut,  and  the  much  wilder  Balaenoptera  phys- 
alis  have  in  turn  been  brought  to  the  vem  of 
extinction.  No  less  the  widely  distributed 
"cachalot,*  Pkyseter  macroc^phaliu ;  while  a 
lengthening  list  of  lesser  marine  forms  is  being 
rapidly  hunted  ouL  The  greatest  destruction 
has  taken  place  since  the  invention  of  the  "shot 
harpoon*  by  Sven  Foyn  (at  first  a  sealer), 
about  1870,  By  that  time  owing  to  wildness 
and  scarcity  toe  older  methods  of  whale  cap- 
ture were  no  longer  capable  of  returning  a 
firofit.  With  the  introduction  of  power 
aunches  few  forms  can  now  escape  The 
monetary  loss  resulting  from  this  indiscriminate 
slaughter  has  been  enormous.  From  1835  to 
the  wane  of  the  fisheries  about  1872.  in  19,943 
American  voyages  some  300,000  whales  were 
captured,  yielding  oil  and  bone  worth  $272,- 
000,000.  At  the  meeting  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  Chi- 
cago, 1907,  a  resolution  was  passed  to  aid  "in 
any  way  practicable  those  measures  legislative, 
international  and  local  which  wii!  prevent  the 
now  imminent  extermination  of  the  great 
marine  vertebrates,  especially  the  cetaceans  and 
manatees,  seats,  green  and  other  turtles  on  the 
coasts  of  the  United  States,  or  on  the  high 
seas.*  (See  EIxtinction  op  Species).  Consult 
Dawkins,  Boyd,  'Cave  Hunting*  (London 
1874)  ;  Bryden,  'Nature  and  Sport  in  South 
Africa'  (ib.  1897)  ;  Dixon,  'Lost  and  Vanish- 
ing Birds'  (ib.  1898);  Buller,  'Birds  of 
New  Zealand'  (2d  ed,,  ib.  1888) ;  Grieve, 
'The  Great  Auk'  fib.  1885)  ;  Finn.  'Wild 
Animals  of  Yesteraay  and  To-day'  (ib. 
1913);  Harting,  'British  Animals  Extinct 
within  Historic  Times'  (ib.  1880)  ;  Hutchinson,  ■ 
'Extinct  Monsters  and  Creatures  of  Other 
Days'  (New  York  1911);  Lanlcester,  ^Extinct 
Animals'  (ib.  1905) ;  Loomis,  'Hunting  Extinct 
Animals  in  the  Patagonian  Pampas'  (ib.  1913)  ; 
Xathorst,  'Hafva  djuren  rattighet  att  letva' 
(Stockholm  1907);  Newton,  'Dictionary  of 
Birds'  (ib,  1896)  ;  Rothschild,  'Extinct  Birds' 
(London  1907)  ;  Wieland,  "Conservation  of  the 
Great  Marine  Vertebrates*.  (Pop.  Set.  Month'y, 
1908);  Wallace.  'Island  Life'  (London  antf 
New  York  1880) ;  'Annual  Report  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  for  1S88*  (Washing- 
ton 1889). 

Revued  by  G.  R.  Wieu^nd. 
EXTINCT   RACES.     See  Man,  Puhis- 
TORic  Races  or. 

EXTINCTION,  Tribal.  Certain  broader 
inferences  as  to  the  nature  of  arrested  evolution 
and  extinction  of  races  or  types,  rather  than  the 
species,  can  be  drawn  only  from  a  systematic 
examination  of  the  geologic-pal eontologic  rec- 
ord. It  is  now  clearly  recognized  that  periodic 
emergence  and  subsidence  of  the  continents 
has  tieen  going  on  as  far  back  as  the  fossil 
records  extend,  with  resultant  biologic  dias- 
trophism.  It  is  also  recognized  that  the  initial 
expansion  or  climacteric  of  groups  mainly 
occurs  soon  after  their  first  appeanutcc 


.lOOglc 


BXTINCTION   OF   SPECIES 


As  3  coflsequcDCe  the  inad^iptive  and  unfit 
species  are  crowded  out,  not  alone  by  those 
neariy  of  their  own  kind,  but  by  the  successful 
forms  of  other  groups.  Earth,  sea,  and  air,  as 
suggested,  must  tend  to  Jiold  to  some  numeri- 


is  the  adinslment  to  environment.  Rapid 
adaptive  change,  like  over-sjyedaUzatioii.  much 
increases  liability  to  extinction  by  cataclysm. 
The  relatively  successful  forms  are  swept  away 
by  renewed  environmental  dist^irbance  if  too 
rapid  to  neutralize  by  a  further  course  of  direct 
evolution,  or  by  catagenetic  change.  For  this 
reason  atone  the  relative  tenure  of  races  as 
such  is  longest  in  the  lower  forms.  The  higher 
grou^  such  as  Limulids  may  show  a  remarkable 
persistence,  or,  like  the  Tesludinata,  a  relatively 
long  life;  but  'immortal  ty^s"  are  mainly  in- 
conspicuous like  the  Foraminifers.  That  such 
so  often  occupy  abysmal  oceanic  or  other  zones 
least  subject  to  change,  sets  a  further  visible 
boundary  to  the  course  of  extinction.  Still 
another  is  set  by  the  fact  that  higher  types 
also  tend  to  persist  in  the  zones  and  regions  of 
least  change  — 'asylums.' 

The  inherent  organic  quality  which  as  fixedly 
as  gravity  sets  and  holds  evolution  in  its  course 
was  aptly  termed  by  Cope  "bathmism.'  This 
is  the  force  that  evolves,  and  also  kills;  but  the 
bathmic  causes  of  extinction  are  even  harder 
til  scan  than  are  direct  bathmic  factors.  Re- 
duced to  its  simplest  elements,  life  must  be 
regarded  as  a  property  of  matter,  and  plasm 
certainly  exhibits  in  closed  environments  a  high 
degree  of  stability.  It  may  also  exhibit  char- 
acters little  removed  from  those  of  strictly  in- 
organic substances  (Chunder-Bose)  ;  althou^ 
wholly  senescent  or  absolutely  uuchanE[ing  types 
are  not  theoretically  indicated— -that  is,  taking 
the  entire  duration  of  the  rock  succession  as  a 
time  unit.  However,  when  the  common  fac- 
tors of  change,  balhmism  (or  ontogeny),  en- 
.  vironment,  heredity  and  selection,  are  inactive, 
the  organism  shows  little  progression;  and  this 
indicates  climatic  change,  taken  in  its  very 
broadest  sense,  as  the  chief  evolutionary  stimu- 
lus. There  is  a  further  inference  of  primary 
value  gained  from  the  study  of  devolution  or 
catagenesis  as  opposed  to  anagenesis.  No  races 
are  exempt  from  the  totality  of  climatic  factors. 
The  precision  of  the  phenomena  of  plant  suc- 
cession would  alone  warrant  this  statement. 
It  follows  that  while  surprising  modiiications 
may  take  place  when  races  decline,  there  is,  dur- 
ing the  anagenetic  movement,  a  melior  mean 
of  form  toward  which  all  types  strive  —  each 
according  to  its  capacity,  and  in  delicate  adjust- 
nient  to  environment  Consequently  the  idea 
that  lines  of  descent  take  the  form  of  the 
*paleontologic  tree,"  and  lead  back  continually 
to  main  primitive  stems,  must  as  a  rule  express 
loo  much,  A  far  simpler  course  of  parallel 
development  and  parallel  decline  is  indicated. 
As  to  when,  in  the  course  of  this  universal 
parallelism,  direct  evolution  or  ascendancy 
reached  its  high  noon  would  at  present  be  only 
a  stibject  of  speculation.     But  from  a  physical 


persistent  bipolar  ice  caps.     Morphologically  the 
appearance  of  the  oak  in  the  lowennost  Cre- 


taceous may  denote  the  evolutionary  crest    Be- 
yond are  palms  and  grasses. 

Bibliography. —  Patten,  'Evolution  of  Ver- 
tebrates and  their  Kin'  (1912) ;  Scott,  W.  B., 
'History  of  Land  Mammals  on  the  Western 
Hemisphere'  (1913)  ;  Wieland,  'American  Fos- 
sil Cycads'  (Vol.  11,  1916)  ;  Clements,  'Plant 
Succession,  an  Analysis  of  the  Development  of 
Vegetation'  (1916);  Lull.  'Organic  Evolution' 
(1917)  ;  Osbom,  'Origin  and  Evolution  of 
Life'  (1918);  Ruedemann,  'The  Paleontology 
of  Arrested  Evolution'  (1918). 

G.  R.  Wieland, 
Yale  UHiversity. 

EXTINCTION  OF  SPECIES.  The  an- 
tithesis of  evolution  is  extinction.  Direct  evo- 
lution leads  by  insensible  degrees  to  replacc- 
':  by  changed  descendants  or  to  actual  de- 


_._  the  nature  of  life  and  the  general  evolution- 
ary course.  Also,  the  fossil  record  peculiarly 
lends  itself  to  such  a  study,  being  so  largely  a 
record   of   extinctions. 

The  particular  reasons  for  the  extinction  of 
animals  and  plants  are  not  always  obvious  and 
may  be  very  difficult  of  interpretation.  Barring 
some  factors  to  be  mentioned  later,  the  same 
variations  of  environment  and  most  of  the 
forces  of  selection  considered  as  necessary  to 
the  production  of  new  species  are  also  powerful 
agents  in  the  extermination  of  established 
forms.  The  history  of  many_  species  may  be 
compared  to  that  of  an  individual.  It  has  its 
birth,  its  growth,  its  decline,  its  death.  Also, 
the  laws  of  evolution  show  that  many  other 
s^iecies  undergo  modifications  or  changes  which 
ultimately  transgress  or  supplant  the  original 
assemblage  of  specific  characters,  so  that  a  new 
species  results  by  a  process  of  mutation.  Fur- 
thermore, many  other  species,  while  retaining 
their  strictly  Htecific  characters,  may  be  trans- 
lated into  different  genera  through  modifica- 
tions  of  their  generic  characters. 

The  continuance  of  a  species  depends  upon 
its  harmony  with  its  environment.  A  perfectly 
stable  and  continuous  environment  is  obviously 
a  natural  impossibility.  The  physical  conditions 
of  any  region  of  the  earth  are  in  a  state  of  con- 
stant change,  sometimes  very  gradual  and  ex- 
tending over  long  periods  of  time,  sometimes 
sufficiently  rapid  to  be  measured  by  ordinary 
standards.  Ine  organic  agencies  surrounding 
any  species  are  also  not  permanent ;  migrations 
are  continualljr  going  on ;  the  areas  occupied  by 
various  orpsnisms  are  being  extended  or  re- 
duced ;  penods  of  excessive  or  repressed  fecun- 
dity often  occur;  there  are  times  of  abundance 
and  scarcity  of  food,  increase  and  diminution  in 
the  number  of  enemies,  and  so  on.  Any  ma- 
terial change  in  the  physical  or  organic  environ- 
ment must  produce  a  readjustment  among  the 
individuals  composing  a  species;  their  number 
may  be  lessened  or  mcreased,  or  they  may  be 
forced  into  conditions  of  life  which  produce 
changes  in  habits,  place  or  abode,  food,  func- 
tion, structure  or  organs. 

The  study  of  a  geographic  life-province 
shows  that  the  organisms  inhabiting  it  are  in 
the  state  of  a  moving  equiHbrium.  Minor 
changes  in  the  physical  conditions,  as  slight 
differences  in  temperature,  moisture,  elevations, 
etc,  may  be  compensated  for  by  a  readjustment 


joogle 


EXTINCTION  OF  SPBCIXS 


among;  the  or^nisms  themselves.  In  some 
cases  this  readjusiment  may  be  favorable  to 
many,  of  the  species,  while  in  others  it  may 
initiate  changes  which  ultimately  result  in  ex- 
tinction. More  profound  changes  in  the 
physical  environment  necessarily  produce  a 
greater  effect  upon  the  animals  and  plants,  and 
inay  result  in  Uie  extermination  of  many  and 
the  considerable  modification  of  others,  so  that 
a  distinctly  transmuted  fauna  and  flora  would 
occupy  the  region. . 

The  forces  already  mentioned,  though  opera- 
tive to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  arc  not  believed 
to  affect  so  immediately  the  equilibrium  of  a 
species  or  the  geperal  equiUbrium  of  a  Motic 
province  as  the  invasion  of  new  species,  either 
by  extension,  migration  or  evolution.  The 
struggle  for  existence  amid  gradually  changiog 
physical  conditions  alone  is  not  so  aggressive 
as  the  invasion  of  a  new  assemblage  of  plants 
and  animals ;  for  in  the  former  the  struggle  is 


ments  liave  been  made  and  an  equilibrium 
reached;  in  the  other  there  is  the  direct  addi- 
tion of  a  new  set  of  opposing  forces,  requiring 
the  immediate  readjustment  of  both  invading 
and  invaded  organisms. 

A  census  of  the  animals  and  plants  of  any 
region  will  show  a  great  variation  in  the  num- 
ber  of  individuals  representing  the  various  si>e- 
cies.  Some  are  abundant,  some  oommon,  while 
others  are  rare.  Now,  since  the  normal  im- 
pulse of  the  individuals  of  each  species  is  to 
mcrease  inordinately,  tbs  fact  that  some  are  of 
rare  occurrence  shows  that  forces  are  at  work 
tending  to  chetJc  their  multiplication,  and  tite 
relative  rarity  of  a  species,  as  compared  with 
others  of  the  same  genus,  is  taken  as  an  indica- 
tion of  approaching  extinction. 

The  development  of  spines,  thorns,  prickles 
or  horns  on  animals  and  plants  has  been  shown 
by  the  writer  to  represent  an  advanced  stage  of 
evolution  within  the  type,  as  wcU  as  the  degree 
of  differentiation  of  the  or^canism,  the  ratio 
of  its  adaptability  to  the  environment  and  the 
measure  of  its  vital  power.  The  study  of  the 
life  histories  of  spinose  fomis  shows  that  they 
■re  simple  and  inornate  during  their  young 
st^es,  and  their  phylogetiy  shows  that  they  were 
all  derived  from  non-spinous  ancestors.  It  is 
further  believed  that  spines  represent  an  extreme 
of  su^rficial  differentiation  which  may  become 
fixed  m  ontogeny,  and  also  that  spinosit/  repre- 
sents  a  limit  to  morphological  and  physiological 
variation.  Therefore,  after  attaimng  the  limit 
of  spine  differentiation,  spinose  organisms  leave 
no  descendants,  and  out  of  spinose  types  no  new 
^rpcs  are  developed. 

The  factors  as  alMve  partly  noted  afiecting 
the  continuance  or  life  of  a  species  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  classes :  ( 1 }  those  residing 
within  the  individuals  of  a  species  itself  (intrin- 
sic), and  (2)  those  extraneous  to  the  species 
(extrinsic).  The  action  of  either  the  intrinsic 
or  extrinsic  factors  tends  to  result  either  in  ex- 
tinction or  in  the  mutation  of  a  species  into  an- 
other form.  In  both  cases  a  specific  type  dis- 
appears or  is  eliminated,  althoi^h  only  in  the 
first  instance  is  the  species  exterminated  in  the 
sense  that  it  has  left  no  descendants.  Within 
the  limits  of  this  article  but  little  more  than  a 
descriptive  statement  of  thesft  principal  factors 
can  be  attempted    It  should  also  be  borne  in 


mind  that  there  is  an  overlapping  and  interde- 
pendcncy  among  the  factors,  causing  them  to 
react  upon  each  other.  Thus,  an  unfavorable 
environment  due  to  change  of  climate  may 
affect  the  food  (extrinsic),  which  in  turn  may 
a£Fecl  the  vitality  of  the  species,  possibly  re- 
sulting in  degenera^  (intrinsic).  Likewise 
parasitism  and  disturbances  in  symbiotic  rela- 
tionships produce  far-reaching,  complex  effects. 
Intrinsic  Facton  of  Extincticm. —  Under 
this  head  may  be  considered  such  factors  as 
(1)  lack  of  power  of  adaptation;  (2)  lack  of 
vitality;  (3)  overspeciaJi»tion ;  (4)  old  a^ 
(gerontic  stage  of  evolution) ;  (S)  pathologic 
condition ;  (o)  degeneracy ;  (7)  imtreeding; 
(8)  mutation.  When  a  species  cannot  accom- 
modate itself  to  changes  of  climate,  iood,  etc, 
or  in  any  way  becomes  fixed,  it  must  peri^  un- 
less it  can  find  a  suitable  and  constant  environ- 
ment ■—  a  physical  impassibility.  The  waning 
vitality  so  plainly  expressed  by  many  species 
must  be  considered  as  evidence  of  approaching 
extinction.  Such  species  usually  occupy  re- 
stricted geographic  provinces,  they  are  generally 
not  numerically  abundant,  and  their  powers  of 
reproduction  are  more  or  less  retarded  or  re- 
pressed. An  animal  or  plant  which  becomes  so 
specialized  that  it  can  hve  only  under  certain 
peculiar  conditions  stands  a  chance  of  extermi- 
nation whenever  the  harmony  of  these  condi- 
tions is  disturbed.  Thus  a  plant  which  dc^ds 
upon  a  certain  species  of  insect  for  its  fertiliia- 
tion  will  succumb  if  the  insect  seel^  other  food 
or  is  itself  extirpated  from  any  cause.  Also. 
an  animal  depending  solely  upon  a  species  of 
plant  for  food,  or  requiring  a  certain  elevation 
or  range  of  temperature  for  its  continuanctv 
will  be  exterminated  when  these  are  disturbed, 
unless  it  can  adapt  itself  to  the  change.  Spe- 
cialization in  general  is  manifested  by  the  de- 
parture of  orRans  or  sets  of  organs  from  what 
is  normal  to  tne  class.  It  results  in  the  extreme 
differentiation  of  previous  Structures,  or  in 
their  suppression,  generally  due  to  disuse  or  re- 
straint, and  also  in  a  perversion  of  their  oris- 
inal  function.  It  has  been  shown  by  the  stu^ 
of  many  instances  of  extinct  species  preserved 
in  the  rocks  of  past  geological  periods,  thai  each 
species  has  its  l>eHod  of  birth,  youth,  maturity 
and  old  age,  which  often  may  be  recognized  l^ 
distinctive  individual  or  numerical  characters; 
so  that  whenever  a  species  can  be  shown  to 
possess  what  are  known  as  gerontic  or  old-age 
characters  it  Can  be  safely  predicated  diat  its 
extinction  is  near  at  hand  Pathologic  char- 
acters in  a  species  indicate  the  same  conditions 
as  disease  in  an  individual,  and  point  cl«uiy 
toward  extermination.  Adverse  conditions  may 
affect  the  entire  fauna  aud  flora  of  a  region, 
producing  dwarfed,  dejiauperate  and  patholo^ 
species.  Their  history  is  usually  very  brief  and 
tneir  places  are  taken  by  organisms  in  accord 
with  the  environmenL  Retrogressive  evolution 
indicates  that  the  race  has  not  only  ceased  to 
advance,  but  is  declining,  llie  history  of  any 
genetic  line  of  species  shows  that  whenever 
retrogressive  characters  appear  and  constitute 
dominant  features  the  rapid  decline  and  ex- 
tinction of  forms  possessing  them  is  imminent 
The  reduction  of  species  numerically,  and  its 
within    narrow    geographic    linuts. 


Inson  preserved  by  the  Russian  government  ii 


BXTINCTIOH   OP   SPECIES 


en 


the  forests  of  Lithuania  andthe  Caucasus  are 
rapidly  declininK,  both  numerically  and  in  vital- 
ity, due  almost  wholly,  according  to  recent  re- 
ports, to  iubreedii^.  Each  species  now  exist- 
ent must  have  had  jtn  ancestor  from  which  it 
has  been  derived  through  one  or  more  of  the 
many  processes  of  evolution.  Some  of  these 
ancestnU  types  iiuor  be  still  living,  while  others 
are  extinct  Going  back  to  past  geologic  times 
(for  exami))^  to  the  Carboniferous)  each  spe- 
cies was  aenved  by  evolution  from  ancestral 
species.  Both  the  ancestors  and  all  the  species 
once  living  in  the  Carboniferous  are  now  ex- 
tinct. Life,  however,  was  continued  on  into  the 
next  age  uirough  modified  descendants  of  a 
percentage  of  true  Carboniferous  species.  The 
rest  were  exterminated  and  left  no  descendants. 
In  the  first  instance  it  is  extinction  by  mutation 
and  in  the  second  extinction  by  extermination. 
It  seems  probable  that  ever  since  the  earth  has 
been  fuller  tenanted  with  a  varied  life  there  has 
been  a  fairly  constant  ratio  at  all  times  between 
the  number  of  species  just  exterminated,  the 
number  of  primary  species  originating  by  the 
mutation  of  ancestral  forms,  the  number  of 
species  arising  by  the  special  differentiation  of 
the  priman'  species,  and  the  number  of  species 
adapting  themselves  to  the  chatwes  which  are 
dominant     during     the     succeeding     geologic 

Extrinsic  Pactotrs.— Agencies  outside  of  the 
oi^nism  itself  which  in  their  operation  may 
cause  extermination  of  species  may  be  grouped 
under  the  following  heads:     (1)  Unfavorable 

physical  environment;  (2)  changes  aSecting  the 


physical  environment  which  can  properh 
considered  unfavorable  must  act  on  the  indivia- 
uals  of  a  species  in  an  adverse  manner,  and 
necessarily  Uie  result  is  deleterious  to  its  con- 
tinuance. Th^  unfavorable  characters  of  the 
environinent  m^  be  various,  as  too  high  or  too 
low  temperatures,  excessive  moisture  or  dry- 
ness, unsuitable  altitude,  storms,  winds,  pol- 
luted and  sediment-laden  waters,  etc.,  any  of 
which  if  not  normal  to  the  requirements  of  the 
organisms  will  have  a  repressive  effect  on  their 
growth  and  multiplication.  The  persistence  of 
these  inhibitorif  conditions  will  generally  cause 
the  speedy  extinction  of  the  species.  The  lite 
of  any  orVanism  is  so  dependent  upon  the  sta- 
bility of  the  food-supply  that  any  change  which 
seriously  affects  the  kind  and  amount  of  food 
reacts  immediately  upon  the  species  which  rely 
upon  it  for  sustenance.  The  extinction  of  a 
species  from  any  cause  involves  either  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  oreanisms  dependent  wholly 
upon  it,  or  their  adaptation  to  new  conditions. 
Sudi  of  these  as  have  lost  their  plasticity,  either 
from '  hiph  specialization  or  perontic  develop- 
ment, will  perish.  The  invasion  of  any  prov- 
ince by  a  new  fauna  or  by  a  new  flora  or  by 
both  combined  will  initiate  a  struggle  for  su- 
premacy of  occupation  which  will  drive  out 
some  species,  exterminate  others  and  modify 
still  odiers.  In  these  changes  the  food  is  an 
important  element  in. determining  the  success 
or  failure  of  a  spedes  to  maintain  itself.  On 
the  other  hand,  abundance  of  food  leads  to 
sluggish  habits  and  tends  to  produce  iitcreasc  in 
siie.  In  this  way  may  be  explained  the  preva- 
lence o^  many  large  contemporaneous  species 
of  reptile*  in  the  Mesozoic,  and  of  large  mam- 


mals at  different  epochs  in  the  Tertiary.  This 
increase  in  size  exjxised  them  to  increasing 
danger  from  starvation,  from  changes  in  cli- 
mate and  from  competition  with  smaller  active 
and  more  ntnnerous  animals.  It  is  difficult  to 
estimate  how  far  in  scnne  cases  the  extinction 
of  a  species  may  have  been  due  to  the  invasion 
of  noxious  bacteria  or  other  parasitic  organ- 
isms. It  can  only  be  predicated  that  their  rav- 
ages are  sometimes  of  such  a  nature  that  the 
r^iks  of  a  species  are  thinned  out  to  the  verge 
of  extinction,  and  it  is  quite  possible  tliat  ac- 
tual extermination  occasionally  has  occurred 
through  this  cause.  Dr.  Faltoner  believed  that 
insect  enemies  have  prevented  the  increase  and 
extension  of  the  elephant  in  India,  and  Darwin 
likewise  stated  that  the  increase  of  lai^e  quad- 
rupeds in  some  parts  of  South  America  was 
frevented  by  insects  and  blood-sucking  bats, 
t  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  these  agents 
were  ever  the  primary  and  sole  causes  oT  the 
extinction  of  any  lai^  animal  The  most  vij- 
nerable  point  of^  attack  in  the  extermination  of 
large  animals  is  their  young  or  their  eggs.  Ani- 
mals of  large  size  usually  lay  few  eg^s  or  bring 
forth  very  tew  young,  and  usually  at  infrequent 
intervals.  The  eggs  or  the  young  are  easily 
destroved  by  small  creatures  that  would  be 
powerless  before  the  full-grown  animals,  The 
downfall  of  the  great  reptiles  at  the  end  of  the 
Mesozoic  has  been  explained  by  Morris  as  due 
(1)  to  the  lack  of  care  reptiles  in  general  take 
of  their  e^s  or  voung'  (2)  to  the  smaller  num- 
ber of  eggs  laid  by  the  large  species  as  com- 
pared with  the  smaller,  whose  continued  exist- 
ence in  some  measure  is  owing  to  their  fecun- 
dity; and  (3)  to  the  progressive  development 
of  the  mammals  into  egg-eating  and  predaceous 
placental  forms  of  higner  intelligence,  at  the 
close  of  the  Mesozoic. 

A^encjr  of  Man. —  Man,  being  the  dominant 
organism  of  the  existing  fauna  and  flora,  has 
since  his  establishment  bad  an  increasing  effect 
in  the  restriction  and  extension  of  contcmpo- 
raiy  plants  and  animals.  As  compared  with  the 
ordinary  forces  of  nature,  which  in  general 
work  in  an  almost  imperceptible  manner  when 
measured  by  human  standards,  man's  influence 
has  been  incisive,  profound  and  very  rapid. 
He  has  been  the  only  animal  that  has  attempted 
to  conquer  nature  in  an  intelligent  manner  for 
his  own  ends,  Noxious  animals  and  plants  have 
been  persistently  attacked  until  many  of  them 
through  reduction  in  numbers  or  by  extinction 
have  ceased  to  be  a  menace  to  his  well-being. 
His  inordinate  greed  has  also  led  him  to  ex- 
terminate harmless  useful  animals  by  wholesale 
slaughter,  chiefly  because  they  offered  little  or 
no  resistance,  and  also  from  a  false  notion 
that  nature's  resources  are  inexhaustible.  (See 
Extinct  Ahiuau).  Along  with  man's  con- 
scious destruction  of  life,  he  has  indirectly  and 
without  purpose  accomplished  the  extermina- 
tion of  spedes  to  which  ne  was  wholly  indiffer- 
ent. This  fact  necessitates  the  division  of  tlus 
topic  into  two  parts:  (1)  organisms  directly 
exterminated  by  man,  and  (2)  organisms  in- 
directly exterminated  by  man.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  remains  of  early  prehistoric  man  are 
found  associated  with  the  bones  of  extinct  ani- 
mals. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  mam- 
moth, mastodon,  cave-bear,  cave-hyena,  sabre- 
toothed  tiger,  Irish  elk,  woolly  rhinoceros,  the 
giant  birds  of  Madagascar  and  New  Zealand, 


.^, 


ora 


BXTOSnOH 


and  many  others.  While  il  is  impossible  to  as- 
sert positively  that  their  extermination  was  due 
wholly  to  man,  yet  undoubtedly  man  was  one 
of  the  most  powerful  agents.  Otherwise  it  b 
difficult  to  account  for  the  disappearance  of  an 
animal  from  a  continent  that  in  some  parts,  at 
least,  would  furnish  the  proper  dmiate  and 
food  for  its  continuous  existence,  from  the 
time  of  primitive  man  down  to  the  historic 
period.  Even  with  the  crudest  of  weapons, 
man  with  his  superior  cunning  and  intellect 
could  successfully  wage  a  war  of  extermination 
on  such  animals  as  the  mammoth  and  mastodon 
by  a  method  alre&dy  mentioned;  namely,  that 
of  killing  the  yomig. 

Coming  now  to  within  the  historical  pertocL 
there  are  quite  a  number  of  well-authenticated 
cases  of  the  extermination  of  species  that  can 
be  traced  directly  to  man  as  either  the  principal 
or  sole  agent.  A  few  instances  will  be  men~ 
tioned  in  this  connection,  and  the  list  could 
be  easily  extended.  Probably  the  best-known 
example  of  an  animal  exterminated  by  man 
is  the  dodo  (q.v.),  a  large  flightless  bird  related 
to  the  dove,  formerly  living  on  the  island  of 
Mauritius.    Its  clumsy  helpless  condition  made 


extermination.  On  the  islands  of  Rodrigue: 
and  Bourbon  of  the  same  group  were  found  the 
solitaire  (q.v,)  and  at  least  two  other  species  of 
birds  related  to  the  dodo.  They  also  soon 
disappeared  after  man's  occupation  of  the  is- 
lands. The  great  auk  (q.v.)  formerly 
ranged  from  the  northeastern  coast  of  the 
United  States  northward  to  the  Arctic  regions, 
and  thence  along  the  shores  of  northern  Eu- 
rope. It  was  at  one  time  extremely  abundant, 
but  the  last  two  individuals  seen  were  taken 
near  Iceland  in  1844.  The  great  northern  sea- 
cow  (q.v.)  and  Pallas  cormorant,  natives  of 
the  Commander  Islands,  became  extinct  near 
the  close  of  the  18lh  century.  The  disappear- 
ance of  the  ure-ox  from  Europe  is  also  well 
known.  When  the  Bermudas  were  first  settled 
in  1612,  a  food-bird  known  as  the  cahow  bred 
in  almost  incredible  numbers  on  several  of  the 
smaller  islands.  By  1616  it  was  almost  exter- 
minated, and  a  reference  to  the  bird  in  1629 
States  that  it  no  longer  existed.  Singularly 
enough  no  remains  of  this  bird  were  discov- 
ered until  about  1913  when  several  cahow 
skeletons  were  found  in  the  Bermudas  hv  the 
naturalist,  A.  E.  Verrill.  The  sickle-bill,  a 
bird  formerly  used  for  making  the  royal  robes 
in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  is  now  no  longer  liv- 
ing, having  been  hunted  to  extinction. 

The  introduction  bv  man  of  various  species 
of  plants  and  animals  into  a  region  where  they 
formerly  did  not  exist  has  in  some  cases  pro- 
foundly changed  the  native  fauna  and  flora.  A 
single  well -authenticated  illustration  will  suffice, 
though  many  more  could  be  adduced.  The  is- 
land of  Saint  Helena  was  discovered  about  the 
year  1506,  and  at  that  time  was  densely  cov- 
ered with  forests.  In  a  little  more  than  300 
years,  fully  five-sixths  of  the  island  had  become 
entirely  barren,  and,  as  reported  by  Dr.  Hooker, 
most  of  the  existing  vegetation  was  not  indige- 
nous but  consisted  of  plants  Introduced  from 
Europe,  Africa,  America  and  Australia.  These 
exotic  speciesj  together  with  the  goats,  were 
carried  to  the  island  through  the  agency  of  man. 


The  goats  destroyed  the  forests  by  eating  the 
young  plants,  and  the  native  vegetation  could 
not  compete  in  the  struggle  with  the  introduced 
species.  It  is  estimated  that  100  peculiar  and 
indigenous  species  were  extirpated  m  this  man- 
ner, and  all  record  of  them  is  lost  except  a 
few  species  preserved  in  the  Kew  herbarium. 

Besides  the  species  already  exterminated  bj 
man,  it  should  be  noted  that  many  others  were 
once  abimdant  and  widespread  that  are  now  re- 
duced in  numbers  and  restricted  in  range.  Their 
final  extinction  seems  to  be  a  matter  of  a  few 
years  only.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the 
American  buffalo,  the  fur-seal,  the  beaver,  the 
elephant  and  the  big-tree  of  California. 

The  violent  catastrophes  of  nature  seldom 
affect  more  than  a  very  limited  area  of  the 
globe,  and  species  that  are  cosmopolitan  or  of 
wide  geographic  distribution  would  not  be  in 
dan|[er  of  extermination.  When,  however,  it  is 
reahzed  that  some  species  are  so  restricted  in 
their  province  as  to  occupy  a  single  valley  or 
a  small  island,  then  it  is  easy  to  believe  that 
at  rare  intervals  some  ^reat  and  sudden  up- 
heaval, subsidence,  hurricane  or  volcanic  out- 
break may  have  destroyed  all  the  individtials  of 
certain  localized  species,  if  any  such  were  within 
the  area  of  disturbance.  A  West  Indian  hurri- 
cane in  1898  is  believed  to  have  totally  destroyed 
a  species  of  humming-bird  peculiar  to  the  is- 
land of  Saint  Viiicent,  though  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  great  eruption  of  Krakaloa  in  1883 
and  of  MonlTel^  in  1902  exterminated  a  single 
species  of  animal  or  planL 

A  review  of  the  various  causes  of  extermina- 
tion shows  that  on  account  of  their  diversity 
and  often  extremely  slow  action  it  is  difficult  in 
any  particular  case  to  explain  the  total  disap- 
pearance of  a  species  unless  a  detailed  knowl- 
edge can  be  obtained  of  the  principal  agencies 
affecting  in  any  way  the  harmony  of  its  sur- 
roundings or  its  ability  to  maintain  its  numbers 
in  its  natural  province.  * 

Bibliograpi^.'~  Bailey,  'The  Survival  of 
the  Unlike'  (1®6>;  Beecher,  *The  Origin  and 
Significance  of  Spines'  (in  the  American  lour- 
nal  of  Science,  1898);  Cope,  'The  Primaiy 
Factors  of  Organic  Evolution;  (1896) ;  Cramp- 

ings  of  the  Royal  Physiological  Society,  Edin- 
burgh. 1901)  ;  Darwm,  <<5rigin  of  Species' 
(1866)  and  'Journal'  (1872) ;  Hutchinso     '" 


(1901);  Lyell,  'Principles  of  (ieolt^y'  (10th 
ed.  1863) ;  Morris,  'The  Extinction  of 
Species'  (Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Science,  Philadelphia,  189S)  ;  Topinard, 
'Anthropology'  (1878);  Verrill,  'The  Ber- 
mudaJslands'  (Transactions  of  the  Connecticut 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  1901-02)  ;■  Wal- 
lace, 'The  (leographical  Distribution  of  Ani- 
mals' (1876), 

Chakles  Euebson  Seeches  (1836-1904). 
Revised  by  G.  R.  WUland. 
EXTORTIOH,  in  general,  the  taking  from 
another  of  something  through  illepi  compul- 
sion. It  has  been  defined  as  a  technical  term  of 
the  common  law  to  be  'a  crime  committed  ly 
an  officer  of  the  law,  who  under  color  of  his 
office  corruptly  and  unlawfully  takes  any  money 
or  thing  of  value  that  is  not  due  to  him,  or 
more  than  is  doe,  or  before  it  is  due.*     At 


by  Google 


EXTRA-UTBRINB  GBStATION  — BXTRADITION 


©78 


coiDinon  law,  the  offmsc  is  a  misdemeanor  pon- 
ishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  and  subject- 
ine  the  gnilty  person  to  removal  from  office. 
In  the  Kev  York  Penal  Code  . 


fined  as  "the  obtaining  of  property  frc 
other,  with  his  consent,  induceo  by  a  wi 

p  of  force  or  fear,  i 


igful 


right.*  Consult  'Encyc]op«dia  of  Pleading  and 
Practice'  (Vol.  VIII,  23  vols.,  Northport,  N.  Y., 
18<M-1909>. 

EXTRA-UTERINE  GESTATION.  See 
Phecnancy. 

EXTRACT,  a  term  to  denote  all  that  can 
be  dissolved  out  of  a  substance  by  a  specified 
menstruum,  such  as  water,  alcohol, -ether,  etc. 
In  modern  pharmacy  the  term  is  applied  to  two 
kinds  of  preparation  from  vegetables.  One  is 
obtained  by  digesting  the  plant  in  water  or 
other  solvent,  and  evaporating  or  distilling 
away  the  excess  of  solvent  till  the  extracted 
matter  is  sufficiently  inspissated.  The  other  is 
obtained  by  bruising  the  plant  in  a  mortar, 
separating  the  juice,  warmmg  it  till  the  green 
coloring  matter  separates,  and  filtering  it  off. 
The  juice  is  next  heated  till  the  albumen  coagu- 
lates, and  again  filtered.  The  juice  is  now  evap- 
orated to  a  syrup,  the  green  coloring  matter 
added  and  well  mixed,  and  the  evaporation  is 
thereafter  continued  till  the  required  concentra- 
tion is  attained.  Extracts  must  be  capable  of 
being  redissolved,  so  as  to  form  a  solution  like 
that  from  which  they  were  derived.  Elxtracts 
are  used  in  cookery,  medicine  and  the  manu- 
facture of  perfumery, 

EXTRACT  OF  MEAT  is  a  soft,  yellow- 
ish-brown, solid  or  very  thick  syrup,  which  is . 
employed  as  a  portable  soup.  It  is  now  manu- 
factured on  the  large  scale  by  processes  pro- 
Cd  by  Liebig.  Finely  chopped  flesh  is  ex- 
ited with  water,  the  extract  is  heated,  when, 
at  ISS"  F.,  albumen  coagulates ;  afterward  the 
blood  coloring  matter  also  separates,  and  when 
these  are  removed  and  the  clear  liquid  is  evap- 
orated at  a  low  temperature,  the  extract  is 
ready.  This  substance  has  a  characteristic  odor 
of  roast  meat,  has  a  strong  taste,  dissolves  in 
water,  and  fonns  a  not  unpalatable  soup,  with- 
out, however,  nutritive  value.  It  contains  no 
fibrin,  gelatine,  albumen  or  fat,  bat  creating 
inosic  acid  and  other  organic  bodies  are  present, 
and  it  is  especially  rich  Ln  polassic  salts  and  in 
phosphoric  acid.  It  has  the  invaluable  property 
of  not  spoiling  by  keeping;  and  has  been  exten- 
sively osed  by  travelers,  explorers  and  by  ex- 
peditionary forces.  Consult  'Meat  Extracts 
and  Similar  Preparations'  in  Bulletin  114,  Bu- 
reau of  Chemistry,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 

EXTRADITION  is  the  surrender  of  a 
criminal  who  has  escaped  from  a  territory  un- 
der one  government  and  taken  refuge  in  a  terri- 
tory under  another  government  Extradition 
has  two  specific  meanings  in  the  United  States. 
In  the  first  place  it  refers  to  the  surrender  by 
one  State  government  of  a  criminal  who  seeks 
asylum  from  another  State  of  the  Union  in 
which  he  is  held  to  be  guilty  of  a.  heinous  crime. 
fSee  ExTBADmoN,  Im-EssTAti).    In  the  second 

Elace.  it  refers  to  the  surrender  of  a  criminal 
y  one  nation  to  another.  The  demand  for  ex- 
tradition made  by  one  nation  of  another  is  a 
matter  of  international  law,  and  implies  merely 

VOL.10— 43 


the  control  to  be  exercised  by  one  nation  over 
the  right  of  affording  asylum  claimed  by  an- 
other. The  Jay  Treaty  of  19  Nov.  1794  with 
Great  Britain  specified  for  powers  of  extradition 
during  a  period  of  12  years.  After  its  expira- 
tion in  1807  no  provisions  for  international  ex- 
ti^dition  were  renewed  until  1842  when  the 
Ashburton  treaty  of  9  Augast  of  that  year  with 
Great  Britain  was  concluded,  in  which  extradi- 
table offenses  were  enumerated.  France  on  9 
November  was  the  next  country  to  enter  into 
a_  treaty  of  extradition  with  the  United  States, 
stiice  when  treaties  have  been  arranged  with 
some  24  forei^  governments  providing  for  the 
mutual  extradition  of  criminals,  fugitives  from 
justice,  charged  with  heinous  crimes,  among 
which  are  enumerated  robbery,  burglary,  arson, 
rape,  embcMlement  and  the  making  and  cir- 
culation of  counterfeit  money.  In  order  to 
justify  3  claim  for  extradition,  it  is  necessary 
to  establish  that  the  supreme  political  authority 
in  the  country  where  Ae  crime  has  been  com- 
mitted has  made  a  demand  for  the  criminal's 
surrender;  that  an  inquiry  has  been  made  into 
the  facts  of  ti»e  case  by  a  judge  or  United 
States  commissioner,  under  direction  of  the 
President,  in  cases  where  the  demand  comes  to 
the  United  States  government  from  abroad ;  that 
a  complaint  be  made  on  oath  before  the  jtAdge 
or  commissioner;  that  a  warrant  be 'issued  by 
the  judge  or  commissioner  for  the  apprehension 
of  the  party  charged;  that  the  charge  be  sup- 

Erted  by  suitable  evidence;  that  a  certificate 
sent  to  the  President  of  the  United  States 
signed  by  the  commissioner,  and  stating  that 
the  charges  are  sufficiently  well  grounded  to 
warrant  a  surrender;  that  such  certificate  so 
satisfy  the  President  that  he  grant  the  writ  of 
surrender. 

The  British  extradition  act  of  1870  makes 
special  provision  that  no  criminal  shall  "be  sur- 
rendered for  a  political  offense,  and  that  the 
criminal  shall  not  be  tried  for  any  but  the  crime 
of   which   he  was   demanded.     In   1  — 


of  the  commercial  crimes  of  fraud  and  em- 
bezzlement. Consult  Moore's  'Treatise  on  Ex- 
tradition and  Interstate  Rendition'  (1891) ; 
Clark,  E.,  'Treatise  upon  the  Law  of  Extradi- 
tion>  (1904)  ;  Biron  and  Chambers,  'Law  Prac- 
tice of  Extradition'  (1903)  ;  Hawley,  'Inter- 
state Extraditions'  (1890) ;  Spear,  'Law  of  Ex- 
traditions, International  and  Interstate'  (1884). 
EXTRADITION,  Intarstote.  The  New 
England  Confederation  of  1643  provided  for 
mutual  extradition  of  criminals  between  the 
different  provinces.;  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion did  likewise;  and  the  Constilution  pro- 
vides for  ir  between  the  States,  which  are 
independent  countries  in  all  save  the  functions 
they  have  resipted  to  the  general  government. 
But  the  wording  of  the  provision,  though  as 
definite  as  it  can  safely  be  made,  leaves  room 
for  the  widest  difference  in  construction,  and  the 
evasion  of  the  mandate  in  a  large  share  of  the 
cases  (hat  arise.  It  is;  'A  person  charged  in 
any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  olker  crime, 
who  shall  ffee  from  justice  and  be  found  in 
another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive 
authority  of  the  State  from  wfiicfi  he  fled,  be 
delivered  np,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  tmving 


BXTRAOKDIHAKT  RAT— EXTRA VAGAHTB8 


jurisdiction  of  the  crime.*  But  must  the  oSenic 
be  a  crime  by  the  law  of  ibc  State  requisitioned 
as  well  as  of  the  State  dentandini;?  The  iu- 
dicial  deciHons  say  decidedly  no  —  that  'the 
□UigatioD  to  surrender  the  fugitive  ...  is 
the  same  as  if  the  alleged  act  was  a  crime  by 
the  laws  of  both.'  On  the  other  hand,  the 
State  executives,  for  obvious  reasons,  have 
StubboTttly  refused  to  tie  their  hands  from  exer- 
cising discretion,  and  have  a^ain  and  again  acted 
on  the  theory  that  the  offense  must  be  a  crime 
^  the  law  of  their  own  State.  Thus,  in  the 
Dorr  Rebellion  (qv.).  Governor  Qeveland 
of  Connecticut  refused  to  extradite  Doir  — 
though  Dorr  was  acttially  using  Connecticut  soil 
to  organize  an  attack  on  Rhode  Island  ^ — on  the 
ground  that  the  litter's  treason  laws  were  not 
valid,  outside  itself;  and  Governor  Seward  of 
New  York  refused  to  surrender  persons  charged 
with  stealing  slaves  (though  his  predecessors 
b^  done  so),  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  a 
crime  by  New  York  law,  1^  common  law  or 
the  common  consent  of  civilized  nations.  Even 
the  principles  of  decision  are  not  agreed  upoo. 
In  some  Stales  the  courts  hold.that  the  courts 
of  the  State  making  the  demand  are  entitled  to 
decide  as  to  the  stifKciency  of  the  cause ;  in 
others  their  own  courts  make  their  own  law 
without  regard  to  that  of  the  other  States. 
Still  another  question  is,  whether  the  governor 
txas  aire  discretion  in  the  matter,  supposing  his 
Stale  law  to  dematid  extraditloiL  The  answer 
is  somewhat  startling;  it  is,  that  the  governor 
legally  has  no  discretion,  that  he  is  imperatively 
bound  to  issue  the  warrant,  but  if  he  does  re- 
fuse, there  is  no  power  to  compel  him  and  no 
.punishment  for  the  refusal.  Tne  Constitution, 
in  other  words,  has  issued  an  imperative  man- 
date with  no  provision  for  its  enforcement.  In- 
deed, it  is  di^cult  to  see  how  there  could  be 
any;  the  only  remedy  being  a  State  impeach- 
ment of  its  executive  for  malfeasance,  which 
is  out  of  the  question  in  such  cases.  The  forms 
of  interstate  extradition  are  provided  in  the 
act  of  1793.  The  accused  must  be  indicted  in 
the  State  where  the  offense  is  committed;  if 
the  magistrate  before  whom  the  charge  is 
brought  is  satisfied  of  its  truth,  he  issues  a 
warrant  for  the  arrest  of  the  criminal,  and  a 
copy  is  forwarded  to  the  executive  of  the 
State,  who  mates  requisition  for  the  fugitive's 
surrender  on  the  executive  of  the  State  to 
which  he  has  fled.  If  the  tatter  b  satisfied  of 
the  legaJity  of  the  process  and  the  sufficiency 
of  the  evidence  of  guilt,  he  is  to  issue  a  war- 
ran(  for  surrender ;  nut  habeas  corpus  proceed- 
ings may  always  he  interposed.  The  expense 
of  the  proceedinKs  and  transportation  is  borne 
by  the  State  making  the  demand. 

EXTRAORDINARY  RAY.     See  Light. 

EXTRATERRITORIALITY,  in  intema- 
tionat  law,  the  privilege  granted  to  citizens  of 
foreign  powers  of  being  exempt  from  the  laws 
of  the  land  of  iheir  aciodc  and,  in  general,  of 
enjoying  the  rights  and  privileges  of  their 
country  of  origin.  In  general,  the  rif^ht  to  ex- 
ercise stale  authority  and  state  law  is  limited 
to  the  territory  of  the  state  in  question  and 
a  strict  Umita.tion  of  this  view  would  place  all 
persons  within  a  state  under  the  laws  of  that 
state,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  laws.  In 
the  common  intercourse  between  nations  and 
peoples  there  have  grown  up  ccrtsun  wcll-rec- 


of  foreign  states,  their  dScial  i  . 
officials  performing  certain  duties  by  authority 
of  a  foreign  state  and  with  the  consent  of  the 
State  in  which  they  (^wrate,  public  vessels  and 
their  crew^  dtizens  of  Europe  or  Ameiica  in 
certain  Oriental  countries,  and  public  armed 
forces  passing  through  a  foreign  territory.  £x- 
traierritorialitj;  is  tbe  ordinary  term  lued  lo 
designate  the  immunity  from  local  jurisdiction 
enjoyed  by  these  classes,  such  immnnity  vary- 
ing accor<Kng  to  the  official  character,  t 
cording  lo  the  state, 
ary    ' 

ages  1        , 

the  case  of  other  persons,  whose  treatment  is 
regulated  by  i^eement. 

The  head  of  a  foreign  state  is  accorded 
complete  exemption  from  local  jurisdiction. 
His  person  is  inviolable,  nor  is  he  liable  to  any 
laws.  His  suite  are  accorded  e<jual  privileges. 
Should  he  or  members  of  his  suite  abuse  these 
privileges  the  remedy  is  to  request  htm  or  them 
to  leave  the  country,  or  to  expd  than  in  ex- 
treme cases. 

Official  representatives  of  a  foreign*  state, 
such  as  ambassadors,  are  granted  immunities 
similar  to  those  accorded  the  head  of  their 
stale,  are  inviolable,  exempt  from  civil  and 
criminal  jurisdiction,  enjoy  freedom  of  wor- 
ship, right  of  asylum  and  jurisdiction  over  their 
official  personnel. 

Consuls  are  usually  granted  such  immunity 
as  enables  them  to  perform  thetr  functions,  in- 
cluding limited  exemption  from  taxation,  ex- 
emption from  military  service  and  jury  duty, 
inviolability  of  office  and  ardiives. 

Public  vessels,  when  in  the  territorial  waters 
of  another  state,  are  subject  only  to  the  neces- 
sary harbor  regulations  for  safety,  anchorage, 
etc  The  personnel  are  exempt  from  local  juris- 
diction while  in  the  performance  of  their  duties. 

Citizens  of  European  and  American  states 
have  been  granted  special  exemptions  in  cer- 
tain Asiatic  eountnes.  Turkey  after  1533 
granted  almost  total  exemption  from  local  juris- 
diction to  citizens  of  France  and  other  Euro- 
rn  powers.  (See  Capitulations.  TtjRKiSH). 
other  states  of  non-European  dvilization. 
such  as  China,  Persia,  Siam,  Morocco  and 
Japan,  ihe  same  principles  were  applied  as  to 
Turkey.  In  1899  Japan  became  a  member  in 
full  of  the  family  of  nations  when  extraterri- 
torial rif;hts  other  than  those  of  -officials  were 
aboli^ed.  In  non-European  cotmtries  seveivl 
of  the  European  states  have  developed  elabo- 
rate judicial  systems  with  jurisdiction  over  the 
Iiersons  and  places  exempt  from  local  jurisdic- 
tion. (See  International  Law ;  Nationality; 
Sovereignty).  Consult  Mnore,  T.  B..  'D't'st 
of  Internationa!  Law>  (1906) ;  McLaughlin 
and  Hart,  'Cvcloped'a  of  American  Govern- 
ment >,  (New  York  1914), 

BXTRAVAGAHTBS,  tvro  collections  of 
decretals  and  constitutions  of  popes  which  were 
made  up  subsequent  to  1317.  Before  .the  Et-  ■ 
travagatites  the  Canon  Law  comprised  the 
Deerelum  of  Gratian  (about  IISO),  the  Liber 
Sfxtus  (1298).  the  Clemfntiita  (1317)  and  sev- 
eral other  official  colleclions  of  papal  decretals. 
No  further  collections  wer^  made  ay  papal  com- 


SXTRAVAGANZA  —  K  YCK 


nisnd,  nor  were  anjr  further  collections  officially 
promolgated ;  nerertheless,  two  collections 
were  made  by  jurists,  the  Extravaganttt  of 
John  XXil  and  the  Extram^antis  Communet; 
and  these,  thou^  lacking  omcial  promulgation, 
came  in  time  to  be  recognized  as  part  of  the 
Canon  Law.  The  Extravagantts  of  John  XXII 
consist  of  constituttoiis  of  that  Pope  only;  the 
E.  Communes  comprise  decretal)  of  several 
popes  between  1281  and  1484.     The  Extmw- 

Et«  are  so  called  because  they  wander  out 
ond  {exiravagantur)  the  limits  of  previous 
ections.  Consult  Bickeil,  J.  W.,  'Uber  die 
Entsiehuag  und  den  Heutigen  Gebrauch  der 
Beiden.  Extra  va^nCensammlutigEn  des  Cor- 
pus  Juris  Canonici'  (Marburg  1^). 

EXTRAVAGANZA,  eks-tr&v-»-gftn'i9,  in 
music  and  the  drama,  a  species  of  composition 
designed  to  produce  effect  by  its  wild  irregular- 
ity and  incoherence;  differing  from  a  burlesque 
in  being  an  original  composition  and  not  a  mere 
travesty.    See  Draka  ;  Stage. 

EXTRAVASATION,  in  contusions  and 
other  accidents,  occurs  when  blood  vessels  are 
raptured  by  the  injury  and  the  blood  finds  its 
way  into  the  neighbonng  tissues.  A  good  illus- 
tration may  be  fotmd  in  an  ordinary  bruise 
when  the  part  becomes  blue  in  consequence  of 
the  vessels  having  been  ruptured  and  blood  hav- 
ing escaped  into  the  tissues.  Extravasation  in 
the  cramum  is  a  most  serious  accident,  as  the 
pressure  on  the  brain  which  is  the  result  often 
produces  death  very  rapidly.  The  term  is,  bow- 
ever,  applied  to  the  escape  of  any  fluid  into  the 
tissues  from  the  vessels  or  cavity  containing  it. 

EXTREME  UNCTION,  a  sacrament  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  for  the  bodily  and 

Siritual  comfort  of  the  sick  whose  death  is 
emed  to  be  imminent.  The  words  of  the 
apostle  Saint  James  in  his  epistle,  ch.  v,  14,  IS 
*Is  any  among  you  sick,"  etc,  are  interpreted 
as  relating  to  this  sacrament.  The  unction 
therefore  is  administered  to  the  sick  and  to 
those  only  who  are  in  danger  of  death  from 
sickness  or  from  injury  or  accident;  hence,  it 
is  not  administered  to  persons  under  sentence 
of  death,  nor  to  those  about  to  undergo  a  dan- 
gerous surgical  operation,  or  the  like ;  nor  to 
persons  bereft  ot  their  reason;  neither  is  it 
administered  to  children  who  have  not  reached 
the  age  of  reaton;  for  the  principal  end  of  this 
sacrament  is,  not  restoration  of  bodily  health, 
but  forgiveness  of  sins.  'If  he  has  committed 
sins  they  shall  be  forgiven  him."  In  the  pas- 
sage from  Saint  James  arc  found  all  the  essen- 
tial conditions  of  a  sacrament,  namely,  the 
■outward  sign,"  to  wit:  the  anointing  and  the 
prayer  of  faith;  and  the  "inward  grace,*  typi- 
tiecl  by  the  outward  sign,  namely,  forgiveness 
of  sins.  The  divine  institution  of  this  sacra- 
ment is  implied  in  the  words  of  the  epistle  of 
Saint  James  where  it  recommends  its  use  and 
declares  its  efficacy  for  the  remission  of  sins. 
Nevertheless  extreme  unction  is  not  adminis- 
tered save  after  the  person  has  made  confession 
of  his  sins  and  received  absolution  in  the  sacra- 
ment of  penance.  In  administering  extreme 
unction  the  priest  performing  the  ceremony 
must  use  olive  oil  that  has  been  consecrated  by 
the  bishop  J  he  dips  the  thumb  of  his  right 
hand  into  It  and,  oy  marking  them  with  ^e 
sign  of  the  cross,  anoints  the  oi^ans  of  the  five 
sensei,    pronotmcuig    at    each    anointing    the 


words,  *By  this  holy  unction  and  by  his  most 
tender  mer»  may  the  Lord  forgive  thee  what- 
soever sin  thou  hast  committed  by  sight"  {per 
visum),  or  'by  hearing"  (piir  ouditum),  etc 
The  origin  and  history  of  extreme  uncticHi  have 
been  suojects  of  extended  and  violent  discus- 
sion and,  as  a  result,  a  large  controversial  litera- 
ture has  come  into  existence.  Extreme  unaion 
was  practised  in  the  early  Church,  but  not  until 
the  1 1th  century  was  it  called  a  sacrament.  Sudi 
it  was  decreed  by  Pope  Eucenius  IV  at  the 
Council  of  Florence  <;a.d.  1439).  Its  ceremo- 
nial, eta,  was  definitely  established  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  (a.d.  ISSl).  The  English 
Lutheran  and  other  evangelical  churches  do  not 
admit  the  contention  that  it  is  a  sacrament  The 
Greek  Church  includes  it  among  its  sacra- 
ments; the  application,  however,  dirEers  in  some 
respect  from  that  practised  tiy  the  Roman 
Church  and  is  not  limited  to  cases  of  supposed 
mortal  illness.  (See  Sacxauemts).  Consult 
Buckley,  T.  A,  transl,  'The  Catechism  of  the 
Council  of  Trent>  (London  1852) ;  PuUer,  F. 
W.,  'The  Anointing  of  the  Sick  in  Scripture 
and  Tradition'  (London  1904);  Toner,  P.  J., 
'Extreme  Unction*  (in  <The  Catholic  Encyclo- 
pedia,* Vol.  V,  New  York  1909). 

EXTRUSION.  See  Volcanism  ;  and  sec- 
tion on  Volcanism  in  article  on  Geology. 

'  EXUHA,  Eks-oo'ma,  Great  and  Little, 
two  of  the  Bahama  Islands.  The  Great  Exuma 
is  30  miles  long  and  3  miles  wide  and  has 
a  good  harbor.  Little  Exuma  has  also  a  good 
harbor.  The  two  islands  together  with  Exuma 
Keys  have  an  area  of  about  150  square  miles. 
Pop.  3,465. 

EYAS,  fa*,  in  falconry  (q.v.),  a  hawk 
reared  from  the  nest. 

EYB,  ib,  Albrecht  von,  German  author: 
b.  Francania  1420;  d.  1475.  He  was  educated 
at  Pavia  and  was  made  archdeacon  of  Wiin- 
burg  at  the  age  of  29.  He  afterward  was  in 
the  service  of  Pius  II.  In  1472  appeat«d  his 
'Ehestandsbuch,'  a  work  on  marriage,  of 
which  there  have  been  frequent  reprints,  A  re- 
cent edition  is  that  of  Hermann  (Berlin  1890). 
Consult  Hermann,  'Albrecht  von  Eyb  und  die 
Frflhzeit   des   deutschen   Humanismus*    (1893). 

EYCK,  ik,  Hubert  van,  Flemish  painter: 
b.  Maaseyck  near  Liige,  Belgium,  1365 ;  d.  Ghent 
18  Sept  1426.  It  has  been  claimed  that  be  and 
his  brother  Jan  were  the  inventors  of  oil  paint- 
ing. For  transparent  and  brilliant  coloring  and 
minute  finish  their  works  have  never  been  sur- 
passed. Their  masterpieces  are  for  the  most 
part  in  Ghent,  Bruges,  Antwerp,  Berlin,  Munich 
and  Pans.  The  only  painting  that  can  now 
certainly  be  assigned  to  Hubert  is  the  altar- 
piece  With  folding  doors,  'The  Adoration  of  thi 


Lamb,'  beguji  by  him  and  finished  by  Jan,  and 

central  di-   raa*^**^^ 


)  the  cathedral  of  Saint  , 


•»»■ 


BoUr*)' 


liqr  ■>  iBsplii^  with  the  exception  of  those 
representing  Adam  and  Eve,  which  are  in  the 
Brussels  Museum.  The  number  of  authentic 
works  painted  by  the  brothers  is  24,  but  the 
number  of  attributions  at  auctions  between  1662 
and  1912  is  over  400.  Consult  Weale,  'John  and 
Hubert  Van  Eyck»    (1908  and  1912). 

EYCK,    Jan    van    (also    called    Jan    van 
Bmgge,  or  John  of  Bmgea),  Flemish  painter: 


iTrt- 


T^ 


■,^Ie 


EYDE— EYE  . 


b.  Maaseyck  about  1381 ;  d  Bruges,  9  July  1441. 
Hubert  (qv.)  gave  hiro  his  6rst  instruction  in 
the  principles  of  the  art,  and  bis  talents  were 
so  rapidly  and  vigorously  developed  that  he 
soon  surpassed  his  brother  The  two  resided  at 
Bruges,  then  much  frequented  by  the  noble  and 
the  wealthy  on  account  of  its  flourishing  com- 
merce. About  1420,  or  soon  after,  they  w«nt 
to  Ghent  for  a  considerable  time,  to  execute  to- 
gether a  work  which  Jodocus  Vydt,  a  Flemish 
noble,  had  engaged  them  to  do.  This  is  the 
celebrated  'Adoration  of  the  Lamb'  for  the 
cathedral  of  Ghent;  a  ^nting  which  contains 
above  300  figures,  and  is  a  masterpiece.  It  is 
painted  on  wood,  with  side  panels  which  con- 
tain the  portraits  of  the  two  artists  and  also 
of  their  sister  Margaret,  who  it  is  now  believed 
never  had  a  corporeal  existence. 

The  reputation  of  this  celebrated  painter  be- 
came very  notable,  even  during  his  lifetime,  by 
his  great  share  in  the  introduction  of  oil  paint- 
ii^;  the  original  invention  of  which  has  been 
incorrectly  ascribed  to  him  by  many.  It  was  a 
general  custom,  before  his  time,  to  have  for 
the  background  of  the  picture  a  flat  gold 
ground,  from  which  the  figure  stood  out  with- 
out persptctive,  as  mav  still  be  seen  in  number- 
less works  of  earlier  date.  Van  Eyck  followed 
this  practice  in  his  earlier  efforts,  but,  as  he 
made  further  advances  in  his  art,  conceived  the' 
idea  toward  which  there  had  been  hitherto  only 
some  distant  advances  of  giving  a  more  natur^ 
grouping  and  perspective  to  his  figures  by  a 
natural  background.  In  this  he  succeeded  so 
eminently,  as  many  of  his  still  remaining  works 

frove,  that  he  may  be  called  in  this  respect  the 
ather  of  modem  painting,  since  he  gave  the  art 
a  new  turn  and  impulse,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  that  high  degree  of  improvement  which  it 
afterward  attained  in  the  brightest  era  of  the 

Seat  masters  who  succeeded  him  in  the  Nether- 
ids  and  in  Italy.  In  the  art  of  painting  on 
glass  he  is  considered  as  the  author  of  the  mode 
of  painting  with  colors  delicately  blended  and 
yet  so  firmly  fixed  that  obliteration  was  impos- 
sible —  an  object  before  attained  only  by  joining 
together  (in  mosaic)  several  small  panes  of  dif- 
ferent colors.  The  school  of  whicn  he  wa^  in 
some  measure,  the  founder,  does  not  yield  in 
celebrity  to  the  best  contemporary  or  succeeding 
artists,  although  it  must  be  allowed  to  be  often 
defective  in  the  representation  of  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  human  bod^  ~  a  fault  oc- 
casioned by  that  excessive  debcacy  which  pre- 
vented the  study  of  naked  forms,  and  of 
anatomy  in  general.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
face,  dresses,  grouping,  distribution  of  light 
and  shade  are  always  superior,  and  the  color 
brilliant  and  splendid,  in  the  works  of  the 
painter  and  most  of  his  scholars.  Many  of  his 
paintings  are  still  preserved,  either  in  oiurches 
and  museums,  or  in  private  collections. 

EYDE,  SamneL  Norwegian  chemist  and 
iUKCiitor:  b.  ArendS  1866.  He  was  educated 
■nhis  native  countrjr  ana  also^  Berlin.  He 
was  a  practising  engineer  in  Norway,  Sweden 
and  Germany,  ^^'!th  Dr.  Christian  Birkeland 
of  Christiana,  he  set  about  producing  fertilizers 
from  the  air  (nitrogen)  and  limestone  by  elec- 
tricity. After  a  long  experimental  stage  the 
idea  was  reduced  to  practice  in  1903,  when  they 
began  to  manufacture  the  fertiliier  with  three 
men  and  a  small  motor.  Within  the  following 
10  years  Eyde  had  plants  aggregating  200,000 


horse  power,  employed  400  chemists,  oigineer^ 
etc.,  and  about  14,000  other  em^oyecs.  The 
output  of  his  works  reached  2,000  barrels  of 
Norway  saltpetre  per  day.  In  1914  he  acquired 
another  plant  with  200,000  horse  power.  Notod- 
den,  Saaheim  and  Eydehavn  are  now  towns 
supported  entirely  by  these  new  industries. 
The  war  of  1914  hindered  development  along 
the  lines  maroed  out  ^  Eyde  but  gave  a  great 
impetus  to  the  manufacture  of  explosives  to 
which  much  of  the  c^tacity  of  the  plants  was 
diverted  as  early  as  May  1915. 

BYE,  the  peripheral  organ  of  vision.  It  re- 
ceives light-energy,  transforming  it  into  nerve 
stimulus,    which    latter    is   transferred   to    the 


nbyn 


sof  n 


e  fibre 


Anatomy  and  Phyuology. —  The  human 
eye  has  in  general  a  si^erical  form,  with  a 
segment  of  a  smaller  sphere  sufxradded  ante- 
riorly. The  average  antero  posterior  diameter  is 
24.26  mm. ;  transverse  diameter  23.7  mm.  The 
eyeball  of  a  man  is  slightly  larger  than  that  of  a 
woman.  The  middle  pomt  of  the  cornea  is 
called  the  anterior  pole,  diametrically  opposite 
to  which  on  the  sclera  is  ihe  posterior  pole. 
The  line  of  union  between  the  two  poles  is  the 
geometric  axis.  The  equator  of  the  eye  is  a 
circle  equidistant  from  the  poles.     (Fig.   I). 


—  Hon«niUl  le 


3{  tbt  crcbsQ. 


A  shallow,  circular  furrow  (sulcus  sclerae 
extemus),  filled  out  with  conjunctiva,  separates 
the  transparent  cornea  from  the  opaque  sclera. 
The  cornea  is  elliptical  in  shape,  the  horizontal 
diameter  of  12  mm.  being  sli^tly  greater  than 
the  vertical  diameter.  Between  the  margin  of  the 
cornea  and  the  equator  are  the  insertion  lines 
of  the  recti  muscles,     (Fig.  2). 

Posteriorly  the  optic  nerve,  with  its  sheaths, 
forms  a  cord,  5  mm.  in  diameter.  Around  the 
nerve  some  20  arteries  (short  posterior 
ciliary  arteries)  enter  the  sclera  to  supplv  the 
chonoid.  (Fig.  6).  On  either  side  of  the 
nerve,  in  the  horizontal  men  dan,  the  long 
posterior  ciliary  artery  with  its  nerve  pierces 
the  sclera  and  enters  the  perichorioidal  space. 
The  posterior  part  of  the  globe  has  been  called 
the  arterial  half,  because  here  nearly  all  the 
— -----  Uood  enters  the  eyeball.    The  venous 


blood  leaves  by  way  of  the  venae  vorticosae  — 
two  superior  and  two  inferior,  just  behind  the 
eqtialor,     (Fig.  3). 

The  eye  is  composed  of  a  variety  of  tissues, 
and  is  divided  into  three  main  zones  according 
to  its  development  The  posterior  zone,  the 
tai^est,  extends  from  the  entrance  of  the  optic 
nerve  to  the  insertion  lines  of  the  recti  muscles. 
Here  begins  the  middle  zone,  the  anterior  limits 
of  which  are  marked  by  the  sulcus  sclerx  ex- 
tern us.  The  narrow  anterior  zone  embraces 
cornea  and  iris.  The  cornea  and  sclera  n^e 
up  the  firm,  fibrous  capsule  of  the  eye,  lending 
form  and  shape  and  protecting  the  delicate  iimer 
layers  from  injury. 

There  are  four  principal  coats  to  the  eye- 
ball, i.e.,  (1)  sclera  and  cornea  (fibroua 
capsule) ;  (2)  chorioid  (vascular  layer)  ;  (3) 
pigment  epithelium;  (4)  retina.  (Fig.  7).  In 
the  posterior  zone  all  four  coats  are  easily 
separated  from  one  another.  In  the  middle 
zone  the  sclera  undergoes  no  change,  but  the 
other  three  coats  are  transformed  into  one 
oi^an,  the  ciliary  body.  In  the  anterior  zone 
the  sclera  becomes  differentiated  into  the 
cornea;  while  elements  from  the  chorioid,  pig- 
ment epithelium  and  retina  form  the  iris. 

The  contents  of  the  eyeball  are  the  vitreous, 
the  lens  and  the  aqueous.  In  that  part  of  the 
eye  occupied  by  the  aqueous  the  iris  is  sus- 
pended, oividing  it  into  an  anterior  and  a  poste- 
rior  chamber.     (Fig.    1). 

On  its  inner  surface  the  sclera  is  separated 
from  the  chorioid  and  cilia rv  body  by  the 
perichorioidal  space.  All  the  blood  vessels  and 
nerves  supplying  the  uvea  (that  is  chorioid, 
ciliary  body  and  ins)  pass  throi^h  the  sclera 
in  canals  —  eraissaria.  The  sclera  is  divided 
into  three  layers  —  episclera,  containing  blood 
vessels  of  its  own  and  having  more  loosely 
arranged  bundles;  sclera  proper,  with  its  dense 
texture  and  the  absence  of  vessels,  and  the 
lamina  fusca,  characterized  by  the  at>pearance 
of  chromatophores  —  branched  connective  tissue 
cells,  containing  pigment  granules.  (Fig.  7). 
In  general,  the  scleral  tissue  is  that  of  a  tendon. 
In  the  sclera  the  bundles  run  in  every  direction, 
while  in  a  tendon  the  bundles  are  parallel  with 
one  another  The  fixed  cells  lie  between  the 
bandies.  Posteriorly  the  sclera  is  continuous 
with  the  sheath  of  the  optic  nerve;  anteriorly 
it  goes  over  into  the  cornea.  (Fig.  1).  The 
narrow  zone  of  transition  between  the  cornea 
and  sclera  is  spoken  of  as  the  Umbus. 

The  cornea  occupies  about  one-sixth  of  the 
circumference  of  the  eyeball.  (Fig.  1 ) .  It 
contains  no  blood  vessels,  but  is  nourished  by 
tymph  from  loops  of  blood  vessels  adjoining  it 
The  cornea  is  strongly  curved,  and  has  a  weak 
refractive  power  because  it  is  thinner  in  the 
centre  than  at  the  periphery.  It  has  five  layers 
(from  without  inwarcl)  —  (DEinthelium;  (2) 
Bowman's  Membrane;  (3)  Stroma;  (4)  E)esce- 
met's  Membrane;   (5)   Endotheliimi. 

The  epithelium  of  the  cornea  is  a  stratified 

?ivement  epithelium  of  some  five  or  six  layers, 
he  basal  cells  lying  on  Bowman's  membrane 
are  tall  cylindrical  cells.  In  the  second  layer 
the  cells  become  rather  cuboid  in  shape.  From 
the  third  layer  on  they  grow  flatter,  until  those 
of  the  surface  layer  are  exceedingly  fiat.  The 
superficial  flat  cells  present  a  perfectly  smooth 
and  even  surface,  giving  the  cornea  its  bril- 
liancy and  lustre.    Between  the  cpithalial  cells 


are  minute  nerve  ending^  endowing  the 
cornea  with  exquisite  sensibility.  Bowman's 
membrane  contains  no  nuclei.  It  has  a  smooth 
anterior  surface,  while  posteriorly  it  merges 
with  the  stroma,  of  which  it  is  considered  a 
modified  part 

The  Stroma  —  substantia  propria  —  com^ 
prises  about  90  per  cent  of  the  cornea.  It  is 
made  up  of  cotmective  tissue  lamelUe,  numing 


in  all  directions.  Between  the  lamellse  are  the 
fixed  corneal  cells.  Leucocytes  wander  into  the 
cornea,  and  into  the  epithelial  layers^  and  are 
called  wandering  cells,  in  contradistmction  to 
the  fixed  cells.  The  stroma  is  covered  on  its 
posterior  surface  by  the  homo^neous,  elastic 
membrane  of  Descemet.  This  is  a  true  mem* 
braiK  having  two  sharply  defined  contours.  It  is 
of  cuticular  formation,  being  the  product  of  the 


Pig.  3. 

underlying  endothelium.  It  increases  in  thick- 
ness with  age.  A  single  layer  of  endothelial 
cells  lines  not  only  Descemet' s  membrane  but 
extends  over  the  trabecule  at  the  angle  of  the 
anterior  chamber  onto  the  anterior  surface  of 
die  iris. 

Opposite  the  external  scleral  furrow,  on  the 
internal  surface  of  die  fibrou^  coat  of  the  eye, 
is  another  circukr  depression  —  sulcus  sders 


■8l^ 


9T6  SV 

intemus.  Tins  is  partly  filled  by  a  loose  mesh- 
work,  trianguiar  in  shape,  going  over  from  the 
cornea  to  tue  iris.  To  the  scleral  side  of  the 
meshwork  one  finds  an  irreaiilar  lumen  ~  the 
canal  of  Schlemm.  (Fig.  1),  This  lies  pro- 
tected in  the  sclera  on  all  sides,  except  its  inner 
wail  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  aqueous. 
The  aqueous  finds  its  way  into  the  canal  by  a 
process  of  filtration.  On  the  scleral  side  of 
Scblemm's  canal  tiny  vessels  go  ofE,  conveying 
the  aqueous  directly  into  the  nughboring  veins. 
The  perichorioidal  space  is  out  a  narrow 
deft,   traversed   by   delicate   lamellae   extending 


eye  —  is  a  thin  brownish  membrane,  divided 
into  three  layers,  (1)  vessel  layer,  (2)  capillary 
layer  (choriocapillaris)  and  (3)  lamma  vitrea. 
(Fig.  7).  The  vessel  layer  comprises  the 
grater  part  of  the  chorioid.  In  the  connective 
tissue  supporting  the  vessels  are  numerous 
cbroDiatophores,  giving  the  chorioid  the  tessel- 
lated appearance  seen  with  the  ophthalmo- 
tcope.  Most  characteristic  of  the  chorioid  is 
the  capillary  layer,  forming  a  stratum  of  ca- 
pillaries for  the  nourishment  of  the  pigment 
epithelium  and  much  of  the  retina.  The  thin, 
transparent  lamina  vitrea,  like  Descemets  mem- 
brane, is  of  cuticular  formation  —  the  product 
of  the  overlying  {ligment  epithelium,  llie  pig- 
ment epithelium  is  an  expanse  of  one  single 
layer  of  hexagonal  cells,  present  everywhere 
from  the  optic  nerve  to  the  pupillary  margin. 
Each  hexagonal  cell  gives  olT  a  number  of  proc- 
esses which  project  inward  among  the  rods 
and  cones. 

The  retina  (Fig.  7),  fourth  of  the  principal 
layers  of  the  eyeball,  is  a  soft  transparent  mem- 
brane, extending  from  the  optic  nerve  to  its 
jigged  anterior  margins  —  the  ora  serratea  — 
opposite  the  insertion  of  the  recti  muscles.  At 
the  anterior  and  posterior  margins  dte  union 
between  the  retina  and  adjoining  structures  is 
firm,  but  elsewhere  the  retina  is  held  to  the  pig- 
ment epithelium  only  bv  the  above  mentioned 
processes.  Therefore,  tne  retina  is  very  prone 
to  detachment.  Some  3.5  mm.  to  the  temporal 
side  of  the  optic  nerve  and  slightly  below 
the  horizontal  meridan  is  the  fovea  centralis. 
Anatomically  this  is  a  flattened  funiLel-like 
depression,  caused  by  the  absence  of  nearly  all 
elements  of  the  retina  except  the  cones.  (Fig. 
1).  The  term  macula  lutea  (yellow  spot]) 
refers  to  the  orange  color  seen  in  anatomic 
study  of  this  part  of  the  retina. 

The  following  layers  compose  the  retina 
(Fig.  7),  named  from  without  inward;  (1) 
layer  of  rods  and  cones;  (2)  membrana  timi- 
tans  externa ;  (3)  outer  nuclear  layer ;  (4) 
outer  plexiform  layer;  (S)  inner  nuclear  layer; 
(6)  inner  plexiform  layer;  (7)  ganglion  cell 
layer;  (8^  nerve  fibre  layer;  (9)  membrana 
limitans  interna.  The  layers  are  connected 
partly  by  extensions   from  the   individual   ele- 


—  the  fibr 

The  rods  are  cylindrical  structures ;  the 
<ones  tlask-shape.  Both  possess  a  thinner  outer 
half  and  a  thicker  inner  part.  The  rods  con- 
tain the  visual  purple,  which  bleaches  out 
readily  in  the  caoaver  but  regenerates  in  the 
dark  when  the  .relationship  to  the  pigment 
eirithelium  is  undisturbed.  The  cones  are 
foimd  in  alt  parts  of  the  retina;  in  the  fovea 


there  are  no  rods.  The  membrana  limitani 
externa  is  a  very  delicate  sieve~like  membrane, 
having  a  perforation  through  which  each  rod 
and  cone  sends  a  prolongation  to  its  own 
nucleus  in  the  outer  nuclear  layer.  Tbe  outer 
plexiform  layer  is  essentially  a  supporting  layer, 
composed  of  proximal  portions  of  roos  and 
cones  on  the  one  side  and  of  fine  extensions 
from  the  inner  nuclear  layer  of  the  other  side. 
The  inner  nuclear  layer  contains  the  nuclei  of 
Mueller's  fibres  and  nerve  cells.  There  are  also 
larger  cells  in  this  layer  provided  with  Nissl's 
granules.  The  sixth  layer  inner  plexiform 
layer,  resembles  the  outer  plexiform  layer  and 
belongs  to  the  supporting  tissue.  The  ganglion 
cells  of  the  next  lajrer  are  multipolar  and  send 
off  numerous  dendritic  processes  into  tbe  under- 
lying inner  plexiform  layer.  The  nerve-fibre 
layer,  with  its  neuro^ia  cells,  is  composed  of 
afferent  and  efferent  fibres  passing  to  and  from 
the  optic  nerve.  In  this  layer  the  larger  vessels 
of  the  retina  are  lodged.    FiiuU^,  the  very  tlnn 


The  retina  is  composed  of  three  neurons,  or 
nervous  units,  named  as  follows  in  the  sense 
of  their  conduction.  The  rotls  and  cones,  with 
the  outer  nuclei,  belong  to  the  first  neuron. 
This  unit  serves  for  tbe  reception  of  the  indi- 
vidual light  impressions.  The  nerve  cells  among 
the  inner  nuclei  form  the  second  unit.  These 
cells  come  in  contact  with  elements  from  the 
first  and  third  neurons.  The  latter  is  repre- 
sented by  the  ganglion  cells,  the  axis  cylinders 
of  which  reach  ibrough  the  optic  nerve,  the 
chiasm,  and  optic  tract  to  the  brain. 

The  rods  and  cones,  outer  nuclear  layer 
and  part  of  the  outer  plexiform  layer  are 
nourished  by  the  chorio-capillaris.  All  the 
other  layers  have  a  vessel  system  of  their  own 
in  branches  of  the  arteria  centralis  retinae  and 
veins  of  the  same  name.  Tlie.  blood  vessels  are 
the  only  elements  in  the  retina  of  mesoderraic 
origin;  all  else  is  derived  from  the  ectoderm. 
In  the  peripheral  portions  of  many  eyes  one 
encounters  peculiar  cavities  due  to  cystoid  de- 
generation. These  are  the  spaces  of  Lessing  or 
Ivanoff's  retinal  oedema. 

The  optic  nerve  (second  cranial)  i 


is  termed  bulbar  or  intraocular.  The  orbital  or 
retrobulbar  portion  lies  between  the  eyeball  and 
the  canalis  opticus.  Another  division  is  into 
a  medullated  and  non-medullated  portion.  At 
the  lamina  cribrosa  the  medullary  sheaths  cease; 
in  consequence  the  nerve-fibre  layer  of  die 
retina  has  no  sheaths  of  Schwann,  and  is  trans- 
parent. Tbe  cord  is  surrounded  by  three 
sheaths;  outer,  dura  mater;  middle  arachnoid; 
and  inner,  pia  mater  —  all  continuous  with  the 
membranes  of  the  brain.  Between  tbe  dura  and 
the  pia  is  the  interva«nal  space.  This  is 
divided  bv  the  arachnoid  into  two  cavities,  an 
outer,  subdural,  and  an  inner,  subarachnoid 
Both  communicate  with  spaces  of  the  same 
name  in  the  cranium.  The  pia  mater  closely 
invests  die  nerve  subjtance  sending  numerous 
trabeculae  among  the  nerve-fibres  and  separat- 
ing them  into  incomplete  bundles.  About  20 
mm,  behind  the  eyeball  the  central  artery  and 
vein  of  the  retina  enter  the  nerve  at  ri^ 
angles  and  continue  in  its  axis  to  the  retina. 


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9n 


They  are  siurounded  by  connective  tis»e  eat^ 
ried  in  with  them  from  the  pia  mater.  The 
nervous  element  is  composed  of  extrcmdy  mi- 
merous  fibres  estimatca  at  half  a  million  or 
more,  widi  its  own  mmwrting  framework  the 
slial  ceUs.  The  lamina  ctibrosa  ii  the  per- 
forated space  in  the  sclera  far  the  entrance  of 
the  nerve  fibres. 

The  circular  area  in  the  inner  oiwninK  of  the 
optic  nerve  canal,  correspondinfjf  to  the  area  of 
the  lamina  cribrosa.  is  called  the  disc  or  papilla. 
This  space,  consisting  of  conducting  fibres  only, 
receives  no  imprestioDs,  and  is  known  as 
Mariotte's  blind  spot.  The  cupping  or  holkiw- 
ing  of  the  disc  may  be  physiolOBidJ,  or  ^tho- 
logical  as  in  glaucoma.  An  arterial  nng — 
Circle  of  Zinn  —  surrotinds  the  optic  nerve  en- 
trance into  the  sclera. 

The  ciliary  hoiv,  with  a  breadth  of  5  or  6 
mm.,  forms  a  girdle  aroimd  the  eyeball,  cor- 
responding to  Uie  middle  wnc.  It  is'  divided 
into  a  Rat,  broader  posterior  part — orbicului 
dliaris  —  which  is  succeeded  anteriorly  by  a 
wstem  of^  some  70  processes — corona  eiliaris. 
Between  the  ciliary  processes  are  the  dliary 

In  the  equatorial  region,  in  the  supracho* 
rioidal  lariiillae  smooth  muscle  fibres  make  their 
appearance,  developing  anteriorly  into  the  ciliary 
muscle  —  or  muscle  of  accommodation.  The 
outer  bundles  of  the  muscle  run  in  a  mcri- 
dianal  direction.  This  is  replaced  inwardly  ^  a 
system  of  circular  bundles  ^  Mueller's  muscle. 
In  myopia  the  meridianal  bmidle*  are  more 
developed ;  in  hypermda  the  drcuhir  bundles. 

A  layer  of  blooa  vessels  covers  the  inner 
surface  of  the  muscle,  being  a  direct  continua- 
tion of  the  chorioid.  Over  this  vascular  layer 
the  lamina  vitrea  of  the  chorioid  and  the  pig- 
ment epithelium  spread  out  The  innncr  sur- 
face of  the  ciliary  body  is  lined  by  a  sinfHe 
layer  of  epithelium  —  which  represents  me 
retina.  This  ciliary  epithelium  is  everywhere 
very  uneven,  due  to  tiny  elevations  and  depres- 
sions to  which  it  clings  —  the  whole  arrange- 
ment forming  the  reticultnn  of  Heinrich  Muel- 
ler. Lastly,  the  membrana  limitans  interna 
comes  forward  to  clothe  the  ciliary  epithelium, 
just  as  it  clothes  the  retina  posteriorly.  The 
ciliarv  epithelium  secretes  the  aqueous  and  has 
larKely  to  do  with  the  nourishment  of  the  lens 
and  vitreous. 

The  iris  has  its  insertion  on  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  ciliary  body.  (Fig.  1).  Severed 
from  connections  it  has  the  form  of  a  circular 
plate —-like  the  diaphragin  in  optical  instru- 
ments. The  outer  margin  is  the  ciliary  border. 
The  circular  opening  in  the  middle  is  the  pnpiL 
This  latter  is  located  slightly  to  the  nasal  side. 
The  anterior  surface  is  divided  by  a  zig-xag 
hue  1.5  mm.  from  the  puoillary  margin,  into  an 
inner,  pupillary  zone,  and  an  outer  ciliary  zone. 
Trabeculae.of  connective  tissue  containing  ves- 
sels traverse  'the  iris,  converging  toward  the 
centre,  Uke  the  spokes  in  a  wheel.  Depressions 
between  the  trabeculae  are  termed  crypts.  In 
the  ciliary  lone  running  drcnbrly  are  tn«  con- 
traction farrows,  corresponding  to  the  creases 
in  the  palm  of  the  hand.  The  lesser  arterial 
circle  of  the  iris  is  situated  under  the  zig-zag 
line.  It  is  formed  by  an  anastomosis  from  the 
radiating  vessels  which  enter  the  root  of  the 
iris.  These  radiating  vessels  are  derived  from 
the  greater  arterial  drde  of  the  iris,  which  is 


located  In  the  vucuHif  layer  of  die  cWary  body. 
(Fig.  3).  The  greater  arterial  drcle  is  in  turn 
derived  from  an  anastaraosis  of  brandies  from 
the  two  long  posterior  ciliaiy  arteries.  When 
the  stroma  is  delicate  the  s^incter  muscle  may 
be  seen  as  a  whitish  band,  1  mm.  in  wtdtl^ 
immediately  adjoining  the  pujnltary  margin.      • 

The  stroma  bearing  the  blood  vessels  and 
comprising  the  bulk  of  the  iris  is  a  continuation 
of  the  chorioiit  by  way  of  the  vascular  layer  of 
the  dliary  body.  The  pigment  epithelium  re- 
mains the  same;  while  the  ciliary  epithelium 
takes  on  pi^ent;  so  that  the  structures  poste- 
rior to  the  iris  are  nrotected  from  the  light  by 
two  strata  of  hignly  pigmented  cells.  The 
sphincter  and  the  dilitatCr  muscles  are  of 
ectodermic  origin  formed  by  a  differentiation  of 
the  pigment  epithelium.  Other  muscles  of  the 
body  are  of  mesodenuic  origin.  The  posterior 
surface  of  the  iris  has  a  very  delicatel  system 
of  radiating  and  drcular  markingi.    .    ' 

The  iris  varies  greatly  in  individuals.  When 
the  stroma  is  loose  and  sparse  and  contains 
few  chrotnatonhores  the'  result  is  the  blue  iris, 
because  the  black  pigmmt  epithelium- through 
the  delicate  veil  anteriorly  appears  bluish  — 
the  blue  eye.  When  the  stroma  is  heavy  and 
the  chromatuphorcs  numerous  we  have  the 
brown  iris,-  tie  re  the  chroma  topho  res  deter-  - 
alining  the  color.  Aside  from  the  color,  there 
is,  therefore,  an  anatomical  difference  — the 
Uue  iris  being  the  light  thin  one;  die  brows 
iris  the  heavy  thick  one. 

Vitreus,  corpus  vitrcum,  is  a  transparent 
jelly-like  substance  consisting  of  an  exceedingly 
delicate  meshwork,  the  Interstices  of  which  are 
filled  out  by  fluid.  It  has  the  transparency  of 
water  ^  may  be  felt  in  a  basin  of  water  but 
not  seen.  It  contains  no  blcod  vessels,  np 
nerves,  and  depends  for  its  nourishment  on 
adjoining  structures,  prindpally  the  dliary  bodv^ 
A  canal  beginning  at  the  front  of  the  pa^Ia 
extends  to  the  Tens  ^  Ooquet's  canal.  The 
fibrillae  making  up  the  stroma  of  the  vitreus 
have  their  origin  just  anterior  to  the  era  ser- 
rata,  on.  the  orbicularis  eiliaris.  Diseases  of 
the  dliary  body  readily  affeot  the  vitreus. 

The  crystalline  lens  lies  in  a  delta — fossa  pB- 
tellaris-'On  the  anterior  stirface  of  the  vitreus. 
(Fig.  1).  It  is  a  transparent  body,  having  the 
siupc  of  a  biconvex  lens.  The  centre  of  the 
anterior  surface  is  designated  the  anterior  pole, 
a  similar  point  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the 
posterior  pole.  The  Tent  capsule  is  a  typical 
glass  membrane,  like  that  of  Descemet  or  tiie 
lamina  vitrea  of  the  chorioid  Lining  the  inner 
surface  of  the  anterior  capside  is  a  layer  of 
cuboid  epithelial  cells.  At  tie  equator  of  the 
lens  these  elongate  to  form  the  lens  fibres. 
Those  layers  of  the  lens  substance  next  to  the 
capsule  comprise  the  cortex.  At  the  centre 
is  a  harder,  denser  mass,  the  mdeus.  The 
lens  KTOwS  larger  throu^out  life  tc  make  room 
for  oie  ever-incrBuing  amnber  of  lens  fibraa 
within  its  body. 

Posteriorly  the  lens  is  held  to  the  anteriar 
border  hiyer  of  the  vitretB  by  a  firm  union  in 
the  shape  of  a  rinR  —  Ligamentam  hyatoidBa 
capsnlare.  The  zonular  fibres  are  the  main  sup- 
port of  the  lens.  They  are  structureless,  non- 
nucleated  fibres,  clear  as  glass.  They  are 
firmly  attached  to  the  ciliary  body  on  the  one 
side  and  to  die  anterior  and  posterior  surface 


.Google 


of  the  lens,  netr  the  equator,  on  the  other  aide. 
(Fig.  1). 

The  cornea  and  lens  are  the  media  of  the 
eye  principally  concerned  in  the  transmission  of 
light  to  the  retina  and  in  the  formation  of 
images  upon  it.  The  rays  of  light  striking  the 
.cornea  are  refracted  to  pass  through  the  pupil. 
The  lens  now  brings  them  to  a  focus  on  the 
retina,  producing  an  inverted  image.  The  lens 
by  the  action  of  the  cillian;  body  adjusts  itself 
to  focusing  objects  at  cifferent  distances  — 
accommodation.    When  the  ciliary  muscle  con- 


tracts the  lens  increases  its  convexity  and 
shortens  its  focus,  as  in  the  act  of  reading. 
At  about  45  years  of  age  the  lens,  owing  lo  the 
sclerosis  of  its  fibres,  be^ns  to  lose  its 
elasticity.  This  is  the  condition  of  presbyopia 
—  old  sight.  In  myopia  the  focal  image  is 
formed  in  front  of  the  retina,  usually  due  to 
too  great  length  of  ^e  ante ro- posterior  diam- 
eter of  the  globe.  In  hyperopia  the  ^eball  is 
too  short  Astigmatism  is  the  conrntion  in 
which  the  rays  of  light  do  not  converge  to  a 
point  on  the  retina.  It  is  ordinarily  due  to 
inequality  of  curvature  of  the  cornea  (or  lens). 
By  tHc  field  of  vision  we  mean  the  space  in 
which  one  can  see,  while  steadily  gazing  at  a 
ooim  in  the  direct  line  of  vision.  The  field 
does  not  extend  regularly  in  all  directions.    It 


Pic.  s. 

reaches  farthest  toward  the  eirternal  side,  where 
it  extends  over  90°.  The  field  for  colors  grows 
smaller  in  the  following  order:  blue,  red  and 
green.  Defects  in  the  visual  fieid  are  termed 
scotomsta. 

The  orbit  is  the  pyramidal  cavity  in  wbidi 
the  globe  lies.  Its  walls  are  formed  by  seven 
bones  of  lie  face;  namely,  frontal,  sphenoid, 
ethmoid,  nasal,  lacrimal,  superior  maxillary, 
and  palate  bones.  These  bony  walls  separate 
the  orlnt  from  the  following  cavities;  the  in- 
tracranial,    the    frontal,    the    nasal,    and    the 


antrum  of  Higfamore.  Diseases  of  the  sinuses 
frequently  involve  the  orbit.  The  anterior 
opening  of  the  orbit  is  its  base.  Here  the  walb 
become  thickened  into  a  strong  bony  rim  — 
margin  of  the  orbit  —  to  defend  the  eyeball 
against  injury.  At  the  upper  margin  of  the 
orbit  is  the  supra-orbital  notch  for  tbe  passage 
of  artery  and  nerve  of  the  same  name.  At 
the  lower  margin  is  another  notch  for  the  infra- 
orbital  artery   and  nerve. 

The  globe  is  lodged  in  the  orbit  in  a  cushion 
of  fat,  and  is  held  in  place  by  connective  tissue, 
the  ocular  muscles,  and  the  eyelids.  Tbe 
periosteum  of  tbe  orbit  extends  over  its  margin 
anterioriy  to  form  the  fascia  tarso-orbi talis. 
Surrounding  the  posterior  two-thirds  of  the 
eyeball,  the  connective  tissue  of  the  orbit  be- 
comes condensed  into  a  capsule  (Tenon's 
capsule  above  mentioned),     (Fig.  2), 

Posteriorly  the  orbit  has  three  apertures: 
(1>  optic  foramen  for  the  optic  nerve  and 
opnthalmic  artery;  (2)  superior  orbital  fissure, 
opening  into  the  middle  fossa  of  the  skull 
and  transmitting  nerves  for  the  ocular  muscles 
and  the  first  branch  of  the  tr^eminus ;  (3)  the 
inferior  orbital  fissure,  connecting  the  orbit 
with  the  temporal  fossa  and  serving  for  the 
passage  of  the  second  branch  of  the  irigimii^l 
nerve.  Near  the  apex  of  the  orbit  is  the  ciliary 
ganglion,  for  the  supply  of  the  ciliary  muscle 
and  iris.  Abnormal  protrusion  of  the  eye  is 
exophthahnus.  Absence  of  the  bulb  is  anoph- 
thalmus. 

The  ocular  muscles  are  divided  into  extrinsic 
and  entrinsic  muscles.    The  latter  are  the  dila- 


Jes,  four  recti  and  two  obli(]ues. 
The  four  recti  muscles  and  the  superior  obliques 
have  their  origin  around  the  margin  of  the 
optic  foramen  (Fig.  5).  and  diverge  as  they 
come  forward  to  form  the  muscular  funnel. 
The  four  recti  muscles  are  attached  by  short 
tendons,  to  the  sclera,  7  to  9  mm.  from  the 
cornea  (Fig.  4), 

The  oblique  muscles  have  a  more  compli- 
cated course.  The  superior  oblique  runs  along 
tbe  upper  inner  wall  of  the  orbit  to  send  its 
tendon  through  the  trochlea  and  thence  back- 
ward to  its  insertion  in  the  upper  half  of  the 
eyeball  behind  the  equator.  The  inferior 
oblique  arises  near  the  lower  inner  margin  of 
the  orbit  anteriorly  and  goes  backward  to  its 
insertion  behind  the  equator  about  in  the 
horizontal  meridian,     (Fig.  4). 

The  muscles  are  innervated  by  three  nerves. 
The  oculo-motor  nerve  supplies  the  internal, 
superior  and  inferior  recti,  and  the  inferior 
oblique.  Also  the  levator  palpebrae  superioris 
and  the  two  interior  muscles  of  the  eye, 
(sphincter  pupillae  and  ciliary  muscle)  are 
imiervaled  by  it  The  external  rectus  has  the 
abducens  nerve ;  the  superior  oblique  the  troch- 
lear. The  nuclei  for  these  various  nerves  lie 
upon  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle. 

By  the  action  of  the  extrinsic  muscles  we 
use  both  eyes  synchronously  and  have  binoc- 
ular vision.  Disturbance  of  the  muscular  bal- 
ance causes  diplopia,  because  images  are  thrown 
on  non-identical  parts  of  each  retina.  Ortho- 
dioria  is  normal  balance  of  the  eye  muscles. 
Strabismus,  squint,  is  the  condibon  in  which 
only  one  eye  fixes  an  object  at  a  time.  Par- 
alysis of  the  ocular  muscles  is  opththalmoplestL 

The   eyelids   are   in   origin    folds   of  sloo 


,v  Google 


(Fig.  2),  which  hive  pushed  their  way  over 
the  bulb  to  protect  it.  The  eyebrow,  super- 
ciiium,  limits  the  upper  lid,  while  the  lower  lid 
passes  without  auv  sharp  line  of  demarkation 
into  the  cheek.  The  palpebral  fissure  separates 
the  two  lids.  Temporarily  the  lids  join  each 
Other  at  a  sharp  angle  —  external  canthus.  The 
inner  canthus  is  of  aorse-shoe  shape^  embracing 
a  small  fleshy  growth  —  the  caruncle.  The  sur- 
face of  the  lids  next  to  the  globe  is  lined  by 
a  raucous  membrane  —  palpebral  conjunctiva. 
When  the  eyelids  arc  shut  the  entire  conjunc- 
tiva forms  a  closed  sac.  E^ch  lid  is  supported 
by  a  dense  connective  tissue  plate  —  the  tarsus. 
The  upper  lid  is  elevated  by  the  levator  palpe- 
brae  superioris,  which  has  its  origin  at  the  apex 
of  the  orbit,  and  is  inserted  into  the  tarsus. 
The  orbicularis  palpebrariun  closes  the  lids. 
This  is  a  flat,  cutaneous  muscle  surrounding  the 
palpebral  (is sure  in  the  form  of  a  circle. 
Drooping  of  the  upper  lid  is  called  ptosis^ 

The  lacrimal  gland,  organ  secreting  the  tears, 
b  situated  in  a  depression  in  the  upper,  outer 
wall  of  the  orbit,  near  the  margin.  Smaller 
accessory  glands  are  located  along  the  inner 
margin  of  the  upper  tarsus.  The  tears  con- 
tain but  a,  small  amoimt  of  solids,  principally 
scKlium  chloride  (hence  salty  tears).  Psychic 
weeping  occurs  only  in  man.  After  removal 
of  the  gland  the  eye  is  kept  moist  by  the  secre- 
tion of  the  conjunctiva.  Through  the  puncta 
the  tears  pass  mto  the  canalicidi  and  thence 
into  the  lacrimal  sac.     The  latter  is  contracted 


I  much  increased  docs  any  great  quantity  of 
tears  discharge  into  the  nose.  Inflammation  of 
the  tear  sac  is  called  dacryocystitis.  At  the 
free  margin  of  the  lids  there  is  a  narrow  strip 
—  inter-marginal  space  —  where  the  conjunctiva 
and  the  skin  merge.  The  anterior  mar^n  is 
rounded  and  has  swinging  from  it  the  cillia. 
The  posterior  mai^n  is  very  sharp.  Just  in 
front  of  it  is  a  row  of  orifices,  mouths  of  the 
meibomian  glands  —  sebaceous  glands  —  em- 
bedded in  the  tarsal  plates.  They  secrete  oil  to 
prevent  the  tears  from  rdnning  onto  the  cheeks. 
The  modified  sweat  glands  of  Moll  empty  into 
the  follicles  of  the  lashes. 


ComparatiTe  Anatomjr. —  In  man  the  eve 
attains  its  highest  state  of  development.  The 
farther  we  descend  the  scale  of  animal  life 
the  simpler  the  eye  and  the  more  restricted  its 


functions.  In  the  lower  orders  there  are  eyes 
which  distinguish  between  light  and  darkness 
only.  In  the  higher  orders,  as  the  vertebrata, 
the  eyes  perceive  more  or  less  perfect  images. 


Corp  oitr 


Pic.  7. 

In  many  unicellular  organizations — animals  and 

Slants,  bacteria  and  protozoa  —  sensitiveness  to 
ght  is  a  properh-  of  the  body  as  a  whole. 
fn  the  more  highly  organized,  multicellular 
animals  certain  cells  have  the  function  of  re- 
sponding to  light,  all  others  having  lost  it. 
The  simplest  form  of  visual  organ  consists  of 
an  epithelial  cell  connected  With  a  nerve  fibre. 
Tlie  cell  has  dK  power  of  tiansforming  li^t 
into  another  form  of  energy  that  can  be  con- 
■  ducted  along  the  nerve  fibres  to  a  central  nerve 
organ.  The  eye  of  man  is  essentially  reducible 
to  an  enormous  number  of  sensory  epithelial 
cells  united  to  form  the  retina  and  optic  nerve. 
These  latter  are  the  necessary  parts  of  the  eye, 
with  the  formation  of  which  the  development 
of  the  eye  begins.  All  other  pans  of  the  eye 
develo])  later,  and  are  designed  for  nutrition, 
protection  or  optica!  purposes.  Thus  the 
cornea  and  sclera  protect  Uie  delicate  retina, 
while  the  chorioid  nourishes  it.  The  cornea 
and  lens  refract  the  light  and  the  iris,  by 
means  of  its  pupil,  regulates  the  amount  of  light, 
Man  and  the  higher  animals  are  endowed  with 
two  eyes.  Most  insects  and  some  crustaceans 
have  two  complete  eyes  with  a  number  of  single 
supemumeray  ones.  Some  mollusks  have  as  hi^ 
as  several  hundred  eyes  which  lie  along  their 
mantle. 


.yGooi^le 


BYE  STRAIN— BYBRH AH 


Diaeaaes  of  die  Eye^—  The  morbid  cfaan^k 


__ _    _..    _    general    way    physical,    _., 

chanical,  chemical  or  parasitic.  The  eye  is 
very  tolerant  to  radiant  heat,  because  the  media 
of  the  eye,  which  contain  a  large  amount  of 
water,  absorb  the  heat  rays,  and  do  not  per- 
mit tnem  to*  reach  the  retina.  Injury  to  man 
by  ultra  violet  rays  in  sun  light  occurs  only 
under  very  tmus'ial  circumstances.  Snow  blind- 
ness is  due  to  the  erythema  of  the  lids  caused  by 
the  ultra  violet  rays,  with  consequent  conjunc- 
tivitis and  photophobia.  Injuries  to  the  e^- 
ball  are  of  two  kinds  —  the  direct  and  the  in- 
direct In  direct  injury  the  damage  done  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  of  the  instrument  —  as 
when  a  knife  perforates  the  globe  only  tissues 
in  contact  with  the  blade  are  harmed.  But  when 
die  globe  is  struck  by  a  baseball  or  stone,  in- 
direct injury,  the  harm  done  depend*  more  on 
the  anatomy  of  the  organ.  For  instance,  a  se- 
vere blow  on  the  cornea  may  cause  detachment 
of  the  retina,  rupture  of  the  chorioid,  or  dis- 
location of  the  lens.  Foreign  bodies  entering 
the  globe  are  received  with  different  degrees  of 
tolerance.  Thus,  organic  substances,  as  cilia 
or  particles  of  wood  may  become  incapsulated, 
causing  no  subsequent  trouble.  But  steel  in 
the  interior  of  the  globe  becomes  oxidized  by 
the  fluids  and  being  deposited  in  the  uvea 
causes  siderosis  bulbi.  Hence  the  importance 
of  its  speedy  removal.  Copper,  of  all  foreign 
substances  in  the  globe,  is  the  least  tolerated. 
A  small  chip  is  sumcient  to  produce  violent  in- 
flammation and  loss  of  the  eye.  The  trau- 
matic uveitis  in  one  eye  caused  by  a  per- 
forating wound  sometimes  produces  a  similar 
disease  in  the  uninjured  eye  —  qimpathetic  in- 
tlammation. 

The  most  frequent  systemic  diseases  giving 
rise  to  ocular  disturbances  are  syphilis,  tubercu- 
losis, rheumatism,  nephritis,  diabetes,  arterio- 
sclerosis, diseases  of  metabolism  and  chronic  in- 
toxications. Between  the  ages  of  5  and  15,  in 
inherited  syphihs,  the  cornea  often  becomes  the 
seat  of  a  cellular  infiltration  with  new-formed 
blood  vessels  — the  salmon  patch  — interstitial 
keratitis.  Those  afflicted  with  the  disease  usu- 
ally exhibit  a  peculiar  formatU>n  of  the  face 
and  head.  The  bridge  of  the  nose  is  sunken  in. 
The  frontal  eminences  are  very  prominent.  The 
incisor  teeth  are  abnormally  shaped  (Hutchini 
son's  teeth).  Frequently  there  is  accompanying 
hardness  of  hearing.     Bad  teeth  are  not  infre-  ■ 

Juentiy  the  cause  of  ocular  symptoms  and 
isease  —  as  chronic  iritis,-~whicn  clears  up 
when  the  mouth  receives  proper  attentiorL 
Odier  foci  causing  ocular  £sorders  may  be 
located  in  the  tonsils,  accessory  nasal  sinuses 
and  intestinal  tract  Acromegaly  exhibits  manj 
ocular  manifestations,  as  hypertrophy  of  the 
margins  of  the  ortit  and  thickening  of  the  skin 
of  the  lids.  The  accompanying  disease  of  the 
pituitary  body  causes  characteristic  bitemporal 
honianopsia-  'Graves  Disease"  produccK 
exophthalmus,  sometimes  so  great  that  the  lids 
can  no  lonf^r  cover  the  eyes.  Acquired  syphilis 
is  responsible  for  at  least  25  per  cent  of  all 
cases  of  iritis.  Atrophy  of  the  optic  nerve  is 
found  above  all  in  tabes.  It  usually  develops 
in  the  initial  stage  of  tabes,  at  a  time  when  the 
ataxic  symptoms  arc  slight  or  absent    Another 


ance  early  in  this  disease  is  the  Argyll-Robe 
son  pupil,  in  which  the  pupil  reacts  to  accommo- 
dation and  convergence,  but  not  to  light 

Many  cases  of  impaired  vision  (amUy- 
oiHa)  and  of  blindness  (amaurosis)  are  due  to 
poisons  introduced  into  the  system  which  affect 
the  optic  nerve.  Chief  amoi^  these  poisons 
are  alcohol  and  tobacco,  alone  or  combined. 
Other    poisons    causing    amblyopia    are    lead, 

Sinine  and  chloral  Nephritis  (Brigbls 
sease)  may  cause  oedema  of  the  Uds  and 
albuminuric  retinitis.  Diabetes  produces  cata- 
ract and  hemorrhages  in  the  retina. 

Bibliography.—  Fuch's  *Text  Book  of 
Ophthalmotogy)  (Philadelphia  1917) ;  Week's 
'Diseases  ot  the  Eye';  Salzmann,  'Anatomy 
and  Histology  of  the  Human  Eye- Ball' 
(Chicago  1912)  ;  Uay,  'Manual  of  the  Diseases 
of  the^ye'   (New  York  1914). 

BsHAKD  Sauuels,  M.D., 
New  York  Cily. 
BYK   STRAIN,   the,  result   of   usin^c   the 
eyes  under  adverse  conditions.     It  is  occasioned 


proper  glasses  or  to  the  need  of  glasses.  Its 
effects  are  serious;  it  is  a  great  cause  of  waste 
of  nerve  force,  causes  headache,  l^teHa, 
chorea,  convulsions,  elc.  It  is  remedied  by 
proper  glasses  or  by  surgical  operation. 

BYEBRIGHT,  a  common  name  for  the 
plants  of  the  genus  Euphrasia  (q.v.). 

BYBPIBCB,  the  lens  or  system  of  lenses  in 
any  optical  instrument  which  lies  next  the  eye 
and  enables  the  image  formed  at  the  focus  of 
the  instnunent  to  be  observed.  Its  purpose  is 
to  form  the  image  of  a  large  field  ay  pencils 
which,  since  they  must  enter  the  pupil  of  the 
eye,  are  necessarily  of  small  divergence.  Eye- 
pieces are  usually  made  of  two  Tenses.  The 
lens  nearer  the  eye  is  called  the  eye-lens,  the 
other  the  field-lens.  In  the  Rarasden  eyepiece, 
eye-lens  and  field  kns  are  equal  ana  plano- 
convex, and  have  the  convex  sides  turned 
toward  one  another.  In  the  Huygens  eyepiece 
the  fietd-lens  has  a  larger  focal  length  than 
the  eyepiece,  and  the  curved  surface  of  both 
lenses  are  turned  toward  the  object  These 
eyepieces  are  used  both  for  microscopes  and  for 
telescopes  and  give  inverted  images.  For  erect 
images,  as  in  opera  glasses,  a  convergent  eye-  i 

piece  is  used,  or  where  a  larger  field  of  view  is 
desired  the  inverting  eyepiece  of  an  ordina^ 
telescope  is  used  to  magnify  an  image  which  is 
itself  inverted  by  a  convergent  system  of  lenses 
between  the  objective  and  the  eyepiece  proi>er. 
or  by  a  system   of   two   right-angled  reflecting  ' 

prisms,  as  in  the  Zeiss  binocular. 

EYBRMAN,  John,  American  geologist :  b.  I 

Easton,  Pa.,  IS  Jan.  1867.  He  studied  at  La- 
fayette College,  Harvard  and  Princeton,  and 
was  instructor  in  blow-piping  at  Lafayette  18R8-  I 

93  and  lecturer  on  determinative  mineralogy. 
He  has  been  an  associate  editor  of  the  Amert-  j 

can  Geologist  since  1S90,  and  is  a  member  of 
many  English  and  Amencan  sdentific  societies. 
He  has  published  'Notes  on  Geolc^y  and 
Mineralogy'  (1889);  'Mineralogy  of  Penns^I- 
(1891)  ;      'Course     in     Determinative 


.yGooi^le 


■TB5I0HT  IM  THX  LOWBR  ANIltALS 


<The  Genus  Temnayon'  (189S>;  *A  Study  of 
Genealogy'  (1898) ;  'Geaeral  Index  of  the 
Wills  Si  Northampton  County.  17S2-1802* 
(1898);  'The  Old  Grave  Yards  of  Northamp- 
ton>  (ISS^-lMl);  'Some  Letters  and  Docu- 
ments' (2  vols.,  1900)  ;  'Ckneological  Studies' 
(1902). 

EYESIGHT  IN  THE  LOWER  ANI- 
MALS presents  some  curious  differencet 
from  that  in  man  and  his  nearer  allies.  The 
nidimentary  eyes  of  the  lower  invertehrates  can 
hardly  be  of  more  service  than  to  convey  an 
impression  of  the  diScrcnce  between  day  and 
night;  many  such  come  out  of  the  ground,  or 
rise  to  the  surface  of  the  sea,  at  ni^t  to  sink 
arain  into  darkness  when  the  sun  rises.  In 
euiinoderms,  ihe  starfishes  for  example,  eyes 
are  found  that  contain  *many  clear  oval  homes 
imbedded  in  pigment,  which,*  Huxley  says,  'ap- 
pear to  represent  the  crystalline  cones  of  a  com- 
pound eye.*  ( See  Eye)  .  Among'  moUusks 
the  organs  of  vision  range  from  none  at  all  in 
certain  deep'Sea  species  throi^  all  degrees  of 
complexity  to  the  highly  developed  eyes  of  the 
squid.     Bivalves   thai   creep  about  near  shore. 


Ebantle,  which  are  so  sensitive  that  the  shadow 
of  a  boat  or  of  a  man  will  cause  instant  closure 
of  the  shells.  This  ts  most  noticeable  in  the 
scallops  (Pecten),  where  a  row  of  eyes  glisten 
like  jewels  when  the  shell  is  open;  and  in  the 
aric-shells  (Area),  where  a  great  number  of 
eyelets  are  gathered  in  round  groups  forming 
compound  eyes.  In  most  univalve  mollusks 
there  are  two  eyes  on  the  head  at  the  bate  of 
the  'feelers'  ;  but  in  the  land-snails  the  eyes  are 
usually  at  their  tips.  Experiments  show  that 
snails  are  very  short-sighted  and  see  better  in  a 
subdued  than  in  a  bright  light;  but  some  seem 
to  perceive  subjects  well  several  inches  away. 
The  eye  of  an  octopus  or  a  squid  is  very  large 
and  perfect,  and  as  useful  as  that  o£  a  nreoa- 
tory  fish  which  the  squid  resembles  in  nabits. 
Among  the  trilobites  and  crustacex,  also,  the 
agile,  prey-hunting  species  are  provided  with 
eSicient  compound  eyes,  usually  set  at  the  end 
of  stalks  that  may  be  turned  in  any  direction. 
These  eyes  are  always  compound,  like  those  of 
insects  —  that  is,  consist  of  a  honey-comb-Iike 
wgregation  of  somewhat  modified  simple  eyes 
(facets)  backed  by  one  retina.  Through  each 
facet,  it  is  believed,  falls  an  exceedingly  fine 
pencil  of  light,  revealing  a  very  small  part  of 
the  field  of  vision.  These  combined  fragments 
are  supposed  to  form  a  sort  of  mosaic  picture 
on  the  retina  and  in  the  insect's  brain;  and  its 
field  of  view  must  depend  on  the  number  of 
facets  and  the  approximation  to  the  globular 
form  of  the  whole  external  eye.  The  nature 
and  value  of  insect-vision  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed. Carpenter  ('Insects  and  their  Structure 
and  Life'  1899),  reviewing  the  controversy,  con- 
dudes,  that  the  compound  eye  is  especially 
adapted  for  perceiving  sensations  of  light  and 
motion  rather  than  ot  form.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  thai  such  eyes  do  not  perceive  objects 
at  a  greater  distance  than  six  feet,  while  there 
is  no  doubt  that  they  are  able  to  appreciate 
color* sensations ;  in  fact,  the  theory  of  the 
cross-fertilization  of  flowers  by  insects  largely 
depends  on  this  assumed  ability.  Dragon-flies, 
which  have  very  large  protruding  eyes,  of  many 


and  hover  there,  evidently  studying  the  de- 
tails of  the  moving  object  (one's  self)  that  has 
attracted  their  attention. 

Villon  unong  fiabes  is  adapted  to  the 
medium  in  which  they  live,  and  varies  from 
total  atrophy  of  the  eyes  in  subterranean  waters 
and  sea-aoysses  to  eyes  so  targe  as  to  equal  half 
the  head.  The  relative  siie  and  ^sition  of  the 
eyes  in  the  head  varies  with  habits  in  a  bewil- 
dering degree,  as  fishes  depend  largely  on  eye- 


intermediate  depths,  for  instance,  have  the  eyes 
on  top  of  the  head,  looking  upward;  but  to 
catalogue  these  adaptations  would  require  a 
long  essay.  In  most  of  the  families  the  eyes 
are  so  situated  in  the  side  of  the  head  that  the 
vision  is  monocular  —  that  is,  only  one  eye  can 
be  used  at  a  time  for  viewing  an  object  The 
species  that  chase  fleeing  prey,  however,  can 
look  forward  with  both  eyes.  Such  eyes  need 
to  change  the  focus  rapidly,  and  this  quick  ac- 
commo^tion  to  distance  is  not  ejected  by  an 
alterution  of  the  convexity  of  the  lens,  as  in 
birds  and  mammals,  but  by  a  muscular 
change  in  its  position  with  regard  to  the 
retina.  The  structure  of  the  fish -eye  is  . 
substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the  human 
eye,  with  the  important  exception  that 
in  all  deei>-sea  fishes  only  the  rods  (see 
Eye)  exist  in  the  retina,  the  cones  being  ab- 
sent; the  conclusion  is  tf^t  these  fishes  do  not 
perceive  color,  which  seems  to  be  the  special 
function  of  the  cones.  Furthermore,  a  diSer- 
ence  in  the  retina  of  the  deep-sea  fishes  and 
Other  creatures  indicates  that  these  animals  are 
•day  blind,"  that  is,  have  eyes  adapted  to  the 
gloom  in  which  they  constantly  live  and  are 
blinded  by  the  glare  of  a  strong  Ugbt.  It  ap- 
pears, however,  that  there  is  no  regular  de- 
crease in  size  of  the  eye,  from  a  small  or  nor- 
mal form  at  the  surface  to  the  immense  and 
well -developed  eye  that  characteriies  many  of 
the  fishes  dwelling  in  the  oceanic  a^sses.  The 
pelagic  fishes  with  largest,  most  efiicient  eyes, 
are  those  living  at  a  depth  of  from  one  to  300 
fathoms  and  possessing  light-organs,  while 
below  that  stratum  both  light- organs  and 
eyes  decrease  in  size  until  the  deep  floor  of  mid- 
ocean  is  reached,  when  again  big-eyed  species 
occur.  The  only  present  explanation  of  the 
latter  fact  is  that  those  abysses  are  lighted  by 
the  glow  of  innumerable  phosphorescent  inver- 
tebrates, by  whose  light  the  fish  seek  their  food. 

Little  need  be  said  of  the  vision  of  am- 
phibians and  reptiles,  which  is  probably  rather 
dull  and  restricted.  These  animals,  like  many 
fishes,  depend  more  on  the  sense  of  smell  than 
on  sight  to  guide  their  actions,  and  have,  in 
addition,  good  hearing 

Vision  of  Birds. — The  power  .of  vision  at- 
tains its  highest  development  among  birds ;  and 
nowhere  but  in  human  faces  is  the  eye  so  ex- 
pressively beautiful  or  so  exquisitely  adapted  to 
Its  Service  as  an  optical  instrument.  Birds 
possess  the  keenest  and  most  farsighted  vision, 
and  also  extraordinary  power  of  swiftly  alter- 
ing the  focus  of  the  eye  to  changing  distances, 
accompanied  by  astounding  acuteness  in  mental 
calculation.  A  swallow  or  ni^thawk  sweeping 
and  dodging  in  the  air  is  catching  insects  almost 
invisible  to  our  eyes  and  excessively  agile;  a 


,,  Google 


B  YBTEETH  —  EYRE 


hawk  chasing  a  swift-winged  and  quick-turning 
sparrow  or  a  leaping  grasshopper  must  have 
eyes  that  can  follow  exacUy  every  movement. 
More  wonderful  is  the  work  of  an  eaffle  or 
vulture,  which  while  soaring  so  hi^  in  the  sky 
that  it  appears  to  us  a  mere  speck  sees  and  de- 
fines an  object  on  the  ground  that  wc  could 
hardly  notice  or  recognize  at  a  hundred,  yards, 
and  darts  down  upon  it  with  the  speed  of  a 
bullet.  Imagine  the  farsighted  keenness  of  this 
act  and  then  the  perfection  of  the  apparatus 
by  which  the  focus  of  the  eye  is  changed  in 
accord  with  the  speed  of  the  bird's  descent, 
keeping  the  object  always  in  clear  view  and 
Stopping  at  precisely  the  right  instant  to  escape 
collision.  A  hummingbird  will  dash  past  one's 
eyes  like  a  gleam  of  light  and  halt  at  i 


_.  _  .  _  .r  touch  a  twig.  These  feats 
depce  of  the  perfection  of  birds'  eyes,  especially 
in  the  faculty  of  accommodation  to  quickly 
varying  distances. 

Eyesight  among  mammals  is  relatively  less 
important  than  among  birds,  or  even  to  man- 
kind, for  their  alert  hearing  and  keen  sense  of 
smell  give  them  much  information.  Vision 
■  among  them  varies  with  their  manner  of  life, 
and  is  restricted  to  their  needs  in  each  case. 
The  most  farsighted  and  useful  vision,  proh- 
^ly,  is  that  of  the  large  grazers  on  the  plains 
—  deer,  antelopes,  giraffes,  horses,  etc.,  al- 
though they  use  but  one  eye  at  a  time.  The 
beasts  of  the  chase,  like  owls  among  birds,  have 
eyes  in  front,  so  that  they  observe  with  both  at 
once,  and  of  these  perhaps  the  wolves,  foxes 
and  wild  hunting  dogs  are  best  endowed. 
Here   as   elsewhere   structure   of   the   eye   and 

Suality  of  vision  arc  in  adaptation  to  the 
abitua!  needs  of  each  kind  of  animal,  and  are 
always    correlated    with    the    power    of    loco- 

Ekhest  Ikgkksoll. 

ETETEBTH,  CANINE  or  CUSPIDATE 
TEETH,  two  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  fangs 
of  which  project  in  the  direction  of  the  eye. 
Sec  Tebth. 

EYLAU,  Ilow,  or  PRUSSIAN  EYLAU, 
Germany,  town  on  the  Pasmar  River  and  the 


n  the  other  side.  (See  Ney), 
The  French  force  numbered  about  70,000,  of 
whom  fully  18.000  were  killed  The  allied  forces 
were  about  the  same  in  numbers,  with  a  loss  of 
more  than  18.000.     Pop.  about  3,000. 

EYLAYET.    Sec  Vilayet. 

EYMERICUS,  NicoUa,  Spanish  theo- 
logian :  b.  Gerona,  Catalonia,  1320 ;  d.  1399. 
In  1334  he  entered  the  Order  of  Preachers, 
later  attaining  the  rank  of  Grand  Inquititor. 
He  also  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Pope  Greg- 
ory XI  and  judge  of  heretics  ia  1356.  He  lived 
many  years  at  Avignon  during  the  reigns  of 
Qement  VI  and  Benedict  XIII.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  severe  'Directorinm  Inquisitorum,' 
whidi  was  the  standard  code  of  procedure  in 
dte  Inquisition  for  nearly  one  hundred  years. 

EYNARD.  3'nar,  Jean  Gabriel,  French 
banker:  b.  Lyons,  1775;  d.  1863.    For  his  partic- 


the  outbreak  at  Lyons  against  the 

_ I,  Eynard  became  persona  non  grata 

to  the  authorities  and  sought  aslyum  in  Switz- 
erland and  later  in  Genoa,  where  he  amassed 
a  fortune.  In  1810  he  removed  to  Geneva,  and 
was  Ambassador  of  the  Geneva  Republic  at 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  helped  to  organize  die  administra- 
tion of  Tuscany,  which  ne  represented  at  the 
Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1818.  He  ad- 
vocated the  independence  of  Greece  and  for  bis 
services  to  this  cause  was  made  a  Greek  citizen. 
His  personal  contribution  to  the  Greek  revolu- 
tionaries amounted  to  Fes.  700,000  ($140,000). 
His  recommendation  of  Otho  of  Bavaria  for 
the  throne  of  Greece  was  adopted.  He  be- 
queathed his  fortune  of  about  $12,000,000  to 
various  charitable  enterprises.  He  wrote  'Let- 
tres  et  documents  ofhciels  relatifs  aux  divers 
ivfcnements  de  GrSce'  (1831)  and  *Vie  de  la 
baronne  Kriidener'  (1849).  Consult  Roth- 
pletz,  'Der  Genfer  Jean  Gabriel  Eynard  als 
Philhellene>   (Zurich  1900). 

EYRE,  ar,  Edward,  American  financier:  b. 
Dublin,  Ireland,  25  March  IKl,  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Jesuit  school,  Belvidere  Place,  Dr. 
Quinn's  Preparatory  School,  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege. He  entered  the  employ  of  Grace  Brothers 
and  Company,  becoming  junior  partner  in  1876 
and  full  partner  four  years  later.  He  was  one 
of  the  onginal  founders  of  Grace  House,  Chile, 


Company,  New  York,  in  1903-06.  Since  1906 
he  is  a  member  of  the  board  of  managers  of 
the  London  branch  of  W.  R.  Grace  Company. 
Mr.  Eyre  took  prominent  part  in  bringing  about 
a  settlement  of  Peru's  foreign  debt  after  the 
war  with  Chile,  and  for  some  time  was  mana- 
ger of  the  railroad  systems  handed  over  by 
Peru  to  its  creditors.  In  1892  he  negotiated 
with  Chile  for  the  settlement  of  the  claims 
af^ainat  her  made  by  the  holders  of  the  Peru- 
vian bonds,  due  to  the  seizure  by  Chile  of  the 
KUano  deposits  and  other  properties  whidi 
formed  part  of  the  guarantee  of  the  bonds  from 
Peru.  In  1898  Mr.  Eyre,  on  behalf  of  an 
American  syndicate,  obtained  from  Nicaragua 
a  concession  for  the  construction  of  an  inter- 
oceanic  canal  through  that  country,  the  project 
beinr  stibsequently  held  up  by  the  government 
of  Oie  United  States;  the  text  of  this  conces- 
sion was  used  later  by  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment in  its  treaty  with  Colombia  and  appears 
almost  verbatim  in  the  treaty  actually  concluded 
between  the  United  States  and  the  Republic  of 
Panama.  Mr.  Eyre  was  a  member  of  the 
board  of  directors  of  *The  Catholic  Encyclo- 
pedia' and  the  council  of  the  Westminster 
Catholic  Federation  and  is  an  ex-president  of 
the  Marquette  League.  He  published  a  criti- 
cism of  Viscount  Bryce's  'South  America:  Ob- 
servations and  Impressions.) 

EYRE,  Edward  John,  English  explorer 
and  colonial  governor:  b.  Yorkshire,  5  Aug. 
1815;  d.  Tavistock,  Devonshire.  30  Nov,  1901. 
He  went  to  Australia  in  1833;  in  1839  dis- 
covered Lake  Torrcns,  and  in  1840  explored  its 
eastern  shores  and  the  adjacent  Flinders  Range. 


.Google 


BYRB— BYTH 


a  single  native  boy,  having  left  Adelaide  more 
than  B  year  before.  In  lE^S  he  published  'Ex- 
peditions into  Central  Australia.'  After  filling 
several  Rovemorships  he  was  appointed  govern- 
or of  Jamaica  in  1862.  In  1865  he  was  con- 
fronted with  a  ne^o  rebellion  which  he  crushed 
with  some  severity  and  was  recalled.  On  his 
return  to  England  John  Stuart  Uill  and  others 
took  measures  to  have  him  indicted  for  murder, 
but  failed.  In  regard  to  this  question  Carlyle 
was  one  of  his  most  strenuous  defenders. 


EYRE,  Sir  TameB,  English  ttiHst :  b.  Wells. 
Somersetshire,  1734;  d.  1  July  1799.  In  1747 
he  was  appointed  scholar  of  Winchester  and 
two  years  later  became  a  student  of  St.  John's 
College,  OxfortL  In  1753  he  went  to  London, 
took  up  the  study  of  iaw,  and  in  1755  was  called 
to  the  bar.  He  became  counsel  to  the  Corpora- 
tion of  London  and  recorder  in  1763.  In  1772 
he  was  made  Baron  of  the  Exchequer  and 
knighted,  becoming  chief  Baron  15  jrears  later. 
In  1793  he  was  made  chief  justice  of  the  Court 
of  Common  Pleas,  From  June  1792  to  Jan. 
1793  be  was  chief  commissioner  of  ihe  Great 
Seal.  Consult  Foss,  'Lives  of  the  Judges  of 
England>   (1848-64). 

EYRE,  Jane.  See  Jane  Eyse. 
EYRE,  Jehu,  colonel  in  the  Continental 
army:  b.  10  Jan.  1738;  d.  July  1781.  Eyre  is 
the  name  of  a  family  that  for  seven  centuries 
has  been  famous  in  the  English  history,  the 
founder  having  come  over  the  sea  with  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror.  The  legendarv  account 
states  that  when,  at  the  battle  of  Senlac,  or 
Hastings,  the  Norman  leader,  early  in  the  con- 
flict, was  knocked  by  a  missile  oS  his  horse, 
he  lay  senseless  on  the  ground,  until  a  soldier 
stepped  forward  and  loosened  nis  visor,  which 
gave  him  air.  Thereupon  William,  reviving, 
asked  for  his  benefactor  and  knighted  him  on 
the  spot,  ^ving  him  the  name  of  •eyre' — one 
of  the  variants  of  a  word  that  is  older  than 
English  spelling.  In  the  feudal  division  of  land, 
this  Norman  Baron  le  Eyr^— whose  crest  was 
a  leg  in  armor,  couped  and  spurred,  he  having 
lost  a  leg  in  the  battle  —  was  given  a  fief  in 
Nottingham,  the  manor  house  being  at  Rampton. 
The  family  is  now  extinct  in  the  peerage.  The 
first  American  ancestor,  George  Eyre,  coming 
from  Worksop,  settled  at  Burlington,  N.  J., 
and  married  in  a  familv  of  Friends.  He  had 
three  sons  who,  in  the  Revolution,  became 
■Free*  or  'Hickory*  Quakers  and  were  prom- 
inent in  the  service  of  the  Continental  Con- 
Kess.  Coming  to  Philadelphia  to  learn  shitH 
ilding,  two  of  the  sons  married  sisters,  the 
daughters  of  their  master. 

On  the  fall  of  Fort  du  Quesne  and  tts  re- 
naming after  Pitt,  Jehu  Eyre  traveled  with  a 
party  of  his  mechanics  to  build  boats  for  the 
transportation  of  the  King's  forces  down  the 
Ohio.  While  there,  he  learned  about  cannon 
and  artillery,  visiting  also  Braddock's  Field  — 
then  piled  with  the  bones  of  the  slain.  After 
the  Lexington  news,  he  organized  in  Philadel- 
phia a  military  company,  which  guarded  Inde- 
pendence Hall.  Besides  providing  boats  for  the 
crossing  of  the  Delaware,  he  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Trenton  and  Princeton;  in  which 
latter,  his  younger  brother,  Colonel  Benjamin 
George,  was  aide  to  Washington.  In  1777,  Jehu 
w&s  made  colonel  of  an  artillery  regiment  which 
served  at  Brandywine,  wintered  at  Valley  Forge, 


and  garrisoned  the  forts  on  the  Delaware,  while 
Proctor,  with  his  artillery,  was  away  on  Sulli- 
van's Expedition  (q-v.).  He  left  five  children. 
Consult  Keyser,  'Pennsylvania  Magagine  of 
History  and  Biography     (1879). 

WlLUAM  ElXIOT  Griftis. 
BYRE,  Wilson,  American  architect:  b. 
Florence,  Italy,  30  Oct.  1858.  He  was'educated 
in  Italy  until  1869,  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  from 
1869  to  1872,  at  Lenoxville,  Canada,  from  1872 
to  1874,  and  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1876. 
From  1876  to  1881  he  was  with  James  P.  Sims 
and  from  1S81  to  1912  was  in  independent 
practice.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  senior 
partner  with  John  G.  Mcllvaine.  He  has  built 
many  buildings  in  Philadelphia  and  New  Yor)^ 
also  several  buildings   for  Newcomb  Uemorial 


Institute  of  Architects,  the  National  Academy, 
EYRE  LAKE,  a  salt  lake  of  South  Aus- 


..    .  A,  where  the  rainfall  is  only  five  inches 

Br  annum.  Area  3,706  square  miles.  During 
csozoic  times,  a  large  gulf  extended  from  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria  to  Lake  Eyre.  Its  southern 
arm  usually  contains  salt  water;  the  remainder 
is  a  vast  salty  plain  formed  from  alluvium 
carried  down  oy  the  large  rivers  of  Central 
Australia  which  now  enter  it  only  at  flood  time. 

EYRIA  (rri-a)  PENINSULA,  on  the 
south  coast  of  South  Australia,  triangular  in 
shape,  its  base  being  formed  by  the  Gawler 
Range,  while  its  sides  are  washed  on  the  south- 
east hy  Spencer  Gulf,  and  on  the  southwest  by 
the  Great  Australian  Bi^t.  It  is  »  rich  wheat- 
growing  country, 

EYTELWEIN,  rtel-vfn,  Johann  Albert. 
German  engineer:  b.  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1764;  d,  1848.  In  1799  he  became  director  of 
the  Berlin  Architectural  School;  afterward  he 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  hydraulic  operations 
for  improving  the  navigation  of  the  Niemen, 
Oder.  Warthe  and  Weichsel.  He  also  had 
charge  of  harbor  improvements  at  Memel,  Fil- 
lau  and  Swinemtinde.  He  established  a  system 
of  weights  and  measures  for  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia.  His  works  include  'Praktische  Anwei- 
sung  zur  Bauart  der  Faschinenwerke  an  Flus- 
sen  und  Str6men>  (2d  ed.,  1818)  j  'Verglei- 
chung  in  den  preussischen  Staaten  eingefiihrten 
Masse  und  Gewichte'  (2d  ed.,  1910) ;  <Hand- 
buch  der  Siatistik  fester  Korper'  (2d  ed., 
1832);  'Handbuch  der  Hydrostatik'  (1826); 
'Auflosung  der  hohem  numerischen  Gleicbun- 
gen>  (1837). 

EYTH,  Bdnard,  td'oo-ird  It,  German  poet: 
b.  Heilbronn.  Wurtemberg,  2  July  1809;  d.  New 
Ulm,  28  April  1884.  He  was  author  of  a  volume 
of  'Poems*  (1843);  'Pictures  in  Frames' 
(1856) ;  and  a  version  of  the  'Odyssey.' 

EYTH,  Max,  German  agriculturist :  b. 
Kirchheim-unter-Teck,  1836;  d.  1906.  He  came 
to  England  in  1861,  and  entered  Fowler's  agri- 
cultural implement  works  at  Leeds  as  engineer 
that  same  year.  In  1863^^  he  served  in  Egypt 
as  chief  engineer  to  Halim  Pasha,  and  intro- 
duced the  steam  plow  into  Eg^rpt.  He  pub- 
lished    'Das    Agnkulturwesen    in    .Xgypten' 


■8l^ 


EYTINQK  ~-  BZBKIEL 


(1867);  <Steam  Cable  Towin|>  <1868)  ;  'Das 
Wasser  ira  alten  und  neuen  Mgyptea'  (1891)  ; 
*Wandcrbuch  eine*  Ingenieurs:  In  Briefen' 
{1871-84);  'Lebmdige  Krafte>  (1905), 

BYTINGB,  (t'ting,  Rom,  American  actress : 
b.  Philadelphia,  21  Nov.  1838;  d.  1911.  She 
made  her  dfbut  as  an  amateur  in  Brooklyn^ 
N.  Y„  18S2,  and  the  following  year  played 
through  the  West  in  a  stock  company.  From 
1862  to  1869  she  played  in  various  theatres  in 
New  York  and  then  went  abroad  with  her 
second  husband,  George  H.  Butler,  consul' 
general  to  ^ypt  On  her  return  thence  in  1871 
she  took  the  role  of  Cleopatra  at  the  Broadway 
Theatre,  to  the  Antony  of  Frederick  Warde. 
Among  her  parts  were  Nancy  Sykea  in  'Oliver 
Twist';  Gervaise  in  <Drink>;  Ophelia  to  the 
Hamlet  of  the  £.  L.  Davenport,  and  Desdemona 
with  James  W.  Wallack  as  Othello  and  Daven- 


Astray,'  and  Felicia  in  the  play  of  that  nam^ 
'  Uy  successful  in  her  [laying  of 

roles,  notably  Qeopatra,  Lai^ 


but  was  especially  successful  in  her  [daj 


Macbeth  and  Hermione  (in  the  'Wi 
Tale').  She  wrote  'It  Happened  This  Way.' 
a  novel;  '(^Iden  Chains^'  a  play;  and  has 
dramatized  Browning's  'Colombe's  Birthday,' 
and  Dickens'  'Dombey  and  Son'  ;  'David  Cop- 
perfield';  'Oliver  Twist';  'Tale  of  Two 
Gties.*  She  also  published  'Recollections,' 
and  'Memories'  (1905).  Consult  Qapp  and 
Edeett,  'Players  of  the  Present'  (New  York 
1®9) ;  and  Winter,  'The  Wallet  of  Time' 
(2  vols,  ib.,  1913). 

BYUK,  a-yook,  Asia  Minor,  a  village  situ- 
ated about  7S  miles  southwest  of  Amasia,  and 
noted  for  its  remarkable  groups  of  ruins.  The 
ruins  are  the  remains  of  a  colossal  palace  of  the 
Hittites,  whose  capital  Hatti  (modem  Boghai 
Koi)  is  only  a  short  distance  from  Evuk  Con- 
sult Garstang,  'The  Land  of  the  Hittiles'  (New 
York  1910) ;  Olmstead,  C,  and  Wrench,  'Hittite 
Inscriptions'  (1911) ;  Winckler,  'Nach  Boghaz 
Koi'   (1914). 

BYZAOUIRSB,  &'i-thi-ge'ra,  AjntBtio. 
Chilean  statesman:  b.  1766;  d.  1837.  He  be- 
came a  prominent  figure  in  1810  in  the  move- 
ment for  independence  and  three  years  later 
was  a  member  of  the  first  Junta.  In  October 
1814  he  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  at  Ran- 
cagua  and  spent  the  three  years  following  in 
captivity  on  the  island  of  Juan  FernSndtK.  In 
1823  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  provisional 
Junta  and  soon  after  vice-president  of  the  Re- 
public. In  1826  he  became  acting  President,  on 
the  resignation  of  Freire,  but  was  deposed  in 
January  1827  by  malcontents  in  the  army. 

EZEKIEL,  one  of  the  greater  Hebrew 
prophets.  To  him  is  attributed  one  of  the 
larger  prophetic  books  of  ihe  Old  Testament, 
the  visions  and  utterances  which  it  contains 
bein^y  expressly  attributed,  in  the  work  itself, 
to  Ezekiel.  He  was  the  son  of  Buzi,  a  priest, 
and  was  carried  captive,  in  the  lime  of 
Jehoiachin,  597  B.C.,  about  11  years  before  the 
destniction  of  Jerusalem  under  Zedekiah.  His 
prophecies  are  mostly  in  chronological  order, 
those  excepted  which  are  launched  aRainst  for- 
eign nations.  The  central  idea  in  the  book  is 
that  Jerusalem  because  of  its  corruptions  is 
doomed,  and  that  the   future  of   the  chosen 


people  is  with  the  exiles  of  Babylon.  Ezdiel 
marks  the  transition  from  the  prophetic  to  the 

friestly  period.  There  is  no  direct  quotation 
rom  Ezekiel  in  the  New  Testament,  but  there 
are  a  few  allusions  to  his  utterances,  especially 
in  the  Book  of  the  Revelation,  which,  in  the 
concluding  portion,  distinctly  looks  back  to  the 
temple  arrangements  propbeued  in  die  last 
chapter  of  Eiekiel.  The  substantial  genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  the  prophecies  of  Eieldel 
have  not  been  seriouslv  impugned  either  in  the 
Jewish  or  Christian  Church,  and  nearly  uni- 
versal suffrage  has  been  given  in  favor  of  tbcir 
canonicity. 

EZEKIEL,  Book  of.  The  third  of  the 
"major,"  or  longer,  prophetical'  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  derives  ita  title  from  its  author, 
the  priest-prophet  who  bore  the  name  «God 
strengtheneth.*  The  Hebrew  form  is  repre- 
sented more  closely  in  the  English  of  I  Chroni- 
cles xiiv,  16  by  the  name  jeheikel,  a  priest 
ascribed  to  David's  time.  No  one  else  in  the 
Old  Testament  bears  this  name,  althou^  the 
familiar  Hexekiah,  *Yah  strengtheneth'  or 
•hath  strengthened*  is  of  similar  unport.  The 
author  as  one  of  priestly  rank,  was  among 
the  eight  or  ten  thousand  men  of  standing  who 
with  their  families  were  taken  to  Bab^onia  in 
the  first  exile,  597  B.c  The  company  of  whidi 
he  was  a  member  formed  a  community,  presided 
oyer  by  its  own  elders,  on  the  baidcs  of  the 
river  Oiebar.  American  excavations  in  central 
Babylonia  have  identified  this  with  the  canal 
Kabaru,  'the  Grand  Canal,*  which  ran  near  the 
ancient,  famous  seat  of  Babylonian  worship 
the  city  of  Nippur.  Here  Ezekiel  lived  in  hu 
own  house,  where  the  elders  acd  people  re- 
sorted to  him  to  inquire  of  Jehovah  (viii,  1 ; 
xiv  1;  XX,  I;  xxxiii,  30-32).  Here;  too.  in  the 
ninth  year  of  the  captivity,  his  wife  died,  and 
he  restrained  himself  from  the  usual  signs  of 
mouTTiing  that  he  might  impress  upon  the  peo- 
ple a  sense  of  the  stupefying  gnef  that  was 
soon  to  fall  upon  them  throu^  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  Ezeldel's  familiarity  with  the 
worship  of  the  temple  leads  to  the  inference 
that  he  was  already  an  active  priest  before  the 
captivitVi     It  was  not  until  the  fifth  year  of 


570  B.C  (xxix,  17),  Ezekiel  continued  t 
terpret  the  Divine  will  and  puriiose  to  his  fellow 
exiles,  using  every  ingenious  device  of  symbolic 
action  and  figurative  speech  to  arouse  thdr 
curiosity  and  interest  and  make  his  message 
penetrate  the  *hard  forehead  and  stiff  heart.* 
The  contents  of  the  book  of  Exekiel  are  ar- 
ranged, for  the  most  part,  in  chronological  or- 
der and  fall  also  into  clearlymaHced  topical  divi- 
sions. Chapters  1-24  contain  oracles  from  the 
beginning  of  the  prophetic  ministry  in  592  to 
the  investment  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonian 
armies  in  January  5S7  B.C.;  these  deal  with 
the  approaching  fall  of  the  city.  Chapters  25- 
32  pronounce  judgment  upon  Israel's  andent 
nei^bors,  Amman,  Moab,  Edom,  Philistia, 
'Tyre  and  Egypt ;  they  prepare  the  way  for 
Israel's  complete  restoration  to  her  laud,  freed 
from    the    old,    troublesome    netsjibon.     The 


>y  Google 


oracles  of  thia  second  sectioii  of  the  book  are 
dated  within  the  period  of  one  or  two  years 
from  January  S86  lo  March  S8S  or  S84  B.C. 
except  for  a  slight  addition  oiade  bv  the 
prophet  in  the  year  570,  Chapters  33-^«  con- 
tain the  direct  prophecies  of  restoration  with 
which  Ezeldei  sought  to  encourage  and  euide 
his  fellow  exiles  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem in  the  summer  of  586  B.C.  The  second 
division  of  these  prophecies  of  restoration  (-lO- 
48)  is  dated  as  late  as  572;  this  contains 
Ezekiel's  detailed  plana  for  the  reatored  tem- 
I>le  and  worship,  and  the  systematic  redistritm- 
tion  of  Palestine  among  the  12  tribes,  the 
Prince,  the  priests  and  tixt  Levites,  Etekiel's 
early  ministry  was  contemporary  with  the 
later  years  of  Jeremiah.  Though  the  two 
men  were  as  different  as  possible  in  their 
mode  of  thought  and  expression  and  in  some 
of  their  conceptions,  they  were  in  full  agree- 
ment in  their  central  emphasis,  at  this  time, 
upon  the  certainty  of  Jerusalem's  destruction 
and  of  a  restoration  after  long  years.  Ezeldei, 
too,  even  more  clearly  (han  Jeremiah,  enunci- 
ated the  doctrine  of  the  individual's  relation 
lo  God,  in  contrast  to  the  earlier  prophetic 
message  of  die  nation's  relationship,  and  .re- 
iterated Jeremiah's  teaching  of  a  new  spirit 
Trithin  guiding  the  life  in  the  Divinely  ap- 
pointed ways.  Ezekiel  renews  the  charges  of 
bribery,  greed,  oppression  of  the  defenceless, 
social  corruption  and  blood  guiltiness  that  the 
8th  century  prophets  had  made  against  the 
people;  but  he  gives  equal  or  greater  promi- 
nence to  the  corrupt  worship  that  had  come 
flooding  into  Jerusalem  under  Manasseh  and 
again  under  Jehoiakim.  His  references  to 
economic  crimes,  which  the  earlier  prophets 
had  painted  so  vividly,  seem  ralher  general 
and  perfunctory,  while  his  pictures  of  the 
idolatrous  practices  in  the  temple  are  most  con- 
crete and  vivid  (viii,  5-8).  To  him  it  is  clear 
that  Jehovah  must  vindicate  upon  his  people 
his  outraged  honor  aiid  holiness.  As  in  Deu- 
teronomy, the  priestly  demand  for  purity  of 
worship  and  the  prophetic  demand  for  moral 
character  are  united;  but  in  Ezekiel  the  ritual 
conception  of  holiness  is  much  more  prominent 
than  the  moral.  This  writer  is  in  tact  more 
fully  the  heir  of  priestly  ideals  and  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  age  of  ritual  dominance  than  the 
successor  of  the  great  ethical  and  spiritual 
prophets  of  the  centuries  immediately  preced- 
mg.  In  the  development  of  Levitical  organi- 
zation Ezekiel's  ideals  stand  between  the 
simpler  arrangements  of  Josiah's  lime  and  the 
completed  hierarchy  of  post-exilic  Jydaism. 
His  influence  upon  later  generations  in  further- 
ing the  eclipse  of  the  prophetic  religion  by 
sacerdotalism  was  important.  Attributable  to 
him  is  the  conception  of  a  sacred  nation  isolated 
from  all  others,  which  played  so  large  a  part 
in  rebuilding  and  preserving  the  Jewish  com- 
munity after  the  exile  and  which  led  also  to 
the  exclusive,  ceremonial  ideas  that  culnunated 
in  Pharisaic  Judaism.  This  prophet's  influence 
was  equally  determinative  in  shaping  the 
Messianic  hopes  of  later  centuries.  In  this 
stream  of  influence  issuing  from  his  teachings 
we  may  distin^sh  elements  which  ultimately 
came  to  flow  m  very  different  channels.  On 
the  one  hand,  he  gave  the  beautiful  picture  of 
the  good  shepherd  (34).    In  this  he  described 


the  manner  in  i^db  the  fonner  rulers  and 
strong  ones  had  taken  advantage  ai  their  posi- 
tion to  secure  the  best  water  and  pasture  and  - 
wantonly  to  destroy  and  foul  that  which  they 
could  not  themselves  consiune.  Id  contrast,  he 
promised  the  era  of  justice  and  safety  when  God 
himself  would  defend  the  flock  and  his  servant 
David  should  feed  and  shepherd  them.  Again 
Ezekiel  promised  from  God  a  new  heart  of_nesh 


ways  (xxxvL  22-27).  On  the  other  hand,  he 
taught  that  God  must  re-establish  and  glorify 
his  people  in  order  to  make  his  own  name 
great  among  the  nations  which  now  despised 
nim  as  a  discredited  deity  unable  to  protect  his 
own  people  from  their  enemies.  He  feels  the 
mere  restoration  of  Israel  to  the  land  inade- 
quate in  itself  to  vindicate  the  Divine  power, 
and  foresees  a  time  when  Israel,  gathered  out 
of  all  lands,  shall  dwell  securely;  then  hordes 
from  the  north  shall  sweep  down  over  the  land, 
as  the  Scythians  had  come  a  generation  before. 
Suddenly  God  will  smite  down,  upon  the  moun- 
tains of  Isarel,  this  awe-inspiring  multitude  of 
King  Goe,  there  to  lie  as  prey  oi  the  ravenous 
birds  and  beasts.  Then  Jehovah's  holy  name 
will  be  made  known  in  the  jnidst  of  Israel 
and  the  nations  will  know  that  he  is  the  Holy 
One  in  Israel  (38-^).  Here  holiness  is  evi- 
dently understood  in  its  primary  Hebrew  con- 
ception of  separateness  or  unapproachablcneas 
without  the  moral  comiotation  that  the  ^eat 
prophets  had  given  it.  This  particular  vision 
of  Ezekiel  seems  to  have  been  the  original  of 
that  picture  of  the  future  which  appeared  in 
varied,  fantastic  forms  in  the  Jewish  apo^ 
aJyptic  writings  of  the  two  centuries  before 
Christ  and  the  opening  years  of  the  Christian 


In  this  book  the  descriptions  of  symbolic 
acts  and  visions,  characteristic  of  the  Hebrew 
prophets,  are  carried  to  an  extreme  unknown 
in  the  earlier  documents.  Doubtless  the  elabo- 
rate, composite,  human-animal  figures  conspicu- 
ous in  the  Babylonian  sculptures  influenced  the 
form  of  Ezekiel's  visions.  The  beings  seen  in 
the  opening  vision,  each  with  the  face  of  a 
man,  a  lion,  an  ox  and  an  eagle,  eadi  with 
four  wings,  with  human  hands  beneath  the 
wingB  ana  feet  like  those  of  a  calf,  seem 
fairly  to  outdo  the  fantastic  imaginings  of  the 
sculptors  of  Babylonia.  An  Amos  or  an  Rosea 
thought  in  the  pictures  of  the  varied  hills  and 
sides  and  mountain  torrents  of  Palestine ; 
Ezekiel,  on  the  endless  plain  by  the  sluggish 
canal,  thought  in  pictures  suggested  by  the 
most  impressive  work  of  the  artists  who  had 
decorated  the  great  temples  for  the  ancient 
worship  of  this  centre  of  mighw  human 
power.  With  the  audacity  of  faith  belonging  to 
the  true  interpreters  of  the  unseen  God,  the 
exile  prophet  appropriated  the  symbols  of  the 
conquerors'  religion  to  enforce  his  own  lessons 
as  to  the  power  and  purposes  of  the  God  of 
subject  Israel.  At  times,  the  imagery  of  the 
prophet  is  more  simple  and  becomes  effective 
beautiful.     An  example  '         ■   ■   ■      ■ 


labored.  A  few  poems  are  introduced 
here  and  there  among  the  prose  oracles.  In 
the  dii^e  sung  over  Tyre  (xxvii,  3b-9a,  2Sb-36) 


.lOOg  Ic 


BZBKIBL  — BZRA 


we  have  one  of  tlie  most  elaborate  and  appro- 
priate of  the  many  poetic  descriptions  of  the 
ship  of  state.  In  the  lament  for  Egypt  (xxiii, 
19-^),  both  the  conception  and  the  form  of 
the  poem,  with  its  varied  haunting,  baffling 
refrain  are  notable.  In  general,  however, 
Ezeldel  lacks  the  poetic  power  and  the  rhetori- 
cal pascion  of  the  greatest  of  Israel's  prophets. 
The  book  shows  the  marks  of  deliberate  literary 
composition  far  more  even  than  thai  of  Jere- 
miah, of  whose  repeated  dictation  to  Baruch  of 
sermons  long  before  delivered,  we  are  told. 
The  books  of  Hosea  and  Isaiah  suggest  in  their 
arrangement  scattered  memorials  ^thered  by 
loyal  followers.  In  the  case  of  EzeUel  it  seems 
evident  that  he  committed  his  own  teachings  to 
writing  with  deliberation  and  that  he  finally 
composed  the  entire  book  in  essentially  its 
present  form.  The  internal  evidence  oi  the 
book  speaks  of  unity  of  plan  and  purpose  and 
of  date  of  composition.  Although  the  text  has 
suffered  more  than  usual  corruption  through 
copyists'  errors,  the  book  as  a  wnole  is  singu- 
larly free  from  later  additions  or  expansions. 

Bibliography.— Bennett,  W.  H.,  'The  Re- 
ligion of  the  Post-Exilic  Prophets'  (Edin- 
bur^  1907)  ;  Davidson,  A.  B^  'The  Bocrfc  of 
Ezekiel'  (in  Cambridge  Bible,  Cambridge  1892)  ; 
-     "sr,  H.  -    '•   —  -   -     ■■- 


<The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezeldel'  (in  'West- 
minster Commentaries,'  London  1907)  ;  Skin- 
ner, J.,  'The  Book  of  Ezekiel*  (in  'Expositor's 
Bible,'  New  York  1901);  Toy,  C.  H.,  'The 
Book  of  Ezeldel'  (in  'Sacred  Books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,'  New  York  1899).  Con- 
sult also  Hastings,  'Encyclopedia  Biblica'  and 
the  Old  Testament  Introductions  by  Creelmau, 
Cornill,   Driver,  Gray,   McFadycn,   Moore. 

HENRy  Thatch^  Fowlek, 
Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  and  History, 
Brown  University. 
BZEKISL,  Hoses  Jacob,  American  sculp- 
tor; b.  Richmond,  Va.,  28  Oct.  1844.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  Virginia  Military  Institute 
1866,  having  served  in  the  Confederate  army 
during  the  last  year  of  his  course.  He  studied 
art  in  Richmond  and  Cincinnati  1866-70,  and 
Berlin,  Germany,  1870-74,  where  he  was  the 
first  foreigner  to  win  the  Michael  Beer  prize 
(1873).  While  there  he  studied  under  Prof. 
Albert  Wolf,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Beriin 
Society  of  Artists  on  the  merits  of  his  colossal 
bust  of  Washington,  now  in  Cincinnati.  Later 
he  went  to  Rome,  Italy,  where  he  has  chiefly 
resided  save  for  frequent  visits  to  America.  He 
has  exhibited  in  the  chief  American  and 
European  expositions.  Large  and  small,  in- 
cluding statues,  -portriut-busts,  ideal  groups, 
and  relievos.  His  works  number  several  hun- 
dred of  which  the  best  known  are  *Cain,  or  the 
Offering  Rejected,'  an  early  ideal  bust  that 
showed  considerable  dramatic  talent;  'Apollo  and 
Mercury,'  Berlin  (1870)  ;  'Religious  Liberty,' 
Pairmount  Park,  Philadelphia  (1874-76)  ;  bjis- 
relicf  portraits  of  Farraffut  (1872),  and  Robert 
E.  Lee  (1873);  12  marble  statues  of  artists  for 
the  Corcoran  Art  Museum.  Washinston  (1880- 
82) ;  marble  busts  of  Beethoven  (1884),  Long- 
fellow,   and   of    Cardinal    Hohenlohe    (1883); 


bronze  statue  of  Columbus  in  the  Columbian 

Memorial  building,  Chicago,  111. ;  statue  of  Mrs. 
Andrew  D.  White  for  Cornell  University;  bust 
of  Lord  Sherbrooke  for  Westminster  Abbey; 
the    fountain    of    Neptune    for    the 


In    June    1903    the   sculptor    presented   a 
bronze    monument,     'Vir^nia    Mourning    Her 


Dead,' 


1  the  Virginia  Mihtary  Institute 


SZION-GBBSR,  e'zl-dn  gi'ber,  a  stopping- 
point  of  the  Israelites  on  their  joumev  from 
E^ypt  (Deut  ii,  6).  it  is  probably  indentical 
with  the  modem  Ain-el-Ghudyan.  It  is  men- 
tioned also  as  the  station  of  Solomon's  fleet 
(I  KinM.  ix.  26;  II  Chron.  viii,  17).  Accord- 
ing to  Josephus  it  was  known  as  Berenice  in 
his  day.  Consult  Musil,  'Arabia  Petrxa: 
Edooi>  (Vienna  1908). 

BZRA,  the  Babylonian  Hebrew  priest  sur- 
named  "The  Scribe,*  after  whom,  with  his 
contemporary  Nehemiah.  the  'Books  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah >  of  the  Hebrew  canon  are 
named.  By  permission  of  King  Artaxerxes  I 
of  Babylon,  as  leader  of  1,754  of  his  countnr- 
men  he  returned  to  Jerusalem  458  ac  On  the 
basis  of  a  firman  granted  by  the  King,  and  by 
the  appointment  of  the  King's  cup-bearer 
Nehemiah  as  governor  of  Judea  445  b.c  he  was 
instrumental  m  purifying  and  re-establishing, 
under  sanction  of  the  law,  the  Jewish  religion 
in  Jerusalem,  where  it  had  become  deeply  cor- 
rupted. The  drastic  steps  associated  with  the 
reforms  of  Ezra  and  JVehemiah  were  not  ac- 
ceptable everywhere  and  led  to  endless  discus- 
sion, especially  was  this  the  case  when  a  great 
number  of  the  Jews  were  compelled  to  divorce 
the  foreign  wives  they  had  married.  The  most 
famous  of  the  early  scribes,  Ezra  is  referred  to 
as  'the  scribe  of  the  commandments  of  the  Lord 
and  of  his  statutes  to  Israel'  (Ezra  vii,  2)  mi 
as  "a  ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses  which 
the  Lord,  the  God  of  Israel  had  ^ven.*  He 
was  the  first  of  the  Sopherim  or  scribes  who 
handed  on  the  charge  to  the  'Men  of  the  Great 
Synagogue,*  a  bo(^  or  succession  of  teachers 
which  he  founded  and  now  represented  by  the 
rabbis.  To  Ezra  is  credited  the  introduction 
of  Assj^rian  script,  or  the  adoption  of  Aramaic 
handwriting  in  Judea  in  the  5th  century  ac. 
In  444  B.C.  Nehemiah  describes  Ezra  as  a  scribe 
reading  the  'Book  of  the  Law*  to  the  congre- 
gation of  the  children  of  Israel  gathered  on  the 
plateau  near  the  Water  Gate,  and  the  Levite 
priests  reciting  the  'Targums'  or  Aramaic  para- 
phrases to  enable  the  people  to  understand  the 
laws.  The  reading  occupied  two  days  and  was 
productive  of  impressive  results.  The  important 
services  rendered  by  Ezra  to  his  countrymen  on 
that  occasion,  and  also  in  arran^ng  and  practi- 
cally settling  the  canon  of  Scnpture  are  espe- 
cially acknowledged  by  the  Hebrews,  and  he  is 
even  regarded  by  many  as  the  second  founder  of 
the  nation.  Malachi,  signifying  "My  Messen- 
ger' the  name  assigned  to  the  last  book  of  the 
Old  Testament,  is  identiGed  by  some  authorities 
with  Ezra.  Soms  writers  assert  that  Ezra  re- 
turned to  Babylon  and  died  there  at  the  age  of 
120  years.  Josephus  states  that  he  died  in 
Jerusalem  and  was  buried  there  with  great 
pomp.  On  the  Shatt  el-Atab  near  Koma  the 
tomb  of  Ezra  is  venerated  as  a  shrine.    Consult 


Google 


EZRA  CHURCH 


686 


Herford,  'Pharisaism'  (New  York  1912)  ;  Tor- 
rid, 'Ezra  Studies'   (Chicago  1910). 

EZRA,  Book  of.  For  the  discussion  of  the 
original  union  of  Ezra  with  Nehemiah  and 
Chronicles  and  for  (be  date  of  the  complete 
work,  see  Chbonicles. 

The  book  of  Ezra  covers  the  history  from 
537  B.C  to  458,  although  some  would  substituie 
another  date  for  the  latter  one.  Most  of  this 
period  is  described  vety  briefly,  with  extended 
sections  of  which  nothing  is  said;  it  is  the 
narrative  o£  the  events  of  the  year  458  that  is 
most  extended,  chapters  vii-x. 

Chapters  i-vi  are  claimed  to  rest  upon  cer- 
tain official  documents  which  were  partly  in 
Hebrew  and  much  more  lai^ely  in  Aramaic. 
Whether  this  claim  is  true  is  a  matter  on  which 
there  is  difference  of  opinion ;  it  is  probable 
that  it  is  in  large  measure  true,  but  perhaps 
not  altogether.  The  remainder  of  the  book, 
chapters  vii-x,  is  evidently  based  upon  memoirs 
of  Ezra.  These  memoirs  as  they  now  appear 
are  partly  in  the  first  person,  having  been 
quoted  by  the  writer  verbatim  or  with  Slight 
changes,  and  partly  in  the  third  person,  hav- 
ing been  considerably  rewritten.  Ezra  vii,  27- 
ix,  15  are  of  the  former  land;  Ezra  vii,  1-26; 
10.  of  the  latter  kind. 

The  question  of  the  historic  city  of  Ezra  and 
Nebemiah  is  one  of  much  difficulty.  The  com- 
piler seems  to  have  had  access  to  more  ac- 
curate records  for  this  period  than  for  the 
earlier  time  covered  in  the  books  of  Chronicles. 
Nevertheless,  there  are  many  unhislorical  de- 
tails in  these  books,  and  many  that  arc  doubt- 
ful. Ezra  iv,  7-241  is  out  of  its  chronological 
order.  The  question  of  the  proper  order  is 
one  on  whidi  there  is  much  difference  of 
opinion. 

The  re^ster  of  returning  exiles  in  Ezra  li  is 
substaatially  identical  with  tnat  in  Nebemiah  vii, 
6-73a,  where  it  is  put  chronologically  at  a 
later  point  The  connection  in  Nehemiah  is 
probablj'  more  nearly  the  original  one,  and  the 
connection  in  Ezra  is  unbistorical. 

The  so-called  Septuagint  translation  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah,  which  some  have  considered  to 
be  actually  the  version  of  Theodotion,  is  called 
2  Esdras,  Esdras  being  the  equivalent  of  Ezra. 

1  Esdras  is  a  so-called  apocryphal  book,  now 
known  only  in  Greek.  It  contains  the  book  of 
Ezra,  practically  entire,  with  small  portions  of 

2  Chronicles  and  of  Nehemiah.  It  is  now 
generally  accepted  that  the  book  of  1  Esdras 
IS  a  variant  recension  of  these  portions,  trans- 
lated from  a  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  original. 
There  is  a>nsiderable  chronological  rearrange- 
ment of  the  material,  and  the  order  of  1  Esdras 
is  now  considered  to  be  on  the  whole  superior. 
1  Esdras  iii,  1-v,  6  is  the  only  portion  which 
has  no  parallel  in  these  other  books. 

Bibliography. —  Adeney.  W.  E.,  'Ezra, 
Nehemiah  and  Esther'  ('Expositor's  Bible,' 
New  York  1893) ;  Batten,  L.  W.,  'The  Books 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah'  ('International  Criti- 
cal  Commentary,)   New  York  1913);  Davtes, 


T.  W.,  'Ezra  Nehemiah,  and  Esther'  ('Century 
Bible,'  Edinburgji  no  date! ;  Ryle,  H.  E.,  'Ezra 
and  Nehemiah'  (Cambridge  Bible,  Cambridge 
1897).    See  also  the  list  under  Chrokicles. 

George  R,  Berry, 
Professor  of  Old  Testament  Interpretation  and 
Semitic  Languages,  Colgate  Vniversity. 
EZRA  CHURCH  (Atlanta).  BKtU«  of. 
On  20  July  1864  the  Confederate  army  under 
General  Hood  was  defeated  at  Peach  Tree 
Creek,  and  driven  into  the  inner  defenses  of 
Atlanta.  On  the  22d  Hood  attacked  the  Army 
of  the  Tennessee,  and  was  again  defeated,  and 
General  Sherman  began  the  investment  of 
Atlanta.  He  began  to  force  Hood  from 
Atlanta  by  moving  upon  his  communications 
leading  south  from  the  city.  The  Army  of  the 
Tennessee  was  .transferred  from  the  extreme 
left  of  the  investing  line  to  the  right,  near  Ezra 
Church,  and  Hood  took  measures  to  check  its 
further  extension  and  drive  it  back.  On  die 
ni^ht  of  the  27th  he  marched  out  of  Atlanta 
with  the  greater  part  of  his  force,  and  on  the 
28th  Gen.  J.  C  Brown's  division  was  ordered 
to  attack  Logan's  corps,  then  advancing  on  the 
right,  and  drive  it  back  to  and  beyond  Ezra 
Church.  Brown  drove  in  Logan's  skirtnishers, 
followed  them  500  to  600  yards,  and  struck 
Logan's  right,  carried  it  at  some  points,  but 
was  quickly  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  He 
made  a  second  al tempt  with  no  success  and  fell 
back.  He  had  lost  694  killed  and  wounded  and 
113  missing.  During  Brown's  attack  four  regi- 
ments from  Dodge's  and  Blair's  corps  extended 
Logan's  right,  and  took  part  in  the  action. 
Clayton's  division  attacked  on  Brown's  right 
but  not  until  after  Brown's  first  repulse,  and 
by  a  misunderstanding  his  three  bri^des  made 
isolated  attacks  upon  Harrow's  division,  all  of 
which  were  repulsed  with  great  loss,  some  of 
the  regiments  losing  50  per  cent.  Walthall  had 
led  out  his  division  while  Brown  and  Clayton 
were  engaged,  and  at  2  p.m.,  after  ihcy  had 
been  wiudrawn,  he  was  ordered  to  attack  over 
fhe  ground  of  Brown's  firfit.  Walthall  made 
several  persistent  efforts,  out  failed,  althou^ 
some  parts  of  his  force  got  within  50  yards  of 
Logan  s  line.  After  more  than  an  hour's  severe 
figliting,  in  which  he  reports  the  loss  of  152 
officers  and  nearly  1,000  men,  he  fell  back.  At 
night  Hood  withdrew  his  troops  to  the  works 
around  Atlanta.  The  Federals  in  this  battle 
numbered  about  13,(XX)  men;  the  Confederates 
about  18,000.  The  Union  loss  was  559  killed 
and  wounded,  73  missing.  The  aggregate  Con- 
federate losses  were  apparently  about  2,636 
killed  and  wounded,  and  200  missing.  The  esti- 
mates of  Generals  Sherman,  Howard  and 
Logan  that  the  Confederate  loss  was  from 
.^,000  to  7,000  are  excessive.  Consult  'Official 
Records,'  (Vol.  XXXVIII) ;  Cox,  'Aiiania' ; 
Sherman,  'Personal  Memoirs'  (Vol.  II)  ;  The 
Century  Company's  'Battles  of  the  Civil  War,' 
(Vol.  IV). 

E  A.  Carman 


jyGoot^Ie 


Fthe  sixth  letter  of  the  Engfish  and 
Latin  alphabets  and  all  alphabets 
derived  from  the  Latin.  Its  sound, 
technically  called  a  'labiodental 
voicelesa  spirant,"  is  produced  by  bring- 
ing the  lower  lip  into  loose  contact  with 
the  upper  teeth,  the  vocal  cords  being  in- 
active. The  character  F  though  it  does  not 
appear  in   the  Greek  alphabet  of   the  classic 

Eeriod,  had  a  place  in  the  earlier  Greek  alpha- 
ct,  and  is  believed  to  have  there  represented 
the  sound  of  v  or  of  w.  It  is  called  by  Greek 
grammarians,  digamma  or  dauble-gamma,  being 
Tormed  of  two  gammas  (g  hard,  T)  written 
one  above  the  oUier  (F),  From  the  Greek  it 
came  into  Latin  and.  finally,  was  used  to  ex- 
press the  sound  whicn  it  has  for  us.  That  the 
sound  of  P  in  Latin  was  the  same  as  in  Eng- 
lish, we  know  from  what  Qui ntilian  says  of 
the  mode  of  uttering  it.  The  Greek  letter  * 
(phi)  represented  in  Latin  and  English  t^  pK, 
appears  to  have  been  very  different  in  sound 
from  the  F  of  the  Latins;  and  that  in  the  pro- 
nunciation of  F  Greeks  found  great  ditficultjr  is 
known  on  the  authority  of  Cicero;  their  (uffi- 
culty  was  like  that  which  people  of  other  speech 
than  ours  find  in  pronouncing  th  in  then,  this, 
and  in  thin,  think.  A  like  diliiculty  in  pronun- 
ciation of  the  F  of  Latin  must  have  presented 
itself  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  S^ni^  Penin- 
sula, if  not  in  the  time  of  the  Roman  domi- 
nation, then  after;  else  the  initial  F  of  words 
from  the  Latin  would  not  have  been  so  gener- 
ally changed  by  them  into  a  mere  breathing, 
represented  by  Uie  letter  h.  Examples  Lat.  faha 
(bean),  Span,  haba;  fabHiari  (to  talk),  hablar; 
faccre  (to  make),  kocer.  In  other  languages, 
whether  derived  from  one  another  or  springing 
independently  from  a  common  original  stem,  as 
German,  An^lo- Saxon,  Greek,  Latin,  Celtic,  etc., 
we  see  a  different  interchange  as  between  F 
and  P ;  thus  to  the  English  word  fish  answers 
the  Latin  pise  ipiteis);  to  Eng.  fire  the  Gr. 
pyr;  to  Eng.  plow  the  Ger.  pfiug.  In  the  local 
dialect  of  the  English  county  of  Somerset,  F 
usually  becomes  V :  fair  becomes  vair,  friar 
vrier,  five  vive.  As  the  Latin  alphabet  had  but 
one  character,  V,  to  represent  both  the  vowel 
U  and  the  consonant  V  (or  W)  the  Emperor 
Claudius  ordered  that  in  public  inscriptions  and 
;   documents   this   consonant   V   should  be 


TERMlNAjIT,  OCTAjIA,  etc.,  for  Amplia- 
vit,  Terminavit,  Octavia,  etc.  The  letter  F  in 
physics  is  a  contraction  for  Fahrenheit. 

P.  F.  V'«  (First  Families  of  Virginia),  a 
jocular  term  applied  in  the  North,  before  and 
during  the  war,  to  the  Southern  aristocracy  in 
general. 


FA,  fa,  the  name  given  by  Guido  to  the 
fourth  note  of  the  natural  diatonic  scale  of  C, 
that  is,  the- subdominant.  In  the  major  scale  of 
C  this  tone  is  F. 

FABBLL,  Peter,  the  chief  character  in 
'The .Merry  Devil  of  Edmonton,'  who  sold  his 
soul  to  Satan,  and  is  said  to  have  been  derived 
from  a  real  personage  who  died  and  was  buried 
at  Edmonton,  Middlesex,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VII  (1485-1509). 

FABEN5,  Jotepb  Wuren,  American  mi^ 
cellaneous  writer:  b.  Salem,  Mass...  23  July 
1821;  d.  New  York,  13  March  1875.  Among 
his  works  are  'The  Camel  Hunt,'  a  narrative 
of  personal  adventure ;  'Facts  about  Santo 
Domingo';  and  'The  Last  Cigar,'  a  book  of 

FABER,  fa'ber,  Frederick  Williun.  Eng- 
lish theologian  and  hymn  writer:  b.  Calverley, 
Yorkshire,  28  June  1814;  d.  Brompton,  London, 
26  Sept.  1863.  He  was  a  nephew  of  G.  S.  Faber 
(q.v.).  He  was  educated  at  Ballio!  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
John  Henry  Newman  (q.v.),  whom  in  1845  he 
followed  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  On 
becoming  a  Roman  Catholic  he  founded  a  small 
community  called  Brothers  of  the  Will  of  God, 
who  three  years  later  joined  the  oratory  of 
Saint  Philip  Neri.  He  afterward  established  a 
branch  of  tnis  oratory  at  Brompton,  with  which 
he  was  connected  till  his  death.  His  prose 
writings  are  numerous,  but  it  is  by  his  beaut'fiil 
hymns  that  he  is  best  known.  Of  these  'Pil- 
grims of  the  Night*  and  'The  Land  Beyond  the 
Sea'  are  the  most  noted.  See  'Life  and  Let- 
ters,' edited  by  Bowden  (1869). 


:d  in  law  in  1818,  but  had  also  given  great 
oLlention  to  zoology  and  at  20  published  'Ind- 
ledning  til  Dyrelxrcn  til  Brug  ved  den  Natur- 
historiske  Undervisning.'  He  traveled  in  Ice- 
land in  1819-21,  and  published  the  results  of 
his  investigations  in  'Ueber  das  Leben  der 
hochnordischei;  Vogel  Islands'  (1826),  a  work 
still  of  value:  'Prodromus  islandischer  Omi- 
thologie'  (1822);  'Naturgeschichte  der  Fische 
Islands'  (1829),  and  articles  in  Isis  and  in  Tids- 
skrif  for  Natnrvidenskaberne.  Several  roo- 
logical  species  are  named  from  Faber. 

FABER,  George  Stanley,  English  theolo- 
gian: b,  Calverley,  near  Bradford,  Yorkshire, 
25  Oct.  1773;  d.  near  Durham,  27  Jan.  1854. 
Having  been  Baranton  lecturer  in  1801,  be 
shortly  after  published  his  lectures  under  the 
title  of  'Hora  Mosaicz.'  From  the  first  he 
adopted  evangelical  views,  and  soon  began  to 
aid  them  by  his  petl,  particularly  by  *The  Doc- 
trine of  Regeneration  in  the  Case  of   Infant 


.Google 


FABBR  — FABLE 


Baptism.*  He  was  vicar  successively  of  Stock- 
ton-upon-Tees,  Redmarshall  and  lionKnewton, 
holding  tht  last  H^^KMntment  21  years,  when  he 
resiKned  it  to  become  master  of  Sherbum  Hos- 
pital His  principal  writings,  in  addition  to 
those  already  mentioned,  are  'A  Dissertation  on 
the  Prophecies,'  the  most  popular  of  all  bis 
works,  and  the  'Difficulties  of  Romanism,'  of 
which  a  third  edition  appeared  in  1853. 

FABBE,  or  FABRI,  Jacqnea  Lefivrc 
d*Bfltaplea,  French  scholar :  b.  Esiaples 
(Etaples).  near  Boulogne,  about  1450;  d.  1536. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Paris 
and  for  a  time  taught  in  the  College  of  Cardinal 
llemoine.  He  visited  Italy  and  in  1507  was 
(riven  a  home  in  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of 
Saint- Germain-des-Pris  by  his  friend  Abbot 
WilJiam  Br;i;onneL  Faber  remained  there  for 
13  years,  becoming  In  1520  director  of  the  leper 
hospital  of  Meaux.  Faber's  writinp  displeased 
several  bt^  church  officials  but  fie  was  safe 
from  persecution  through  the  protection  of 
Francis  I.  When  the  latter  was  taken  prisoner 
in  1525  Faber  was  formally  condemned.  On 
Francis'  return  he  was  made  royal  librarian  at 
Blois  and  tutor  to  the  Icing's  children.  Prin- 
cess Margaret,  on  becoming  Queen  of  Navarre, 
took  Faber  to  Nirac,  where  he  spent  his  last 
days  in  peace.  His  works  were  numerous  and 
included  a  French  translation  of  Saint  Paul's 
Epistles  (1512),  of  the  New  Testament  (1523), 
of  the  Pentateuch  (1528)  and  the  whole  BiUe 
in  1530.  Consult  the  life  by  De  Labatier  Plan- 
tin  (Montauban  1870)  and  that  by  Proudii 
(Leyden  1900). 

FABER,  Johuin  Lothar  von,  German 
manufacturer:  b.  Stein,  near  Nuremberg,  12 
June  1817;  d.  1896.  In  1860  he  founded  in 
his  native  town  a  manufactory  of  lead  pencils, 
with  only  20  hands  employed  He  made  so 
tiuir^  improvements  in  the  manufacture  that 
hit  factory  gradually  became  the  centre  of  that 

grticular  industry,  and  absorbed  the  trade  of 
Tinany  and  Austria.  Particularly  successful 
and  profitable  was  the  making  of  pencils  of 
different  grades,  while  his  business  capacity  in 
<Ustributing  his  goods  did  much  to  promote  their 
popularity.  He  opened  branches  in  the  great 
dties  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  He  was 
ennobled  for  his  services  to  German  industry. 
He  established  a  plant  in  New  York  with  a 
cedar  yard  and  mills  at  Cedar  Keys,  Fta. ;  and 
in  his  factory  at  Noisy-le-sec,  near  Paris,  over 
a  thousand  operatives,  were  employed. 

FABER,  Johannes.    See  Fabu,  Johannes. 

FABIAN,  fa'bi-an,  belonging  or  relating  to 
the  famous  Roman  family,  or  clan,  the  Fabian 
used  especially  in  the  military  phrase  Fabian 
tactics,  to  denote  tactics  the  chief  point  of  which 
is  to  weary  and  exhaust  ihe  enemy.  By  such 
intus  Fabius  Maximus,  sumamed 


FABIAN  SOCIETY,  an  English  sodalis- 
tie  organiiation,  founded  in  January  1884,  hav- 
ing its  headquarters  in  London,  and  with  affil- 
iated branches  in  most  of  the  principal  cities 
and  towns  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
society  includes  in  its  ranks  some  very  promi- 
nent writers  on  social  economy,  including 
George  Bernard*  Shaw  and  Sidney  Webb,  and 
publishes  *Fabian  Essays'  and  'Fabian  Tracts.' 


In  1688  they  began  to  hold  public  meeting*. 
Alwve  700  lectures  have  been  gL"*"  '"  ""^  V^ 
by  members  of  the  society.  The  Fabians  aim 
to  brin^  about  the  'emancipation  of  land  and 
industrial    capital    from    individual    and   class 


tion  of  rent* ;  and  'the  t 
munity  of  the  administration  of  such  industrial 
capital  as  can  be  conveniently  managed  social- 
ly.' Thr^  also  advocate  female  suffrage.  The 
recently  formed  research  department  has  added 
to  the  society's  activities.  There  is  a  sodety 
of  the  same  name  in  the  United  States^  which 
issues  a  periodical  called  the  'American  Fabian.' 
Consult  Shaw,  G.  B.,  'The  Fabian  Society' 
(1892). 

FABII,  fi'bi-^  Arch  of  the,  a  commemora- 
tive arch  in  ancient  Rome  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Sacred  Way  (Via  Sacra)  to  the  Forum 
Romanum.     It  was  constructed  about  120  B.C.  ty 

guintus  Fabius  Maximus  Allobrogicus  in  cele- 
"aiion  of  his  victories  over  the  AUobroges  and 
Arvemi.  Its  material  was  the  calcareous  Ital- 
ian rock  called  travertin,  and  its  design 
simple.  Some  few  of  the  travertin  blocks  were 
excavated  in  1882  not  far  from  the  site  of  the 
arch.  Consult  Flatner,  'The  Topography  and 
Monimients  of  Ancient  Rome'   (1911). 

FABIUS,  filii-us,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  famous  families  of  Rome,  evenr 
member  of  which  was  massacred  at  Cremcra  47b 
B.C,  except  QuiNTus  Fabius  Vibulanijs,  who 
became  one  of  the  decemvirate.  Among  the 
most  noted  of  the  family  in  later  times  are : 
Fabius  Aubustus,  dictator,  350  b.c  ;  Fabius 
RuLLiANus,  to  whose  name  Maximus  wai 
addeiL_  twice  dictator,  conqueror  of  the  Samnites 
and  Etruscans,  323--280  b.c;  Fabius  Gubges, 
son  of  the  preceding,  consul  of  Rome;  Fabius 
PicTOa,  the  first  writer  of  Roman  history,  3d 
century  B.c;  Fabius  Maxiuus  Vebsucosus, 
considered  the  greatest  of  his  family,  surnamea 
•Cunctator,*  'the  Delayer'  (see  Fabian),  from 
his  system  of  warfare,  died  203  b.c  ;  Fabius 
Maximus  Quintus,  son  and  next  in  office  to 
the  preceding,  afterward  consul;  Fabius  Maxi- 
mus ^uiLiANus,  distinguished  in  the  war  of 
Persia  and  in  Spain,  consul  147  b.c  ;  Fabius 
Maximus  Sesviuan us,  pro- consul  for  Spam, 
censor  126  ac. ;  Fabius  Maxiuus  Allobrogicus, 
consul  122  B.c 

FABIUS,  The  Atnerican.  Name  often 
nven  in  the  last  century  to  C^rge  Washington, 
becauBC  of  his  habit  of  avoiding  pitched  battles 
after  the  manner  of  Fabius  Cunctator. 

FABLE  (Lat.  fabula,  a  narrative,  especially 
a  fictitious  one),  m  literature,  a  term  applied 
originally  to  every  imaginative  talc,  but  confined 
in  modem  use  to  short  stories,  either  in  prose 
or  verse,  which  are  meant  to  inculcate  a  moral 
lesson  in  a  pleasant  garb.  Imaginary  persons, 
animals  and  inanimate  objects  are  mtroduced 
as  the  actors  and  speakers.  The  fables  consist 
properly  of  two  parts  —  the  symboUcal  repre- 
sentation and  the  application  or  the  instruction 
intended  to  be  deduced  from  it,  which  latter  is 
called  the  moral  of  the  tale,  and  is  indispen- 

Herder  divides  fables  into  (1)  Theoretic, 
intended  to  form  the  understandmg;  tfans  a 
phenomenon  of  nature,  as  illustrative  of  &e 


.lOogle 


FABLE  OF  THE  BBSS— FABLES  OF  £SOP 


Uws  of  the 
nuderstanding.  (2)  Moral,  which  contain  rules 
for  tbt  rcRulatioD  of  the  will.  We  do  not  leant 
morality  from  the  brutes,  but  view  the  great 
family  of  nature,  and  observe  that  she  has 
connected  the  happiness  of  all  living  creatures 
with  the  unchangeable,  eternal  law  of  effort,  and 
take  example  from  the  observance  of  this  law 
^  the  lower  orders  of  creation.  (3)  Fables 
of  fate  or  destiny.  It  cannot  always  be  made 
evident  how  one  thing-  follows  as  a  necessary 
consequence  from  another;  here  then  comes  in 

?lay  Uiai  connection  of  events  which  we  call 
ate,  or  chance,  and  which  shows  that  things 
follow,  at  least  after,  if  not  from  one  another, 
bj;  an  order  from  above.  Thus  the  eagle  carries 
with  her  plunder  a  coal  from  the  altar,  which 
sets  fire  to  her  nest,  and  thus  her  unfledged 
brood  becomes  the  prey  of  animals  which  she 
has  already  robbed  of  their  young. 

The  oldest  fables  are  supposed  to  be  the 
Oriental;  among  these  the  Indian  fables  of 
Pilpay  or  Bidpai,  and  the  fables  of  the  Arabian 
Lokman,  are  celebrated.  .£sop  is  well  known 
among  the  Greeks,  and  was  imitated  by  Pluedrus 
among  the  Latin  writers.  Bodmer  has  pub- 
lished German  fables  of  the  time  of  the  Minne- 
singers. The  iirst  known  German  fabulist  is 
Strieker,  who  belongs  to  the  first  half  of  the 
13th  century,  but  the  famous  roedixval  beast- 
epic  of  'Remecke  Fuchs'  (see  Reynard  thb 
Fox)  has  a  much  more  remote  origin.  Boner, 
who  lived  at  the  close  of  the  I4th  century, 
shows  in  hia  <Edelstein>  the  true  spirit  of  fable. 
Burkard  Waldis  may  be  mentioned  in  the  16th 
century.  The  most  successful  of  German  fable 
writers  is  undoubtedly  Lessing.  In  the  17th 
century  Gay  among  the  Englisn,  and  La  Fon- 
taine among  the  French,  were  distinguished. 
The  writer  last  named  made  fable  the  vehicle 
of  wit,  and  carried  it  to  its  highest  stage  of 
perfection.  Among  the  most  interesting  modem 
productions  in  this  department  of  literature  the 
tables  of  the  Russian,  Ivan  Kriloff,  deserve 
special  mention.    See  Allegory;  Myth. 

FABLE  OF  THE  BEES.  A  satire  on 
the  state  of  English  society,  first  published  in 
1705  in  200  dciggerel  couplets,  under  the  title 
of  'The  Grumoling  Hive  or  Knaves  Turn'd 
Honest.'  It  was  republished  anonymously  in 
1714  with  'Remarks'  and  an  'Enqiury  into  the 
Origin  of  Moral  Virtue.'  Another  edition  ap- 
peared in  1723  with  the  addition  of  an  "Essay 
on  Charity  and  Charity  Schools'  and  'A 
Search  into  the  Nature  of  SocioW.'  This 
edition  gave  great  offense  and  was  iniucted  as  a 
"public  nuisance*  by  the  grand  jury  of  Mid- 
dlesex, this  action  by  the  auAonties  giving  it 
considerable  notoriety.  Satirizing  the  govern- 
ment and  attacking  the  idealism  of  Shaftesbury, 
its  sarcastic  philosophy  and  pessimistic  counsel 
were  not  improved  by  the  author's  cynical  as- 
sertion that  tie  was  writing  for  "the  entertain- 
ment of  people  of  knowledge  and  educ^^tlon.' 
See  Manocville,  Besnard  de. 

FABLE  FOR  CRITICS,  A.  Lowell's 
*Fsble  for  Critics,'  though  considered  by  the 
poet  himself  a  mere  jeu  d'espril,  is  the  best- 
known  and  the  most  successful  literary  satire 
in  verse  by  an  American.  It  was  written  at 
intervals  between  November  1847  and  July  1848, 
and  was  published  in  October  1848.  Its  1.700 
lines  of  ^Uloping  anapxstic  tetrameter,  an  ad- 


mirable vehicle  for  its  purpose,  present  a  mix- 
ture of  rollicking  fun,  satire  and  panegyric  Its 
title  states  its  purpose.  Lowell  saw  American 
literary  criticism  as  often  unfair  and  even  fool- 
ish and  over- dependent  on  British  opiniiHi.  His 
fable  presents  Apollo,  god  of  poets,  deliverinj[ 
Olympian  judgment,  supposedly  unbiased  and 
final,  upon  American  writers;  and  ihts  fable  is 
addressed  to  prejudiced  and  incompetent  crit- 
ics and  10  the  undisccrning  public.  Perhaps  a 
score  of  the  best-known  waiters  of  the  day  are 
passed  upon,  with  scarcely  a  verdict  so  severe 
as  not  to  be  tempered  with  commendation,  and 
scarcely  any  praise  that  is  not  edged  with  a 
little  raillery.  Though  written  early  in  Low- 
ell's career,  the  poem  shows  his  characteristic 
independence  in  literary  judgment,  his  fearless- 
ness and  his  common  sense.  His  estimate  of 
the  works  of  Emerson,  Longfellow,  Whittier, 
Holmes,  Irving,  Cooper  and  Poe,  though  antici- 
pating the  later  and,  in  some  cases,  Uic  belter 
work  of  these  'writers,  is  remarkably  just  and 
has  in  the  main  been  ratified  by  posterity. 
Many  of  the  terse  lines  stick  in  the  memory: 
Emerson  "a  Greek  head  on  right  Yankee  shoul- 
ders^ ;  Cooper,  "who's  written  six  volumes  to 
show  he's  as  good  as  a  lord" ;  Poe, 

"  With  big  »ven,  Uke  Bunabr  Rudgg. 
Three-fifthi  of  him  geoiiu,  but  tno-fiftlu  alieer  fudgtti 
Who  tutt  written  KimB  tbiiiBS  gvite  the  b«t  of  tbair  UBd, 
But  Uu  haan  Kimahow  iiu «U  lutuaml  out  by  tha  nmiiL 

Though  Lowell  is  unfair  to  Margaret  Ful- 
ler and  overvalues  Maria  Child  and  Sylvester 
Judd.  his  perspicacity  and  fairness  are  in  the 
main  as  remarkable  as  his  satire  and  his  fun. 
The  course  of  the  fable  is  constantly  interrupted 
by  digressions;  by  a  fling  at  hterary  bores;  by 
satire  on  dependence  upon  Great  Britain;  by 
scathing  but  humorous  denunciation  of  slavery; 
and  by  a  noble  eulogy  of  the  Bay  State. 

In  its  combination  of  supernatural  machin- 
ciy,  anapxstic  meter  and  puns,  and  its  use  of 
all  these  for  the  purpose  of  literary  sarire,  'A 
Fabie  for  Critics'  is  not  original.  Its  prede- 
cessors run  back  for  hundreds  of  years ;  pei^ 
haps  its  immediate  ancestor  was  Leigh  Hunt's 

'Feast    of    the    Poets.'      Bui    ■"    -' 

hiunor,  satire  and  panegyric  i 
delightful.  Il  is  far  too  long 
wearisome:  much  of  its  flavo 

been   lost  through   time;   but  i  _   , 

effervescent  hilarity  carries  it  along  in  spite  of 
its  faults.  It  still  lives  through  a  few  wise 
and  wit^  or  noble  and  brilliant  passages.  Poe 
revieweo  the  poem  in  The  Southern  LiUrary 
Messenger  (February  1849).  For  the  text, 
with  explanatory  notes,  etc.,  consult  Scudder, 
•Complete  Poetical  Works' ;  id.,  'Russell  Low- 
ell, a  Biography'    (pp.  238-253). 

Mariom  Tuckol 

FABLES  OF  .ffiSOP,  the  collection  of  old 
folklore  or  moralizing  animal  stories,  attributed 
to  the  Greek  fabulist  Msop  (q.v.)  who  is  said 
to  have  lived  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  b.c 
His  reputation  is  based  on  these  amusingi; 
satirical  "beast  stories"  with  an  apposite  moral, 
adapted  to  contemporary  events  and  incident^ 
which  he  narrated  at  banquets  and  festival 
gatberings,  for  the  entertainment  of  guests  and 
visitors.  Artless,  simple  and  transparent  in  con- 
struction, affect  in  i;  no  graces  of  atylc,  the 
story  is  the  main  thing,  the  moral  bein^  always 
subordinate  and  never  permitted  to  interfere 
with  the  principal  theme.    Insolent  sarcasm,  how- 


;   of 

i  original  as 

;   Its   fun  grows 

r  ha$  of  course 

3  youthful  and 


FABLES    OF   PILPAY  — FABRE 


ever,  introduced  into  a  fable,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  culminating  incident  which  led  to  his 
assassination  at  Delphi.  As  oral  productions, 
he  did  not  ciJinmit  his  fables  to  writing  but 
they  were  perpetuated  h^  Xenophon,  Aristotle, 
Plntarch,  and  other  Greek  writers.  Aristo- 
phanes alludes  to  them  as  "merry  tales"  and  in 
the  'Wasps'  represents  Philocleoii  as  having 
learned  j^^sop's  "absurdities'  from  conversa- 
tions at  banquets.  Plato  in  'Phaedo*  repre- 
sents Socrates  as  whilinft  away  his  last  days  in 
prison  by  versifying  some  of  .^sop's  fables 
"which  he  knew,"  and  although  he  excludes 
poets,  Plato  introduces  Xaop  as  a  moral 
teacher  in  his  model  'Republic*  A  collection 
of  the  'Fables,'  probably  in  prose,  in  JO  books, 
is  recorded  as  made  by  Demetrius  of  Phalcrium 
345-283  B.a,  for  the  use  of  ora.tors;  no  copy  of 
the  collection,  however,  is  known  to  exist.  An 
edition  in  elegiac  verse  is  also  mentioned  by. 
Suidas.  The  earliest  known  reliable  version  of 
the  'Fables'  is  that  of  Babrius  or  Babrias, 
who,  as  related  by  Crusius,  was  a  Roman  and 
tutor  to  the  son  of  AJexander  Severus;  he 
rendered  the  fables  into  Greek  choliambic  verse 
in  die  early  part  of  the  3d  century  a.d.  This 
version  was  long  known  in  fragments  only,  until 
in  1842  a  complete  manuscript,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Minas 
in  a  monastery  on  Mount  Athos.  Pltaedrus,  a 
Thracian  freedman,  who  lived  in  Rome  in  the 
time  of  Augustus,  produced  a  version  of  the 
fables  in  Latin  iamoics,  making,  however,  in- 
ferior paraphrases  and  additions,  which  for  a 
long  time  cast  doubt  on  their  authenticity,  until 
dispelled  by  an  epigrapfaical  cUscoveiy  at  Apulum 
in  Dacia,  and  critical  rc-exami nation  of  the 
manuscripL  In  the  9th  century  Ignadus  Dia- 
conus  made  a  version  oE  53  of  the  fables  in 
choliambic  tetrameters.  Stories  from  Asiatic 
sources  were  added,  notably  from  the  Buddhist 
Jaiaka  folklore  of  India,  and  'Msop's  Fables* 
as  known  to-day  are  derived  from  the  14th  cen- 
tuty  edition  compiled  by  Maximus  Planudes,  a 
monk  of  Constantinople.  Through  succeeding 
centuries,  translations  were  made  into  almost 
eveiy  known  language.  Among  the  curiosities 
of  hlerature,  an  early  translation  from  the 
Babrian  edition  into  Syriac  by  Syntipas  100 
B,C  is  mentioned,  which  Michael  Andreopulos 
rendered  back  into  Greek.  One  of  the  latest 
translations  is  that  of  Douglas  (1901)  into  the 
Celtic  Manx  dialect.  The  fables  have  also  been 
prolific  sources  of  inspiration  for  artists  which 
may  >be  said  to  have  culminated  in  Tenniel's 
illustrations  with  their  combination  of  rare 
artistic  power,  humiirous  observation  and 
knowledge  of  animal  life.  (See  Fables).  Con- 
sult Jacobs,  J.,  'The  Fables  of  j¥:sop;  i.  The 
history  of  the  ^sopic  fable;  ii.  The  Fables  of 
itsop,  as  first  printed  by  William  Caxton,  1484, 
from  his  French  translation'  (New  York  1896). 
FABLES  OF  PILPAY.  See  Btopal 
FABLIAUX,  fa-hli-o  (Fr.  from  the  Lat. 
fabula,  a  narrative,  particularly  a  fictitious  nar- 
rative), in  French  hterature,  the  short  metrical 
tales  of  the  Trouver;s  (q.v.),  belonging  for  the 
most  part  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  These 
productions  were  intended  merely  for  recita- 
tion, not  for  singing,  and  reflected  the  life  of 
the  period.  They  originated  with  the  bour- 
geoise,  made  no  ^pretensions  to  Utera^  merit, 
embraced  all  subjects  — tales  of  devotion,  lat- 


ires  on  clerical  weaknesses  and  inconsistencies, 
conjugal  mishaps  and  love  episodes  —  and  were 
generally  conceived  in  a  vein  of  ironical  pleas- 
antry, and  in  which  the  wit  was  coarse  if  piin- 
^nt.  From  the  fabliaux  the  short  story  form 
IS  derived.  Fabliaux  in  fact  were  "merry  re- 
citals* to  excite  laughter,  in  contradistinction  to 
the   songs   of   chivalry,   war  and  love  of  the 


life.  They  were  marked  by  ( 
siderable  originality  and  diversity,  and  would 
appear  to  have  been  largely  modelled  on  the 
*:sopic  fable  and  its  Asiatic  parallels.  Several 
of  Chaucer's  'Canterbury  Tales'  are  derived 
directly  From  fabliaux;  and  so  are  many  of  the 
Stories  of  Boccaccio  and  of  other  Italian  writers. 
Fabliaux  were  the  forerunners  of  the  'Hep- 
lameron,'  the  'Cent  Nouvelles  Nouvejles,'  of 
Rabelais'  'Pantagruel,'  of  Prior  and  Swift's 
productions,  and  of  Balzac's  'Cent  Contes 
Drolaliques.'  Fabliaux  seldom  ran  to  more 
than  400  lines;  they  related  an  event,  the  story 
being  the  mainspring  of  the  recital,  the  deduc- 
tions, inferences  or  lesson,  to  be  drawn  being 
subordinate  or  left  to  the  imagination.  The 
'Poenitcntiale'  of  Egbert  in  ue  8th  century 
condemned  the  "fabuias  inanes*  of  tlie  period 
showing  that  they  were  in  vogue  at  that  date, 
but  the  earliest  known  is  that  of  'Richeut' 
which  appeared  in  US9,  a  virile  picture  of  the 
coarse  manners  and  customs  of  the  time. 
Among  the  better  known  writers  of  fabliaux 
were  Ruiebeuf,  author  of  'Le  Sacristan,'  "Frire 
Denyse'  and  'Dit  d'AristoIe' ;  also  Henri 
d'Andeli,  and  Jean  de  Conde.  While  the  gen- 
eral run  of  fabliaux  are  condemned  for  vulgar- 
ity, coarseness  and  obscenity,  they  afford 
valuaHe  pictures  of  contemporary  life  and  de- 
velopment, and  are  rich  in  philological  mateHaJ. 
The  usual  male  scorn  of  female  "fourberies" 
or  wiles  is  marked  in  'Chicheface  et  Bigome,' 
'Le  Valet  aux  deux  femmcs'  and  'Le  Pechcur 
de  Pont-sur-Scine' ;  the  medical  profession  is 
satirized  in  'Le  Vilain  Mire' ;  the  ecclesiastical, 
in  the  'Pretre  qui  dit  la  Passion,'  'Les  Perdrix' 
and  the  'Pretre  aux  Mures' ;  while  marriage  is 
ridiculed  in  'Court  Mantel'  and  'Le  Dit  de 
Berenger.'  Of  pathetic  interest  is  'Housse 
Partit'  while  of  idealistic  tendency  is  'Le 
Chevalier  de  Bariiel.'  Consult  Montaignon,  A., 
and  Raynaud,  G.,  'Recueil  general  et  com- 
plct  des  fabliaux  des  Xllleme  et  XlV^me 
siecles'  (6  vols.,  Paris  1872-79) ;  Bfdier,  J., 
<Les  Fabliaux>  (Paris  1893);  Hart,  W.  M„ 
•The  Fabliau  and  Popular  Litcraturc>  (Balti- 
more 1906). 

FABRE,  Amant  Joseph,  a-maft  zh&-uf 
tabr,  French  author :  b.  Rodez,  France,  10 
Dec.  1842  (or  1843).  A  drama.  'Joan  of  Arc' 
(1890),  made  his  name  most  widely  known,  his 
other  works  being  larg^ely  represented  by  such 
books  as  <A  Course  in  Philosophy'  (1870); 
'Washington,  the  Liberator  of  America'  (1882). 

FABRE.  Ferdinand,  flr-de-nift,  French 
novelist:  b.  Bidarieux.  France,  1830;  d.  Parij, 
11  Feb.  1898.  He  deals  almost  exclusively  with 
life  in  the  Cfvennes,  his  native  district.  De- 
signed for  the  priesthood,  for  which  he  found 
he  had  no  vocation,  his  gallery  of  portraits  of 
French  priests  was  the  fruit  of  a  large  and 
deep  experience,  and  is  the  most  noteworthy 
that  has  ever  been  drawn.    He  published  'Ivy 


.gk 


FABRB  —  FABRBTTI 


Leaves,'  poems  (185^);  then  the  novels,  'The 
CourbMons>  (1862);  'Juiien  Savianae>  (1863); 
*M7  Unde  CelesUn'  (1881):  'King  Ramiro' 
(lffi4);  and  'Mr.  John>  (1886).  The  remark- 
able novel,  'Atibi  Tigranet  (1873).  first  won 
him  great  distinction;  'Lucifer'  (1884),  por- 
traving  the  struggle  amoDg  the  dergy  between 
Gallicanism  and  Ultramontanism,  is  doubtless 
his  greatest  work.  Among  his  shorter  stories 
are  'The  Abbi  Riotelet'  (1891):  'Norine' 
(1890):  'Germany'  (1891),  etc.  'My  Voca- 
tion' (1889)  is  a  voltune  of  leaves  from  his 
student  diaiy.  Consult  Gosse,  'French  Pro- 
files'  (1905). 

FABRE,  Pransoii  Xavier  Pascal,  fran- 
twa  zav-ya  pas-cal,  French  painter;  b.  Mont- 
pellier,  1  April  1766;  d.  there,  16  Mardi  1837. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  David  and  produced  in  1787 
a  ^inting  representing  the   'Execution  of   the 


a  ^mting  representing  the  'Execution  of  the 
Children  of  Zedekiah  by  order  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar,' for  whidi  he  received  the  great  prize 
of  the  Academy  and  was  sent  as  a  pensionary 
to  Rome.  He  was  believed  to  have  been  se- 
cretly married  to  the  Countess  of  Albany, 
widow  of  the  Young  Pretender,  who  on  her 
death  in  1824  made  him  her  sole  heir  and  be- 
queathed to  him  valuable  MSS.  which  had  been 
left  to  her  by  Alfieri.  Fabre  gave  them  to  the 
dty  of  Florence.     He  was  created  a  baron  io 

im. 

FABRB,  Hector,  Canadian  journalist:  b. 
Montreal,  1834;  d.  1910.  He  was  educated  at 
L'Assomption,  Saint  Hyacinthe  and  the  College 
de  Montreal,  studied  law  and  in  1856  was  ad- 
mitted to  practice.  He  soon  abandoned  this 
profession  to  enter  journalism,  becoming  editor 
of  L'Ordre  of  Montreal.  From  1863  to  1866  he 
edited  Le  Canadian  of  Quebec  and  founded 
L'Evinement  there  in  1869.  In  187S  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Dominion  Senate  and  seven 
years  later  was  appointed  Paris  agent  of  the 
Quebec  and  Dominion  governments.  In  Paris 
he  founded  a  French- Canadian  journal,  Le 
Paris-Canada.  He  was  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Canada  and  published  'Esquisse  bi- 
ographie  sur  Chevalier  de  Lorimier'  (18S6)  ; 
•Ecrivains  Canadiens'  (1865):  'Con fid* ration. 
Independence,  Annexation'  (1871) :  'Chroni- 
ques'  (1877). 

FABRE,  Jean  Henri  distinguished  French 


College  of  Ajaccio  and  later  at  the  Lyc6c  __ 
Avipon.  He  is  corresponding  member  of  the 
Institut  de  France  and  chevalier  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor.  Many  years  ago  he  retired  to 
Sirignan,  Vaucluse,  and  in  this  retreat  pro- 
duced his  greatest  work.  'Souvenirs  entomol- 
onques'  (10  vols.,  1879-1907).  Among  his 
other  numerous  works  are  'La  science  ilemen- 
laire'  (1862);  'Histoire  de  la  buche'  (1866); 
*Les  ravageurs'  (1870)  ;  'Premiers  Elements 
de  physique'  (1875);  'La  plante'  (1875);  "Les 
inventeurs  et  leurs  inventions'  (1880);  'The 
Life  and  Love  of  the  Insect'  (1911);  'Social 
Ufe  in  the  Insect  World'  (1912);  'The  Life 
of  the  Fly'  (1913)  ;  'The  Mason-Bees'  (1914) ; 
'Bumble  Bees>    (1915). 

FABRB,  Marie  JoMph  Victorin,  French 
poeti  b.  Janjac,  Ardiche,  1785;  d.  1831.  At  the 
age  of  20  he  achieved  a  brilliant  success  with 
'Eloge  de  Boileau,'  which  was  crowned  by  the 


Academy.  His  later  works,  however,  did  not 
bear  out  his  early  promise  and  he  died  in  ob> 
scurity.  These  include  'Discours  en  vers  sur 
les  voyages'  (1807) ;  'Eloge  sur  Pierre  Cor- 
neille'  (1808)  ;  'La  mort  de  Henri  IV'  (1808); 
■Opuscules  en  vers  et  en  prose'  (1806)  and 
^Efoge  de  La  Bruyire'  (1810).  His  collected 
works  were  issued  by  bis  pupil,  I.  Sabbatier 
(Paris  1845). 

FABRB  D'BGLANTINE,  Philippe  Ftsb. 
Sois  Naaaire,  fe-tep  fran-swa  na-iir  fabr  di- 
gloii-ten,  French  dramatic  poet:  b.  Carcassonne; 
28  Dec.  1755;  d.  Paris,  5  April  1794.  Having 
gained  the  prize  of  the  Eglantine  in  the  Floreal 
games  at  Toulouse,  he  assumed  the  name  of 
that  flower  as  a  surname.  He  now  wrote  sev- 
eral theatrical  pieces,  of  which  however  only 
two,  'L'Intrigue  ipistolaire'  and  the  'Philinte 
de  Moli^e,'  were  successful.  The  latter  is 
.still  considered  one  of  the  best  character-pieces 
of  the  modem  French  sta^.  He  engaged  wi^ 
ardor  in  the  Revolution,  in  which  he  was  as- 
sociated with  Dantou,  Lacroiz  and  Camille  Dcs- 
moulins.  As  deputy  from  Paris  to  the  Naticoial 
Convention,  he  at  first  supported  moderate 
principles,  but  afterward  voted  for  tbe  death 
of  Louis  XVI  without  appeal,  and  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety. 
He  afterward  became  suspected  by  the  Jacobins 
and  being  condemned  to  death  was  executed 
along  with  his  colleague  Danton  (q.v.). 

PABRH  D'OLIVBT,  Antoine,  French  Pro- 
vencal writer:  b.  Ganges  (Hirault),  8  Dec. 
1767;  A  Paris,  April  182S.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest  leaders  of  the  dialect  and  racial  move- 
ment in  southern  France,  and  a  descendant  of 
Jean  Fabre,  'rHonnete  Criminel,"  the  hero  of 
Fenouillot  de  Falbaire's  famous  drama  of  the 
same  title.  He  was  a  mystic,  a  scientist  and 
an  erratic  student  whose  literary  food  was  of 
the  most  omnivorous  nature.  The  wide  range 
of  his  studies  and  sympathies  is  shown  in  the 
following  partial  list  of  his  works:  'Notions 
sur  le  sens  de  rotiie  en  giniral'  (1811-19); 
'Les  vers  doris  de  Pythagore,  expliquis  pour 
la  premiire  fois  et  traduils  en  vers  eumolpiques 
franijais'  (1813);  'La  langue  hfbraique' 
(1816);  'De  I'etat  sodal  de  ITiomme*  (1822- 
24);  'Le  Quaforze  Juillet'  (drama  1790); 
'Toulon  soumis'  (historical  opera  in  vers  librei 
1794)  ;  <Le  Sage  de  I'lndoustan'  (drama  1796); 
'Lcttres  k  Sophie  sur  I'histoire'  (180l)  'Le 
Troubadour'  (1803);  'Cain'  (drama  1823). 
He  also  published  considerable  music.  His  in- 
fluence in  the  re-establishment  of  the  Langue- 
doc  as  a  literary  tongue  was  due  principally  to 
bis  philologica'  studies  in  Proven^. 

FABRETTI,  fa-bri^t'te,  Ariodante,  Italian 
antiquary:  b.  Perugia.  1816;  d.  1894.  In  18i50 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  archarology  at 
Turin  and  in  1868  became  director  of  the  Mu- 
seum of  Antiquities  there.  He  published  sev- 
eral works  on  the  antiquities  of  Perugia  and  be- 
came senator  of  the  kingdom  in  1889.  His 
most  important  work  is  'Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Italicarum  Antiquioris  ^vi'    (1867). 

FABRETTI,  Raffaele.  Italian  antiquarian: 


finally  superintendent  of  the  archives  in  the 
castle  of  San  Angelo,  which  ofEce  he  held  til] 
his  death.  Among  his  writings  may  be  men- 
tioned    'De     Aquaeductibus     veteris     Rmdk'; 


FABRI — PABftiaUS 


'De  Columna  Trajani';  and  'Iiucriptionuiii 
Antlquanim  £xpltcatio,>  )□  the  lasl  of  vAiich 
much  li^i  is  thrown  on  the  discoreries  made 
by  himMlf  in  the  Catacombs. 

FABRI,  faTirf,  Felix  (German,  SchtnidJ, 
German  monk:  d  about  1502.  He  entered  the 
Order  of  Preachers  and  became  lector  in  the 
manastety  of  the  order  at  Ulm.  In  1480  he 
made  a  piigriraage  to  Jerusalem  and  three  years 
later  went  as  chaplain  with  Johann  von  Wald- 


tum  he  penned  an  account  of  this  journey, 
which  remains  one  of  the  mast  important  travel 
narratives  of  the  late  Middle  Ages.  The  Latin 
version  is  contained  in  'Bibliothek  des  litlerar- 
ischcn  Vereiii»>  (Stuttgart  18491.  A  German 
version  appeared  in  Feyrabcnds  'Reyssbuch 
des  heili^en  Lands'  (Frankfort  1584). 

FABRI,  Friedrich,  German  theologian: 
b.  Schweinfurt,  1824;  d.  1891.  He  received  his 
education  at  the  universities  of  ErlanKen  and 
Berlin.  He  held  several  pastorates,  and  in  1857 
became  director  of  the  Missionary  Society  at 
Barmen,  where  he  remained  until  1884.  He 
then  retired  to  Godesberg-on-the-Rhine  and 
became  president  of  the  Evangelical  Society 
for  the  German  Protestants  in  America.  In 
1889  he  was  appointed  honorary  professor  at 
the  University  of  Bonn.  He  wrote  'Bedarf 
Deutschland  der  Kolonien?'  (3d  ed-.  1884); 
'Briefe  geecn  den  Material ismus'  <1856) ; 
'Die  Entstehung  des  Heidentums  und  die  Auf- 
gabederHcidenmission*  (1859);  "Diepolitische 
Lage  und  die  Zukunft  der  cvangelischen  Kirche 
in  Deutschland'  (3d  ed.,  1874) ;  'Staat  und 
Kirche>  (3d  ed.,  1872) ;  'Fiinf  Jahre  deutscher 
Kolonialpolitik*  (1889). 

FABRI,  Jacques  L.  D'EsUplca.  See 
Faeer. 

FABRI,  Johannes,  Roman  Catholic  prel< 
ate:  b.  Leutlarch,  near  Lake  Constance,  1478; 
d.  Baden,  21  May  1541.  He  changed  his  name 
of  Hdgerlin  to  Fabri  or  Faber^  studied  theology 
and  canon  law  at  the  universities  of  Tiibingen 
and  Freiburg.  He  served  as  a  member  of  the 
secular  clergy  for  several  years  and  in  1518 
became  vicar-general  of  Constance.  He  was  on 
intimate  terms  with  Erasmus,  Melanchthoh  and 
Zwinglius  and  many  thought  that  he  agreed 
with  their  doctrines,  but  when  the  breach  came 
he  remained  with  the  ancient  Church.  In  1522 
he  published  a  work  against  Luther,  and  there- 
after  his  opposition  to  the  Reformers  was  con- 
stant and  formidable.  His  'Malleus  in  H^res- 
im  Lmheranam>  (1524)  earned  for  him  the 
sobriquet  of  'Hammer  of  Heretics."  He  was 
one  of  the  ablest  defenders  of  the  old  Church 
at  Ziirich  in  J523,  Speiers  in  1.529,  and  AuRsburg 
in  1S30.  In  1531  he  was  appointed  archbishop 
of  Vienna  and  thereafter  his  polemical  strug- 
gles were  with  the  Moslems.  His  homiletical 
works  were  issued  at  Cologne  (3  vols.,  1537- 
41)  and  the  polemical  in  'Onuscula  QiueiUm 
J,  Fabri  Viennensis'  at  Leipzig  (1537).  Con- 
sult Horawitz,  A.,  'Johannes  Heigeriin  genannt 
Faber,  Bischof  von  Wien.  bis  znm  Regens- 
burger  Convent'  (Vienna  1884)  ;  and  Janssen, 
'History  of  the  German  People'  (Vol.  XIV, 
English  trans.,  London  1909). 

FABRIANO,  Gentile  da,  ten-ie13  da  fa- 
bre-a'n&^    Italian   punter:    b.    Fabriano,    about 


1370;  d.  Rome  about  1450.  His  earliest  work 
was  perhaps  the  decoration  of  a  chapel  for 
Pandolfo  Malatesta  at  Brescia.  In  1423  he 
painted  one  of  his  best  extant  pictures,  an 
'Adoration  of  the  Kings,'  for  the  church  of  the 


I  with   Saints    (n( 


Tiod 


Berlin  Museum).  A  picture  of  the  naval  en- 
g^ement  between  the  fleet  of  Venice  and  that 
of  the  Emperor  Barbarossa,  which  Fabriano 
paiiKed  for  the  Venetian  Senate,  so  pleased 
them  that  they  conferred  on  him  the  dignity  of 
a  patridan  and  a  pension  of  a  ducat  per  diem 
for  life.  Fabriano  next  worked  at  Orvieto,  but 
was  called  thence  by  Pope  Martin  V,  who  em- 
ployed him  in  adorning  the  church  of  Saint 
JohD  Lateran  with  frescoes  from  the  life  of 
John  the  Baptist.  Fabriano's  pictures  indicate 
a  cheerful  and  joyous  nature.  He  had  a  child- 
like love  of  splendor  and  rich  ornamentation, 
but  his  coloring  is  never  extravagant  or  mere- 


of  1,066  feet,  in  the  midst  of  t 
scenery  and  in  a  fruit-growing  region.  This  is 
the  native  place  of  the  artist  Gentile  da  Fabri- 
ano (q.v.),  a  large  number  of  whose  paintings 
are  preserved  here  in  churches  and  in  the  city 
hall.  Paper,  parchment,  gunpowder,  glue  and 
felt-cloth  are  the  chief  manufactures.  The 
paper  and  parchment  factories  were  established 
m  1564.     Pop.  of  the  commune  23.7S2. 

FABRICE,  fa-bres',  Georg  Friedrich  Al- 
fred von,  German  statesman;  b.  Quesnoy-sur- 
Deule.  France,  1818;  d.  1891.  He  entered  the 
Saxon  army  in  1834  and  rose  to  chief  of  the 
general  staS  and  major-general  in  1865.  In  the 
war  between  Prussia  and  Austria  in  1866  he  was 
chief  of  staff  to  Crown  Prince  Albert,  who 
cotninanded  the  Saxon  troo^  on  the  Austrian 
side.  After  the  war  Fabrice  was  appointed 
Saxon  Minister  of  War.  In  this  capacity  he 
reorganized  the  Saxon  anny  after  the  Prussian 
model.  He  was  one  of  the  prominent  com- 
manders in  the  war  of  1870-71  with  France, 
conducted  the  peace  preliminaries  at  Versailles 
and  commanded  the  (ierman  army  of  occupa- 
tion in  France.  He  again  became  Minister  of 
War  of  Saxony  in  1871  and  Prime  Minister  in 
1876.  He  was  made  a  baron  in  1878  and  count 
in  1884.  Consult  Dittrich,  'General  von 
Fabrice'   (Dresden  1884). 

FABRICIAN  (ta-brlsh'an)  BRIDGE, 
Rome,  a  stone  bridge  joining  £scu1apius  Island 
with  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  built  in  62  B.C. 
t^  Lucius  Fabricius.  It  ts  the  only  Roman 
bridge  that  has  lasted  to  our  day.  It  is  knows 
at  present  as  the  Ponte  dei  Qiatlro  Capi.  Con- 
sult Plainer,  'The  Topography  and  Monuments 
of  Ancient  Rome>   (2d  ed..  New  York  1911). 

FABRICIUS,  fa-brfsh'iis.  Gains  Fabridm 
LnscinUB,  Roman  general  and  statesman  of 
the  4th  and  3d  centuries  B.C  In  282  b.c.  and 
a|:ain  in  278  he  was  consul.  In  282  he  won  a 
victory  over  the  Lucanians  and  Bruttians  and 
also  led  troops  against  Pyrrbus.  He  was  noted 
for  his  incorruptibility.  It  is  said  that  Pyrrhus 
once  tried  to  secure  favorable  peace  terms 
through  bribery,  but  his  offer  was  received  1^ 
Fabricius  with  such  disdain  that  Pyrrhus  re- 
leased his  Roman  prisoners.    On  another  o 


■8l^ 


FABRICIUS  — FXBULAS   OP   TOUAS   DE   IRIASTS 


foimed  Pyrrhus  of  his  servant's  treachery  and 
the  king  again  released  all  Romans  held  ai 
prisoners  by  him.  Fabricius  was  censor,  to- 
gether with  Q,  j&nilius  Papus.  He  was 
awarded  a  triiunpb  for  his  military  victories, 
but  at  his  death  his  means  were  so  sli^t  that 
his  daughtef  was  given  a  pension  from  the  pub- 
lic treasury. 

FABRICIUS,  fa-bre'ts?-us,  Georg,  Ger- 
man scholar:  b.  Chemnitz,  Saxony,  1516;  d. 
1571.  In  1546  he  was  Aiade  rector  of  Meissen 
and  in  1570  Maximilian  11  made  him  poet  lau- 
reate. His  poetry  was  written  mostly  in  Latin. 
In  1560  appeared  his  *Poematum  Sacrorum 
ijbri  XV.'  Other  important  works  were  his 
' An tiqui latum  Libri  IP  (1S49)  ;  'Itinerum 
Liber  Unus»  (1551);  and  <Roma'  (1551). 
Consult  Baumgarten-Crusius,  'De  Georgii  Fab- 
ririi  Vila  et  Scriptis*  (Meissen  1839), 

FABRICIUS,  Hieronymus,  hi-er-on'i-mus 
fl-brish'i-us  (Italian  Fabrizion,  Girolamo), 
Italian  physician :  b.  Aquapendente,  1537 ;  d. 
Padua,  21  May  1619.  He  studied  at  Padua  under 
the  celebrated  Fallopius,  whom  he  afterward 
succeeded  in  the  anatomical  chair,  and  had 
Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of 
blood,  for  a  pupil.  Harvey  acknowledged  that 
the  discovery  of  the  valves  in  the  veins  made 
by  his  master  put  him  on  the  way  o!  his  discov- 
ery. During  the  lifetime  of  Fabrieius  his  merit 
was  fully  reeo^ized  fay  the  public  and  the 
State,  an  anatomical  theatre  being  built  for  him 
at  Venice.  His  works  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished by  Bohnius  (1687). 

FABRICIUS,  Jobann  Albrecht,  German 
scholar:  fa.  Leipzig,  11  Nov.  1688;  d.  Hamburg, 
30  April  1736.  He  was  versed  in  almost  every 
departmenl  of  human  knowledge,  particularly 
in  philology  and  ancient  literature,  and  under- 
stood the  art  of  using  these  stores  of  erudition 
to  the  greatest  advantage.  He  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  moral  philosophy  in  the  gymnasium 
Hamburw-      He    published    a    'Bibliotheca 


'Bibliotheca  Anti- 


entomologist 
Sehleswig,  7  Tan.  1745 ;  d.  Kiel,  3  March  1808. 
He  pursued  his  studies  at  Leyden,  Edinburgh 
and  Freiburg  in  Saxony  and  under  Linna;us  at 
Upsal.  His  works  upon  entomology  show  the 
pnnciples,  the  method  and  even  the  torms  of  ex- 
pression peculiar  to  Linnscus  applied  to  the  de- 
velopment of  a  new,  happy  and  fruitful  train 
of  ideas.  From  his  intercourse  with  him  he 
derived  his  first  notions  of  his  system  of  ar- 
ranging insects  according  to  the  organs  of  the 
mouth.  Fabridus  obtained  the  professorship  of 
natural  history  in  the  University  of  Kiel;  and 
in  1775  appeared  his  'Svstem  of  Entomology,' 
which  jrave  to  this  science  an  entirely  new 
form.  Two  years  afterward  he  developed  in  a 
second  work  the  characters  of  the  classes  and 
orders,  and  demonstrated  in  the  Proteqomena 
the  advantage?  of  his  method.  In  1778  he  pub- 
lished his  'Philosophia  Entomologica,'  written 
upon  the  plan  of  the  well-known  'Fhilosophia 
Botanica.' 


FABRIKOID,  a  material  consuting  of  a 
base  of  cotton  doth,  coated  with  a  tough,  flexi- 
ble material  and  embossed  by  steel  plates  or 
rolls  to  produce  the  appearance  and  feeling  of 
any  desired  natural  leather  graia  It  is  made 
in  various  grades,  colors,  widths  and  grains 
for  different  purposes.  It  is  used  for  the  up- 
holstery of  automobiles,  carriages,  furniture 
for  bookbinding,  suitcases,  purses,  novelties,  and 
in  general  for  all  classes  of  work  where  leather 
may  be  used,  such  as  wall  coverings,  trunk 
limngs,  etc.  Fabrikoid  is  waterproof,  washable 
and  non- absorbent,  and  has  the  pleasing  appear- 
ance of  the  best  leather.  It  is  manufactured  in 
rolls,  averaging  60  yards  in  length  and  36  to 
54  inches  in  width. 

FABRIZI.  fa-bret'se,  Nicola.  Italian  sol- 
dier: b.  Modena,  1804;  d.  1885.  In  1831  for  his 
part  in  the  Modena  insurrection  he  was  impris- 
oned. When  released  he  went  to  Marseilles  and 
with  Mazzini  organized  the  Savoy  expedition. 
He  went  to  Spain  and  took  part  in  the  Orlist 
wars  on  the  Liberal  side,  and  afterward  re- 
moved to  Malta.  In  1848  he  fomented  a  revo- 
lution in  conjunction  with  Cris^i  and  again  in 
1860.  He  joined  his  forces  with  Garibaldi  ai 
Palermo  and  by  the  latter  was  made  Minister  of 
War  and  governor  of  Messina.  Under  a 
United  Italy  Fabrizi  was  elected  to  the  Parlia- 
ment of  the  kingdom. 

FABRONI,  or  FABBRONI,  fa-bro'n^ 
Giovanni  Valentino  Mathias,  Italian  sdentist: 
b.  Florence,  13  Feb.  1752;  d.  Pisa,  17  De<L  1822. 
He  left  behind  him  a  considerable  number  of 
valuable  memoirs  and  treatises  on  matters  re- 
lating to  chemistry,  agriculture,  physioloe}',  etc, 
of  which  the  best  known  are  'Prowedimenti 
Annonarj';  his  'Discourses  on  National  Pros- 
perity' ;  on  'The  Equilibrium  of  Commerce, 
and  the  Establishment  of  Custom-houses';  on 
the  'Effects  of  the  Free  Traffic  in  Raw  Mate- 
rial*;  on  'Rewards  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Trade';  on  the  'Chemical  Action  of  Metals': 
on  the  'Value  and  Reciprocal  Proportion  of 
Coins';  on  the  'Scales  and  Steelyards  of  the 
Chinese,'  etc. 

Fj(BUI.A8  OF  TOmXS  DE  IRTARTE. 
In  spite  of  the  pronounced  fondness  of  the 
Spaniards  for  the  moralizing  and  the  aphoristic 
in  both  siKjken  and  written  expression,  the  table 
as  a  distinct  genre  did  not  come  to  its  own 
in  the  Spanish  language  until  the  18th  century. 
In  translations  of  both  Oriental  and  Occidental 
material  and  sooradically  in  this  or  that  literary 
work,  in  whicn  it  is  used  for  literary  purposes, 
the  apologue  material  appears  now  and  then 
from  Qie  Old  Spanish  period  down ;  but  as  a 
form  displaying  any  originality  of  treatment  it 
first  becomes  important  with  the  composition  of 
the  verse  fables  of  Tomas  de  Iriarte  (1750-91) 
and  of  F*lix  Maria  Samaniego  (1745-1801). 
While  Samaniego  draws  in  no  slight  degree 
upon  the  ^sopic  stock  and  does  not  hesitate  to 
utilize  also  the  Latin  Phsdrus,  the  Frenchman  La 
Fontaine,  and  the  Englishman  Gay,  Iriarte  shows 
far  more  independence  of  conception,  and  be- 
sides, as  the  very  title  of  his  work,  'Fabulas  liter- 
arias'  (1782),  suggests  he  has  not  Samaniego's 
purpose  of  edifying  the  world  at  large  but 
rather  the  restricted  drde  of  men  of  letters. 
Literary  criticism  is,  then,  the  compelling  mo- 
tive of  the  lessons  that  he  frames  and  s^ks  to 
inculcate.    He  has  the  set  aim  of  correcting 


jOOgIc 


FABULOUS   ANIMALS  —  FACIAL   NERVE 


through  the  ridicule  which  he  directs  upon 
them,  the  various  defects  from  which  Spitnisb 
literature  is  sutfenng.  To  do  this  he  has  no 
need  of  giving  free  rein  to  his  imagination ;  on 
the  contrary,  he  has  only  to  give  evidence  of  a 
sound  literary  judgment  expressed  in  an  easy 
and  correct  style  and  seasoned  with  a  delicate 
humor.  All  these  qualities  are  well  exhibited 
in  his  fables,  which,  moreover,  present  a  versi- 
fication of  a  nature  ever  varied  and  ever  har- 
monious. Iriarte's  abiding  fame  is  associated 
with  the  'Fibulas  literarias,'  but  it  is  worthy 
of  record  that  he  was  a  skilful  writer  of  com- 
edies, in  several  of  which  he  satirized  features 
of  the  social  life  of  his  time. 

J.  D.  M.  Fow). 

FABULOUS  ANIMALS.  See  Fable; 
Heraldry  1  Unicorn, 

FABVIER,  (a'vyS',  Charles  Nicolas,  Baion, 
French  general:  b.  Pont-a-Mous50n.  1782;  d. 
18SS.  In  1807  at  the  order  of  Bonaparte  he 
went  to  Constantinople  lo  strengthen  that  city's 
fortifications  in  vieiv  of  an  ir.ipending  attack 
by  a  British  fleet.  After  accomphshing  this 
task  he  organized  batteries  of  artillery  for  the 
defense  of  Ispahan  against  the  Russians.  In 
1811  he  was  with  Marmont  in  Spain  and  two 
years  later  became  a  member  of  the  general 
Staflt  with  the  rank  of  'colonel.  After  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  his  political  activ- 
ity soon  made  a  sojourn  in  England  more  de- 
sirable than  lo  remain  in  France,  and  in  1823 
he  went  to  Greece  and  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  infantry.  Reverses  at  Chios  and  at 
Athens  impaired  his  position  among  the  Greeks, 
and  he  returned  to  his  native  land  in  1829.  He 
was  named  Ambassador  to  Constantinople  in 
1848.  He  published  'Journal  des  operations 
du  VI,  corps  pendant  la  campagne  de  1814  en 
France'  (1819).  Consult  Debidour  <Le  giniral 
Fabvier,  sa  vie  et  ses  fcrits>  (Pans  1892);  id., 
'Fabvier  i  I'Acropole*  and  'Les  demi^res 
annees  due  General  Fabvier'  (in  'Sfances  et 
travaux  dc  I'Academie  des  sciences  morales  et 
politiques.'  Vols.  CLIX,  CLXI,  Paris  1903. 
1904). 

FABYAN,  or  FABIAN,  Robert,  English 
historian:  d.  1513.  He  was  a  member  ofthe 
Drapers'  Company  and  served  as  an  alderman 
of  London.  In  1516  was  published  his  'New 
Chronicles  of  England  and  France.'  He  began 
with  the  arrival  of  Brutus  and  continued  the 
histoty  down  to  the  battle  of  Bosworth  Field 
in  1465.  The  work  suffers  much  from  the 
author's  lack  of  scholarship,  Fabyan  is,  how- 
ever, valuable  for  his  accounts  of  the  London 
life  of  his  day.  Successive  chroniclers  con- 
tinued the  work  down  to  15S8,  Consult  the 
edition   by   Sir  Henry  ElUs    (London   1811). 

FACADE,  fa-sad'  (Fr.  «the  front  of  a 
building"),  the  face  or  front  of  any  building, 
particulariy  its  principal  face  or  faces;  gener- 
ally used  of  a  buildmg  of  magnitude  or  im- 
portance. A  back  elevation  is  termed  a  rear 
facade ;  a  side  elevation  a  lateral  facade.  See 
Abckitectuke. 

FACATATIVA,  fa'ka-ta'te-va',  ColotnHa, 
town  in  the  department  of  Cundinamarca,  20 
miles  northeast  of  Bogota.  Its  site  is  8,500  feet 
above  sea- level.  Facatativa  was  an  Indian 
fortress  before  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards. 
The  last  chief  of  the  Chibchas,  Triquesupa,  was 


killed  here  in  1538  b;r  one  of  Quesada's  soldiers. 
The  town  has  considerable  trade  with  Bogoti. 
Pop.  7,000. 

FACCIOLATI,  or  FACCIOLATO,  Ja- 
copo,  ya'k5-pw  fa-ch6-li'te  or  -to,  Italian  philol- 
ogist: b.  Toregia,  near  Padua,  4  Jan.  1682;  d. 
Padua,  26  Aug.  1769,  He  devotee!  the  greatest 
attention  to  reviving  the  study  of  ancient  litera- 
ture; and  accordingly  undertook  a  new  edition 
of  a  dictionary  in  seven  languages,  which  was 
called  the  <&lepin,'  from  the  name  of  its 
author,  the  monk  Ambrosius  Catepinus.  His 
pupil,  Forcellini,  assisted  him  and  the  work  was 
completed  between  1715  and  1719.  He  now,  in 
company  with  his  industrious  disciple,  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  a  Latin  lexicon,  in  which 
every  word,  with  all  its  significations,  should 
be  contained  and  illustrated  by  examples  from 
the  classical  writers,  after  the  manner  of  the 
dictionary  of  the  Cniscan  Academy,  This  im- 
mense undertaking  occupied  them  both  for' 
nearly  40  years.  Facciolati  directed  the  work, 
which  is  generally  regarded  as  having  been 
almost  entirely  executed  by  Forcellini.  He  left 
many'  Latin  discourses  which  are  characterized 

Z  Ciceronian  elegance  of  style,  but  differ  from 
:ir  model  by  a  precise  brevity. 

PACE.    See  Skull. 

FACE  WHEEL,  called  also  Contrate 
Wheel  and  Crown  Wheel,  a  wheel  which  has 
cogs  projecting  from  the  periphery  at  right 
angles  to  the  plane  of  motion;  as,  m  watches, 
the  wheel  situated  nearest  the  crown  and  driv- 
ing the  balance. 

FACKTLffi,  f*-Ee'shI-e  (Lat  "witticisms' ), 
a  collection  of  fatunoroua  sayings  or  tales, 
witticisms  and  jests.  Among  the  earliest  such 
is  that  known  as  'Asteia,*  ^nerally  attributed 
to  Hierocles.  Latin  collections  were  common 
in  the  later  Middle  Ages,  the  most  notable  being 
the  'Liber  Facetiarum'  (1470)  of  Poggio  Brac- 
ciolini. 

FACHAN,  or  PATSHAN,  China,  in  the 
province  of  Kwang-Tung,  on  the  Tu-Kiang, 
about  20  miles  west  by  south  of  Canton.  Its  iron 
and  steel  products  have  earned  for  it  the  name 
of  the  "Birmingham  of  China" ;  it  has  manu- 
factures also  of  cloth  and  silk,  bamboo  and 
rattan  articles,  embroideries  and  porcelain.  Its 
trade  is  in  manufactured  articles  and  the  agri- 
cultural products  of  the  surrounding  country. 
Pop.  450.000. 

FACIAL  ANGLE,  an  anatomical  term  for 
the  angle  contained  between  two  imaginary 
lines,  one  from  the  most  prominent  part  ol  the 
forehead  to  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
alveolar  process  of  the  upper  jaw,  opposite  to 
the  incisor  teeth;  the  other  from  the  external 
auditory  foramen  to  the  same  point,  serving 
to  measure  the  elevation  of  the  forehead.  The 
angle  is  of  great  service  in  ethnolo^,  but  its 
magnitude  is  not  an  infallible  criterion  of  the 
intellectual  capacity  of  an  individual.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Camper's  angle,  because  the 
celebrated  Dutch  anatomist  Camper  was  the 
first  to  draw  attention  to  the  importance  of 
this  method  of  skull  measurement. 

FACIAL  NERVE.  The  seventh  cranial 
nerve  in  the  cerebro -spinal  axis  forms  the  chief 
motor  nerve  of  the  face.  It  originates  in  a 
group  of  ganglion  cells  lying  in  the  floor  of  the 
fourth  ventricle  in   the   medulla.     The   fibres 


-gle 


FACIAL  NERTK  P ARAL YSI8  —  P ACTOR  ACTS 


pass  oat  Afoogh  die  tanpoial-bane 

tbe  side  of   the  auditOTy  nerve  in  tL_ 

of  the  car  caaal  and  are  finally  distributed  to 
the  chief  mnsdes  of  the  face.  Afiectiotu  of 
this  nerve  cause  partial  or  total  loss  of  power 
of  tibe  muscles  of  the  face  See  Facial 
Pasalysis. 

FACIAL  NERVE  PARALYSIS,  paiahr- 
tis  of  the  motor  aerve  which  contnds  the 
mascks  of  the  face.  The  para^is  may  ex- 
tend to  one  or  both  cheeks ;  but,  in  most  cases, 
when  the  cause  has  been  treated  recoveiy 
follows. 

FACIAL  NEURALGIA,  a  painful  aS«- 
tWD  involving  the  chief  sensory  aerve  of  tbe 
f..ce;  the  trigemiiud  or  fifth  ncrrc  This  neu- 
ralgia may  invtdve  any  of  the  branches  and, 
because  of  thdr  wide  distributicn  over  the 
shoulder,  back  of  the  neck,  scalp  and  face  may 
be  felt  m  a  niiniber  of  locatioas.  Very  fre- 
quently the  pain  is  in  tbe  jaw  and  is  due  to  dis- 
eased teeth,  toothache  being  a  form  of  neu- 
tatsia  of  this  nerve. 

The  pain  may  radiate  from  over  the  ortnt, 
constituting  supra-orWtal  oenralgia,  or  it  may 
be  distributed  over  the  back  of  the  head,  con- 
stituting occipital  neuralgia.  Oosuionalty  neu- 
latgia  of  the  &ftb  nerve  gives  rise  to  typical 
attacks  of  sick-beadache.  A  particular  varied 
which  is  extremely  severe  and  is  supposably  due 
to  disease  of  tbe  sensory  ganglia  of  the  fifdi 
nerve  is  known  as  tic-douloureuz.  Characteris- 
tic features  of  neuralgias  of  the  face  are  the 
sudden  shooting,  darting  pains,  usually  one- 
sided, unaccom^nied  with  other  constitutioiial 
disturbances.  The  cause  is  most  frequently  ex- 
posure to  cold  From  riding  on  the  tops  of 
omnibuses,  sitting  by  the  open  windows  of  rail- 
road cars,  or  by  any  open  window  with  a  draft 
blowing  through,  persons  are  very  frequently 
affected.  At  times  amemia,  gout  and  infection 
from  bad  teeth  occasion  facial  neuralgia. 

Treatment  will  depend  brgely  upon  the  ex- 
citing cause;  Heat,  gentle  massage,  simple  diet 
and  free  movements  of  the  bowds  are  general 
measures  to  be  carried  onL  Occasional  surgical 
intervention  is  necessary  to  cure  tic-douloureiix. 
The  medical  treatment  of  nenra^ias  of  the  face 
is  technical  and  involves  the  use  of  remedies 
diat  are  dangerous  in  the  hands  of  lairmen. 

FACIAL  PARALYSIS,  a  partial  or  total 
loss  of  power  in  the  muscles  of  the  face.  One 
side  of  tbe  face  alone  is  usually  affected. 
Paralysis  may  result  from  any  disease  of  or 
isjuiy  to  the  facial  nerve,  either  inside  of  the 
slrall  proper,  or  in  its  external  distribution. 
Paralysis  of  the  face  very  frequently  occurs  in 
apoplexies.  Here  the  disease  results  from  a 
disturbance  of  the  nerve  in  its  intracranial  por- 
tion. It  also  is  occasioned  by  disease  in  the 
middle  ear,  but  is  most  frequent  foUoiving  ex- 

Eosnre  to  cold,  during'  whidi  the  external 
ranches  are  involved.  This  latter  form  is 
mmed  Bell's  palsy  (q.v.).  The  symptoms  of 
facial  paralysis  may  vary  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  brandies  of  the  nerve  tlut  may  be  in- 
volved. In  a  complete  case  die  parabrzed  side 
is  flat  and  expressionless,  the  mouth  is  drawn 
toward  the  well  side,  making  the  well  side 
lode  as  though  it  were  contorted  and  diseased. 
The  patient  is  unable  to  whistle  and  may  not  be 
able  to  talk  very  clearly.  The  tongue  may  be 
protruded  toivard  the  vdk  side.    There  may  be 


inability  to  dose  tbe  eyelids.  Senaatkm  is  not 
involved.  When  the  patient  eats  he  may  not  be 
able  to  move  the  ttmgue  on  the  paral^pzed  side 
of  the  mouth  and  be  cannot  fill  otit  Ins  cbeda 
on  the  flat  ade.  Tbe  dectrical  reactions  of  tbe 
muscles  at  first  may  not  be  affected,  but  later 
what  is  known  as  die  reaction  of  d^eneratiMi 
sets  in.  Most  cases  of  facial  nar^ysis  doe  to 
periplieral  tnmble,  as  well  as  Bell's  palsy,  re- 
cover of  tbemsclvcs;  others,  due  to  bcmiidegia 
or  to  inflammation  of  the  middle  eaf  or  to 
fracture  of  tbe  sknll,  recover  less  freqnently. 

Treatment  is  by  means  of  tonics  —  iron, 
strychnine,  arsenic  and  electrictiy.  In  intract- 
able cases  surgical  aiustomons  with  odicr 
motor  nerves  may  prove  of  service. 

FACIAL  SPASM.    Sec  Tics. 

FACINGS,  Military.    See  Uiraaxxs. 

FACSIMILE,  fik-sTm^le,  as  exact  repro- 
duction or  likaicss,  as  of  handwriting,  printed 
bocdcs.  manuscripts,  etc 

FACTOR  (Lat  "a  maker").  (1)  An  agent 
or  substitute,  especially  a  steward  or  agent  of  an 
estate,  appointed  by  a  landowner  to  manage 
the  estate,  collect  rents,  let  lands,  etc.;  also  an 
agent  employed  by  merdiants  to  transact 
business  for  them  m  other  places,  as  to  buy 
and  seQ,  to  negotiate  bills  of  cxdiange,  etc. 
He  differs  from  a  broker  in  that  be  is  en- 
trusted with  the  possession  and  disposal  of  the 
goods,  property,  etc,  and  may  buy  and  sell  in 
his  own  name.  (Sw  AtaNT) .  (2)  In  arithmetic 
any  one  of  the  integers  the  product  of  which 
is  a  given  number.  A  prime  factor  is  a  factor 
which  is  also  a  prime  number.  (3)  In  algebra, 
any  one  of  the  quantities  wtiich,  when  multi- 
pbcd,  produce  a  given  algebraic  expressitm. 

FACTOR  ACTS.  A  term  applied  to  a 
nuiid>er  of  American  and  English  statutes  vali- 
dating sales,  pledges  and  other  badness  trans- 
actions of  factors  witli  booa-fide  porcfaasers, 
pledgees,  eto.  Among  the  Engjish  statutes  were 
those  enacted  in  18^  184%  1877  and  1889.  Tbe 
last-named  statnte  in  part  extends  tbe  former 
statutes  and  in  part  re-oiacts  them.  Uai^ 
statutes  having  practically  tiK  same  effect  as 
those  of  England  have  been  enacted  in  ibe 
United  States.  These  acts  were  deemed  neces- 
sary to  relieve  the  extreme  hardships  often 
resulting  from  tbe  application  of  the  common- 
law  doctrine  that  the  purchaser  buys  at  his 
peril,  the  vendor  ^ving  no  better  title  than  he 
has  himsdf.  This  frequently  resiUted  in  the 
perpetration  of  numerous  frauds  by  unscmpn- 
lous  persons  on  innocent  purchasers,  pledgees 
and  the  like.     By  tbe  terms  of   these  acts  any 

rit  having  possession  of  goods  or  the  biU 
lading;  warehouse  kenier's  certificate,  or 
other  document  of  title,  with  the  consent,  actual 
or  apparent,  of  the  real  owner,  should  be  deemed 
to  be  the  owner  of  tbe  goods  for  the  purpose 
of  validating  any  lien,  pledge  or  die  like,  made 
bona-fide  by  any  person  with  soch  agent  and 
for  payments  and  advances  made  on  Uie  secu- 
Hty  of  the  goods  or  evidences  of  tide  thereto.  It 
was  further  provided  by  some  of  these  acts 
that  such  contracts  were  to  be  tnnding  upon  the 
real  owner  of  the  goods  and  all  perK>ns  inter- 
ested therein,  even  if  tbe  purchaser,  pledgee 
or  tbe  like  was  aware  of  tbe  fact  that  the  per- 
scHi  with  whom  he  dealt  was  the  agent  and  not 
the  real  owner.     The  ti     '  '  '     ' 


>y  Google 


FACTOR   OF  8AFBTY— FACTORIES    AND  FACTORY  INSPBCTION 


lation,  both  in  Ensland  and  in  many  juritdic- 
tioRs  in  the  United  States,  is  toward  extending 
the  scope  of  the  law  in  tbe  direction  of  an 
entire  abrogation  of  the  common-law  doctrine 
on  the  subject  of  contracts  made  with  agents  or 
others  having  possession  of  personal  property 
or  evidences  ol  title  thereto  with  the  permis- 
sion, real  or  apparent,  of  the  owner.  The  prin- 
cipal by  these  statutes  is  compelled  to  use  cau- 
tion in  the  selection  of  persona  who  represent 
him  in  business  transactions,  as  ordinarily  third 
persons  dealing  bona-fide  with  such  represent- 
atives will  be  protected.  In  a  few  States,  bow- 
ever,  persons  dealing  with  agents,  knowing  them 
to  be  such,  will  not  be  protected-  In  a  number 
of  States  factor  acts  restrict  the  doctrine  to 
mercantile  transactions  and  in  other  States  the 
acts  provide  that  the  goods  must  have  been 
entrusted  to  the  agent  for  the  purpose  of  sale 
in  order  to  validate  contracts  made  in  relation 
thereto.  See  Agent;  Caveat  Emftok;  Factob. 
Edwabd  F,  Donovan. 

FACTOR  OF  SAFETY.  See  Stbencth 
OF  Matsuals. 

FACTORIES  AND  FACTORY  IN- 
SPECTION. The  American  factory  in  the 
early  days  of  the  Republic  was  an  outgrowth 
of  the  English  factory.  In  the  18th  century 
England  was  the  .centre  of  the  world's  mechan- 
ical progress^  She  manufactured  not  only  for 
Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  but  for  a  large 
part  of  the  rest  of  the  civilized  portions  of  the 
globe.  Early  emigrants  to  America  were  not 
allowed  to  bring  tools  and  machines  for  manu- 
facturing and  trie  laws  of  the  mother  country 
also  aimed  to  hold  skilled  workmen.  The  re- 
sult was  that  the  immigrant  weaver  who  sought 
to  follow  his  trade  in  the  New  World  when 
without  a  loom  built  one;  the  printer  who 
wished  to  issue  a  newspaper  had  to  build  his 
own  press ;  the  tanner  had  to  make  his  own 
vats  and  the  currier  to  fashion  his  own  beam- 
ing knife  and  table. 

Because  of  these  conditions  American  me- 
chanics had  to  build  largely  from  the  very 
foundation  and  thus  they  became  inventors  and 
designers  of  machinery  and  introduced  many 
improvements  that  otherwise  might  not  have 
seen  the  light  The  textile  industries  were  the 
first  to  develop  here ;  then  came  the  iron  mills, 
the  flour  and  grist  mills  and  the  machine  shops. 
At  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  in  1865  the  United 
States  was  a  land  of  small  shops,  with  here 
and  there  a  factory  of  modest  proportions. 
The  war  had  given  a  great  stimulus  to  the 
machine  shops  and  when  it  was  no  longer  nec- 
essary to  turn  out  rifles  and  cannon,  the  ma- 
chine men  turned  their  attention  to  the  mechan- 
isms of  peace.  The  reaper,  the  sewing-machine, 
the  locomotive,  the  prmting- press,  the  paper- 
machine,  the  roller-mill  for  flour  and  a  thou- 
sand other  mechanisms  were  developed  and 
perfected  and  the   shops   grew  into    factories 


factories  of  all  kinds,  thousands  of  which  have 
grown  to  enormous  proportions.  New  York 
City  alone  has  over  10.000  factories  and  the 
'Industrial  Directory  of  New  York  State'  is 
a  book  of  787  pages.  In  1916  there  were  28S,- 
000  factories  in  the  United  States,  of  which 
46,000  were  in  New  York  State.  The  factory 
has  become  the  backbone  of  our  Western  civili- 


zation. Here  work  is  reduced  to  a  scientific 
system  and  goods  are  manufactured  at  a  frac- 
tion of  the  cost  of  former  times.  If  the  public 
pays  as  much  for  some  things,  it  is  because  they 
demand  so  much  better  than  formerly.  The 
culmination  of  success  in  factory  production 
is  seen  in  the  automobile.  A  better  automobile 
is  sold  to-day  for  less  than  $400  than  could  be 
bought  in  1906  for  $1,500. 

Factory  methods  have  become  so  perfected 
in  this  country  that  construction  engineers  now 
make  a  specialty  of  factory  buildings,  usually 
confining  themselves  to  one  or  more  lines  of 
industry  and  lay  out  the  new  buildings  from 
the  very  foundations  according  to  the  most 
approved  practice.  Starting  with  the  principle 
that  the  cube  gives  the  most  working  space  for 
the  least  cost  of  enclosure,  the  factory  engineers 


best  advantage,  that  the  different  departments 
may  move  the  unfinished  work  in  the  least 
wasteful  manner  and  have  the  best  conditions 
for  good  and  rapid  production.  The  sanitation 
and  comfort  of  employees  receives  marked 
attention,  as  the  principle  is  now  well  established 
that  it  pays  the  factory  to  keep  the  good  will 
of  its  help. 

The  human  element  of  the  factory  receives 
Quite  as  much  attention  as  the  mechanicaL 
Efficiency  engineers  have  studied  this  problem 
from  every  angle  and  all  large  factories  that 
pretend  to  scientific  management  now  give  close 
attention  to  methods  of  inspiring  the  workers 
to  ^et  results.  Experimental  departments  are 
maintained  to  improve  the  machinery  and  proc- 
esses. Elaborate  systems  of  cost-finding  and 
scientific  estimating  are  common.  Specialists 
are  found  everywhere  in  all  kinds  of  Jactoriej, 
improving  and  systematizing,  and  there  appears 
to  be  no  end  of  development  of  these  huge 
working  machines,  built  up  of  combinations 
of  men  and  machines  all  working  toward  the 
common  end  of  turning  out  the  largest  quan- 
tity of  a  ^ven  product  of  the  best  quality  in 
the  least  time. 

English  Factory  Development.—  By  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century  tbe  first  English 
factory,  in  the  present  sense  of  the  word  was 
built  by  Lombe  Brothers,  It  was  a  silk-mill  and 
the  first  in  which  the  motive  power  was  sup- 
plied from  the  outside  and  machinery  did  the 
work  heretofore  supplied  by  human  hands. 
The  power  used  was  a  water  wheel.  Ark- 
wrighl  came  to  the  front  with  his  water-frame, 
so-called,  because  water  was  the  motive  yower. 
There  began  a  rapid  development  in  spinning 
machines,  which  were  first  applied  to  cotton,  ana 
in  this  industry  we  have  toe  explanation  bow 
the  earlier  triumphs  of  the  factory  system  were 
won.  In  the  beginning  of  the  19tli  century,  the 
modem  factory  system  became  established  and 
the  child-labor  question  arose.  As  the  mills  were 
first  established  by  the  streams,  so  that  wheels 
might  be  moved  by  water  power,  it  often  hap- 
pened that  labor  could  not  be  had  in  the  vicin- 
1^.  Application  was  made  to  the  almshouse  for 
children  who  were  indentured  or  bound  out  af 
a  fixed  rate  and  for  a  certain  length  of  time. 
Forced  to  work  whether  sick  or  well,  often  16 
hours  a  day  and  given  nothing  for  breakfast 
hut  water  porridge,  these  children  were  visited 


FACTORIES    AND   FACTORY   INSPECTION 


wilh  serious  epidemics  and  the  attention  of  the 
public  was  thus  aroused.  In  1802  the  first  fac- 
tory act  for  the  'Preservation  of  the  health  and 


manufacturers  of  that  lime.  All  mills  employing 
three  or  more  apprentices,  or  20  other  persons, 
were  subject  to  this  act  The  most  important 
clause  was  that  which  fixed  12  hours  as  a  work- 
ing day  and  prohibited  work  altogether  from  9 
P.M.  to  6  A.M. 

First  Unitfd  States  Cotton  Factory^  In 
the  earlier  years  of  the  factory  in  the  United 
States,  each  home  had  its  spindles  and  loom  to 
fill  the  needs  of  its  own  members,  the  flax  and 
cotton  being  grown,  spun  and  woven  by  the  in- 
dividual householder,  or  the  slaves  on  the 
plantalions.  England  frowned  upon  all  manu- 
factures in  her  colonies  and  would  allow  no 
machinery  or  parts  of  machinery  to  be  brought 
to  them.  However  it  could  not  fetter  the  brain, 
nor  forbid  the  inventive  genius;  and  Sialler  and 
his  associates,  who  came  to  America  in  the 
latter  part  of  1700,  brought  with  them  the 
knowle^e  which  in  1803  built  in  Massachusetts 
flic  first  American  cotton-milL  The  first  mill 
to  take  cotton  in  its  crude  state  and  pass  it 
flirough  the  different  processes  to  the  woven 
cloth  was  erected  in  Walthain,  Mass.,  in  1813. 
The  first  &pe  foundry  was  built  in  Philadelphia 
in  1794.  The  first  glass-house  was  constructed 
in  Pittsburgh  in  1796.  Other  factories  followed 
in  rapid  succession  between  1796  and  1810. 

Inspection  Began  in  England.— The  first 
factory  inspection  law  was  adopted  in  England 
about  the  beginning  of  the  19th  centuiy,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  agitation  caused  by  epidemics  among 
children  and  women  in  factories,  but  it  was  n6t 
until  1819  that  the  law  was  made  effective. 
The  abuses  became  so  great  that  the  govern- 
ment was  at  last  compelled  to  interferi;  in  ihe 
interests  of  humanity.  This  began  by  asserting 
the  right  of  the  state  to  control  industrial  es- 
tablishments where  women  and  children  were 
employed,  but  this  necessarily  involved  the 
freedom  of  men  in  making  contracts.  The  law 
was  intended  more  particularly  to  meet  the  evils 
of  the  apprentice  system,  but  it  did  not  extend 
to  factories,  where  children  residing  in  the 
neighborhood  were  employed.  From  time  to 
time  this  act  has  been  amended  and  the  aulhor- 
ity  of  government  extended,  so  as  to  make  it 
generally  effective  for  the  protection  of  all  labor. 
It  was  thus  in  England  that  the  value  of  factory 
inspection  was  first  determined  by  experience. 
Subsequently  it  was  introduced  into  America. 
Massachusetts  was  the  first  American  State  to 
adopt  a  law  of  that  character. 

To-day  there  are  factory  laws  in  the  United 
State?  based  on  the  Massachusetts  laws,  for  the 
examination  and  approval  of  plans  of  factories 
and  tenement- houses,  also  for  proper  fire-fight- 
ing, means  of  egress  and  sanitary  provisions; 
regulating  the  employment  of  labor  of  women 
and  minors  in  manufacturing,  mechanical  and 
mercantile  establishments  and  workshops; 
guarding  of  machinery;  the  construction  of 
safety  appliances  of  elevatorsj  ventilation  of 
factories  and  woiltshops ;  provision  of  toilet  con- 
veniences for  the  use  of  each  sex  employed  in 
factories  and  workshops  and  various  other  sani- 
tary regulations;  uniform  hours  for  meals  for 
women  and  young  persons;  communication  be- 
tween the  engineer's  room  and  each  room  where 


machinery  is  run  by  steam ;  proper  safeguards  at 
hatchways,  elevator  openings  and  well-holes  ia 
public  buildings,  factories  and  mercantile  estab- 
lishments; competent  watchmen  and  red  lights 
in  hotels;  prohibiting  during  working  hours  the 
locking  of  any  inside  or  outside  door  of  any 
building  where  operatives  are  employed;  weekly 
payment  of  wages;  and  sundry  other  matters; 
the  granting  of  licenses  to  make,  alter,  repair  or 
finish  coals,  vests,  trousers  or  wearing  apjrarel 
of  any  description  in  a  room  or  apartment  in  a 
tenement  or  dwelling  house-  the  examination  of 
engineers  and  firemen  and  the  inspection  of 
boilers,  granting  of  licenses  and  steam  power  to 
be  used.  Women  are  protected  by  law  from 
overwork  by  their  employers  and  children  are 
excluded  from  factories  until  of  proper  age  and 
Massachusetts  has  been  from  the  first,  and  con- 
tinues to  be,  in  the  advance  in  factory  inspec- 
tion and  under  this  system  her  industrial  estab- 
lishments have  become  models  tor  all  the  other 
States.  It  is  a  marked  illustration  of  what  such 
a   law   accomplishes    for   a   community. 

The  New  York  State  Department  of  Labor 
has  a  Bureau  of  Factory  Inspection  and  sends 
out  a  large  force  of  inspectors  to  see  that  the 
laws   for  the  protection   of  employees   are  en- 

Intemational  Association  of  Factory  In- 
Bpection,—  The  InternationaF  Association  of 
Factory  Inspection  was  organized  at  Philadel- 
phia in  1686  and  includes  Canada  and  the  Slates 
of  Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut 
Maine,  Michi^n,  Ohio,  Minnesota,  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  Missouri  and  Indiana.  Elach  of 
these  several  Slates  holds  an  annual  convention 
of  its  inspectors,  who  meet  to  compare  notes 
of  their  work  for  the  year  and  as  their  pro- 
ceedings are  made  public,  each  State  may  know 
the  advancement  the  oUier  is  m^ng  in  its 
labor  laws. 

In  1876  an  act  was  passed  in  Massachusetts 
prohibiting  the  employment  of  children  under 
10  years  of  age.  In  1883  the  limit  was  extended 
by  providing  that  no  child  under  12  years  of 
age  should  be  employed  during  the  hours  in 
which  the  public  schools  were  in  session.  In 
1898  the  limit  was  raised  to '  14  years,  pro- 
viding that  no  child  under  !4  years  of  age  can 
be  employed  at  any  time  in  a  factory,  workshop 
or  mercantile  establishment  and  no  child  under 
16  years  of  age  can  be  employed  in  a  factory, 
workshop  or  mercantile  establishment  unless 
the  employer  procures  and  keeps  on  file  a  cer- 
tificate and  posts  near  the  principal  entrance  a 
list  of  all  such  children  employed  States  that 
have  adopted  the  factory  inspection  system  have 
similar  child  labor  laws,  differing  as  to  Iheir 
age,  to  the  age  limit  when  they  can  be  employed. 

The  Fifty-Eight-Hoor-Law. —  In  ihc  State 
of  Massachusetts  children  under  18  years  and 
women  cannot  be  legally  employed  more  than  58 
hours  iri  a  week  in  a  factory,  workshop  or  mer- 
cantile eslablishment  and  every  employer  must 
post  in  a  conspicuous  place  the  number  of  work- 
ing hours  each  day  of  the  week,  the  hours  al- 
lowed for  meals,  the  hours  when  starling  and 
stopping  work  and  it  becomes  a  part  of  the  in- 
spector's business  to  see  that  this  is  faithful^ 
complied  with.  This  has  been  the  law  of  the 
State  since  1894.  Other  States  have  enacted 
similar  legislation. 

In  1912  the  United  States  Congress  estab- 


.lOOglc 


PACTORIBS    AHD   FACTORY   INSPECTION 


liahed  a  ConunisaiDn  on  liKbistrial  RehtioiM  to 
look  into  conditions  in  the  principal  industries 
of  the  country  and  to  report  upon  all  the  prob- 
lems growing  out  o£  the  factory  system.  There 
is  also  a  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Sta- 
tistics and,  in  1916,  40  of  the  States  maintained 
labor  bureaus,  many  of  which  pattern  their 
work  after  ihe  Massachusetts  Board  of  Labor 
and  Industries.  Eight-hour  laws  now  exist  in 
nearly  all  the  States,  providing  for  a  limit  of 
eight  hours  in  work  for  State  and  in  somi.  oc- 
cupations, as  mining. 

Sanitary  Prorislona  in  Factories  and 
WorkshoiM.-- The  laws  of  most  States  now 
provide  the  most  rigid  sanitary  regulatJons  in 
the  interest  of  comfort.  deceoCT  and  health. 
TTiese  relate  to  factories,  workshops,  mercan- 
tile establishments,  offices,  schoolbouses  and 
public  buildings.  It  is  required  that  these 
buildings  shall  be  kept  free  from  all  effluvia 
arising  from  drains  and  that  they  shall  have  a 
proper  number  of  water-closets  provided  for 
persons  of  each  sex.  It  is  also  provided  that 
daring  working  hours  these  buildings  shall  be 
ventilated,  that  the  air  may  not  become  inju- 
rious lo  the  health  of  the  persons  employed 
therein.  It  also  provides  that  all  dust  from  the 
grinding  or  polishing  of  metals  be  carried  away 
through  suction  pipes. 

The  Inspection  of  Boilers  and  Ea|;lneer8' 
Licenses. —  The  Massachusetts  law  which  has 
been  copied  in  many  States  provides  that  °It 
shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  have  charge 
of,  or  to  operate  a  steam-boiler  or  engine,  ex- 
cept boilers  and  engines  of  locomotive  motor- 
road  vehicles,  boilers  in  private  residences,  in 
apartment  houses  of  less  than  five  flats,  boilers 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States, 
boilers  used  for  agricultural  purposes  exclu- 
sively, boilers  of  less  than  eight  horsepower 
and  boilers  used  for  heating  purposes,  limiting 
the  pressure  to  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
other   than   these   boilers   above   excepted;   the 


appointed  for  this  duty,  who  are  expert  eiigi- 

The  Sweatshop  System.— With  the  intro- 
duction of  the  sweating  system  in  the  United 
States  came  a  revolution  in  the  clothing  indus- 
try which  has  left  in  its  wake  destruction  and 
poverty;  for  prior  to  the  introduction  of  this 
S3rstem  there  was  not,  as  a  class,  a  better-paid 
people  than  those  en^ged  in  the  ready-made 
clodiing  trade.  Looking  backward  only  a  few 
years  we  have  the  recollecton  of  a  movemeiit  in 
sympathy  with  a  people  who  were  bein^  driven 
from  Russia  and  other  European  counlnes.  The 
first  duty  upon  arrival  was  to  procure  means  to 
provide  food  and  shelter  for  themselves  and 
families,  and,  being  without  funds,  the  task  be- 
came a  very  complicated  one.  The  inducement 
to  learn  a  good  trade  was  freely  offered  them, 
provided  they  would  work  cheap  enough  to  war- 
rant a  sufiident  return  for  the  knowledge  be- 
stowed upon  them.  The  custom  in  vogue  was 
that  the  apprentice  should  give  from  one  to 
three  monms  at  very  small  pay,  giving  from  12 
to  16  hours  as  a  day's  work.  The  profit  lo 
contractors  employing  this  class  of  help  was, 
of  course,  enormous.  The  immense  amount  of 
available  labor,  of  this  class,  has  been  di- 
verted to  a  new  method  of  employment 
which     is     called     the     task     system,     and 


to  which  the  term  "sweating**  system  was 
aptly  applied.  The  sweatit^  system,  if  con- 
ducted in  workshops  located  in  buildings  de- 
voted exclusively  to  raaimfacturing  purpoees, 
would  never  have  obtained  its  preseat  promi- 
nence in  the  public  mind;  but  the  competition 
between  the  employers  of  labor  under  this  sys- 
tem resulted  in  a  complete  revision  of  condi- 
tions; cheaper  shops  were  secured;  large  quan- 
tities of  work  per  day  were  imposed  upon  the 
employed,  tmtil  finally  the  tenement  of  the  con- 
tractor was  made  to  answer  the  double  purpose 
of  home  and  shop.  The  crowded  condition  of 
these  tenements,  hardly  sufficiently  large  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  family,  was  increased  by 
the  addition  of  the  help  to  be  employed.  All 
traces  of  home  privacy  were  obliterated,  sani- 
tary conditions  became  unmentionable,  filth  and 
disease  abounded  and  the  health  of  the  public 
became  endangered.  When  these  conditions 
were  made  plain  to  the  people,  fear  overcame 
them  and  appeals  to  the  State  legislature  for 
the  prevention  of  this  system  of  manufacture 
were  made.  These  appeals  led  to  the  enact- 
ment of  laws  tending  to  restrict  the  manufac- 
ture of  clothing  in  tenement-houses.  The  first 
law  enacted,  like  most  which  tend  to  elevate  the 
condibons  of  those  who  are  oUiged  to  labor  for 
their  living,  emanated  from  the  legislature  of 
Massachusetts.  This  law  provided  that  any 
bouse,  room  or  place,  used  as  a  dwelling  and 
also  used  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing, 
should,  within  the  meaning  of  the  law,  be 
deemed  a  workshop.  The  law  defines  a  work- 
shop as  meaning  any  premises,  room  or  place 
wherein  manual  labor  is  exercised  by  way  of 
trade,  or  for  purposes  of  gain,  but  the  exercise 
of  such  labor  in  a  private  house  by;  the  family, 
if  a  majority  of  the  persons  therein  employed 
are  members  of  such  family,  shall  not  consti- 
tute a  workshop.  The  law  also  contained  a  pro- 
vision which  was  intended  to  prevent  the  im- 
portation into  the  Slate  of  garments  whidi  had 
been  made  under  unhealthful  conditions  and 
this  was  enforced  until  similar  laws  were  en- 
acted in  other  States,  particularly  in  the  State 
of  New  York,  from  which  the  majority  of  this 
class  of  clothing  was  produced.  The  law  also 
provides  that  any  family  desiring  to  do  the  work 
of  making,  repairing  or  finishing  any  coats, 
vests,  trousers  or  wearing  apparel  of  any  de- 
scription, in  any  room  or  apartment,  in  any  tene- 
ment or  dwelling  house,  shall  first  procure  a 
license,  approved  by  the  chief  of  the  inspection 
department  Every  room  or  apartment  in  which 
any  garments  are  made  shall  be  subject  to  the 
inspection  satA  examination  of  the  inspectors, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  the 
rooms  or  apartments  are  clean  and  free  from 
any  contagious  nature.  If  the  inspector  finds 
evidence  of  infections  disease  present  he  shall 
report  to  the  local  board  of  health. 

The  laws  of  many  States  require  that  no 
building  which  is  designed  to  be  used  above  the 
second  stoiy  as  a  factory,  or  workshop,  or  mer- 
cantile or  other  establi^ment  and  has  accom- 
modations for  10  or  more  above  the  second 
story,  and  no  building  more  than  two  stories  in 
heif^t,  shall  be  erected  until  a  copy  of  the  plans 
thereof  has  been  deposited  with  the  Inspectors. 
Such  buildings  shall  not  be  erected  without  suf- 
ficient egress  or  other  means  of  escape  from 
fire,  properly  located  and  consttucted.  Such 
inspector  may  require  that  proper  appliances 


V.Google 


PACTORY  ACTS.PACTOIIY  HAMAOBMaMT 


of  fin 

FACTORY  ACTS.  See  Ciiiu>-LAa»; 
Laiok  Legislatiok. 

FACTORY      CONSTRUCTION.        See 

Building  Laws. 

FACTORY  HANAGSHENT.  There 
are  two  accepted  uses  of  the  word  "factory,' 
the  meaning  in  any  given  case  depending  lately 
on  the  context,  and  the  term  'Factory  manage- 
ment' similarly  partakes  of  this  usage.  As 
commonly  used  toe  term  ^factory*  is  under- 
stood to  mean  a  group  of  elements  made  up  of 
land  and  buildings,  capital  and  credit^  equip- 
ment and  men,  comprising  what  is  known  as 
die  modem  factory  or  establishment  for  the 
conversion  of  raw  materials  into  goads  for 
sale.  Factory  management  in  this  sense  is, 
therefore,  the  organizing  and  directing  of  men 
and  materials  for  the  production  of  goods 
through  the  medium  of  the  factory. 

The  broader  use  of  the  term,  however,  in- 
cludes any  group  of  non-self -directing  em- 
ployees under  the  control  of  their  employer, 
and  it  is  so  used  particularly  in  reference  to 
the  series  of  problems  arising  wherever  condi- 
tions of  grouped  labor  obtain  —  in  the  rail- 
road gang,  the  army,  the  construction  crew  — 
condiuons  reaching  their  climax  in  what  we  are 
familiar  with  as  ine  modem  factory.  We  may, 
therefore,  encounter  factory  conditions  and 
factory  problems  in  fighting  forest  fires,  for 
instance  though  in  no  sense  would  a  grotip 
of  fire  fighters  be  termed  a  factory.  But  it  is 
jtwt  this  broader  use  of  the  term  which  must 
not  be  overlooked,  for  it  implies  considera- 
tions of  peculiarly  far-reaching  importance  to 
the  factory  manager  of  to-day.  For  under 
present  day  factory  conditions  we  encounter  a 
complexity  of  relations  and  problems  undreamed 
of  a  few  years  ago,  and  in  order  that  the  aims, 
and  the  end^  and  the  methods  of  modem  in- 
dustrial or  factory  management  may  be  the 
more  readily  appreciated,  it  is  necessary  first 
to  consider  some  of  the  fundamenUl  problems 
which  must  be  faced  by  those  engaged  in  in- 
dustry to-day.  The  massing  of  workers,  the 
special  ixat  ion  of  processes  and  the  minute  sub- 
dtvision  of  labor,  the  economic  dependence  of 
the  employee  on  the  emplOTcr,  the  aggregation 
of  capital  and  nlant,  and  the  keen  competition 
in  a  world  maiket  —  all  conditions  brought  on 
directly  by  the  industrial  revolution  and  its 
succeeding  developments  —  and  finallv  with 
the  more  general  dissemination  of  eaucation 
among  the  woricers  themselves  the  growing  in- 
sistence that  labor  have  an  increased  participa- 
tion in  the  operation  and  fruits  of  industry  — 
the  problems  presented  through  these  factors 
are  all  distinctly  modern  problems  reauiring 
distinctly  modem  methods  of  attack  and  solu- 
tion. Some  of  the  broader  aspects  of  each  of 
diese  factors  will  be  briefly  discussed. 

The  Haairinc  of  Worken.— The  very  act 
of  bringing  together  a  large  number  of  em- 
ployees bnngs  with  it  entirely  new  problems. 
With  a  gmup  of  half  a  dozen  workers  we  en- 
counter certain  problems;  multiply  this  number 
by  hundreds  or  even  thousands,  and  our  prob- 
lems immeasurably  increase  not  only  in  d^ree 
but  also  in  kind.  With  any  a^fregation  of 
persons  for  any  purpose  we  encounter  the  p^- 


cholop  of  the  crowd  —  the  aomcthing  within 
us  whidi  arises  when  we  become  one  of  a  throng 
and  which  may,  upon  provocation,  devehip  into 
the  spirit  of  the  mob.  In  the  case  of  industry, 
however,  to  these  psychological  considerations 
"  ,  third:  th  "  " 


t  be  added  i 


n-self -directing 


of  the  mere  ph^ical  handling  and  direction 
of  our  force.  Taken  together,  tiiese  factors 
underlie  many  of  the  extremely  delicate  and 
far-reaching  problems  of  organization  and  of 
management  which  the  factory  manager  of  to- 
day must  face.  What  arc  to  be  the  relations 
of  the  group  as  a  whole  to  each  indtvidnal,  to 
each  superior  and  to  the  firm  as  an  individual? 
What  form  of  organization,  how  administered 
will  best  serve  the  true  interests  of  eai^  of 
these  bodies — employer  and  employed?  The 
simple  organization  of  the  small  one-man  busi- 
ness will  no  longer  suffice.  How,  in  the  more 
complex  organization,  can  there  be  main- 
tained the  deurable  personal  contact,  free- 
dom of  action  and  play  of  individual  initia- 
tive, together  with  the  submission  to  authoi^ 
i^  necessary  wherever  men  are  grouped  to- 
gether for  profitable  production  ?  These  and 
scores  of  similar  questions  of  organiation  and 
of  management  present  themaelves  for  solution 
tbe  moment  we  bring  together  large  nnmbers 
of  individuals  for  any  inoustrial  purpoie. 

The  Spedaliaatioa  of  Proceuea^— It  is 
sometimei  said  that  die  minute  sabdtvision  of 
labor  resulting  from  advanced  qtedalixation  of 
processes  is  all  wrong,  and  mat  we  should 
return  more  nearly  to  handicraft  work.  To 
what  extent  is  thu  claim  well  founded,  and 
how,  if  at  all,  do  the  interects  of  the  individual 
and  of  society  at  large  and  in  the  long  run 
conflict  in  any  solution  which  may  be  evolved? 
On  the  one  hand,  through  die  emertneas  which 
results  with  specialization  of  labor,  and 
throng  ^e  increased  use  of  machinery,  goods 
are  more  cheaply  produced.  Sooner  or 
later  the  selling  ^rice  must  thereupon 
be  lowered,  resulting  in  turn  in  an  increased 
demand  for  the  product.  This  increased  de- 
mand  must  be  supplied  by  additional  labor, 
which  reacts  beneficially  on  the  woricer  eiflier 
through  more  constant  employment  at  die  sane 
wages  or  through  the  same  amount  of  employ- 
ment at  higher  wages.  SocJety  at  large  of 
course  also  benefits.  On  the  other  hantL  m 
certain  industries  and  fdr  comparatively  short 
periods  of  time  the  individual  workers,  upon 
the  sudden  introduction  of  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery, have  suffered  throngli  being  thrown  oat 
of  employment  and  through  bebig  unable  to 
secure  new  work  or  work  to  wfaidt  diey  could 
a<k.pt  themselves.  Here  society  at  large  and  in 
the  long  run  benefits  at  the  expense  of  Ae 
individual.  It  may  at  least  be  fairly  said  that 
diere  arc  elements  both  of  strength  and  of 
weakness  in  the  modem  factory  system  of  pro- 
dnction,  and  if  so,  how  are  we  to  preserve  the 
strong  points  and  at  the  same  time  eliminate  the 
dangers  of  this  method?  Is  it,  or  is  it  not,  a 
fact  that  there  is  and  of  neceswty  must  be 
monotony  in  industry?  That  there  if  ro  many 
cases  seems  indisputable,  but  how  about  the 
necessity  of  it —  are  not  ways  beins  found,  and 
may  there  not  be  other  ways  found  to  alleviate 
and  in  cases  to  eliminate  monotony,  secure  the 
advantages  of  hi^  spedatizstion  of  labor,  and 


>y  Google 


FACTORY  HANAOKUrarr 


at  the  same  time  retain  free  scope  for  indi- 
viduaJity  and  persona.!  initiative?  Such  meas- 
ures as  the  inteTchange  of  work  and  workers, 
the  establishment  of  definite  and  proper  asks 
of  short  duration  and  the  payment  of  a  bonus 
for  accompLshment  of  each,  allowing  and  ex~ 
pecting  on  the  part  of  each  operative  a  more 
detailed  knowledge  of  each  step  in  the  processes 
in  which  he  is  engaged,  the  various  industrial 
partnership  and  profit  sharing  plans,  the  sug- 
gestion box  and  welfare  work  —  such  measures 
and  many  others  may  play  their  part  here.  These 
considerations,  tc^ether  with  the  very  recently 
widespread  extension  of  fatigue  studies,  form 
a  comparatively  open  field  m  the  realm  of 
industry. 

Tb«  Economic  Dependmce  of  the  Bm- 
ployee. —  Grave  social  problems  arise  throu^ 
the  economic  dependence  of  the  employee  on 
his  employer.  Previous  to  the  industrial  revo- 
lution the  apprentice  or  journeyman  who  had 
saved  up  a  few  dollars  or  who,  in  absence  of 
these,  had  attached  to  himself  a  few  r^ular 
customers,  could  withdraw  from  his  employer 
ajid  set  up  in  business  for  himself.  With  the 
introduction  of  machinery  and  its  accompany- 
ing demands,  however,  all  this  was  chaneed; 
he  could  then  no  longer  work  for  himself  at 


of  capitalj  or  the  knowledge  of  all  technical 
processes  mvolved,  with  which  to  start  his  busi- 
ness, and  be  must  perforce  join  the  masses  of 
hired  workers  dependent  on  the  capitalistic  en- 
trepreneur. This  change  brought  with  it  actual  or 
implied  obligations  on  the  part  of  the  em- 
ployer, with  corresponding  ooligations  on  the 
part  of  the  emploj^ee.  Foremost  among  the 
former  was  the  social  obligation  of  paying  ^t 
least  a  living  wage  — unfortunately  not  always 
translated  into  action.  Regularity  of  employ- 
ment was  another  obligation.  Proper  working 
hours  comprised  an  obhntion  notoriously  cnner- 
looked  until  recently.  The  obligation  of  the 
worker  as  well  as  of  the  employer  in  regard 
to  the  determination  of  a  proper  day's  work 
and  a  pro^r  day's  pay  is  constantly  claiming 
the  attention  of  the  mdustrial  world.  Then 
how  far  beyond  the  providing  of  the  bare 
necessities  of  life  does  the  employer's  duty 
extend?  The  attempt  to  answer  this  question 
lounges  us  at  once  almost  hopelessly  into  the 
realms  of  reasonable  costs  and  justifiable 
profits,  of  relative  abilities  and  commensurate  re- 
wards, of  standards  of  Iivin((  and  opportunities 
for  advancement  The  paying  of  at  least  a 
living  wa^e,  however,  the  maintenance  of 
proper  worlnng  conditions,  accident  insurance 
anti  the  prevention  of  accidents  and  the  pro- 
vision for  open  channels  for  advancement  — 
all  these  and  many  other  duties  which  the 
employee  can  little  effect,  devolve  as  social  obli- 

Slons  upon  the  management  rather  than  upon 
men,  due  simply  to  the  relative  economic 
positions  of  the  two.  It  is  correspondinfjly  in- 
cumbent upon  the  employee  to  give  his  em- 
plovtT  honest  and  whole-hearted  co-OI)eration 
ana  aimibrly  to  refrain  from  using  unjust^  to 
&e  detriment  of  the  management  any  power 
he  may  possess  or  obtain  throu^  collective 


some  modem  industrial  problems  viewed  par- 


ticularly from  the  standpoint  of  the  employee. 
No  less  vital  questions  arise  in  the  case  of  the 
employer.  The  very  increase  in  size  of  olant 
and  consequently  in  amount  of  cajntal  involved, 
bring  forth  organization  and  managerial  prob- 
lems and  policies  only  distinctly  reUted  to  any 
questions  of  human  relations.  The  mere  act  of 
keeping  the  wheels  in  motion  smoothly  re- 
quires orgimization  and  ^stem  to  a  degree  un- 
known previous  to  the  development  of  modem 
methods  of  production.  Add  to  this  the  keen, 
worldwide  competition,  involving  as  this  does  the 
necessity  of  operating  at  a  high  efficiency  in 
order  to  be  able  to  survive  in  mdustry  at  all, 
and  it  must  necessarily  follow  that  these  com- 

Elex  modem  requirements  of  production  must 
G  met  by  complex  modem  methods  of  manage- 
ment Where  shall  my  plant  be  erected  and 
bow  shall  it  be  laid  out;  what  is  the  minimum 
amount  of  equipment  and  labor  necessary;  how 
shall  my  business  be  organized  and  admin- 
istered; what  system  of  controlling  each  of  the 
innumerable  plant  activities  shall  1  use?  Am 
I  producing  more  cheaply  than  my  competitors 
but  losing  money  on  the  whole  because  my 
methods  of  buying  or  selling  are  archaic? 
What  means  of  increasing  production  or  de- 
creasing coats  with  a  given  amount  of  labor 
and  equipment  may  1  take,  and  what  are  the 
interacting  effects  of  these  methods  upon  the 
larger  questions  suggested;  bow  shall  I  deal 
with  my  employees,  both  individualW  and 
collectively,  in  order  to  attain  the  industrial 
ends  of  economical  production,  sate  at  a  profit 
and  growth  to  the  point  of  diminishing  returns 
with  maximum  prosperity  for  employer  and 
employed?  From  among  the  scores  of  dif- 
ferent ways  in  which  each  of  these  problems 
may  be  answered,  how,  for  my  particular  case, 
am  I  to  know  and  to  utilize  the  one  best  way? 
It  is  upon  this  phase  of  the  broader  industnal 
problems  —  the  technique  of  production  and 
distribution  —  that  a  large  part  of  the  more 
recent  literature  on  the  so-called  "efficiency 
movement'  has  been  written.  It  is  significant 
that  Frederick  W.  Taylor,  the  pioneer  and 
father  of  scientific  management,  never  allowed 
simple  efficiency  in  production  to  become  with 
him  an  end  in  itself,  but  insisted  both  in  his 
work  and  in  his  writings  on  adherence  to  the 
fundamental  principles  embodying  the  economic 
welfare  of  all  persons  concerned. 

Democracy  in  Indiutry.— And  finally,  what 
is  to  be  my  attitude,  be  I  manager  or  workman, 
in  reeard  to  democracy  in  industry  and  the 
distriMition  of  the  profits  and  losses  arising 
tfaron;^  my  participation?  The  maxim  of  a 
well-loiown  railway  magnate  who,  several 
years  ago,  gave  expression  to  die  sentiment 
'The  public  be  damned"  has  been  found  to  be 
no  less  an  inadmissible  working  formula  in  in- 
dustry than  in  railroading,  perhaps  much  to  the 
chagrin  of  several  ■captains  of  industry*  who 
were  wont  to  substitute  ■workman*  in  jjacc 
of  "public*  Granted  that  we  believe  that  a  de- 
cree of  democracy  in  industiy  is  to  be  de- 
sired, there  yet  remaiiis  the  delicate  problem  of 
balance  as  between  the  ideal  and  the  exact 
degree  which  our  particular  concern,  under  our 
f)articu1ar  conditions  at  any  given  time,  can 
justifiably  affect.  Many  a  concern  has  faced 
the  bankruptcy  court  through  a  maladjustment 
either  one  way  or  the  other^  of  this  balance. 
Such    questions,    tc^ether   with    those   of   the 


>y  Google     _ 


FACTORY   HANAQBMBNT 


division  of  profits,  require  for  their  proper 
solution  the  best  informed  and  broadest  minded 
men  of  the  age,  but  most  of  all  they  require 
the  close  ana  active  co-operation  of  both  par- 
ties —  capital  and  labor.  Such  are  some  of  Ihe 
questions  presented  to  the  modem  factory  man- 
ager.  They  are  all  more  or  less  interrelated  and 
no  one  of  Ihem  can  be  properly  viewed  except 
in  connection  with  the  others.  Collectively,  all 
diese  questions  form  a  background  necessary 
to  the  adequate  solution  of  any  one  of  them. 
Each  one,  furthermore,  is  a  life  study  and  in 
the  present  discussion  it  is  manifestly  out  of 
the  question  to  attempt  to  cover  the  ground  in 
any  but  a  very  broad  survey.  And  in  what 
follows  in  regard  to  the  technique  of  factory 
management,  a  proper  perspective  must  be 
maititained  by  keeping  constantly  in  mind  the 
broad  social  questions  which  must  form  the 
true  background  for  a  proper  solution  of  these 
more  tangible  factors  which  arise  for  consider- 
ation in  the  every-day  work  of  the  executive. 

Going  back  to  our  original  definition  we  see 
that  factory  management  as  ordinarily  consid- 
ered deals,  broadly,  with  land  and  buildings, 
capital  and  credit,  equipment  and  men  —  that  it 
is  the  oi^niting  and  directii^  of  these  elements 
in  an  establishment  adapted  to  attain  the  ends 
of  economical  production,  sale  at  a  profit,  and 
growth  at  least  to  the  point  where  the  effect  of 
diminishing  returns  counterbalances  the  possible 
advantages  of  further  expansion.  The  art  of 
organizing  and  directing  these  elements  of  pro- 
duction, selling  and  finance,  with  all  that  this 
implies,  constitutes  the  field  of  modern  factory 
management 

Organization  at  once  becomes  the  keystone 
upon  w^ch  must  be  reared  the  whole  structure 
which  is  to  mold,  guide  and  direct  the  activi- 
ties of  the  business.  Organization  as  such  must 
be  distinguished  from  the  personnel  which,  at 
any  given  time,  is  entrusted  with  the  task  of 
making  effective  the  policies  and  principles 
under  which  we  are  to  operate.  Although  per- 
sonality enters  into  and  distinctly  affects  the 
roinutise  of  organization,  organization  must,  to 
be  pemanently  effective,  be  independent  of  the 
personality  of  any  one  man  or  group  of  men. 
The  form  of  organiiation  under  which  we  are 
to  operate  must  be  determined  only  after  a 
careful  analysis  of  first ;  the  problems  which  we 
encounter;  second;  the  conditions  under  which 
we  must  solve  these  problems;  and  to  a  less  ex- 
tent third:  the  character  of  the  personnel  avail- 
able; and  as  the  conditions  vary,  so  must  the 
solution  (organization)  vary.  A  study  of  the 
evolution  of  organization  not  only  reveals 


delicate  task  of  molding  the  form  of  organi- 
zation best  adapted  to  any  given  enterprise 
The  subject  may  profitably  be  viewed  from  two 
standpoints :  organiiation  in  war,  and  or^niza- 
tion  in  industry.  If  we  go  back  to  pnmitivc 
times  we  find  comparatively  small  hordes  of 
savages  making  war  upon  the  neighboring 
tribes.  The  conditions  under  which  they 
operated  were  simple :  small  numbers  of  war- 
riors, individual  bodily  encounter  with  primi- 
tive weapons  only,  a  comparatively  small  terri- 
tory covered  on  fool  or  on  horse  and  hence  an 
absence   of   the   problems   of    engineering   and 


ministrative  or  technical  details,  few  problems 
of  correlation,  complete  mc^lity.  The  prob- 
lems were  those  of  secrecy,  surprise,  control  — 
swift,  absolute  control  in  everything.  The  so- 
lution was  correspondingly  simple:  one-man 
control  by  the  best,  often  ine  physically  strong- 
est, warrior.  As  is  true  generally  in  warfare, 
delay  in  execution  becomes  often  more  fatal 
than  mistakes  in  details  due  to  unbalanced  judg- 
ment. We  thus  get  a  pure  *line"  form  of  or- 
ganization—  orders  and  directions  being  passed 
down  directly  from  the  leader  to  hts  warriors, 
each  of  whom  performed  all  functions  pertain- 


conditions  under  which  they  had  to  be  solved 
differed  comparatively  little  from  those  thereto- 
fore encountered.  We  find  the  solution  to 
minor  changes  to  consist  of  minor  extensions 
and  developments  of  the  previous  form  of  or- 
ganization —  a  delegation  of  supervisory  powers 
to  lieutenants  immediately  over  the  men,  re- 
porting directly  to  the  one  superior,  who  is  thus 
somewhat  relieved  of  the  minute  details  of 
execution.  With  the  development  of  modem 
warfare  of  course  all  this  was  changed  It  was 
then  no  longer  mentally  or  physically  possible 
for  the  one  strong  man  to  maintain  the  personal 
touch  and  exercise  the  close  supervision  of  all 
details  of  the  operations,  although  it  was  still 
necessary  for  him  to  keep  final  control  and  au- 
thority absolutely  to  himself.  This  in  turn 
made  necessary  an  augmented  means  of  solu- 
tion, and  as  a  result  we  find  the  derelopnient 
of  the  staff  ^ — a  cardinal  principle  of  military 
organization  to-day.  Here  we  have  a  group  of 
expert  officers  under  the  chief  of  staff,  report- 
ing to  the  officer  in  command  upon  Ae  in- 
numerable specialized  and  technical  questions 
encountei«d  in  modem  warfare,  the  com- 
mander thereafter  taking  such  action  upon 
their  recommendations  as  he  sees  fit  and  pass- 
iiig  his  orders  down  through  the  now  numerous 
officers  of  the  line  until  they  finally  reat^  the 
man  in  Ihe  ranks. 

I     ' 
the 

works  as  the  building  of  the  pyramids  and  of 
the  cathedrals  and  similar  construction  proj- 
ects) we  find  no  grouped  labor.  Passing  throi^ 
the  successive  stages  of  industrial  development 
as  described  by  Bucher,  of  housework,  wage 
work,  handicraft  and  commission  work,  and 
up  until  the  development  of  the  factory  sys- 
tem, we  find  production  carried  on  entirely  by 
individuals  or  small  groups  of  home-workers. 
The  problems  of  control  —  as  expressed  _  in 
organization  —  therefore  were  extremely  sim- 
ple and  in  many  cases  non-existent,  seldom 
necessitating  more  than  a  one-man  organization 
and'  perhaps  entirely  naturally  the  organization 
of  the  army  served  as  the  model  and  was 
literally  copied   by  those   engaged   in   industry. 

With  the  rise  of  the  factory  system  of  pro- 
duction, however,  conditions  were  revolu- 
tionised. Then  arose  the  intricate  questions  of 
human  relations  and  material  management  out- 
lined in  the  opening  paragraphs.  The  problems 
encountered  were  far  different  from  tfiose  of 
warfare,  not  the  least  significant  of  which  was 
the  substitution  in  industry  of  duty  and  the 
good  of  the  individual,  for  the  idea  of  force 
and  the  good  of  the  slate  which  forms  the 
background  of  military  discipline  and  cootnd. 


.lOogle 


FACTORY  SYSTttM 


7d5 


It  is,  however,  perhaps  not  strange  that  the 
traditional  forms  of  organization  of  the  army 
should  have  still  been  embodied  wholesale  in 
the  activities  of  industry,  where  they  remained 
firmly  entrenched  until  comparatively  recently. 
It  was  not  until  near  the  last  of  the  past  cen- 
tury that  these  fundamental  differences  as  be- 
tween military  and  industrial  aims  and  methods 
became  consciously  recognised  and  embodied  in 
forms  of   industrial   organization 


discussion  of  organization,  bare  mention  may 
be  made  of  these  modem  tendencies  and  fur- 
ther details  must  be  sought  in  the  numerous 
writings  on  the  subject.  One  oi  the  earlier 
forms  was  the  committee  system.  This  exists 
in  two  forms  —  the  committee  with  power  to 
enforce  its  decisions  and  the  committee  with 
advisory  duties  only.  In  the  latter  case  the 
organization  retains  most  of  the  disadvantages 
of  the  staff,  with  few  compensatmg  advantages. 
Both  forms  are  found  to  a  limited  extent  in 
industry  to-day.  The  departmental  and  the 
divisional  forma  difFcr  somewhat  in  operation, 
but  ar«  little  more  than  the  extension  of  the 
principle  of  division  of  labor.  None  of  these 
forms  of  organization  necessarily  differs  in 
principle  or  operation  from  the  regular  line 
form  of  the  military.  A  fundamental  depar- 
ture from  the  militaiy,  however,  is  found  in 
the  modern  functional  organization  devised 
by  Mr.  Taylor  in  connection  with  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  management.  Here  the  staff 
idea  is  utilized,  but  with  this  fiuidamental  dif- 
ference: in  the  staff  the  individual  expert  per- 
forms an  advisory  function  only,  while  in  the 
Taylor  functional  these  same  experts  are  given 
administrative  authority  to  embody  the  results 
oi  their  loiowledge  in  orders  issued  direct  to 
men  under  them  as  regards  their  particular 
Sphere  of  action.  Under  conditions  where  this 
form  of  organization  is  necessary  and  applicable, 
surprising  results  are  secured. 

So  much  for  the  various  forms  of  organiia- 
tioo  from  which  the  factory  manager  must 
choose  that  best  adapted  to  his  particular  cir- 
cumstances. Of  the  other  broad  division  of 
factory  management  as  an  art  —  the  directing, 
the  management  of  personnel  and  material  — 
little  need  be  said.  Sufficient  outline  of  the 
various  factors  to  'be  considered  has  been  sug- 
gested to  give  an  insirfit  into  the  nature  of 
Uie  problems  involved.  The  problems  of 
finance,  of  division  of  duties,  of  delegation  of 
authority  and  responsibilih',  of  purchasing,  of 
storage  of  materials,  of  planning,  of  shop  ad- 
ministration, of  cost,  of  central  control  of  all 


questions  arise  in  never-ending  variety  in  the 
management  of  the  plant  —  problems  nowise 
different  intrinsically  from  those  of  organiza- 
tion previously  discussed,  and  problems  re- 
?uiring  tor  their  proper  solution  the  same  care- 
ul  analysis  and  the  same  adherence  to  fun- 
damental principles  of  proved  soundness  and 
practicability.  See  Factohy  System;  Labob 
Legislation;    SaENTiFic   Management. 


Hemby  H.  Farqukab, 


FACTORY   SYSTEM,  The.     Definition. 

—  The  word  factory  seems  to  have  been  first 
used  in  its  modem  sense  about  1792.  Previous 
to  this  time  a  factor  had  been  an  agent,  and  all 
compound  derivatives  of  this  word  had  carried 
with  them  the  idea  of  agentshlp.  But  with 
the  new  system  of  industry  introduced  by  tiie 
Industrial  Revolution  (q.v.)  the  term  seems  to 
have  been  used  as  an  abbreviation  of  manu- 
factory, and  in  the  first  factory  act  in  England 
in  ISE  was  used  interchangeably  with  mills  to 
designate  cotton  manufacturing  establishments. 
To-day  the  term  factory  covers  any  establish- 
ment, with  its  buildings  and  equipment,  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  goods.  The  legal  defini- 
tion varies  widely  in  different  States,  but  is 
usually  based  upon  the  number  of  workers ; 
thus  an  extreme  definition  of  factory  is  "any 
place  where  two  or  more  persons  are  engaged 
in  working  for  hire  or  reward  in  any  handi- 
craft." As  a  description  this  is  a  poor  defini- 
tion, for  it  leaves  out  of  account  the  essential 
characteristics  of  the  system.  Better  is  C.  D. 
Wright's  definition,  'a  factory  is  an  establish- 
ment where  several  workmen  are  tollected  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  greater  and  cheaper 
conveniences  for  labor  than  they  could  procure 
individually  at  their  houses;  for  producing  re- 
sults by  their  combined  efforts  which  they 
could  not  accomplish  separately;  and  for  pre- 
venting the  loss  occasioned  by  carrying  articles 
from  place  to  place  during  the  several  processes 
necessary  to  complete   their  manufacture." 

Not  merely  has  the  definition  of  the  term 
broadened,  but  the  scope  of  the  factory  sys- 
tem has  widened  also.     Applied  originally  only 

the   textile   industry,   it   has   gradually*  been 


extended  to  other  branches  of  manufacturing, 

-dav  it  dominates  the  manufacture  of 

agricultural  implements,  automobiles,  boots  and 


shoes,  carriages  and  wagons,  clothing,  fire-ai 
metallic  goods  of  all  sorts,  musical  insL>i<- 
ments,  rubber  goods,  slaughtering  and  meat 
packing,  wooden  goods,  watches,  etc.  Most  of 
the  people  employed  in  (he  mechanical  indus- 
tries of  this  country  to-day  are  working  under 
the  factory  system.  Indeed  the  principles  which 
govern  the  factory  system  in  the  concentration 
and  division  of  labor,  the  use  of  non-human 
power  and  of  labor-savine  machinery,  have  also 
been  applied  to  other  fields  of  economic  activity 
such  as  agriculture,  fishing,  forestry,  mining, 
transportation,  and  even  personal  and  profes- 
sional service.  There  can  be  no  doubt  there- 
fore as  to  the  importance  of  so  universal  a 
system. 

DomcBtic  STstem. —  We  shall  perhaps  bet- 
ter understan4  the  faptory  system  if  we  con- 
trast it  with  the  system  under  which  industry 
was  organized,  at  least  in  England,  just  before 
its  introduction.  This  was  the  domestic  system. 
According  to  this  manufacturing — which  was 
then  truly  "making  by  hand*  (manui-facere) — 
was  carried  on  by  small  masters  in  their  own 
houses,  with  the  help  perhaps  of  a  journeyman 
and  an  apprentice  or  two.  Such  a  master  al- 
most always  owned  the  implements  or  tools  of 
manufacture.  In  some  cases  the  raw  material 
was  the  property  of  a  middleman  who  simply 
hired  the  domestic  worker  to  work  it  up  into 
finished  goods,  while  he  distributed  the  raw 
material  to  the  homes  of  the  workers  and  col- 
lected the  completed   product.     The   essential 


>y  Google 


70« 


PACUL  JB — FACULTY 


feature  of  the  system,  however,  to  which  it 
owed  its  name,  was  the  fact  that  manufac- 
tunng  was  carried  on  in  his  own  house  by  the 
domestic  worker,  who  usually  also  owned  a  plot 
of  ground  which  ha  cultivated  as  a  by- 
industry. 

Factory  Sj^tem^-Ail  this  was  entirely 
changed  by  the  introduction  of  the  fa.ctoiy  sys- 
tem. The  first  series  of  changes  that  may  be 
noted  was  the  transfer  of  the  industry  from 
the  home  to  the  factory,  the  change  in  owner- 
ship of  the  implements  of  production  from  the 
artisan  to  the  capitalist  employer,  and  the 
change  in  the  power  that  drove  the  machines 
from  the  muscles  of  the  workers  to  the  force 
of  falling  water,  and  later  of  expanding  steam. 
A  second  characteristic  of  the  factoi;  system 
was  the  enlargement  of  the  business  unit  The 
textiie  industry  was  affected  less  than  mining 
and  the  metallurgical  industries ;  but  transporia- 
tion  showed  the  greatest  development  along 
these  lines.  To-day,  however,  lat^e-scale  pro- 
duction is  a  common  characteristic  of  almost 
all  factory  industries.  As  a  result  of  these 
changes  capital  has  become  increasingly  im- 
portant in  modem  industry  until  our  present 
system  of  industrial  organization  is  often  called 
a  'capitalistic*  syatem  rather  than  a   factory 

Evila. —  It  is  obvious  that  no  such  far- 
reaching  chan^  in  industrial  organization  cpuld 
be  effected  without  serious  disorganization  and 
readiustment.  The  transitional  period  during 
which  the  factory  system  was  instituted  wit- 
nesses many  serious  evils,  some  of  which  have 
not  yet  been  altogether  eradicated,  and  which 
are  consequently  assumed  by  some  writers  to 
be  inherent,  in  the  system  itself.  To  a  brief 
consideration  of  these  we  may  turn.  Five 
criticisms  were  noted  by  C.  D.  Wright  in  an 
account  of  the  system  given  in  the  Tenth  Cen- 
sus, as  follows  :* 

(a)  The  factory  system  necessitates  the  em- 
ployment of  women  and  children  to  an  injurious 
extent,  and  consequently  its  tendency  is  to  de- 
stroy family  ties  and  domestic  habits  and  ulti- 
mately the  home. 

(b)  Factory  employments  are  injurious  to 
health. 

(c)  The  factory  system  is  productive  of  in- 
temperance, unthHft  and  poverty, 

(d)  It  feeds  prostitution  and  swells  the 
criminal  lists, 

(e)  II  tends  to  intellectual  degeneracy. 

In  answer  to  these  criticisms  it  may  be 
pointed  out  that  the  employment  of  women 
and  especially  of  children  has  been  regulated 
and  greatly  reduced  by  factory  legislation.  The 
employment  of  married '  women  &nd  of  young 
children  is,  however,  still  unhappily  too  great. 
On  the  score  of  health  the  best  equipped  and 
managed  factories  undoubtedly  compare  very 
favorably  with  the  environment  unoer  which 
work  was  carried  on  in  the  home  under  the 
domestic  system,  but  the  number  of  dangerous 
and  injurious  trades  has  multiplied.  The  result- 
ing evils  should, '  however,  be  cared  for  by 
lepislation.    The  next  two  counts  may  be  dis- 


intemperance  as  inconsistent  with  effidency.  On 
the  last  point  so  eminent  an  authority  as  Prof. 
Alfred  Marshall  is  of  the  opinion  that  the 
modem  factoiy  system  makes  higgler  demands 
upon  the  intellectual  capacity  ot  the  workers 
than  any  system  of  industrial  organiiation 
which  has  preceded  it. 

Advantage.— On  the  other  hand  certain 
positive  advantages  of  the  factory  system  of 
industry  may  be  noted  It  makes  possible  a 
vastly  greater  output.  That  this  is  not  more 
equitkbly  distributed  is  indeed  a  serious  prob- 
lem of  social  justice,  but  the  inequity  of  our 
present  system  of  distribution  should  not  be 
made  an  indictment  against  the  system  of  pro- 
duction which  gives  us  more  to  divide.  It  has, 
moreover,  greatly  lessened  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion and  hence  lowered  the  price  of  thousands 
of  articles,  which  have  thus  been  brought  within 
reach  of  everyone.  One  has  only  to  point  for 
illustration  to  the  myriads  of  articles  produced 
under  the  factory  system  which  can  be  found 
in  the  5  and  IQ  cent  stores.  And  finally  wages, 
both  nominal  and  real,  have  increased  under 
this  system,  so  that  the  economic  position  of 
the  average  factory  operative  is  better  than 
that  of  a  similar  worker  under  the  domesdc 
system.  All  in  all,  in  spile  of  certain  dark 
spots,  the  factory  system  may  be  re^rded  as 
a  long  step  forward  in  the  march  of  industrial 
progress.    See  Histoby,  Modebn. 

Bibliography. —  Babbage,  Giarles,  'The 
Economy  of  Manufactures'  (London  1S35) ; 
Clarke,  Allen,  'The  Effects  of  the  Factory 
System'  (London  1894) ;  Cooke-Taylor,  R.  W., 
'Introduction  to  a  Histoiy  of  the  Factory  Sys- 
tem' (London  1886);  Cooke-Taylor,  R.  W., 
'The  Modem  Facloiy  System'  (London  1891) ; 
Hobson,  J.  Ay  <The  EvoluIitHi  of  Uodera 
Capitalism'  (New  York  1894)  ;  Ure,  Andrew. 
'The  Philosophy  of  Manufactures'  (London 
1861);  Wright,  C.  D.,  'Report  on  the  Factory 
System  of  the  United  States'  (Tenth  Census, 
Volume  Manufactures,  Washington  1884). 

Ernest  L.  Bog  aw, 
Profesior  of  Economics,  Umversity  of  Illinois. 

FACULfi,  the  brighter  spots  sometimes 
observed  on  the  sun's  disc.  Generally  they 
are  small  at  first  and  gradually  assume  lar^ 
proportions.    See  Sun. 

FACULTIES,  Court  of,  an  English  ecclesi- 
astical court,  under  the  archbishop,  which  cre- 
ates rights  to  pews,  monuments  and  particular 
places  and  modes  of  burial,  and  has  also  vari- 
ous powers  in  granting  licenses  of  different 
descriptions,  as  a  license  to  marry,  a  faculty 
to  erect  an  organ  in  a  parish  church  or  to 
remove  bodies  previously  buried 

FACULTY,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  a  privilege 
or  license  granted  to  any  person  by  favor,  and 
not  as  a  nghl  to  do  any  act  which  by  law  he 
may  not  do.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
permission  granted  by  an  ecclesiastical  superior 
to  a  duly  qualified  subject  to  hear  confessions. 
Such  permission  onl_y  extends  to  tiie  district 
over  which  the  supenor  has  iurisdictioa  Thus, 
faculties  are  granted  by  bishops  to  the  priests 
in  Ihcir  dioceses,  and  by  the  heads  of  relipiom 
bouses  to  such  of  their  subjects  as  they  judge 
qualified  to  hear  the  confessions  of  the  commu- 
nity. In  the  United  States,  the  term  faculty  in- 
dicates the  body  of  persons  who  are  entrusted 
with  the  government  and  instruction  of  a  iini- 


.Google 


FACULTY  OF  ADVOCATES^  PABNZA 


iity  01 
.    ^denl,   professors    and    tutors.     l! 
used  for  the  body  of  masters  and  proff 
cacfa  of  the  several  departments  of 
in  a  university;  as,  the  law  faculty,  eic. 

FACULTY  OF  ADVOCATES,  an  incor- 
porated society  of  Scottish  jurists,  with  a  mem- 
bership of  about  -lOIX  Practice  in  the  higher 
courts  of  the  kinsdom  is  confined  to  members 
of  the  Faculty,  who  for  admission  are  obliged 
lo  pass  a  special  examinatiatL  Justices  are 
appointed  from  the  membership. 

FADEYBV,  fi-dfi'yff.  RostidsT  Andreie- 
vitch,    Russian    military    writer :    b.    1S24 ; 
Odessa.  12  Jan.  1884.     He  made  more  than 
'  1  the  Caucasus,  achieving 


707 


ties  of'  bfeo'd  color  the  fzces  orange,  like  pap- 
rila/^Cocoa  and  huckleberries  cause  a  colora- 
^nj'CK'the  faeces  that  may  be  mistaken  for 
[Colorless  or  gray-colored  stools  usually 
y,  some  fonn  of  biliaiy  obsti 
pa  from   fatty  indigestion,  — 


.  .  itific  soldier  that  commar 

spect  for  his  'Sixty  Years  of  War  in  th  _ 
ca5us>  (I860) :  'Russian  Military  Power' 
f  1868)  ;  'My  Opinions  of  the  Oriental  Problem' 
(1870)  ;  'Letters  on  Russia's  Present  Position' 
(1881)  ;  and  many  similar  writings. 

FADIBNSKOI,  or  THADDBUS  IS. 
LAND,  a  Russian  island  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
in  the  province  of  Yakutsk.  It  is  100  miles 
lone  by  about  40  broad.  The  climate  is  very 
cola  tne  greater  part  of  the  year,  but  the 
island  is  inhabited. 

F^CBS,  the  residue  of  food,  combined  with 
the  intestinal  secretions,  as  it  passes  from  the 
body.  After  chsrme  has  passed  into  the  large 
intestine  it  is  then  termed  fseces.  During  health 
faeces  consist  largely  of  the  undigested  por- 
tions of  the  food  taken  into  the  body.  They 
contain  microscopically  many  epithelial  cells 
from  different  parts  of  the  intestinal  canal; 
shred;  of  mucus,  bits  of  meat-fibre,  the  char- 
acter of  which  depends  upon  the  ingested  food, 
and  whidi  can  be  determined  by  the  microscope; 
vegetable  detritus  consisting  largely  of  paren- 
chymatous and  vascular  tissues,  plant-hair^,  etc ; 
fat-globules;  bacteria  of  many  kinds;  bile  pig- 
ments; and  other  organic  residues.  As  the 
chemistry  of  the  f^ces  will  vary  widely  ac- 
cording to  the  diet,  charts  of  chemical  compo- 
sition are  worthless.  The  consistency  of  the 
fiece^  also  widely  varies.  Normally,  fieces 
should  be  semi-solid;  if  too  hard,  constipation 
is  probable ;  if  too  soft  and  watery,  indigestion 
may  be  present,  or  some  degree  of  colitis  (q.v.). 
Large  quantities  of  mucus  indicate  a  colitis. 
The  color  of  the  fseces  is  of  much  importance 
in  determining  whether  the  normal  (unctions 
of  the  intestine  are  being  carried  on.  In  health 
the  fseces  should  vary  from  a  light  to  an  umber 
brown,  wliite  to  yellow  faces  indicating  lack  of 
bile-cxecretion  or  loss  of  fat-digestion.  Very 
black  fxces  often  result  from  excessive  bile- 
elimination,  but  such  are  more  likely  to  be  pres- 
ent when  the  drinking-water  contains  small 
amoimts  of  mineral  constituents,  notably  iron. 
Many  drugs  modify  the  color  of  the  fxces. 
In  children,  green  to  greenish  stools  indicate 
either  the  preaence  of  certain  pigment- forming 
bacteria,  or  they  mean  that  there  is  excessive 
fermentation  or  putrefaction  of  the  intestinal 
contents,  leading  to  excess  of  oxidation  of  the 
bile-pigments.  In  either  case  castor  oil  is  an 
excellent  corrective.  Tarry  faeces,  resembling 
coffee-grounds    in   color,    usnally   indicate    the 

fresence  of  blood  high  up  in  the  intestinal  canal. 
i  bleeding  occurs  in  the  large  intestine  or  rec- 
tiun.  red  is  the  prevailing  tinge.    Siaall  qnanti- 


'  from  loss  of  ial -absorption.  Children 
cod-liver  oil  often  have  light-colored 
stools.  These  should  be  carefully  studied  to 
determine  if  digestion  of  the  oil  is  taking  place. 
Disturbance  of  the  functions  of  the  pancreas 
may  also  cause  light-colored  or  fatly  stools. 
The  study  of  the  color  of  the  stools  is  of  im- 
I  mense  practical  importance  in  medicine,  and 
'  careful  observation  of  this  matter  by  the  pa- 
tient may  be  of  immense  service  to  the  physi- 
cian. In  birds,  fishes  and  reptiles,  and  in  some 
mammals,  urine  is  mixed  with  the  fxces  before 
they  leave  the  body.    See  Intestines. 

FAED,  fad.  John,  Scottish  artist:  b.  Burley 
Mill,  ICirkcudbnghtshire,  1820;  d.  Gatehouse- 
of-Heet,  Scotlancr22  OcL  1902.  In  1841  he 
went  to  Edinburgn  to  study,  soon  won  a  con- 
siderable reputation  as  a  portrait  and  subject 
painter,  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Scottish  Academy  in  1852.  In  1851  he  exhibited 
a  work  entitled  'The  Cruel  Sisters,'  and  this 
was  followed  by  'The  Cotter's  Saturday  Ni^C' 
(18S4) ;  'The  Philosopher*  (1&S5) ;  '^' 
Household  Gods  i:    "  '        "" 

his    Fri, 

(1860).  Going  to  London  in  1862,  he  began  to 
exhibit  in  the  Royal  Academy  also,  some  of 
his  pictures  shown  since  that  oate  being  'Cath- 
erine Seyton'  (1864)  ;  'Old  Age'  (1867) ;  'John 
Anderson,  my  Jo'  (1869)  ;  'After  the  Victory' 
(1873)  ;  'The  Momang  before  Flodden'  (1874)  ; 
'Blenheim'  (1875);  'In  Memoriam'  (1876); 
'The  Old  Baskel-Makcr'  (1878);  and  'The 
Poet's  Dream'  (1883).  His  work  invariably 
displays  careful  drawing;  but  his  coloring  is 
somewhat  hard. 

FASD,  Thonua,  Scottish  artist:  h.  Barity 
Mill,  Kirkcudbrightshire.  8  June  1826;  d.  Lon- 
don, 17  Aug.  1900.  He  was  a  brother  of  John 
Faed  (q.v.),  and  at  an  early  age  became  known 
as  a  clever  painter  of  rustic  sunjects.  The  sub- 
jects of  his  brush  are  for  the  most  part  domestic 
or  pathetic,  wbicb  be  depicted  with  a  tender 
idealism  tliat  appealed  stron^y  to  the  public 
taste.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1864.  Amor^  his  principal  works 
arc  'Sir  Walter  Scoit  and  his  Friendt.'  (1849)  ; 
'The  Mitherless  Baim'  (1855);  'The  First 
Break  in  the  Family'  (1857)  ;  'His  Only  Pair' 
(1860) ;  'From  Dawn  to  Sunset'  (1861)  ;  'The 
Last  o'  the  Oan'  (1865)  ;  'Pot  Luck'  (1866) ; 
'Worn  Out'  (1868)  ;  'Homeless'  (1869)  ;  'The 
Highland  Mother'  (1870);  'Winter'  (1872); 
'Violets  and  Primroses'  (1874);  'She  Never 
Told  her  Love'  (1876);  'Maggie  and  her 
Friends'  (1878);  and  'Rest  by  the  Stile>  (in 
the   Metropolitan  Museum,   New  York). 

FABNZA,  fa-en'ia  (ancient  Favmitia), 
Italy  episcopal  dty,  in  the  province  of  Ravenna, 
on  the  river  Lamone,  19  miles  from  the  city 
of  Ravenna.  The  cathedral  of  San  Costanzo, 
begun  in  the  14th  century,  contains  the  exquisite 
early  Renaissance  tomb  of  Saint  Savinus.  It  is 
noted  for  its  glazed  earthenware,  called  Faience 

fq.v.),  the  manufacture  of  which  was  famous 
rom  the  15th  century  and  has  been  receatiy 


.lOOglc  ' 


FAZRIE  QUBBKB 


revived.  Others  of  its  nnnufactures  are  majol- 
ica, silk  goods  and  refined  sulphur.  In  the 
neighborhood  are  ferruginous  an<l  saline  sprii^ 
of  considerable  repute.  Faenza  is  connected 
with  the  Adriatic  Sy  the  Zanelli  Canal,  opened 
in  17S2.  It  claims  to  be  the  birthplace  of  Torri- 
ceilL  Its  history  extends  into  the  times  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  many  changes  in  govern- 
ment took  place  before  ImK),  when  it  was  an- 
nexed by  Julius  II  to  the  states  of  the  Church. 
In  I860  it  became  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Itaiy.    Pop.  of  the  commune  40,164. 

FAERIE  (fa'er-c)  QUEENE,  Th«.  An 
epic  poem  by  Edmund  Spenser,  published  in 
1590  (Books  I-III)  and  in  1596  (Books  IV- 
VI)  ;  a  fragment  of  another  book,  consisting  of 
two  cantos  on  "Mutability,*  was  published  in 
1609.  The  poem  was  planned  in  12  books,  each 
book  containing  12  cantos ;  Spenser  com- 
pleted little  more  than  half  his  design.  His 
purpose,  as  set  forth  in  his  letter  to   Raleigh, 

in  virtuous  3ad.~KaitIe .  Si^^pnc,' —  thus  like 
T^'stiglione's  'The  Courtier'  and  other  influen- 
tial books  of  the  time,  the  'Faerie  Queene' 
was  designed  to  be  a  guide  to  conduct  for  men 
who  were  entering  the  service  of  the  stale. 
Conforming  to  current  critical  doctrine,  instruc- 
tion in  the  cardinal  virtues  characteristic  of 
the  illustrious  prince  is  to  be  gained  best  through 
the  study  of  poetry,  not  history  or  moral  pRi- 
losophy.  (Besides  the  letter  to  Raleigh,  consult 
also  Sidnqr's  'Defense  of  Poetry').  Accord- 
ingly, epic  poetry  was  held  to  be  an  allegory 
of  the  perfect  hero:  Homer  so  portrays  "the 
good  governor*  in  his  Agamemnon  and  "the 
virtuous  man*  in  his  Ulysses ;  Virgil  com- 
bines the  two  in  his  .£neas,  while  Tasso's 
Rinaldo  is  the  ideal  'private  raan*  and  his 
Godfrey  the  ideal  ruler.  Based  on  this 
flieory,  the  'Faerie  Queene'  was  to  deal_  with 
the  "twelve  private  moral  virtues,  as  An'stotle 
hath  devised,*  in  the  person  of  Arthur  before 
he  became  king;  Spenser  hints  that  he  may 
treat  Arthur  as  king  m  a  second  eiric 

The  plan  was  to  be  worked  out  by  devoting 
each  book  to  the  exploits  of  a  knight  distin- 
guished for  a  cardinal  virtue.  Saint  George, 
the  Red  Cross  Knight  (Book  I),  represents 
Holiness;   Guyon    (Book   II)    represents   Tem- 

rrrance  in  the  classical  sense  of  self-restraint ; 
rilomart  (HI),  a  female  knight,  stands  for 
Chastity;  Cambell  and  Triamond  (IV>  for 
Friendship;  Artegal  (V)  for  Justice;  and  Cali- 
dore  (VI)  for  Courtesy.  Prince  Arthur,  who 
Stands  for  Magnificence  or  Magnanimity,  ap- 
pears in  several  books;  first,  in  his  quest  for 
Gloriana,  the  Faerie  Queene,  and  second,  as 
an  assistant  to  the  hero  of  the  book  in  a  crisis. 
This  does  not  indicate  incoherence  of  design, 
as  some  critics  maintain,  but  follows  the  famil- 
iar construction  of  the  Arthurian  romances, 
where  Gawain  or  Lancelot  or  Perceval,  or  who- 
ever happens  to  be  'the  greatest  knight  in  the 
world,*  is  introduced  at  a  crisis  in  the  fortune 
of  the  hero  vihosc  adventures  are  being  nar- 

Spenser's  use  of  the  Arthurian  romances 
is  interesting  and  original.  None  of  the  great 
knights  familiar  in  Malory  and  elsewhere  ap- 
pears ;  none  of  the  great  stories  afterward 
used  by  Tetmyson  finds  a  place.  The  Holy 
Gtaii.  lor  c]         


I  barely  mentioned.     Yet 


the  basis  of  the  plot  is  familiar  to  any  reader 
of  the  metrical  romances  of  France  and  Eng- 
land. The  Faerie  Queene  holds  a  feast  lasting 
12  days,  on  each  of  which  an  "adventure*- 
takes  plate.  On  the  first  day  a  'clownish  young 
man,"  who  reminds  ns  of  Perceval  or  of  Gareth. 
begs  the  boon  of  ariv  "adventure*  that  may  be- 
fall ;  he  is  sent  with  ^Jja  to  free  her  parents 
from  the  thraldom  of  a  dragon.  On  the  second 
day  a  Palmer  bearing  a  babe  with  bloody  hands 
caUs  for  a  champion  to  slay  Acrasia,  the  en- 
chantress who  wrought  the  woe,  and  Sir  Gnyoo 


but  his  adventure  is  completed  by  Britomart 
But  all  this  explanatory  matter  is  set  forth 
in  the  letter  to  Raleigh;  Spenser  follows  Virgil 
and  other  poets  in  Degintting  'in  the  midst,* 
and  the  epic  did  not  arrive  at  the  point  where 
the  setting  could  be  given  in  verse.  Moreover, 
Spenser  follows  the  late  medisval  romances 
in  giving  to  famijiar  romance  situations  alle- 
goncal  or  mystical  signi&cance.l\Thu3,  Galahad's 
delivery  of  the  Castle  of  Maidens,  which  in 
the  Grail  cycle  had  come  to  symbolise  Christ 
delivering  mankind  from  the  Seven  Deadly 
Sins,  is  used  by  Spenser.  The  quest,  also,  ap- 
pears in  many  forms.  For  example,  the  quest 
of  Red  Cross  for  the  dragon  reaches  a  climax 
in  a  three  days'  battle  in  which  the  monster 
stands  for  Satan,  who  has  long  held  the  human 
race  (Castle  Mortal)  in  bondage;  the  three 
days'  battle  symbolizes  Qirist's  victory  over 
Death  and  Hell  so  often  met  in  mediiva! 
legend.  Spenser's  poem  is  filled  with  such 
reminiscences  of  the  Arthurian  romances ;  their 
infiuence  on  him  is  far  more  pervasive  than 
the  debt,  largely  exaggerated,  to  Ariosto  and 
Tasso,  from  whom  he  derives,  as  frota  the 
classics,  many  matters  of  detail 

Spenser  uses  the  technique  of  romance  for 
a  more  carefully  elaborated  moral  allegory  than 
had  been  developed  in  the  medixvaJ  cycles.         i 
Thus,    Book    I    shows    how    Holiness     (Red         ' 
Cross),  accompanied  by  Truth  (Una),  slays  the 
dragon  of  Error,   Again  the  adventures  of  Guyon         j 
(Book  11^  symbolize  the  course  of  temperance  I 

dirou^h  hfe,  avoiding  extremes  of  {[loom  or  of  ' 

false  joy,  avoiding  wrath  and  excessive  passion, 
conquering  desires  for  wealth  or  sensual  enjoy- 
ment. The  allegory  of  the  poem  is  complex : 
there  is  the  type  Fo^und  in  mediseval  mora!  plays, 
representing  the  conflict  of  vices  and  virtues; 
there  is  the  mystical  interpretation  of  Christian 
doctrine;  there  is  also  translation  of  Plato's 
idealism  into  allegorical  story.  To  Uend  with 
a  conception  so  complex  as  this  the  Renaissance 
ideal  of  the  perfect  courtier  (Spenser  has  in 
mind  a  man  of  afEairs  like  Sidney,  not  a  me- 
diaeval ascetic  saint)  rendered  it  impossible  for 
the  poet  to  use  Malory's  version  of  the  Ar- 
thurian legend  in  any  complRe  at  defiiute  vmy. 
Yet  the  chief  clue  to  his  metjipd  is  to  be  found, 
not  in  "fiTs  moral  and  religious  allegory,  wrhieh 
has  "been  too  much  stressed  in  Spenser  criti- 
cism, but  in  his  purpose  to  shadow  forth  his 
conception  of  the  greatness  of  Elizabethan 
England  and  of  its  destiny.  To  bring  this  out 
he  represents,  in  Prince  Arthur,  the  £nglisb 
realm ;  Gloriana,  the  Faerie  Queene,  is  ^ixa- 
beth  Tmtor.  Fundamentally  the  poem  means 
that  the  return  of  the  old  Welsh  (Fairy)  line, 
represented  in  the  Tudors,  to  the  govenunent 


jOOgIc 


PASRIB  QUBBNB 


TM 


of  EagUnd  is  the  source  of  England's  present 

freataess.  He  disCinguishes  carefully  between 
airy  knights  like  Guyon  and  English  knights 
like  Saint  George  (Red  Cross).  The  Queen  of 
the  Fairies  appears  to  Prince  Arthur  in  a  vision 
of  a  type  familiar  in  Celtic  folklore,  and  prom- 
ises in  due  lime  to  give  herself  to  him;  Eng- 
land, personified  in  Arthur,  seeks  to  realize 
this  vision,  made  complete  when  Elizabeth 
rules.  Thus  the  poem  glorifies  the  ancestry  of 
the  reigning  house  according  to  the  rules  of 
Renaissance  epic. 

But  there  is  ^et  more.  Artegal,  knight  of 
Justice,  loves  Britomart,  the  martial  spirit  of 
England.  Justice  united  with  British  might 
points  out  a  new  destiny.  Artegal's  quest  is  to 
free  Irena  (Ireland)  from  Grantorto  (Philip 
of  Spain).  In  this  book  also  Prince  Arthur 
rescues  Belgse  (the  Netherlands)  from  the 
Spanish  monster,  and  Duessa  (Mary  of  Scot- 
land) is  adjudged  worthy  of  death.  Thus  cer- 
tain crucial  events  in  Elizabeth's  rei^  are  set 
forth :  the  conflict  with  Spain  necessitated  the 
crushing  of  the  Irish  rebellion,  fomented  by 
Philip;  it  necessitated  also  the  aid  sent  to  the 
Netherlands,  crushed  by  Philip's  vast  cruelty, 
and  the  execution  of  Mary,  the  chief  means 
flirough  which  Philip  plotted  the  destruction  of 
free  England.  In  a  later  book,  Spenser  no 
doubt  would  have  included  the  final  triumph 
over  the  Armada.  Furthermore,  this  exposi- 
tion has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  foreign  policy 
of  Elizabeth  and  is  a  defense  of  thai  school  of 
politics  that  held  it  to  be  England's  duty  to 
emerge  from  isolation,  to  take  part  in  continent 
tal  politics,  to  substitute  for  diplomatic  intrigue 

C strive  action  on  behalf  of  the  oppressed  in  the 
w  Countries  and  in  France  aeamst  the  sinister 
shadow  of  Philip's  ambition  for  world  power. 
The  poem  is  not  merely  a  moral  allegory  of 
abstract  virtues,  not  merely  a  glorification  of 
the  Queen,  but  a  positive  and  almost  defiant  de- 
fense of  a  greater  nationalism  that  led  eventu- 
ally to  the  establishment  of  British  sea  power 
and  the  imperial  domain.  Raleigh,  *lhe  Shep- 
herd of  the  Ocean,*  is  recognized  by  Spenser 
as  a  leader  in  this  progressive  movement,  as  he 
abo  recognized  Leicester  and  Essex  and  op- 

gised  the  more  conservative  polity  of  Lord 
urghley. 
Besides  these  allegories  of  moral  and  polit' 
ical  ideas,  which  appealed  to  Elizabethan  love 
of  symbolism  and  shadowed  forth  the  roman- 
tic idealism  of  the  time,  are  many  lovely  fea- 
tures that  deepen  the.  picture.  Such  are  Call- 
dore's  wooing  of  the  shepherdess  Pastorella,  as 
charming  as  the  pastoral  scenes  in  Shakes- 
peare's 'Winter's  Tale';  or  the  flight  of  Brito- 
tnart  with  her  nurse  to  Merlin's  cave,  there  to 
learn  of  Artegal;  or  the  stories  of  Fiorimel  and 
of  Amoret.  These  stories,  and  manv  other 
strands  in  the  complex  web  of  Spenser^  weav- 
iiw,  are  of  the  very  essence  of  romance  ^ — the 
light  that  never  was  on  sea  or  land  that  Words- 
worth meditated  upon,  or  the  faery  lands  for- 
lorn recalled  lo  momentary  life  in  tne  poetry  of 
Keats.  In  this  is  one  secret  of  Spenser's  in- 
fluence upon  later  English  poetry,  an  influence 
more  pervasive  than  Chaucer's  or  Milton's  or 
even  Shakespeare's.  It  is  not  that  he  is  a  mas- 
ter of  narrative :  oiie  who  desires  merely  a 
story  had  best  go  elsewhere.  It  is  not  that  he 
recreates  the  world  of  chivalry  as  Malory  or 
ChrMen    bad    seen    it    in    earlier    times.    He 


draws  upon  all  sources;  ancient  and  nediseval, 
romance  and  allegory;  his  learning  is  enor- 
mous ;  one  stanza  may  be  compounded  of 
samples  from  many  fields.  But  it  is  att  fused, 
throu^  the  magic  of  his  imagination,  into  a 
new  unity  that  we  feel  rather  than  see.  His 
sources  are  a  thousand  romances,  but  he  is 
romance  incarnate. 

Partly  this  is  due  to  his  wonderful  stanza. 
The  foundation  of  it  is  not  ottava  rima,  as  is 
often  said,  but  an  eight-line  stanza  adapted  by 
Chaucer  from  the  French  and  having  the  same 
rhymes :  ababbcbc.  To  this  Spenser  added  an 
alexandrine  that  repeats  the  third  rhyme.  Sin- 
gularly adapted  to  the  genius  of  one  who  has 
been  called  "the  painter  of  the  poets,*  Spenser 

Es  from  it  an  astonishing  variety  of  effects 
ough  his  mastery  of  alliteration,  vowel 
stress,  r^etition,  and  epithet.  The  music  of  bird 
song  and  running  water  is  in  it,  the  opulence 
of  taste  and  touch  ("He  seems  to  feel  with  his 
eyes*)— the  pictures  in  language  that  the  poets 
of  the  Renaissance  sought  to  paint  These  pic- 
tures are  not  alone  of  tne  kind  often  associated 
with  his  poeni,~an  enchantress  in  a  Bower  of 
Bliss,  or  some  vividly  wrought  epic  simile. 
Colin's  fairy  hill,  a  stream  of  living  water  at  its 
base,  guarded  by  fairies  from  eveiy  noisome 
thing;  a  httle  open  place  outside  the  stream, 
and  beyond,  as  a  frame  for  the  picti:re,  woods 
of  matchless  height  that  seemed  to  disdain  the 
earth,  is  one  example  of  his  painting;  another  is 
the  scene  of  the  hundred  furnaces  in  the  Under- 
ided   by   swarms   of   dwarfs   en- "" 


Knight,    ^glistering    in    armes    and    battailous 

Though  Spenser's  genius  is  not  primarily 
dramatic,  this  element  in  his  work  is  not  want- 
ing. He  often  refers  to  the  theatres  and  to 
acting,  and  among  his  lost  works  we  read  of 
nine  comedies.  The  masques  of  the  "Faerie 
Quecne*  —  the  Temple  of  Venus,  the  Masque 
of  Cupid,  the  Gardens  of  Adonis,  the  Seven 
Deadly  Sins,  the  Masque  of  the  Seasons,  and 
others  —  form  a  constant  element  in  his  work. 
The  journey  of  Guyon  through  the  Underworld 
is  both  masque  and  drama,  as  is  also  the  over- 
throw of  the  enchanter  Busirane  by  Britomart 
In  comparison  with  these,  the  masques  intro- 
duced by  Shakespeare  into  his  plays  are  pale 
and  ineffectual  The  tragi-comedy  of  Malbecco 
is  excellent  throughout,  and  reminds  one,  in  its 
power  of  characterization  and  its  edged  humor, 
of  Jonson  or  Massinger.  Spenser's  characters 
are  not  all  pale  abstractions,  creatures  of 
boundless  virtue  or  ugly  vice.  Britomart  has 
the  sjjirit,  the  bravery,  as  well  as  the  beauty  of 
Beatrice,  and  like  Beatrice  she  is  adorably 
feminine.  Una  is  as  lovely  and  appealing  as 
Hermione ;  Pastorella  is  another  Perdita. 
Guyon's  career  is  no  succession  of  tilts  with  ab- 
stractions; the  conflict  is  as  real  as  in  many  an 
Elizabethan  tragedy,  with  victory  for  his  re- 

But  these  are  mere  details,  their  only  serv- 
ice being  to  recall  once  more  the  infinite  vari- 
ety of  the  elements  composing  the  poem.  The 
abiding  impression  which  it  leaves  upon  the 
mind  is  that  of  a  succession  of  marvelous  dis- 
solving views,  a  panorama  in  which, the  anrique 
and  mediaeval  wodds  are  blended  widt  the  epic- 
like  life  that  Ei^land  then  was  living,    "This 


8l^ 


no 


FAEROS  ISLANDS— FAGNIBZ 


life  Spenser  views  tbroni^  Merlin's  ma^ 
glass,  to  wiiicb  time  and  space  are  immaterial, 
and  all  human  experience  la  but  the  semblance 
of  things  not  seen. 

Enwin  Obehlaw, 
Kenan  Proftnor  of  English  in  tht  University 
of  North  Carolina. 

FAEROB  ISLANDS.    See  Faboe  Islands. 

FAESUL^.     See  Fiesole,   ItaJy. 

PAFNIR,  faf'ner,  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Nibelungenlied,  a  son  of  the  magician  Hreid- 
n>ar.  In  the  form  of  a  dragon  he  guarded  the 
gold  which  was  paid  in  atonement  for  the  death 
of  Oir,  and  was  slain  by  Siegfried. 


Wood  College  and  Trinity  College,  Oxford. 
Intended  at  first  for  the  church,  the  bar  or  the 
Indian  Civil  Service,  he'abandoned  in  turn  all 
three  and  went  on  the  stage.  He  was  with  F. 
R.  Benson  for  two  years,  189S-97,  and  with 
Sir  Herbert  Beerbohm  Tree  in  1897-99,  retiring 
in  the  latter  year.  He  produced  *The  Rebelj* 
(1899)  ;  'The  Prayer  of  the  Sword*  (19(M) ; 
TIawthome,  U.  S.  A.'  (1905);  <Under  which 
KinE>  (1905);  'A  Merry  DeviP  (1909);  <The 
Earth'  (1909) ;  'False  Gods,>  a  translation 
(1910)  ;  'The  Dressingroom*  (1910)  ;  'Bella 
Donna,'  an  adaptation  (1911). 

PAGBL,  fa'Hil,  Frans  NicoUaa.  Dutch  sol- 
dier: b.  Nimwegen  1645;  d.  Slws  23  Feb.  1718. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  Gas]»r  Fagel  (q.v.),  en- 
tered the  mihtary  service  in  1672.  He  distin- 
guished himself  ui  the  battle  of  Fleurus  1690, 
and  the  famous  defense  of  Mons,  1691,  was  di- 
rected by  him.  He  also  displayed  great  military 
talent  at  the  siege  of  Namur,  at  the  capture  of 
Bonn  and  in  Portugal  1703,  in  Flanders  17U  and 
1712,  at  the  battles  of  Ramillies  (1706)  and 
Malplaquet   (1709). 

FAGSL.  Headrik,  Babon,  Dutch  states- 
man: b.  1765;  d.  1834.  He  received  his  educa- 
tion at  the  University  of  Leyden  and  in  1787 
became  second  secretary  to  the  S  tates- General ; 
afterward  he  became  secretary.  With  Van  de 
Spiegel  he  was  commissioned  in  1794  to  make 
a  treaty  of  alliance  with  England  and  Prussia. 
When  the  princes  of  Orange  became  exile* 
Fagel  accompanied  them.  In  1813  he  was 
named  Ambassador  to  England  and  remained  in 
that  post  until  1824,  With  Lord  Castlereagh  he 
signed  the  London  Convention,  under  the  terms 
of  which  many  of  her  colonies  were  restored 
to  Holland  In  1829  Fagel  was  appointed  min- 
titer  without  portfolio. 

FAGEL,  Kaspar  or  Gaspar,  Dutch  states- 
man: b.  The  Hague  1629;  d.  1688.  He  was 
made  pensionary  of  Haarlem  in  1663  and  seven 
years  later  became  secretary  to  the  States - 
General  He  succeeded  De  Witt  as  grand  pen- 
sionary. He  allied  himself  with  William  of 
Orange  and  took  a  large  part  in  having  the 
latter  declared  hereditary  stadtholder.  To  htm 
also  is  due  no  small  part  of  the  credit  for  the 
accession  of  William  to  the  throne  of  England 
after  the  Revolution  of  168a  Fagel's  incor- 
ruptibility and  patriotism  was  demonstrated  by 
his  refusal  of  a  bribe  of  2,000,000  francs  from 
Louis  XIV. 

FAGBRLIN,  fa'g«r-1en,  Ferdinand  Julhw: 
b.  Stockholm,  5  Feb.  1825.     In  1854  he  began 


Stockholm;  thence  he  passed  to  Diisseldorf  and 
finally  became  a  pupil  of  Couture  at  Paris, 
trom  Dtisseldorf  he  started  on  a  professional 
journey  northward  for  the  puipost  of  studyii^i 
sea  and  coast  life  in  Holland.  The  pictures  he 
then  painted  are  true  to  nature  subtle  in  char- 
actenzation  and  aboimd  in  wholesome  humor. 

FAGGING,  in  the  schools  of  intermediate 
or  secondary  education  in  England,  a  term 
designating  the  services  which  boys  o.f  the  lower 
forms  are  by  custom  obliged  to  render  to  the 
boys  of  the  upper  forms.  Usually  a  lower-form 
boy  is  assigned  to  an  upper-form  boy,  whose 
"fag*  he  is  then  said  to  be.  For  his  master 
he  performs  various  services,  but  never  meniai 
Consult  Hughes,  'Tom  Brawn's  School  Days.' 

FAGIN.  fi'f 
'Oliver  Twist.' 
up  children  in  crime  in  order  to  profit  by  thdr 
thievish  practices  and  condemned  to  be  hanged 
for  receiving  stolen  goods, 

FAGIUS,  Paul  (German,  Buchlein),  Ger- 
man reformer  and  Hebraist:  b.  Rheinzabem, 
in  the  PaJatint  1S04;  d.  Cambridge,  England. 
1549.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Strass- 
burg;  at  the  latter  place  giving  special  attention 
to  Hebrew  under  the  (Erection  of  Wolfgang 
Capeto.  He  was  made  pastor  at  Isny  in  1537 
and  here  he  continued  his  Hebrew  studies  under 


i542  he  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Strass- 
burg  and  later  held  similar  chairs  at  Constance 
and  Marburg.  In  1546  he  went  to  Heidelberg, 
where  he  jomed  the  Reform  Party.  He  was 
deposed  in  1549,  and  in  the  same  year  was  in- 
vited by  Cranmer  to  England.  He  died  soon 
alter  his  arrival.  Queen  Mary  in  15S7  caused 
his  body  to  be  exhumed  and  burned.  Fanns 
left  several  commentaries  on  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  His  'Hebrew  Grammar'  (1543) 
was  important  in  its  day. 

PAGNANI,  fin-ya'ni,  JoMph,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Naples,  Italy,  1819;  d  1873.  He 
studied  at  Vienna  and  Paris,  and  came  to  the 
United  States  with  Sir  Henry  Bulwer  in  1849; 
here  he  painted  'The  Nine  Muses'  (portraits 
of  New  York  women),  now  in  die  Metropolitan 
Museum.  He  also  painted  many  European 
celebrities. 

FAGNIEZ,  fa'nyi'.  Guatave  Charles, 
French  historian:  b,  Paris  1842.  He  received 
his  education  at  the  Ecole  des  Chartes  and  the 
Ecole  des  Hautes-Etudes  and  secured  a  post  in 
the    department   of    national    archives.     Svibse- 

Suently  he  was  member  of  the  commission  of 
blomatic  archives  under  the  direction  of  the 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Historical  Society  of 
France  and  became  a  member  of  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  Revue  Hisioriaue.  He  has  pub- 
lished several  works  dealing  mainly  with 
economic  history.  These  include  'Etudes  sur 
I'industrie  et  la  classe  industrielle  k  Paris  au 
Xllle  et  au  XlVe  sifcle'  (1877);  'La  mission 
du  pire  Joseph  J  Ratisbonne'  (1885)  :  'Lepere 
Joseph  et  Richelieu*  (1894) ;  'L'Economie 
sociale  de  la  France  sous  Henri  IV'  (1897); 
'Documents  relatifs  4  I'htstoire  de  I'industrie 
et  du  commerce'  (2  vols.,  1898-1900)  ;  <Le  due 


F AOOT — P AUSXNHSIT 


T>1 


de  BtoeUc'  (19A2>  :  <Corporatioo9  ct  ayn^cata> 
O90S). 

PAGOT,  3  bundle  of  sticks  or  small 
branches  of  trees  bound  together.  In  tunes  of 
rdigiou*  persecution  the  fagot  was  a  badge 
worn  on  the  sleeve  of  the  npper  garment  of 
inch  persons  as  had  abjured  heresy,  being  put 
on  after  the  person  bad  publicly  carried  a  fagot 
to  some  ai^intcd  place,  by  vrar  of  penance. 
Among  military  men  in  Ei^anit  fagntd  were 


.    0  muster  and  hide  the  dei 

the  company,  and  thus  cheat  the  government 

FAGOT-VOTE,  in  Great  Britain, 


of 


lied  of  sufficient  property  to  qualio;  thei 
electors.  Estates  were  divided  up  into  what 
was  called  'lO-shilling  freeholds,  to  each  of 
which  a  bogus  proprietorship  (with  a  vote) 
might  attach:  but  under  the  Franchise  Act  of 
I8&(  this  qualification  was  abolished  and  fagot- 
votes  can  no  longer  be  manufactured. 

PAOQT-WORU,  a  caterpillar  of  a  moth  of 
the  Renus  Eumela,  which  in  Ceylon  is  common 
on  the  coffec'trees.  It  forms  a  pupa  case  of 
silk  covered  with  small  sticks,  so  tlut  it  looks 
like  a  bundle  of  fagots;  and  local  folk-lore 
explains  that  these  worms  are  the  abode  of  the 
souls  of  persons  who  in  thrir  lifetime  were 
thieves  of  firewood.  These  moths  are  related 
to  the  bag-worm  moths  (qv.), 

FAGOTTO,  f9-got't&,  a  brass  wind  instru- 
ment, blown  with  a  reed,  which  can  be  taken  in 
pieces  and  carried  like  a  bundle  of  fagots,  hence 
the  name:  a  bassoon  (q.v,). 

FAGUET,  i^'g&,  Bmile,  French  literateur 
and  academician :  b.  La  Rodie  sur  Yon  Vendue, 
17  Dec.  1847:  d.  Paris,  7  June  1916.  He  was 
educMed  at  the  Lycie  Charlemagne,  Paris,  and 
was  graduated  iima  I'Ecole  Nonnale  in  1867. 
He  taught  for  some  time  at  La  Rochelle  and 
Bordeaux.  I^tcr  he  came  to  Paris,  where  he 
became  professor  of  poetry  in  the  university  in 
1690,  and  was  dected  to  me  Academy  in  1900. 
His  works  include  'La  tragidie  au  XVIe 
Sitelc>  <1883);  'Le  Thiitre  contemporain' 
(1^0-41).  comprising  his  dramatic  crit.cisms; 
'Dix-huitieme  si*de>  0890);  'Seiiiime  siede> 
(1893>;  *Drame  a ncien,  drame  modern e'  (1898); 
'Hiatoire  de  U  liitirature  frangaise'  (1900); 
*La  politique  comparie  de  Montesquieu  Rous- 
seau, et  Voltaire'  (1902)  ;  'Propos  Littiraircs' 
(1902):  'La  Pacifisme'  (1908);  <Les  Pr*jug*s 
n^essaires'  (1911);  <Moneeigneur  Duoanlou^k 
tin  grand  fveque*  ( 1914) .  He  rehaoilitated 
especially  the  literature  of  the  17tfa  century,  and 
took  an  active  interest  in  the  criticism  of  the 
modern  drama,  of  politics  and  even  of 
philosophy. 

FAGUS,  the  typical  genus  of  die  Beech 
family  {Fagacta).  The  genus  has  five  species, 
natives  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  only  one 
of  which,  the  common  beech  (i-'.  AtKeruana), 
is  native  to  the  United  States.  All  die  species 
are  trees  with  smooth  gray  bark  and  serrate 
leaves,  the  flowers  and  leaves  appearing  to- 
gpether.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek,  to  eat, 
referring  to  the  edible  nuts.    See  Beech. 

FAHAKA,  an  edible  ^lobe-fish  (Tetrw>d<m 
fahaka),  Angular  in  inhabiting  the  fresh  waters 
of  the  Nile. 


PA  HIEN^  fa  he-«n',  Chinese  monk  and 
explorer:  he  was  bom  in  Wu-Yang,  province 
of  Shan-si,  in  the  4th  century,  a.d.    In  the  15 

Srs  from  399  to  414  be  traveled  in  IndG^ 
otan  and  Tibet  in  the  company  of  other 
Chinese  pilgrims  to  the  great  Buddhist  festivals. 
He  penetrated  Kashmir  Kabul,  Kandahar,  the 
Punjab  and  central  India.    In  all  he  spent  10 

Stars  in  India  in  quest  of  information  about 
uddhism  and  its  founder.  He  also  sou^t 
complete  texts  of  the  <Vii3a)[a-pitaka.'  He 
went  to  Ceylon  and  there  copied  other  sacred 
texts.  From  Ceylon  he  joumed  to  Java,  whence 
he  re-entered  his  native  country.  His  'Fo- 
kue-ld,'  written  after  lus  return,  is  a  full  ac- 
count of  his  wanderings  in  the  Buddhist  coun- 
tries. This  work  appeared  in  a  French  trans- 
lation (Paris  1836)  and  in  Ei^lish  by  Beal 
(2d  ed.,  London  1884).  Giles  (Shanghai  1877), 
and  Legge  (Oxford  1886).  Consult  Beacley, 
'Dawn  of  Modem  Geography'  (3  vols.,  Ox- 
ford 1904-06):  Giles.  'History  of  Chinese 
Literature'    (New  York  1901). 

FAHLCRANTZ,  fallcrants,  Christian  Erik, 
Swe^sh  divine  and  poet :  b.  Stora  Tuna,  Falun, 
1790;  d.  1866  From  1839  to  1652,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Almqfiiat  and  Knos  he  issued  the 
Ecclesuulical  Jimmi^.  He  wrote  several  polemi- 
cal works  and  also  several  long  poems.  He  was 
appointed  bishop  of  WesterSs  in  1849.  His 
greatest  work  is  the  himiorous  satire  'Noach's 
Ark'  (1826).  Consult  'C.  E.  Fahlcrant*: 
Samlade  Sknfter'  (7  vols,  Oerebro  1866). 

FAHLCRANZ,  falVrants,  Karl  Johanjo, 
Swedish  landscape-painter :  b.  Dalecarlia,  29 
Nov.  1774;  d.  Stocliolm.  1  Jaa  1861.  Study- 
ing nature  diligently,  he  became  a  self-edu- 
cated artist  He  was  acquainted  onlv  with 
northern  scenery,  but  has  ^ven  it  witn  great 
fidelity  and  ^inL  His  pruicipal  productions 
are  in  the  possession  of  the  King  of  Sweden. 

FAHLHANN,  f&rm«n.  Friedrich  Robert, 
Russian  philolo^st:  b.  Esthonia,  1800:  d.  ISSA 
At  the  Unrversity  of  Dorpat  he  studied  medi- 
cine and  i^ilology  and  in  1842  was  appointed 
lecturer  on  the  E^thonian  language  at  that  seat 
of  learning.  He  collected  a  vast  amount  of 
material  which  he  edited.  His  bic^rapher, 
Kretrtzwald,  published  it  under  the  title  'Kale- 
Yiade>  or  <lGdevipoeg>   (1857-*1). 


__     studied    medicine,    law    

theology.  He  is  remembered  for  his  histories 
of  episcopal  sees,  cities  and  noble  houses  of 
Westphalia  and  the  Rhine  District.  They  in- 
clude 'Forschungen  aus  dem  Gebiet  der 
rheinischen  und  westfalischcn  Geschichie'  (S 
vols..  1864-75)  ;  'E>enkmale  und  Ahnentafelnm 
Rheinland  und  Westfalen'  (6  vols.,  1883) ; 
<Lioland;  Ein  Beitrag  xur  Kirchen-und  Sitten- 
geschichte'    (1875). 

FAHRENHEIT,  fa'ren-hlt,  Gabriel  Daniei. 
Oman  physicist:  b.  Dantric,  14  May  1666-  d. 
Amtterdun,  16  Sept  1736  He  settled  in  OtA- 
land,  where  in  t73t  be  first  conceived  the  idea 
of  using  quicksilver  instead  of  alcohol  ia 
thermometers  —  a  discovery  by  which  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  instrument  was  very  much  im- 
proved. He  took,  as  the  limit  of  the  greatest 
cold,  that  which  he  had  observed  at  Dantric 
in  the  winter  of  1709.  The  space  between  the 
fell  at  dus  teoi- 


8l^ 


.yGooi^le 


Persian  Faience 


Hinchvo^l  Pitcher 


Modem  English  Faience  Modern  French  Faience 


„  Google 


,,  Google 


Old  German  Jug 
Persian  Faience 


Delft  Ware 
Hirichvogel  Pitcher 


Modem  English  Faience  Modem  French  Faience 


h.GoogI 


.yGooi^le 


PAILLON  — FAIR 


Ciramiquc  nivemaise'  (ClameCT  1901J ;  Fil- 
lon,   B.,    'L'Art   dc   Terre   chei   les   Poitevins' 

(Niort  1864)  ;  Foville.  J-  de,  <Les  Delia  Rob- 
bia>  (Paris  I9I0)  ;  Forestie,  E.,  <Les  aiicienoes 
faienceries  de  Montauban,  Ardus,  Negrepelissc, 
Auvillar,  etc.'  (Montauban  1876)  ;  Fraisse,  du, 
de  Vernines,  'ParalWle  des  Oeuvrages  de  Po- 
[erie  d'Auvcrgoe,  anciens  et  modemes'  (Paris 
1874)  ;  Frantz,  H.,  <Frendi  PotKiy  and  Porce- 
lain' {London  1906)  ;  Gasnault,  P.,  and  Gar- 
nier,  E.,  'French  Pottery'  (London  1884)  ; 
GerspacJt,  'Documents  sur  les  anciennes 
faiencerics  fran^aises'  (Paris  1891);  Grange, 
G.,  'Histoire  de  la  manufacture  de  faience  de 
aermont-Ferrand>  (Cermont-Ferrand  1882) ; 
Grasset,  *Historique  de  la  Faiencerie  de  La 
Charit^sur-Loire'  (Paris  1876):  Houdry.  J., 
'Hi^oire    de    la    c^ramiquc    lilloise'    (Pa.' 


fabrication  des  faiences  fines'  (Paris  186S)  . 
L'Aulnoit,  H,  dc,  <  Essai  de  la  Faience  de 
Douai,  ditcs  Gr6s  Anglais'  (Lille  1882)  ;  Leader- 
Scott,  'Delia  Robbia  and  olfier  Sculptors' 
(London  1883)  ;  Lejfal,  A.,  'Recherches  his- 
toriques  sur  les  manufactures  de  faience  el  de 
porcelain  dc  Valenciennes>  (Valenciennes 
1868)  ;  Le  Men,  R.  F..  'La  manufacture  de 
faience  de  Quiinpcr'  (Quimpcr  1875)  ;  Loche, 
Comte  de,  'Notice  siir  la  fabriquc  de  faience 
de  la  Forest'  (Chambery  1880):  Marcschal, 
A.  A.,  'La  faience  populairu  du  XVIII  siccle' 
(Paris  1872)  ;  Michel,  E..  'Essai  sur  I'histoire 
des  faiences  dc  Lyon'  (Lyons  1876)  ;  Mussel, 
G.,  'Les  faiences  rochdaises'  (La  Rochclle 
1888) :  Pier,  G.  C,  'Pottery  of  the  Near  East' 
(New  York  1909);  Solon,  L.  M.  E.,  'A  His- 
tory and  Description  of  Old  French  Faience' 
(London  1903)  ;  Tainturier.  A.,  'Recherches 
sur  les  anciennes  manufactures  dc  porcelaio 
et  de  faience  d'Alsace  et  de  Lorraine'  (Slrass- 
burg  1868)  ;  Thor4,  'Les  anciennes  fabriques 
de  faience  et  de  porcelaine  .  .  ,  de  Sceaux' 
<Paris  1868)  ;  Vailliant,  V.  L,  *Les  c^ramistcs 
boulonnais'  (Boulogne  1W9) ;  Wallis,  H., 
<Persian  Lustre  Vases'  (London  1899);  War- 
mont,  'RecKerches  histonques  sur  les  faiences 
de  SbceDy,  Rouy  et  Ctenes'   (Paris  1864). 

Cl-EMEST   W.    COUMBE. 


PAILLOH,  Michel  Btienne,  me-shel  a-te-en 
fa-yon,  French  historical  writer:  b.  Tarascon, 
France,  1799;  d.  Paris,  25  Oct.  1870.  He  was  a 
Sulpiciao  and  visited  Canada  in  1854  to  investi- 
gate the  houses  of  that  order.  He  wrote  lives 
of  noted  French-Canadian  religionists  such  as 
Mme.  d'Youville  (1852);  and  Mile.  France 
(1854) ;  a  history  of  the  Church  in  North 
America  (18S3),  and  a  comprehensive  history 
of  the  French  in  Canada,  three  volumes  of 
which  appeared  (1853-66)  before  his  death. 
His  'life'  was  published  at  Paris  in  1877. 

FAILLY,  ft'ye',  Pierre  Louis  CIur1«i  de, 
French  soldier:  b.  Roioy-sur-Serre,  1810;  d. 
1892.  He  received  his  military^  training  at 
Saint-Cyr  and  after  graduation  joined  the  army 
in  AlKciia.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean 
War  he  was  gazetted  brigadier-general.  He 
was  a  division  commander  in  Italy  in  16S9  and 
to<4c  part  in  the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Sol- 
ferino.  In  November  1867  he  defeated  Gari- 
baldi at  Mentana.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
war  with  Prussia  in  IWO  the  emperor  appointed 
btm  conunander  of  the  Fifth  Army  Corps.    At 


to  retreat,  leaving  McMahon's  right  unpro- 
tected and  resulting  in  his  retreat  being  cut  off. 
The  direct  result  was  the  capitulation  after 
Sedan,  and  an  immediate  consequence  to  Failly 
was  his  removal  and  Wimpffen  s  succession  to 
his  post.  In  'Campagne  de  1870:  Operations 
et  marche  du  Seme  Corps  iusqu'au  31  aout' 
(1871)   he  defended  his  conduct  of  operations. 

FAILSWORTH,  England,  town  in  Lan- 
cashire, four  miles  north  by  east  of  Manchester, 
on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway. 
Cotton  manufacturing  is  the  principal  industry. 
The  electric-lighting  and  tramway  services  are 
supplied    from    Manchester.    Pop.    15,098. 

FAILURE.    See  Bankrupt. 

FAIN,  On'.  Agathon  Jean  Prangois, 
Babom,  French  historian:  b.  Paris  1778;  d 
1837.  In  1806  he  became  secretary  of  the  Im- 
perial archives,  three  years  later  was  created 
baron  and  in  1813  became  private  secretary  to 
Napoleon  I.  He  served  the  Emperor  faithfully 
until  1815  and  drew  up  the  papers  of  abdica- 
tion. In  1830  Fain  was  appointed  first  secre- 
tary of  the  Cabinet  and  served  three  years  as 
deputy  from  Montargis  in  1834-37.  He  pub- 
lished several  memoir^ij  including  'Manuscrit  de 
1814,  contenant  I'faistoire  des  six  demiers  mois 
du  regne  de  Napoleon'  (1823:  4lh  ed,.  1906); 
'Manuscrit  de  1813'  (2d  ed.,  1825)  ;  'Manuscrit 
dc  1812>  (2  vols.,  1827);  'Manuscrit  de  I'an 
III'  (1828).  His  'M*moires'  were  published 
in  1908. 

PAINfiANTS,  fa-nS-aii,  or  DO-NOTH- 
ING KINGS,  the  name  given  in  French  history 
to  some  of  ^e  Merovingian  sovereigns,  who 
were  the  puppets  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace. 
The  last  of  these  kings  was  Childeric  111. 

FAINT  (syncope),  a  pfculiar  form  of  sud- 
den loss  of  consciousness.  Impoverishment  of 
the  blood,  lowered  vitality  from  any  cause,  an 
overwrought  nervous  system  and  disease  of 
the  circulatory  system  predispose  to  such  at- 
tacks. The  immediate  cause  is  an  anjemia  of 
the  brain.  This  sudden  cerebral  anxmia  is  most 
frequently  due  to  shocking  sights,  sickening 
smells,  pains  or  fears.  The  attack  may  be  ush- 
ered in  by  a  period  of  nausea,  sighing  respira- 
tion, or  'taint  feeling."  Immediate  lowering  of 
the  head  below  the  rest  of  the  body  will  fre- 
quently ward  off  further  trouble.  Most  com- 
monly the  attack  is  very  sudden,  the  face  be- 
coming absolutely  bloodless  and  having  a  death- 
bke  calm'  the  pulse  is  weak  or  imperceptible, 
the  breathing  very  shallow.  In  true  syncope 
spasms  are  not  present,  neither  is  voiding  of  the 
urine  or  fxces.  Fatal  termination  is  rare,  con- 
sciousness ordinarily  being  restored  in  a  few 
moments  if  prompt  measures  arc  taken.  The 
patient  must  be  placed  in  a  recumbent  position, 
with  the  head  as  low  or  lower  than  the  rest  of 
the  body ;  constricting  clothing  should  be 
loosened ;  and  water  may  be  slapped  on  ex- 
posed parts.  S  me]  ting-sal  Is  held  to  the  nose 
arc  of  value.  Later  mild  stimulants  may  be 
used  to  restore  normal  condition;  but  resump- 
tion of  vertical  position  should  be  postponed  as 
long  as  practicable. 

FAIOUM.  or  FAYOUM.    See  Fayum. 

PAIR,  Jamea Qraham,  American  capitalist: 
b.  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  3  Dec.  1831;  d.  San 


"6'^ 


FAIR  GOD  — FAIK  OAKS  AND  DARBYTOWN  ROAD 


Fraodsco.  28  Dec.  1894.  He  emigrated  to 
America  in  1843  and  went  to  California  in  the 
famous  '49  year.  He  amassed  great  wealth  bv 
mining  in  Nevada.,  to  which  he  went  in  1860. 
He  served  from  1881-85  as  a  Democratic  repre- 
sentative from  Nevada  to  the  United  Slates 
Senate. 

FAIR  GOD,  Mexican  traditional  li^ro  and 
culture  god.  See  Quetzaixoatl;  Mexican 
Mythology;  Yucatan;  Uxmal. 

FAIR  GOD,  The,  a  romance  ty  Lew  Wal- 
lace 1873.  It  is  a  story  of  the  conquest  of 
Mexico  by  the  Spaniards,  its  scene  laid  upon 
Aztec  soil,  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury.  The  title  is  derived  from  Quetzalcoatl, 
"the  fair  god,*  the  Ajttec  ddty  of  the  air. 

FAIR  HAVEN,  Mass.,  town  in  Bristol 
County  on  Buzzard's  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Acushnet  River  and  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad,  60  miles  south 
of  Boston  and  opposite  New  Bedford,  with 
wh^ch  it  is  connected  by  bridges.  Here  are  the 
Millicent  Public  Library,  the  Academy  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  several  batiks,  churches  and  other 
public  buildings.  It  has  manufactories  of  glass, 
castings,  nails,  loom  cranks,  whale  boats,  oil 
casks  and  tacks.  Many  buildings  of  architec- 
tural merit,  which  render  Fair  Haven  one  of 
the  most  attractive  towns  of  the  State,  were 
erected  by  Henry  H.  Rogers  (q.v.)  as  memo- 
rials to  members  of  his  family.  One  architec- 
tural group,  a  fine  example  of  Tudor  archi- 
tecure,  consisting  of  a  church  and  two  other 
buildings,  is  considered  a  model  of  beauty. 
The  town  is  a  summer  resort.  The  government 
is  administered  by  town  meetings.  Fair  Haven 
was  separated  from  New  Bedford  and  incor- 
porated as  a  town  in  1812.  On  7  Sept.  1778. 
the  militia,  commanded  by  Maj.  Israel  Fear- 
ing, repulsed  a  British  attack  here.  Pop.  5,122. 
Consult  Rickcison,  'The  History  of  New  Bed- 
ford'  (New  Bedford  1858). 

FAIR  HAVEN,  Vt..  town  of  Rutland 
County,  30  miles  east  of  Rutland,  on  the  Dela- 
.  ware  and  Hudson  Railroad.  It  has  a  Carnegie 
library  and  extensive  slate  manufactories.  Tat 
town  owns  the  waterworks  and  sewerage  sys- 
tem. It  received  its  charter  in  1783,  at  which 
time  it  included  West  Haven.     Pop.  3,095. 

FAIR  HAVENS  (Gr.  Ki^-oi  /u/Uyit,  Kaloi 
Limenis),  an  anchorage  on  the  southern  coast 
of  Crete,  five  miles  east  of  Cape  Litino.  It  is 
of  small  size  and  amply  sheltered  from  western 
winds.  The  only  mention  of  it  by  ancient 
writers  is  that  by  Paul  (Acts  xxvii,  8),  whose 
well-known  slupwredc  occurred  after  departure 
from  Fair  Havens  for  Phenice  or  Phosnix.  It 
is  probable  that  there  was  no  town  at  that 
point,  although,  as  stated  in  Acu,  Lasea  was 
bnt  B  short  distance  away. 

PAIR  HEAD,  or  BENMORB,  a  precipi- 
tous promontory  of  the  north  coast  of  county 
Antrim,  Ireland,  opposite  Rathlin  Isle.  It  rises 
636  feet  above  the  sea  and  consists  of  carbon- 
iferous strata,  overlaid  by  greenstone  columns, 
20  to  30  feet  thick  and  280  to  320  feet  high. 

FAIR  ISLE,  a  solitary  Shetland  island  ly- 
ing midway  between  Shetland  and  Orkney,  and 
30  miles  southwest  of  Lerwick.  It  is  three 
tniles  long  and  two  rnilei  broad.  The  men  em- 
ploy themselves  chiefly  in  fishing  and  the  women 


in  knitting  the  well-known  Shetland  hosiery. 
They  arc  said  to  have  acquired  this  art  from 
the  Spanish  seamen  whose  ship,  belonging  to 
the  Armada,  was  wrecked  here  in  1588.  Pop. 
139. 

FAIR  MAID.    See  Scup. 

FAIR  MAID  OF  PERTH,  The,  a  novel 
by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  published  in  1828.  The 
heroine  is  Catherine  Glover. 

FAIR  OAKS  AND  DARBYTOWN 
ROAD,  Eagageineiit  at  (Second  Battle  op 
Fair  Oaks).  On  27  OcL  1864,  General  Grant 
began  a  movement  on  the  Petersburg  lines  to 
seize  the  South-side  Railroad,  and  as  a  sup- 
port to  the  movement  had  ordered  (xcneral 
Butler  to  make  a  demonstration  north  of  James 
River  on  Richmond.  Parts  of  three  divisions 
of  the  Tenth  Corps  under  General  Terry,  six 
brgades  of  tKe  Eighteenth  Corps  under  General 
Weitzel  and  (ieneral  Kautz's  cavalry  division, 
were  designated  for  the  movement  Terry  was 
to  make  a  demonstration  along  the  Darbytown 
Road,  under  cover  of  which  Weitzel  was  tg 
push  through  White  Oak  Swamp  to  reach  the 
Williamsburg  road  and  seriously  threaten  Rich- 
mond. The  columns  started  from  camps,  near 
Chaffin's  farm,  very  early  on  27  October.  Terry 
reached  the  Darbytown  Road,  a  part  of  his 
command  crossed  over  to  the  Charles  Gty  Road 
and  advancing  on  both  roads,  a  little  before 
8  A.M.  engaged  the  Confederates  in  their  en- 
trenchments from  the  New  Market  Road  to  the 
Charles  City  Road.  Wdtiel,  after  a  march  of 
16  miles,  crossing  both  the  Darbytown  Road 
and  Charles  City  Road,  at  1  p.  u.  readbed  the 
Williamsburg  Road  at  Heintzelman's  old  works, 
on  the  battlefield  of  31  Hay  1862,  and  pushed  at 
once  down  the  road  one  and  a  half  miles  toward 
Richmond,  and  came  upon  the  Confederate 
works  which  appeared  to  be  feebly  held  1^ 
a  small  body  of  dismounted  cavali?  and  three 
gims.  Weitzel  prepared  to  attack,  first  sending 
a  brigade  of  colored  troops  across  the 
York  River  Railroad  to  find  and  turn  the 
Confederates'  left  near  the  New  Bridge  Road. 
The  defenses  north  of  the  James  were  bdd  by 
General  Longstreet,  with  the  divisions  of  Gen- 
erals Hoke  and  Field,  some  "local  defense* 
troops  under  General  Ewell,  and  General  Gary's 
cavalry  brigade.  These  were  posted  with  ref- 
erence to  defense  along  the  river  roads.  As 
soon  as  Longstreet  detected  Weitzel's  movement 
he  ordered  Field's  division  to  move  to  the  left 
and  it  formed  on  either  side  of  the  Williams- 
burg Road.  It  was  3.30  p.m.  when  Weitzel,  with 
two  brigades  and  others  in  support,  advanced 
on  either  side  of  the  road,  over  open  grouniL 
and  was  met  with  an  unexpected  heavy  fire  of 
musketry  and  artillery.  His  troops  almost 
reached  the  works,  but  were  repulsed  with  a 
severe  loss  in  killed,  wounded  and  missing. 
Soon  after  dark  Weitzel  withdrew  after  losing 
over  1.000  men.  While  Weitzel  was  engaged, 
Terry,  at  4  p.  M.,  was  ordered  to  press  his 
demonstration  and  carry  the  entrenchments.  He 
made  the  attempt  and  was  repulsed.  On  the 
next  day  the  expedition  retnmed  to  camp.  The 
Union  loss  was  005  killed  and  woanded  and 
fS8  missing.  The  Confederate  loss  was  com- 
paratively small;  Field's  division  and  Gray's 
brigade  reported  64  killed,  wounded  and  miss- 
ing.    The  entire  loss  probabl7  did  apt  exceed 


.lOOg  Ic 


FAIR   OAKS    (SBVSN   PINU) 


T18 


100.    Consult  Homphrey,  'TTie  Virgiida  Cam- 
pBign  of  1864-65.' 

£.  A.  Cabmak. 
PAIR  OAKS  (SEVEN  PINES),  Battle 
of.  After  the  battle  of  Williamsburg  (5  May 
1852)  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  under  Gener^ 
UcClellan,  advanced  cautiously  up  the  Penin- 
tula,  established  *  base  at  White  House  and 


Conn  under  Gen.  £.  D.  Keyes  crossed  on  the 
23d,  talcing  position  25  May  at  Seven  Pines,  on 
the  main  road  to  RichmoDd,  about  five  miles 
distant.     The  Third  Corps,  under  GetL  S.  P. 


commanded  respectively  by  Gens.  E.  V.  Sum- 
ner, Fit!  John  Porter  and  Wm.  B.  Franklin. 
UcCltiUsn  began  to  rebuild  destroyed  bridges 
and  to  perfect  communication  between  the  two 
wings  of  his  army  astride  the  Chickahominy. 
The  movements  of  McClellan  north  of  the 
Chickahominy  and  information  from  his  cav- 
alry convinced  Gen.  Joseph  £.  Johnston,  the 
Cfmfederate  commander,  that  General  Mc- 
Dowell with  a  strong  corps  was  about  to  join 
UcClellan  from  FrederiocsburK,  upon  which, 
28  May,  he  ordered  op  GeAei^  Huger's  divt- 
tion  from  Petersburg  and  Drewry's  Bluff  and 
suggested  to  General  Lee  that  every  available 
command  should  be  concentrated  at  Richmond. 
On  25  May  General  Casey's  division  of  the 
Fourth  Corps  advanced  from  Seven  Pines  to 
Fair  Oaks,  about  three-fourths  of  a  mile,  and 
threw  up  works  covering  the  road,  and  on  30 
Uay  two  brigades  of  Kearny's  divisioii,  Third 
Corps,  were  advanced  about  a  fourth  of  a  mile 
in  front  of  Savage  Station  to  within  support- 
ing distance  of  Casey.  General  Couch's  divi- 
sion. Fourth  Corps,  was  at  Seven  Pines  and 
Genera]  Hooker's  division.  Third  Corps,  on  the 
border  of  White  Oak  Swamp.  Johnston,  from 
his  works,  three  miles  in  front  of  Richmond, 
watched  McClellan's  cautious  advance.  A  recon- 
noissance  30  May  developed  the  fact  that  Keyes 
had  advanced  his  lines  to  Fair  Oaks ;  Johnston 
saw  his  opporttmity  and  issued  orders  for  an 
attack  next  day.  The  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
31  May,  had  127,166  officers  and  men,  of  whom 
96,008  were  present  for  duty,  and  it  had  280 
guns.  Johnston  had  about  63,000  effectives 
and  was  not  well  supplied  with  artillery.  John- 
ston puroosed  to  throw  23  of  his  27  brigades 
against  Keyes  and  Hcintzelman  and  with  four 
brigades  along  the  line  of  the  river  from  New 
Bridge  lo  Meadow  Bridge  prevent  the  rest  of 
McQellau's  army  from  crossing  the  stream. 
He  purposed  to  move  the  23  brigades  by  the 
Charles  City,  Williamsburg  and  Nine  Mile 
roads,  crush  Keyes'  corps  and  drive  it  bade  in 
disorder  on  HeinCzelman  and  capture  or  des- 
troy those  two  corps  before  any  assistance 
could  reach  them  from  the  north  bank  of  the 
stream.  There  was  some  misunderstanding:  of 
orders  on  the  morning  of  the  31st  and  much 
consequent  delay,  bnt  at  noon  Gen.  D.  H.  Hill's 
division  of  four  brigades  deployed  in  double 
line  on  either  side  or  the  Williamsburg  Road, 
advanced  on  Casey's  division  at  Fair  Qiaks  and 
after  a  severe  fight  of  two  hours  drove  it  back 
upon  Couch's  (tivision  at  Seven  Pines.  Hill 
now  received  a  reinforcement  of  one  brigade, 
and  two  brigade*  of  Kearny's  division  came  to 


_._  __    3!  Couch  and  Keyes,  and  the 

struggle  was  renewed  at  Seven  Pines,  with  the 
result  that  the  entire  Union  force  was  driven 
back  to  a  line  of  entrenchments  about  a  mile 
in  the  rear,  which  position  was  held.  Three 
Union  divisions  had  been  engaged  and  suffered 
severely,  and  a  part  of  Cou<£'s  division  had 
been  cut  off.  Gen.  G.  W.  Smith,  with  several 
Confederate  brigades,  was  observing  the  Chicka' 
hominy,  under  orders  to  engage  any  troop  that 
might  cross  the  stream  to  assist  Keyes  and 
Hemttelman,  or,  if  none  came,  he  was  to  fall 
upon  the  right  flanks  of  the  Union  lines  en- 
gaged. After  waiting  some  time  and  believing 
that  no  Union  troops  would  cross  to  the  south 
bank  of  the  stream.  Smith  put  some  of  his 
troops  in  motion  to  make  the  flank  attack,  but 
it  miscarried  from  the  timely  arrival  of  Sumuer 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Chickahominy.  Sum- 
ner, who  was  nearest  Keyes  and  Heinlzelman, 
heard  the  sound  of  battle  at  1  o'clock  and  was 
at  once  iii  the  saddle  and  ordered  his  troops 
under  arms.  A  little  later  orders  came  from 
McClellan  that  he  should  be  prepared  to  march 
at  a  moment's  notice.  Without  waiting  another 
moment  he  marched  his  two  divisions  to  the 
Chickahominy  and  paused  upon  the  two  bridges, 
waiting  orders  to  cross  them.  At  2.30  f.h. 
the  order  came  to  cross.  Richardson  could  ^et 
but  one  brigade  of  his  division  over  the  lower 
bridge  and  was  obliged  to  move  up  and  follow 
Sedgwick's  division  over  the  Grapevine  Bridge, 
which  swayed  and  tossed  in  the  river.  But  the 
solid  colum  of  Sedgwick's  infantry,  loading  it 
with  a  weight  wifli  which  even  the  angry 
Chickahominy  could  not  trifle,  soon  pressed  and 
held  it  down  among  the  stumps  or  the  trees, 
which  in  turn  prevented  its  lateral  motion.  Once 
across,  Sumner  pressed  forward  on  the  road, 
deep  with  mud,  toward  Fair  Oaks,  and  came  up 
to  Couch,  who  with  four  regiments  and  a  bat- 
tery had  been  cut  from  bis  division  and  was 
holding  ground  about  a  half  mile  from  Fair 
Oalcs,  widi  Smith  approaching  to  make  his  flaidc 
attack.  But  four  of  Stunner's  reg.ments  bad 
formed  on  Couch  when  Smith  attacked,  two 
more  soon  followed,  and  these  six  regiments, 
with  Couch's  checked  alt  efforts  of  Smith's  four 
brigades  to  dislodge  them  and  saved  the  day  at 
Fair  Oaks.  Richardson's  division  came  up  at 
nightfall  and  formed  on  Sedgwick's  left  extend- 
ing toward  a  brigade  of  Heintzelman's  corps, 
wmie  Hooker  coming  to  the  support  of  the  de- 
feated troops  on  the  Williamsburg  road  filled 
vacant  spaces  in  the  line.  There  were  now  three 
corps  across  the  Chickahominy  in  continuous 
order,  ready  for  action  when  day  should  davirn. 
Near  the  close  of  the  day  General  Johnston,  the 
Confederate  commander,  was  severely  woundeid 
and  relinquished  command  to  Gen.  G.  W.  Smith. 
On  the  morning  of  1  June,  the  Union  army 
awaited  attack,  which  was  delivered  by  the  Con- 
federates, and  on  some  parts  of  the  line  th« 
fitting  was  severe,  but  the  advantage  remained 
with  the  Union  troops,  who  regained  most  of 
die  ground  lost  the  previous  day.  On  1  June 
Gen.  R.  E.  Lee  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Army  of  Northern  Vii^nia.  but  did  not  take 
direction  of  alfairs  on  the  field  until  the  fighting 
was  over,  and  2  June  withdrew  to  the  fortifi- 
cations around  Richmond  from  which  Johnston 
had  advanced  31  May.  The  Union  forces  en- 
gaged at  Fair  Oaks  numbered  about  36,000; 


.gk 


PAIR   ROSAMOND  — FAIRBANKS 


the  Confederates  about  32,000.  The  Union  loss 
was  4,384  killed  and  wounded  and  647  missing; 
the  Confederate  loss  was  5,729  killed  and 
wounded  and  40S  missing'.  Consult  Alexander, 
'Military  Memoirs  of  a  Confederate*  (1907)  ; 
Allan,  'The  Artny  of  Northern  Virginia  in 
1862';  'Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War' 
(Vol.  II);  McCIellan,  'My  Own  Story'; 
Michie,  'Life  of  General  McCIellan';  'Official 
Records'  (Vol.  XI);  Walker,  'History  of  the 
Second  Army  Corps';  Webb,  'The  Peninsula.' 
K  A.  Carhah. 

PAIR  ROSAMOND,  the  common  appel- 
lation of  the  daughter  of  Lord  Qifford,  who 
became  mistress  of  Henry  H.  A  popular  legend 
says  she  was  kept  by  the  king  m  a  bower  at 
Woodstock,  which  was  reached  Dy  a  labyrinthine 
passage,  known  only  to  the  king.  The  legend 
adds  that  in  1173  Queen  Eleanor  discovered  and 
poisoned  the  fair  Rosamond. 

PAIR  SIDEA,  The,  a  play  of  Jakob  Ayrer, 
which  by  some  is  considered  the  source  of 
Shakespeare's   'Tempest.' 

FAIR  TRADE,  an  expression  used  in  Great 
Britain  by  those  who,  professing  to  be  free 
traders  and  objecting  to  the  free  trade  fiscal 
policy  of  that  country  as  a  one-sided  business, 
would  lax  goods  imported  from  any  country 
which  refuses  to  f^ve  reciprocal  concessions  to 
British  exports.  Free  traders  consider  this  view 
as  protectionist.  They  hold  that  if  they  can 
import  goods  cheaper  from  a  protectionist 
country  than  elsewhere,  they  should  be  free 
to  reap  that  advantage  even  if  they  cannot  ex- 
port their  own  goods  to  that  country  free  of 
duty.    See  Free-trade. 

FAIRBAIRN,  Andrew  Hsrtin,  English 
theologian :  b.  near  Edinburgh,  4  Nov.  1838;  d. 
9  Feb.  1912.  After  ministering  in  charges  of 
the  Scottish  EvanRclical  Union,  he  was  ap- 
pointed in  1877  to  the  principalship  of  Airedale 
Independent  College,  Bradford;  and  was  the 
first  principal  of  Mansfield  (Congregational) 
College,  Oxford,  1886-1909.  His  most  im- 
portant works  are  'Studies  in  the  Philosophy 
of  Religion  and  History'  (1876)  ;  'Studies  in 
the  Life  of  Christ'   (1881)  ;  'The  City  of  God' 


'The  Place  of  Christ  in  Modern  Theology' 
(1893)  ;  'The  Philosophy  of  the  Christian 
Religion'   (1902). 

FAIRBAIRN,  Patrick,  Scotch  Presbyterian 
clergyman:  b.  Hallyburton,  Berwickshire,  28 
Jan.  1805;  d.  Glasgow,  6  Aug.  1874.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. In  1826  he  was  licensed  to  preach 
and  scr\-cd  as  pastor  in  the  Orkney 
Islands,  Bridgeton  in  Glasgow  and  Salton. 
In  1843  he  became  minister  of  the  Free 
Church,  remaining  in  Salton.  He  was 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  Free  College  of 
Aberdeen  1853-56,  and  from  1856  until  his 
death  principal  of  the  Free  Church  College  of 
Glasgow.  He  was  moderator  of  the  General 
Assembly  in  1865  and  a  member  of  the  Free 
Church  delegation  which  visited  the  United 
States  in  1867,  He  translated  several  works 
from  the  German  and  edited  'The  Imperial 
Bible  Dictionary'  (2  vols.,  1866).  He  vras  the 
author  of  several  volumes  indttding  'The 
Typology  of  Scripture'  <  1S45-^ ;  new  ed..  New 


York  1900);  'Ezeldel  and  the  Book  of  His 
Prophecy'  (1851);  'Prophecy  viewed  in  its  dis> 
tinctire   nature,    its    special    functions   and   its 

S roper  interpretation'  (1856);  'Hermeneutical 
lanual'  (1858) ;  'Pastoral  Theology,'  with  a 
bic«;raphical  sketch  of  the  author  by  J.  Dodds 
(1^5), 

FAIRBAIRN,  Sib  WUliun,  Scottish  engi- 
neer: b.  Kelso,  Scotland,  19  Frf).  1789:  d.  18 
Aug.  1874.  His  father  was  a  farm  servant. 
He  entered  business  in  Manchester,  England, 
in  1817.  He  constructed  the  first  iron  ship  in 
Great  Britain,  tor  traffic  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde 
Canal,  and  afterward  his  firm  built  nearly  1,000 
vessels.  He  was  a  friend  of  George  Stephen- 
son, made  great  improvements  in  cotton  mill 
machinery,  was  the  inventor  of  a  ri vetting 
machine  which  effected  a  revolution  in  the 
method  of  manufacturing  boilersj  and  was 
associated  with  Robert  Stephenson  in  designing 
and  buildii^  the  great  tubular  bridge  over 
Menai  Strait.  He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1869. 
He  was  the  author  of  'MilLi  and  Millwork' ; 
'Iron,  Its  History  atid  Manufacture' ;  'Appli- 
cation of  Iron  to  Building  Purposes';  'Iron 
Shipbuilding';  'Useful  Iniormation  for  Engi- 
neers' ;  'An  Experimental  Inquiry  into  the 
Strength,  Elasticity,  Ductility  and  other  Prop- 
erties of  Steel,'  etc.  Consult  his  'Life,'  edited 
by  Pole  (London  1877). 

FAIRBANK,  Calvin,  American  clergyman: 
b.  Pike,  N.  Y.,  3  Nov.  1816;  d.  Angelica,  N.  Y., 
12  Oct.  1898.  He  was  an  ardent  abolitionist, 
and  during  1837-39  aided  23  slaves  to  escape 
across  the  Ohio  River.  In  1843  he  raised  $2,275 
to  secure  the  liberty  of  a  nearly  white  slave  giH 
who  was  to  be  sold  at  auction  at  Lexington, 
Ky.  In  1844  he  opened  the  way  for  the  escape 
of  the  Hayden  family,  for  wnich  offense  he 
suffered  five  years'  imprisonment.  Later  he 
was  again  delected  in  violation  of  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law,  and  sentenced  to  15  years'  imprison- 
ment at  Frankfort,  where  he  was  cruelly 
treated,  receiving  about  35,000  lashes  on  his 
naked  body.  In  1864  he  was  set  at  liberty  after 
spending  more  than  17  years  in  jail.  He  pub- 
hshed  'How  the  Way  Was  Prepared'  (in  which 
he  told  the  story  of  his  own  life). 

FAIRBANKS,  Arthnr,  American  teacher 
and  author:  b.  Hanover,  N.  H.,  1864.  He  was 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1886,  and 
received  a  doctorate  from  Freftiurg,  Germany. 
He  has  taught  at  Dartmouth,  Yale  and  Cornell, 
and  from  1900  to  1906  professor  of  Greek  liter- 
ature in  the  State  University  of  Iowa.  In  1907 
he  was  elected  director  of  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts.  Among  his  writings  is  an  'Intro- 
duction to  Sociology'  (I901)(  which  has  been 
translated  into  Japanese;  'First  Philosophers 
of  Greece'  (1898);  'A  Study  of  the  Greek 
Paean'  (1900) ;  'The  Mythology  of  Greece 
and  Rome'  (1907)  ;  'Handbook  of  Greek  Reli- 
gion' (1910);  'Athenian  White  LekythoL' 
(Vol.  I,  1907;  Vol.  11,  1914), 

FAIRBANKS,  Charles  Warren,  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  statesman :  b.  near  Unionville 
Centre,  Union  County,  Ohio,  11  May  1852;  d. 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  3  June  1916.  His  father  was 
a  Vertnonter  and  was  one  of  the  early  pioneers 
who  settled  in  the  West  in  the  middle,  30*5  and 
helped  to  hew  out  of  the  wilderness  the  great 
Buckeye    State.     The   son's   earliest  life   was 


.lOOglc 


FAIKB  ANKS  —  PAIRCHILD 


71T 


■pent  in  t«l  on  tbe  f  atm.  He  attended  the  pub- 
lic school  in  the  netghborhood  until  his  IStfa 
year,  when  he  entered  the  senior  preparatory 
department  of  the  Ohio  Wesl^an  Universih'  at 
Delaware,  Ohio,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1872. 
After  leaving  the  university  he  went  to  Pitts- 


to  the  Associated  Press  at  Qeveland,  Ohio, 
where  be  conttnued  his  legal  studies  in  the 
Qeveland  I-aw  School,  until  he  was  admitted 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ohio  in  1874,  and  in 
die  same  year  removed  to  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
where  he  began  the  practice  of  his  profession. 
He  took  an  active  interest  in  politics  but  sought 
no  public  office  until  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1897.  He  wu  chairtnan  of  the 
Indiana  Slate  conventions  in  1892, 1898  and  1914 
In  1895  he  had  the  unanimous  ctHnplimencary 
vote  of  his  party,  which  was  in  the  minoritj, 
for  the  United  States  Senate.  He  was  elected 
to  the  United  Stales  Senate  30  Jan.  1897,  and  at 
the  expiration  of  his  term  was  re-elected,  but 
resigned  4  Llarch  1905  to  qualify  as  Vice-Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  to  which  office  he 
was  elected  on  the  ticket  with  Theodore  Roose- 
velt in  1904.  He  was  a  delegate-at-large  to  the 
Republican  National  Convention  at  Saint  Louis 
in  1S96  and  was  temporary  chainnan  of  the 
convention;  a  delegate-at-Iarge  to  the  Republi- 
can National  Convention  at  Philadelphia  in 
1900  and  was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Resolutions ;  a  delegate-at-large  to  the  Republi- 
can National  Convention  at  Chie^o  in  1904 
and  was  chairman  of  the  delegation ;  a  delegate- 
at-lar^e  to  the  Republican  National  Convention 
at  Chicago  in  1912  and  was  chairman  of  the 
Commitlec  on  Resolutions.  He  was  appointed 
^  President  McKinley  a  member  of  the  United 
States  and  British  ^oint  High  Commission 
which  met  in  Quebec  in  1898  for  the  adjustment 
of  the  Alaskan,  the  Fur  Seal  and  other  ques- 
tions growing  out  of  our  relations  with  Can- 
ada; he  was  chairman  of  the  American  commis- 
sioners. By  appointment  of  President  Roose- 
velt he  represented  the  United  States  at  the 
Tercentennary  Celebration  at  Quebec  in  1908. 
He  was  a  candidate  for  the  Republican  nomi- 
nation for  President  in  1908.  At  the  close  of 
his  term  as  Vice-President  in  company  with 
Mrs,  Fairbanks  he  made  a  tour  around  the 
world.  At  the  Republican  National  Conven- 
tion at  Chicago  in  June  1916  he  was  nominated 
for  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  on  the 
ticket  with  Charles  E.  Hughes.  He  has  re- 
ceived the  decree  of  LL.D.  from  Baker  Univer- 
sity. Ohio  State  University,  Ohio  Wesleyan 
University  and  Northwestern  University.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the 
Ohio  Weslevan,  DePauw  and  American  uni- 
versities ana  president  of  the  Methodist  Hos- 
^tal  of  Indiana  and  the  Indiana  Forestry  Asso- 
dation.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Board  of 
Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

FAIRBANKS,  Henry,  American  inventor: 
b.  Saint  Johnsbury,  Vt  6  May  1830.  He  is  a 
son  of  Thaddeus  Fairbanks  (q.v.),  and  was 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1853,  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1857.  He 
was  ordained  in  1858;  held  pastorates  in  Burke 
and  Bamet,  Vt,  and  in  1859  was  professor  of 
physics,  and  later  of  histoiy,  at  Dartmouth, 
He  became  identified  with  toe  manufacturing 


firm  of  E.  and  T.  Fairbanks  and  Co.,  in  1868;- 
and  subsequently  gave  much  of  his  time  to  me- 
chanical experiments,  and  patented  a  scale  for 
weighing  grain  and  subsequently  perfected  and 
patentea  34  additional  inventions  of  various 
lands.  He  is  president  of  Saint  Johnsbury 
Academy  and  is  prominent  in  the  work  of  the 
Congregational  Qiurch  in  Vermont. 

FAIRBANKS,  Thaddeus,  American  in- 
ventor: b.  Brimfietd,  Mass..  17  Jan.  1796;  d. 
Saint  Johnsbury,  Vt.,  12  April  1886.  He  settled 
in  Saint  Johnsbury  m  1815,  and  there  worked 
with  his  father  in  a  saw  and  grist  mill,  and  also 
in  the  manufacture  of  carriages.  In  1824  he 
and  his  brother  Erastus  began  the  manufacture 
of  stoves  and  plows.  In  June  1831  he  patented 
the  platform  scales  bearing  his  name.  After- 
ward about  50  different  improvements  were 
made  on  these  scales,  which  have  been  sold  in 
all  parts  of  the  world;  his  last  patent  being 
taken  out  when  he  was  90  years  ol<f  His  dona- 
tions to  Saint  Johosbuiy  Academy  totaled 
$200,000. 

FAIRBANKS,  Alaska,  city  and  capital  of 
the  fourth  judicial  district,  on  the  Tanana 
River  near  the  head  of  navigation,  160  miles 
west  of  Dawson,  and  350  miles  by  stage  north 
of  Valdez.  It  b  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
Fairbanks  gold-mining  region  and  is  connected 
with  Chena,  45  miles  distant  by  the  Tanana 
VaUey  Railroad.  It  is  in  all  respects  a  modem 
city,  with  a  centrally  located  steam -heating 
plant,    schools,    churches,    electric    light    and 

Kwer  plants,  etc.  It  is  connected  with  Valdei 
a  stage  route  and  in  summer  there  is  steam- 
boat communication  with  Dawson -to  the  east 
and  to  Saint  Michael  on  the  .west.  In  the 
threeycars  1906-08,  Fairbanks  sent  out  $27,- 
000,000  in  gold.  Lode  mining  has  in  recent 
years  displaced  the  earlier  placers.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  has  undertaken  the 
construction  of  a  railroad  to  Fairbanks  at  a 
cost  of  over  $14,000,000.     Pop.  3,541. 

FAIRBURY,  III.,  city  of  Livingston  County, 
on  the  Wabash  and  the  Toledo,  Peoria  and 
Western  railroads,  60  miles  east  of  Peoria, 
Coal  mining  and  fanning  are  the  leading  in- 
dustries. The  city  has  grain  elevators,  flour 
mills,  cement  works  and  machine  shops.  Il  has 
a  public  library.    Pop.  2.505. 

FAIRBURY,  Neb.,  city  and  count>;-seat  of 
Jefferson  County,  on  the  Little  Blue  River,  the 
Saint  Joseph  and  other  branches  of  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific  System,  about  60  miles 
southwest  of  Lincoln.  It  is  situated  in  a  good 
agricultural  region,  and  its  chief  manufactures 
are  flour  and  dairy  products.  A  large  nursery 
is  just  outside  the  ci^  limits.  The  city  contains 
a  Carnegie  library  and  tine  post-office  building. 
It  owns  its  waterworks  and  electric-light  plant. 
Pop.  5,294. 

FAIRCHILD,  Aflhbel  Green.  American 
clergyman:  b.  Hanover,  N.  J.,  1  May  1795;  d. 
Smithfield,  Pa.,  1864.  He  wrote  many  contri- 
butions to  the  religious  press.  His  most  popnlar 
work,  'The  Great  Supper,>  was  translated  into 
German  and  had  an  immense  sale.  He  also  pub- 
lished 'Baptism';  'Faith  and  Works';  aod 
'Confession  of  Faith.' 

FAIRCHILD,  Charles  StebUnt,  American 
financier:  b.  Caienovia,  N.  Y.,  30  April  1842. 
He  was  gradoated  at  Harvard  Untverrity  in 


V.Google 


718 


PAIKCHILI} — FAIBFAX 


-1863;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1865-  beoune 
deputy  attorney-general  of  New  York  in  1874 
and  attorney  •general  in  187&  After  spending 
(ome  time  m  Europe  be  settled  in  New  York 
city  in  1880,  where  he  practised  law  rill  188S. 
He  was  assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
1885-87.  and  Secretary  1887-89.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  moneta^  cotmnission  appointed 
by  the  Indianapolis  Monetary  Conference  in 
1897.  From  Iffi??  to  190S  he  was  president  of 
the  New  York  Security  and  Trust  Company 
atid  later  he  held  high  offices  in  other  corpora- 

FAIRCHILD,  David  Giandlxm,  Ameri- 
can botanist :  b.  East  Lansing,  Mich.,  7  April 
1869.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Kansas  State 
Agricultural  CoTleKe  in  1888  and  made  post- 
graduate stndies  in  botany  at  Naples,  Italy,  in 
1893,  at  the  University  of  Breslau  and  Berlin 
in  1894,  Miinster  and  Bonn  in  1895-96,  and  at 
Buiteniorg,  Java,  in  1896.  Since  1889  he  has 
been  connected  with  the  United  Slates  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  since  1898  has  been  agri- 
cultural  explorer  and  since  1903  has  been  in 
charge  of  foreign  explorations.  In  1897  he 
organized  the  work  of  seed  and  plant  introduc- 
tion of  the  Department,  now  the  c^ce  of  Seed 
and  Plant  Introduction,  of  which  he  has  had 
charee  since  1906.  He  has  made  special  re- 
searches in  botany  since  1896  as  assistant  to 
Barbour  Lathrop  on  four  expeditions  in  search 
of  economic  plants  for  introduction  into  the 
United  States,  He  is  a  member  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
and  of  the  International  Society  of  Botanists. 

FAIRCHILD,  George  Thompson,  Ameri- 
can educator:  b.  Brownhelm,  Ohio,  6  Oct  1838; 
d.  1901.  He  was  graduated  from  Oberlm  Col- 
lege 1862  and  from  Oberlin  Theological  Schqol 
1865 ;  was  professor  of  English  literature, 
Michi^n  Agricultural  College  1879-97;  and 
was  vice-president  of  Berea  College  from  1898. 
He  entered  the  CongreBational  ministry  in  1871 
and  was  the  author  of  'Rural  Wealth  and  Wel- 
fare' (1900). 

FAIRCHILD,  Hetnun  Le  Rogr.  American 
educator:  b.  Montrose,  Pa.,  29  Apnl  1850.  He 
was  graduated  at  Cornell  University  in  1874; 
was  secretary  of  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Science  in  1885-88;  presidetit  of  the  Rochester 
Academy  of  Science  1889-1903;  secretary  of  the 
Geological  Society  of  America  1890-1907  and 
president  in  1912.  In  1911  he  was  president  of 
the  New  York  State  Commission  Government 
Association.  He  has  been  professor  of  geology 
at  the  Univeraty  of  Rochester  from.  1888,  and 
has  published  many  articles,  especially  on  the 
glacial   geology  of   New  York   State. 

FAIRCHILD,  Tames  Hsrrls,  American 
educator:  b.  Stockbndge,  Mass.,  25  Nov.  1817; 
d.  1902.  He  was  president  of  Oberlin  College 
from  1866-89  after  a  service  of  26  years  as 
tutor,  professor  of  languages,  professor  of 
mathetnatics  and  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
and  theology.  Besides  editing  the  'Memoirs  of 
Charles  G.  Finney'  (1876)  and  Finney's  'Sys- 
tematic Theolofiy'  (1878).  he  was  the  author  of 
•Moral  Philosophy'  (1869)  ;  'Oberlin,  the 
Colony  and  the  College)  (1833)  :  'Elements  of 
Theology,  Natural  and  Revealed' ;  Uid 
■Woman's  Right  to  the  Ballot'  <]370). 


FAIRCHILD,  Lodas,  American  militaiy 
officer :  b.  Kent,  Ohio,  27  Dec.  1831 ;  d.  Uadison, 
Wis.,  23  May  1896.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
Dvil  War  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  Federal 
army,  and  in  August  1361,  was  appointed  a  cap- 
tain in  the  regular  army  and  major  in  the 
volunteer  army.  He  to<^  part  in  the  battles  of 
Bull  Run  and  Antietam,  and  led  the  charge  iqi 
Seminary  Hill  at  Gettysburg,  where  he  lost  his 
left  arm.  He  was  promoted  brigadier-general 
in  1863,  but  resigned  to  aetve  as  secretary  of 
state  of  Wisconsm  and  was  governor  1866-72. 
In  1886-87  he  was  conunander-in-dtief  of  the 
Grand  Army  of  the  Republic 

PAIRCLOUGH,  Henry  Rnshton,  Ameri- 
can philologist:  h.  near  Barrie,  Ontario,  Ctanada, 
15  July  1862.  He  was  graduated  at  Toronto 
University  in  1883  and  in  1896  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.Ph.  at  Johns  Hopkins.  From  1893 
to  1902  he  was  associate  professor  and  professor 
of  classical  literature  at  Leland  Stanford  Uni- 
versity. In  the  latter  year  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  Latin.  He  also  taught  Latin  in  the 
summer  sessions  of  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin 1906,  Columbia  1908.  Chicago  1910,  Colorado 
1913  and  in  1910-11  was  professor  in  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Qassical  Studies,  Rome.  He  was 
delegate  to  the  centennial  celebration  of  the 
University  of  Berlin  in  1910.  He  is  the  author 
of  'The  Attitude  of  the  Greek  Tragedians  To- 
ward Nat«re>  (1896) ;  'The  Andria  of  Terew:e> 
fl901):  "The  Connection  between  Music  and 
oetry  m  Early  Greek  Literature*  ,(1902^  ;  'The 
Antigone  of  Sophocles,  translated  into  English* 
(1903J  ;  'Virgil's  ..Eneid,'  with  S.  L.  Brown 
(1908)  ;  'The  Phormio  of  Terence,'  wi4  L.  J. 
Richardson  (1908) ;  "The  Trinummus  of 
Plautus'  (1909) ;  also  'Monograph  on  the  Text 
of  Terence'  (in  Transactions  of  the  American 
Philological  Association.  1900).  He  was  editor- 
in-chief  of  the  'Students'  Series  of  Latin 
Q assies'  and  edited  Virgil  in  the  <Loeb 
Oassics.' 

FAIRFAX,  Dtmild  McNeill,  American 
naval  officer:  b.  Virginia,  10  Au^  1822;  d. 
Hagerstown,  Ud.,  10  Jan.  1894.  Durinn  the 
Mexican  War  he  participated  in  the  capture  of 
Mazatlan  and  Lower  California.    In  1861  he  had 

Grsonal  chargte  of  the  transfer  of  Messrs. 
ason  and  Slidell  and  their  secretaries  from 
the  Trtnt,  a  British  mail  ship,  to  the  San 
Jachtla.  He  later  took  part  in  the  chief  naval 
operations  in  Charleston  harbor;  was  promoted 
rear-admiral  in  1880  and  retired  in  ISSl. 

FAIRFAX,  Edward.  English  poet:  b. 
Denton,  England,  abont  l.'i80;  d.  near  Ottey 
England,  January  1635.  He  made  a  metrical 
translatiot)  'Ciodfrey  of  Boulogne'  (1600),  of 
Tasso's  'Jerusalem  Delivered,'  and  dedicated  it 
to  Oueen  Elizabeth;  it  was  highly  esteemed  by 
James  I,  and  is  still  valued ;  and  on  this  rather 
tlian  on  his  own  'Ectoffues*  the  fame  of  Pair- 
fax  as  a  poet  rests.  He  is  also  author  of  a  'Dis- 
course of  Witchcraft,*  in  which  he  g^es  an  ac- 
count of  the  bewitching  of  his  two  daughters 
in  1621. 

FAIRFAX,  Thomu,  Itsa,  English  iten- 
eral :  b.  Denton,  Yorkshire,  17  Jan.  1612 ;  d.  Nun 
ATpletou,  Yoriishira,  12  Nor.  1671.  Fwrfax 
warmlir  espouaed  the  cause  of  Parliament,  and 
in  April  1642  presented  to  Charles  a  petition  of 
the  peo^e  implodBg  him  to  be  fecondled  to  his 


lyGoot^Ie 


F  AISP  AX — FAISUS 


71S 


subjects.  The  same  year  he  vrai  appointid  gen- 
eral of  the  horse,  and  in  1644,  together  witli 
Essex,  Waller  and  Manchester,  he  held  a  chief 
command  in  the  English  army  sent  to  co-operate 
with  the  Scoti.  The  credit  of  the  battle  of  Mar- 
ston  Moor  has,  b^  some  authorities,  been  di- 
vided between  Leslie  and  Cromwell,  but,  accord- 
ing to  others,  Fairfax  is  also  entitled  to  share 
in  it.  On  the  Earl  of  Elssex  resigning  the  com- 
mand of  the  parliamentaiy  army  in  1645,  Fair- 
fax was  made  commander-in-chief  in  his  room. 
He  insisted  on  the  command  of  the  horse  being 
riven  to  Cromwell.  When  he  took  Oxford  the 
first  thing  he  ^d  was  to  set  a  ^uard  upwi  the 
Bodleian  Library,  an  act  for  which  be  oeserves 
the  gratitude  of  posterity.  He  subsequently, 
in  November  1647,  was  engaged  with  Crorowdl 
in  putting  down  the  levelers  in  the  army,  and 
in  the  following  year  caiptured  Colchester,  and 
caused  Sir  Charles  Lucas  and  Sir  George  Lisle 
to  be  tried  by  court-martial  and  shot.  He  was 
one  of  the  kin^s  judges  in  1649,  and  endeavored 
to  prevent  his  execution.  Being  ordered  to 
march  against  the  Scottish  Presbyterians,  he 
positively  declined  the  command  and  Cromwell 
was  appointed  (26  June  1650)  to  succeed  him. 
He  was  appointed  one  of  the  lay  church  com- 
missioners in  1654,  and  was  a  inember  of 
Cromwell's  first  Parliament;  He  assisted  Monk 
against  General  Lambert,  and  co-operated  in 
the  restoration  of  Charles  H,  bemg  one  of 
the  committee  charged  to  secure  his  return. 

FAIRFAX,  Thomaa,  6th  Baron  of  Cam- 
eron; b.  Yorkshire,  1W2;  d.  Greenway  Court, 
Frederick  Countv,  Va.,  12  Dec.  1783.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford  and  was  a  contributor  to 
Addison's  Spectator.  He  came  to  America  and 
settled  on  a  vast  landed  estate  in  Virginia,  in- 
herited front  bis  mother,  a  daughter  of  Lord  Cul- 
pe^er.  This  property,  the  "Northern  Neck  of 
Virginia,*  embraced  the  region  lying  between  the 
Potomac  and  the  Rappahannodc  and  included 
the  Shenandoah  Valley  (about  6,000,000  acres). 
William  Fairfax,  his  cousin,  acted  as  his  ^ent, 
whose  daughter  Anne  became  raarriea  to 
Lawrence  Washington,  the  elder  brother  of 
George  Washington.  It  was  at  Greenway 
Court  that  Baron  Fairfax  became  acquainted 
with  George  Washington,  and  between  them  a 
warm  friendship  sprang  up.  Fairfax  gave 
Washington  employment  on  survey  work  on 
his  domain,  and  did  everything  he  could  to  ad- 
vance his  interest  with  the  provincial  govern- 
ment. During  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  Fair- 
fax, though  an  ardent  loyalist,  was  permitted 
to  live  on  his  estate  in  perfect  security.  The 
surrender  ac  Yorktown  of  Cornwallis,  and  the 
winning  of  American  independence  by  the  man 
he  hatT  'trained  and  moulded,"  was  a  great 
mortification  to  Fairfax,  and  from  this  blow 
he  never  recovered. 

The  12th  Lord  Fairfax  and  baron  of  Cam- 
eron, who  succeeded  in  1900  to  the  barony,  has, 
like  his  American  predecessors,  made  no  claim 
to  file  title. 

FAISFIBLD,  Sanmer  Ltncdn,  American 
author;  b.  Warwick.  Mass.,  25  June  1903;  d. 
New  Orleans,  La.,  6  March  1844.  He  began  the 
publication  of  the  North  American  Magiuine 
in  1833,  and  continued  to  edit  and  publish  it  for 
five  years.  His  published  volumes  include  'Lays 
of  Melpomene'    (1824) ;   'Cities  of  the  Plain' 


(1628);  'Poems  and  Prose  Writii«s>  (1840) 
and  'Select  Poems>  (1860). 

FAfRFIELD,  Conn.,  town,  port  of  entry, 
in  Fairfield  County,  three  miles  southwest  of 
Bridgeport,  on  the  Long  Island  Sound,  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad. 
A  popular  summer  resort,  it  has  a  beautiful  situa- 
tion and  one  of  the  finest  beaches  on  the  Sound. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  paper,  dog  biscuit, 
aluminum  ware,  wire  goods,  ladies'  underwear, 
rubber  goods  and  machinery.  It  has  good 
public  buildings,  two  libraries  and  four  build- 
mgs  which  date  from  Revolutionary  times.  The 
first  settlement  was  made  in  1639  and  the  town 
was  incorporated  the  same  year.  Its  town  ball, 
originally  bnilt  in  1720,  contains  records  dating 
back  to  1648.  It  was  the  scene  of  several  In^ 
dian  and  Revolutionary  battles,  and  in  1779  was 
almost  wholly  burned  by  the  Hessians  and 
Tories.  Pop.  6,134.  Consult  Child,  'An  Old 
New  England  Town'  (New  York  1895);  Os- 
«>od,  'Centennial  Commemoration  of  the 
Burning  of  Fairfield'  (ib.  1879).     . 

FAIRFIELD,  III.,  city,  county-seat  of 
Wayne  County;  123  miles  southeast  of  Spring- 
field, on  the  Southern  and  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  Southwestern  railroads.  The  dty  is  the 
centre  of  a  fruit-growing  belt,  especiaUy  noted 
for  apples,  and  has  a  trade  in  grain,  live  stock, 
toba4:cD,  etc.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly 
flonr,  lumber  and  dairy  products.  It  is  the  lite 
of  the  Hayward  Collegiate  Institute.  The 
Ughting  plant  is  owned  by  the  city.    Pop.  2,479. 

FAIRFIELD,  Iowa,  city,  county-seat  of 
Jefferson  County,  48  miles  northwest  of  Burl- 
ington, on  the  Chicago,  R.  I.  &  P.  and  the  C,  B. 
8t  Q.  railroads.  The  principal  manufactures  arc 
brooms,  tile,  agricultural  implements,  machin- 
ery, furniture,  carriages,  flour  and  dairy  prod- 
ucts. The  electric-light  plant  and  the  water- 
works are  owned  by  the  city.  The  Parsons  Col- 
lege, under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  was  founded  here  in  1875.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  in  1839.    Pop.  4,970. 

FAIRHOLT,  Frederick  Williain,  English 
artists  and  author:  b.  London,  1814;  4  there  3 
April  1866.  He  published  'Costume  in  Eng- 
land: a  History  of  Dress  to  the  Oose  of  die 
18th  Century'  (1846) ;  'The  Home  of  Shakes- 
peare Illustrated  and  Described'  (1847);  'Re- 
markable and  Scientific  C^aj-acters'  (1849)  ; 
'Dictionary  of  Terms  in  Art'  (1854),  etc. 

FAIRLIE,  John  Archibald,  American  econ-" 
omist ;  b.  Glasgow,  Scothini  30  Oct.  1872.  In 
189S  he  was  graduated  at  Harvard  University 
and  in  1898  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at 
Columbia*  University.  He  served  one  year  as 
secretary  to  the  New  York  Stale  Canal  Com- 
mission. In  1900  he  became  junior  professor 
at  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  in  1909  be- 
came associate  professor,  and  in  1911  full  pro- 
fessor of  political  science  at  the  University  of 
Illinois,  in  1907-08  he  served  on  the  Michigan 
institutional  Convention  and  in  1908-(W  was 
special  agent  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
(xirporations.  He  was  also  associate  editor  of 
the  National  Municipal  Review.  He  has  pub- 
hshed  'Municipal  Administration'  (1901) ; 
'National  Administration  of  the  United  States* 
(190S)  ;  'Local  (joverament  in  Counties,  Towns 
and  Villages'  (1906);  'Elssays  in  Municipal 
Administration'   (1908) ;  'Taxation  and  Reve- 


joogle 


780 


FAIRUONT— PAIRS  AND  SHOWS 


nue  System  of  Illinois'  (1910)  ;  'Commission 
Government  in  Illinois  Cities'  (1911);  'The 
President's  Cabinet'  (1913)  ;  'Town  and  Coun- 
ty Government  in  Ulinois'  (1913)  ;  'Revenue 
and  Financial  Administralion  in  Illinois' 
(1915),  and  contributions  to  technical  journals 
on  economic,  legal  and  political  subjects. 

FAIRMONT,  Minn.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Martin  Count;^,  65  miles  southwest  of  Uan- 
kato,  on  ibe  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  rail- 
roads.  The  city  has  a  Carnegie  library,  a  cigar 
factory,  gas  engine  works,  flouring  mills,  pack- 
ing-houses, and  brick  and  tile  yards.  The 
water  and  electric-lighting  systems  are  owned 
and  operated  t^  the  municipality.  Fairmont 
was  first  settled  in  1855  and  is  governed  bv  a 
mayor  and  council  of  one  chamber.    Pop.  2,958. 

FAIRMONT,  W.  Va.,  county-seat  of  Mar- 
ion Countjr,  at  the  head  waters  of  Monon^ela 
River  navigable  lo  this  point;  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad,  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
New  York  Central  lines  enter  the  city;  78  miles 
from  Wheeling,  125  miles  from  Pittsburgh,  300 
miles  from  Baltimore;  the  centre  of  one  of  the 
largest  soft  coal  operations  in  ihe  world; 
abundance  of  natural  gas  and  oil ;  commis^n 
form  of  government;  permanently  improved 
roads  in  all  directions  from  the  city;  model 
public  school  system  and  a  State  Normal  for 
training  of  teachers.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  glass,  of  which  there  are  two  of  the 
largest  plants  in  the  world,  mini;ig  machinery, 
cigars,  lumber  and  iron  products.  Fairmont 
has  the  largest  trolley  system  in  West  Virginia, 
reaching  from  Fairmont  to  Fairview,  Manning- 
ton,  Clarksburg,  Bridgeport  and  Weston;  a 
healthy  climate;  fine  water  supply;  beautiful 
homes  and  a  splendid  public  spirit.    Pop.  18,000. 

FAIRMOUNT,  Ind..  town  in  Grant  Coun"^, 
60  miles  northeast  of  Indianapolis,  on  the 
Qeveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis, 
and  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and 
Saint  Louis  railroads.  Fairmount  Academy 
and  the  Wesleyan  Theological  Institute  are  lo- 
cated here.  It  has  extensive  farming  interests 
and  has  manufactories  of  catchup,  sauce,  bot- 
tles and  tiles.  The  waterworks  are  the  property 
of  the  municipality.     Pop.  2,506. 

FAIRMOUNT  COLLEGE,  coeducational 
institution,  situated  at  Wichita,  Kan.,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Congregational  Church.  It  was 
established  in  1892,  with  assistance  from  the 
Boston  Education  Society.  A  collegiate  de- 
partment was  added  in  1895,  and  in  1896  the 
name  of  the  institution  was  changed  lo  Fair- 
mount  College.  It  offers  courses  leading  to  the 
B.A.  and  the  corresponding  M.A.  degrees.  The 
abolishment  of  the  preparatory  school  was  be- 

fun  in  1912-13,  dropping  one  year  at  a  time, 
t  has  a  sub-freshman  department  In  1916  the 
college  had  an  attendance  of  317.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  college  there  is  a  conservatory  of 
musia  The  library  numbers  about  32,000  vol- 
umes, besides  pamphlets. 

FAIRUOUNT   PARK.     See   Fhiladei^ 

FHIA. 

FAIRPORT,    N.    Y^   village   of    Monroe 

County,  10  miles  cast  of  Rochester,  on  the  New 
York  Centra!  and  West  Shore  railroads.  It 
has  extensive  farming  and  fniil-growing  inter- 
ests.   It  has  a  manufactory  of  cans.    Fop.  3,112. 


FAIRS  AND  SHOWS.  A  fair  is  a  peri- 
odical meeting  of  merchants  in  an  Open  maricet 
held  at  a  particular  place  and  generally  for 
the  transaction  of  a  particular  class  of  busi- 
ness. The  origin  of  fairs  is  obviously  to  be 
traced  to  the  convenience  of  bringing  together 
at  stated  times  the  buj^rs  and  sellers  of  the 
stock-produce  of  a  district  Fairs  are  generally 
held  in  or  near  towns,  but  from  their  nature 
are  specially  adapted  to  the  convenience  of 
country  dealers  and  thar  customeig.  Two  curi- 
ous facts  are  to  be  noted  in  the  history  of  fairs. 
In  Europe  the  numerous  festivals  of  die  diurcfa 
afforded  the  most  favorable  opportunity  for  the 
establishment  of  these  markets.  This  associa- 
tion is  indicated  in  the  (}erman  name  of  a  fair, 
which  is  identical  with  that  used  for  the  cere- 
mony of  the  mass.  A  fair  generally  brings  a 
concourse  of  people  into  the  town  in  whidi  it 
is  held,  and  gives  it  something  of  a  holiday 
appearance.  Advantage  has  frequently  been 
taken  of  this  concourse,  either  by  tlie  persons 
assembled  themselves  or  by  the  purveyors  of 
various  amusements,  to  add  entertainmeot  to 
bnsincss,  and  as  the  business  of  a  particular 
fair   declined    it    has   often,    instead   of    being  ' 

abandoned,    been    gradually    converted    into    a  . 

periodical    opportunity    for    a    saturnalia    of  ! 

amusement    Thus  religion,  business  and  diver-  i 

sion  have  come  to  be  associated  in  the  idea  of  ' 

In  the  Middle  Ages  fairs  were  spedally 
privileged  and  chartered  b^  princes  and  magis-  ' 

trate^  special  temporary  tribunals  were  even  es- 
tablished for  their  use.  It  was  then  the  custom, 
which  in  some  places  still  remains,  to  make 
a  public  proclamation  of  the  commencement  and 
duration  of  the  fair  The  goods  sold  at  fairs 
were  then  of  much  greater  value,  as  well  as 
variety,  than  at  present,  embracing  fabrics  of  all 
kinds,  as  well  as  jewelry.  In  some  pans  of  the 
Continent  the  practice  still  prevails  of  purchas- 
ing clothing  at  fairs.  Fairs  existed  in  ancient 
as  well  as  modem  times,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  East  they  are 
of  great  magnitude  and  importance.    At  Me 


two  of  the  greatest  fairs  of  the  East  v 
again  the  association  between  commerce  and  re- 
ligion. According  to  Prcscott  fairs  were  regu- 
larly held  in  the  principal  cities  of  Mexico  every 
fifth  day,  being  the  recognized  substitute  for 
shops.  A  fair  for  the  sale  of  slaves  was  held 
at  Azcapozales,'  near  the  capital.  At  the  prin- 
cipal fair,  held  al  the  City  of  Mexico,  the  num- 
ber of  visitors  reached  40,000  to  S0,00a  Here 
the  same  arrangement  prevailed  as  in  the  Euro- 
pean fairs  of  the  Middle  Ages.  A  court  of  12 
judges,  clothed  with  absolute  authority,  main- 
tained perfect  order  in  this  great  concourse. 

The  Easter  and  Michaelmas  fairs  at  Leipzig, 
the  fairs  of  Frank  for  t-on- the- Main,  of  Lyons  in 
France,  and  Nijnei- Novgorod  in  Russia,  arc 
among  the  most  important  fairs  of  the  present 
day  in  Europe.  The  fairs  of  Great  Britain  now 
mostly  consist  of  the  weekly  market-days  of 
country  towns  and  certain  great  agricuttura] 
meetings,  or  trysts,  as  they  are  called  in  Scot- 
land, chiefly  for  the  sale  of  cattle  and  horses, 
such  as  the  Falkirk  Tryst.  There  are  also,  espe- 
cially in  Scotland,  a  considerable  number  of  the 
hiring  fairs.    Among  the  most  celebrated  of  the 


.yGooi^le 


PAIRVILLE-^  FAIRY   RING 


Tflt 


fairs  wbich  have  been  turned  into  saturnalia  are 
the  celebrated  Donnybrook  fair  in  the  county  of 
Dublin;  Bartholomew  and  Greenwich  fairs, 
London ;  and  Glasgow  fair. 

In  Ainerica  the  State  and  county  fairs  have 
developed  into  periodical  expositions  of  zgii- 
culture,  horticulture,  stock-raising,  manufactur- 
ing, domestic  science,  education,  transportation, 
good  roads  movement,  etc  Most  of  tne  States 
have  their  State  fairs,  supported  partially  by 
legislative  appropriation,  and  often  with  per- 
manent buildings.  Many  county  fairs  are  regu- 
larly incorporated  companies,  composed  of 
fanners  and  merchants  who  make  a  little  money 
out  of  them.  There  is  now  an  American  Asso- 
ciation of  Fairs  and  Elxpositions,  comprising  in 
its  membership  52  or^ianizations  representing 
State,  county  and  provmcial  fairs.  The  secre- 
tary is  Charles  Downing,  of  Indianapolis,  ind. 

The  National  Com  Association  holds  ex- 
positions nearly  every  year  and  has  members 
in  35  States.  The  1913  exposition  was  at  Co- 
lumbia. S.  C,  and  the  1914  at  Dallas  Tex. 
The  slo^n  of  the  Association  is  *The  Better- 
ment of  Agriculture,'  It  has  three  classes  of 
exhibits:  (1)  educational  exhituts  from  agri- 
cultural colleges  and  experiment  stations;  (2) 
competitive  exhibits  between  the  States;  (3) 
educational  exhibits  from  the  Federal  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  Four  trophies  are 
awarded:  Indiana  10-ear  com  trophy,  value 
$1,000;  Colorado  oat  trophy,  value  $1,500;  Kel- 
logg single  ear  trophy,  value  $1,000;  Farm  and 
Fireside  wheat  trophy,  $48,000  in  cash  premiums. 

BasiiiCBB  Shows.— The  fair  is  a  country 
proposition,  adapted  to  the  display  of  agricul- 
tural products.    To  supply  a  similar  demand 


w  has  developed.    It  seems  to  have  been 

a  growth  from  the  poultry  and  horse  shows. 
When  the  bicycle  was  in  its  prime  regular 
bicycle  shows  were  held  annually  in  the  Targe 
cities  of  the  United  States.  With  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  bicycle  show  the  automobile 
show  developed,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  largest 
attended  show  now  held  annually  at  Madison 
Square  Garden.  New  York.  Business  shows  are 
also  held  for  tne  display  of  business  office  con- 
veniences, typewriters,  desks,  dictographs  and 
the  thousand  and  one  appliances  now  found  in 
counting-rooms  and  bookkeeping  departments. 
Printing  shows  are  held  for  the  display  of  the 
machinery  and  products  of  the  graphic  arts. 
Each  of  the  more  prominent  industries  at 
times  has  its  shows,  conducted  either  by  asso- 
ciations or  by  speculators  who  sell  spaces  to 
houses  that  desire  to  exhibit.  See  Expositions, 
Industrial, 
I  FAIRVILLE,    Canada,    village    of    Saint 

John  County.  New  Brunswick,  on  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  It  has  pulp  and  saw  mills,  box 
factories,  brickyards,  breweries,  wooden  ware 
works,  etc.,  and  a  hospital  for  nervous  dis- 
eases.* An  electric  railway  connects  the  village 
with  the  city  of  S^nt  John.    Pop.  3,500. 

FAIRWEATHKH,  Mount,  in  Alaska,  in 
the  Saint  Elias  range,  35  miles  northeast  of 
Cape  Fairweather.  It  is  15,292  feet  high  and 
its  steep  declivities  are  covered  with  great 
glacial  sheets. 

FAIRY,  an  imaginary  being  or  s^urit  of 
diminutive  siie.  supposed  generally  to  assume  a 


human  form,  but  appearing  also  in  others  and 
represented  as  both  beneficent  and  malevolent 
toward  mankind.  In  the  latter  case  diseases  of 
cattle  were  frequently  attributed  to  their  mis- 
chievous operations;  and  cattle  that  died  sud- 
denly without  any  apparent  cause  were  com- 
monly said  to  be  elf-shot.  Among  the  Irish 
peasantry  they  are  termed  'the  good  people"  by 
way  of  placauon.  In  Poole's  'Parnassus'  are 
given  the.  names  of  the  fairy  court :  "Oberon, 
the  emperor;  Mab,  the  empress;  Perriwi^n, 
Perriwinkle,  Puck,  Hobgoblin,  Tomatin,  Tom 
Thumb,  courtiers ;  Hop  Mop,  Drop,  Pip,  Drip, 
Skip,  Tub,  Tib,  Tick,  Pink,  Pin,  Quidt,  Gill, 
Ion,  Tit,  Wap,  Wim,  Nit,  the  maids  of  honor; 
Nymphidia,  the  mother  of  the  maids."  Croker, 
in  his  'Fairy  Legends  and  Traditions  of  the 
south  of  Ireland,*  describes  them  as  beings  "a 
few  inches  iiigh,  airy  and  almost  transparent  in 
body;  so  delicate  in  their  form  that  a  dewdrop, 
when  they  chance  to  dance  on  it.  trembles,  in- 
deed, but  never  breaks.'  They  are  supposed  to 
live  in  a  distinct  domain  known  as  Fairyland, 
and  their  character  and  habits  as  represented  in 
literature  may  best  be  learned  from  the  Irish 
lore  and  such  works  as  the  'Marchen  of  the 
Grimms' ;  Spenser's  'Faerie  Queene,'  and 
Shakespeare's  'Mid^summer  Nif^t's  Dream.' 
The  term  is  used  somewhat  loosely  to  include 
other  beings  of  a  similar  nature,  such  as  elf, 
fay,  gnome,  banshee,  goblin,  nymph,  sprite, 
sylph,  etc  Belief  in  fairies  has  existed  from 
earliest  times  and  formed  part  of  the  super- 
stition of  nearly  all  peoples.  A  study  of  fairy 
stories  is  instructive  m  this  connection.  Studies 
of  the  folklore  of  many  peoples  have  been  made 
by  scholars  and  have  shown  valuable  results 
in  this  field.  See  Folk-Lose  ;  Mythology  ; 
Pabacelsus;  also  such  titles  as  Elves,  Kobou) 
and  the  like. 

Bibliography.— Aarne,  'Vergleichende  Miir- 
chenforscEungen'  (Helsmgfors  1908) ;  Bern, 
'  Marchen-Diditung  der  Romantiker,  mit  einer 
Vorgeschichte*  (Gotha  1908)  ;  Chodzko,  'Fairy 
Tales  of  the  Slav  Peasants  and  Herdsmen' 
(London  1896)  ;  Delattrc,  'English  Fairy  Po- 
etry' (ib.  1912):  Grimm,  'Deutsche  Mythol- 
Mie*  ^Berlin  IS79-9&)  ;  Friedrichs.  'Grundlage, 
Entstuiung  und  genaue  Einzeldeutung  der 
bekantesten  genua  nischen  Marchen,  My  then, 
und  Sagen'  (Leipzig  1909)  ;  Hartland,  'The 
Science  of  Fairy  Tales'  (London  1891);  Jacobs, 


'Indian  Fairy  Talcs*  (London  1892)  ;  Keight- 
ley,  'Fairy  Mythology'  (ib,  1850)  ;  Ludwig, 
'Sibirische  Marchen'  (Glogau  1890) ;  Mac- 
Ritchie,  'Testimony  of  Tradition*  (London 
1891)  ;  Riklin,  'Wunscherfiillung  und  Symbolifc 
im  Marchen'  (Vienna  1908);  Weber,  'lulien- 
ische  Marchen*  (1900). 

FAIRY  BLUEBIRD,  one  of  the  bulbuls 
(q.v.)  of  the  Blast  Indian  family  Pycnonotida 
and  genus  Irena,  familiar  in  Indian  gardens, 
and  ^justly  admired.  The  commonest  species  is 
brilliant  turquoise,  with  black  wings,  tail  and 
under  parts,  and  coral-red  legs  and  beak.  They 
make  a  rather  rough  little  nest  in  a  bush  and  lay 
two  or  three  spedcled  eggs. 

FAIRY  QUEEN.    See  Faerie  Queene. 

FAIRY  RING,  or  CIRCLE,  a  ring  occa- 
sionally observed  in  pasture,  distinguished  from 
surrounding  vegetation  by  being  either  barer  or 


798    FAIRY  SHRIMP  — FAIRY  TALES  OF  HAHS  CHRISTIAN  ANDERSEN 


more  luxuriant  and  attributed  by  the  peasantry 
of  western  Europe  to  the  dancing  of  the  fairies. 
They  are  now  known  to  be  occasioned  by  the 
growth  of  certain  Idnds  of  fungi,  which,  pro- 
ceeding outward  from  a  centre,  render  the  soil 
for  a  time  unfitted  for  the  nourishment  of  grass, 
but  later  fertilize  il  by  their  decay. 

FAIRY    SHRIMP,    a    phyllopodous    < 


found  in  fresh- 
It  is  about  O' 
transparent. 

FAIRY-TALES,  stories  in  which  fairies 
play  a  part,  or  which  contain  other  super- 
natural or  magical  elements  such  as  mark  the 
folk-tales  of  'Puss  in  Boots';  *Beauty  and  the 
Beast' ;  'Hop  o'  My  Thumb* ;  ^Sleeping 
Beauty';  and  others.  Actual  fairies  seldom 
appear  in  traditional  fairy-tales,  so  called. 
Grimm  and  his  successors  showed  by  the  studb' 
of  comparative  mythology  that  these  tales  are 
not  restricted  to  Europe  alone,  but  are  to  be 
found,  in  varying  forms,  among  almost  all  na~ 
tions.  The  survival  of  popular  tales  is  due  to 
their  being  unconscious  growths,  to  the  strict 
adherence  to  form  shown  by  illiterate  and  sav- 
age people  in  recitals  and  to  the  laws  of  the 
permanence  of  culture.  There  are  several 
theories  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  folk-tales. 
The  oldest  is  the  Oriental  theory,  which  traces 
all  back  to  a  common  origin  in  the  Vedas.  It 
is  true  that  the  germs  of  most  tales  are  found 
in  Vedas,  but  proofs  of  the  Indian  origin  of 
the  stories  are  lacking;  the  discovery  of  tales 
in  Egypt  which  were  written  in  the  eariy 
empire  are  objections  to  its  acceptance,  and  (he 
idea  of  diffusion  will  not  account  for  similar 
tales  found  in  Australia,  New  Zealand  and 
America.  The  Aryan  theory,  supported  by  Max 
Uuller,  Grimm  and  others,  gives  as  their  origin 
the  explanation  of  natural  phenomena.  These 
nature-myths  must  not  be  re^rded  as  originally 
metaphors ;  they  were  primitive  man's  philos- 
ophy of  nature  in  the  days  when  every  object 
was  endowed  with  a  personal'  life.  The  tales 
have  enough  likeness  to  show  that  they  come 
from  the  same  source  and  enough  difference  to 
show  they  were  not  copied  from  each  other. 
Miiller  says  "Nursery  tales  are  generally  the 
last  things  to  be  adopted  by  one  nation  from 
another."  Another  theory,  supported  by  Tylor 
and  Lang,  traces  the  origin  of  folk-lore  to  a  far 
earlier  source  than  the  Aryan  —  the  customs 
and  practices  of  early  man :  such  as  totemtsm, 
descent  from  animals  or  things,  which  were  at 
last  worshipped;  and  curious  taboos  or  prohi- 
bitions, which  can  be  explained  by  similar  sav- 
age customs  of  the  present  But  late  authori- 
ties declare  that  it  is  useless  to  seek  anj^  com- 
mon origin  of  folk-tales ;  since  the  incidents, 
which  are  few,  and  the  persons,  who  are  types, 
are  based  on  ideas  that  might  occur  to  un- 
civilized races  anywhere. 

Our  popular  fairy-tales,  or  contes,  have  been, 
in  the  main,  handed  down  orally.  However, 
some  of  their  elements  or  variants  at  least  have 
come  down  through  ancient  Oriental  literature. 
The  'Syntipas,*  a  Greek  version,  belongs  to  the 
llth  century.  Then  followed  translations  into 
several  European  langtiages.  The  earliest  col- 
lecdoit  of  Eurtniean  tales  was  made  by  Stra- 
parola.  who  published  at  Venioe  in  1550  hi» 


'Notti  Piacevola,'  which  was  irsoslatcd  into 
French  and  was  probably  the  origin  uf  the 
'Contes  des  Fees.'  The  test  early  collection  is 
Basile's  the  'Pentamerone,'  published  at  Naples 
in  1637;  reprinted  at  New  York  1912.  In  1696 
.there  appeared  in  the  RecunU,  a  m^azine 
published  by  Moetjens  at  The  Hague,  the  story 
'La  Belle  au  Bois  Dormant'  (our  'Sleeping 
Beauty'),    by    Charles    Perrault;    and   in    16iff 

Speared  seven  others:  'Little  Red  fUdiog 
ood';  'Bluebeard';  'Puss  in  Boots';  'The 
Fairy';  'Qnderella' ;  'Riquet  of  the  Tuft'; 
and  'Hop  o'  My  Thumb.'  These  were  pub- 
lished in  1697  under  the  title  'Contes  du  Temps 
Passe  Avec  des  Moralit^,'  by  P.  Darmancotir, 
Perrault's  son,  for  whom  he  wrote  them  down 
from  a  nurse's  stories.  Within  this  century 
the  investigations  of  Jacob  and  William  Grimm, 
and  their  successors  in  this  field,  have  reduced 
to  written  form  the  tales  of  nearly  all  nations. 
We  must  include  in  the  comparison  of  stones 
the  Greek  myths;  as  the  Odyssey  is  now  con- 
ceded to  be  a  mass  of  popular  t^es.  To  these 
we  must  add  the  tales  of  ancient  ^ypt;  those 
narrated  by  Herodotus  and  other  travelers  and 
historians;  the  beautiful  story  of  'Cupid  and 
Psydie,'  given  by  Apuleius  in  his  'Metamor- 
phoses' ot  the  2d  century  a.d.,  which  also  was 
taken  from  a  popular  myth.  See  Beauty  akk 
THE  Beast;  Blukbeahd;  EJ.ves;  Fairy;  Faiiv 
Tales;  Folk-lore,  etc.  Consult  bibUography 
subjoined  to  article  Faiky. 

FAIRV  tales  of  HANS  CHRIS- 
TIAN ANDERSEN.  These  'Fairy  Tales' 
have  been  read  by  thousands  with  delight, 
and  have  settled  down  to  a  place  in  the 
world's  memory  along  with  the  traditional 
nursery  tales  of  the  race.  The  Ugly  Duck- 
ling and  The  Constant  Tin  Soldier  are  re- 
memljered  in  company  with  Goody  Two 
Shoes  or  Little  Red  Riding  Hood.  The 
'Fairy  Tales'  are  among  the  most  original 
works  of  the  19th  century.  Fairy  tales  are 
usually  stories  of  legend  and  tradition;  they 
grow  up  in  the  lives  of  simple  peoples  without 
any  one's  knowing  who  originally  thought  of 
them  or  told  them.  They  are  told  and  retold 
by  the  old  people  to  the  children,  and  then 
somebody  comes  and  writes  them  down  as,  for 
instance,  Mr.  Harris  wrote  down  the  negro 
stories  of  Brer  Rabbit  and  Brer  Fox,  Of  this 
kind  are  the  famous  'Miirchen'  of  the  Brothers 
Grimm  and  the  'Contes'  of  Perrault  and  many 
others.  These  are  old  stories  which  have 
charmed  generations  put  into  literary  form. 
Such  also  are  some  of  the  'Eventyr'  or 
Wonder- stories  of  Andersen.  He  was  bom 
and  brought  up  at  Odinse  in  the  island  of 
Funen,  a  place,  which,  as  he  says  himself,  was 
in  those  days  a  hundred  years  behind  the  timet. 
The  old  women,  who  made  something  of  a  pet 
of  him,  used  to  tell  him  old  stories  which  re- 
vealed to  him  'a  world  as  rich  as  that  of  the 
Thousand  and  One  Nights,"  as  he  said  himself 
afterward,  not  only  in  complete  stories,  but  in 
ways  of  story-telling.  'In  the  voltime  which  I 
first  published  I  had  like  Musaus  but  in  my 
own  manner  related  old  stories  which  I  had 
heard  as  a  child.  The  tone  in  wWch  they  still 
sotmded  in  my  ears  seemed  a  very  natural  one 
lo  me,"  But  much  of  his  'Tales,*  and  probably 
the  most  diaracteristic  element,  is  somettMi« 
different;  it  is  somethii^;  of  his  o 


Ander* 


,  Google 


FAIT   ACCOMPLI— FAITH 


m 


the  e: 


sen  was  a  man  of  a  pclculiarl/  chitdUke  nature. 
He  was  not  very  fond  of  children  but  he  was 
ic  simi^icity,  imagination  and  impulsiveness  not 
unlike  tbem.  In  all  that  he  wrote  be  was  an 
idealist,  as  children  are  apt  to  be,  without  over- 
much concern  about  the  actualities  of  the  real 
world.  So  whea  be  told  stories  to  childreu  as 
he  often  did  be  spoke  naturally  in  the  lan- 
guage and  thought  which  they  reco^ized  as 
Uwir  own.  "l  had  written  my  narrative  down 
1  paper  in  exactly  the  language  and  with 
e  expressions  in  which  I  had  related  them  to 
the  little  ones."  But  he  generally  had  in 
mind  a  larger  audience  and  fats  tales  were 
eagerly  read  by  old  as  welt  as  young.  In  fact 
a  good  many  of  them  are  not  Fairy  Tales  at 
all,  but  little  sketches  or  imaginatious  of  life. 
One  cannot  read  them  with  anything  of  a  criti- 
cal spirit  without  imagining  that  m  his  best 
Stories  he  was  always  telling  more  or  less 
directly  ot  himself.  So  many  of  them  are 
Stories  of  travel— The  Ugly  Duckling,  The 
Constant  Tin  Soldier,  The  Silver  Snilling, 
Thumbelina^and  so  many  of  them  are  full  of 
veiled  comment  on  life,  that  one  is  continually 
reminded  of  the  author  who  was  himself  always 
tr3.veling  and  always  seeing  the  world  The 
children,  he  says,  were  pleased  generally  with 
the  story;  olc^r  people,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  interested  in  the  deeper  meaning.  The 
'Tales*  were  extraordinarily  ponularj  they 
were  known  all  over  Europe  and  Amenca  and 
translated  into  a  dozen  languages.  Andersen, 
himself,  made  friends  everywhere  and  told  his 
stories  everywhere.  He  was  really  a  poet,  a 
novelist  and  a  dramatist ;  he  wrote  much  beside 
his  'Tales'  and  was,  at  first  at  least,  inclined  to 
value  his  deeper  work  more  tfian  his  child's' 
stories.  But  the  world  has  found  in  his  chil- 
dren's  stories  the  peculiar  thii^  it  wanted  and 
these  slight  matters  as  he  ongiually  thought 
them  are  the'  things,  that  have  made  him  im- 
mortal. There  is  nothing  especially  upon 
Andersen's  'Tales,'  but  a  good  deal  about  them 
will  be  found  in  bis  'Story  of  My  Life.' 

Edward  Evebett  Hale. 
FAIT  ACCOMPLI,  fa-ak-kfin'ple,  (Fr.,  an 
accomplished  fact),  in  (Cplomatic  langoase.  de- 
notes an  event  that  has  happened  and  must 
he  accepted  or  rect^nized  as  definite,  however 
disagreeaUe. 

FAITH,   the    sUte   of   mind  which   treats 


first  place  ti 


Faith  thus  partakes  of  the  nature  of  will.  Its 
most  extreme  form  is  found  in  the  famous 
passage  of  Terttrilian  which  ends,  'Buried,  He 
was  raised  from  the  dead;  this  is  certain  be- 
cause it  is  imposMbfe.*  While  faith  rarely 
goes  to  such  extremes  as  this,  it  is  of  its  verf 
nature  that  even  if  its  object  b  proved  it 
totally^  disregards  this  pnof. 

Faith  is  not  entirety  confined  to  religions 
matters.  It  is  inherent  in  the  very  nature  of 
knowledge.  The  general  form  of  all  descrip- 
tive knowledge  is  the  analysis  of  a  situation. 
Thus  the  physicist  analyses  his  gross  physical 
procesMs  id  terms  of  atoms  or  electrons,  the 
psycholo^st  reduces  everything  to  atomic  tnen- 
tal  states,  and  so  on  throughout  the  sciences. 
Now,  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of 
analysis  is  that  up  to  the  preaem,  at  any  rate, 
it  has  rarely  if  ever  been  exhaustive,    la  the 


record  all  the  ugni&cant  features 

..    _   n  is  beyond  the  pcwers  of   the 

human  mind.  The  total  condition  of  a  [^ysical 
experiment  includes  every  single  event  in  the 
umverse  in  exactly  the  unique  temporal  and 
spatial  relations  which  it  bears  toward  the  ex- 
periment in  question.  But  furthermore,  the 
ultimate  terms  of  analysis  are  continually  re- 
ceding. The  physicist  of  yesterday  thougnt  in 
terms  of  atoms;  the  physicist  of  to-day  thinks 
in  terms  of  electrons;  and  what  the  terms  of 
the  tihysictst  of  to-morrow  will  be  we  cannot 
imagine.  For  these  reasons  an  analysis  is  al- 
most of  necessity  incomplete.  From  the  stand- 
point of  a  strict  yes  or  no  logic,  an  incomplete 
analysis  is  a  false  analysis.  However,  the 
slightest  application  of  a  scientific  law  demands 
that  we  should  act  as  if  this  analysis,  which  is 

Kobably  false,  and  which  at  the  best  is  not 
lown  to  be  true,  were  a  demonstrated  fact 
At  the  very  least,  it  demands  that  we  should 
trust  in  the  negligible  character  of  the  errors 
of  the  law,  although  nothing  but  our  trust  in 
the  continui^  of  nature  guarantees  that  diese 
are  negligitde.  This  trust  in  the  continuity  of 
nature  conforms  in,  every  respect  to  the  d^nl- 
tion  of  faith. 

Analysis  is  not  confined  to  matters  of  phy- 
sics and  the  other  natural  sciences.  A  moral 
situation  is  susceptible  to  analysis,  and  indeed 
demands  analysis  before  a  reasonable  course 
of  action  can  ensue.  In  determining  what  to 
do  when  our  motives  lead  us  in  opposite  di- 
rections, we  analyze  the  many  bearings  and  con- 
sequences of  our  conduct.  This  ar/alysis  which 
Precedes  the  appeal  to  conscience  is  imperfect 
or  exactly  the  same  reasons  as  those  which 
render  our  physical  analysis  imperfect :  the 
complete  bearing  and  consequences  of  our 
deeds  are  never  at  our  disposal.  Again  it  re- 
quires an  act  of  faith  to  treat  the  results  of  our 
incomplete  analysis  as  a  basis  for  conduct  and 
to  be  confident  that  just  those  aspects  of  the 
deed  which  we  have  overlooked  do  not  give  it 
its  dominant  moral  tone. 

Faith  is  thus  the  necessary  concomitant  of 
analysis  both  in  natural  science  and  in  conduct. 
Analysis  makes  the  scope  of  faidi  recede 
further  and  further  heyoad  any  assignaUe 
limit,  but  the  importance  of  faith  remains  just 
what  it  was  in  the  beginning.  To  render  tins 
faith  firm,  especially  in  those  matters  that  con- 
cern the  moral  conduct,  has  always  been  the 
task  of  religion.  By  allegory,  by  the  emotional 
appeal  of  rite,  mythology  and  creed,  religion 
furnishes  a  scaffolding  for  the  faith  of  those 
who  cannot  put  an  mdependent  trust  in  the' 
continuity  of  nature  and  the  moral  order  itself. 
Just  as  Descartes  and  the  Occasional!  sts 
fonnded  their  physics  on  the  honesty  of  a  God 
guaranteed  by  faith  as  well  as  1^  demonstra- 
tion, the  exponents  of  religion  have  always 
made  some  Divine  dictum  or  example  their 
diief  moral  sanction.  Thus  Pa)e3r  based  his  en- 
tire ethics  on  a  sy«em  of  divindy  established 
rewards  and  punishments.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  these  reti^ous  attempts  to  mediate 
between  faith  and  analysts  leave  the  need  for 
faith  essentially  unchanged,  as  is  shown  by  the 
emphasis  pUeed  on  faith  by  all  retigious 
teachers.  What  religion  accomplishes  is  the 
transference  of  the  need  for  faith  to  objects 
more  easily  grasped  than  abstractions  by  ttioae 
of  a  mysbcal  trend  of  mind.    Tbefe  aie  manjr 


>y  Google 


Ta4 


FAITH— VAKIK 


noo-mystial  nattirea,  however,  to  which  it  ia 
more  natural  and  simple  to  have  faith  directly 
in  the  continuities  and  laws  oi  nature  and 
moials  ruther  than  in  those  things  worshiped 
by  the  religious,  and  in  these  the  most  vigorous 
faith  is  consistent  with  the  entire  absence  of 
ai^thinK  that  can  be  called  a  religion. 

In  theistic  religions  faith  natural):^  acquires 
as  its  principal  meaning  belief  in  existence  of 
God  and  in  certain  dogmas  concerning  Him. 
The  Jewish  faith  was  primarily  a  faith  in  the 
moral  order  as  personified  in  Jehovah.  The 
Christian  finds  the  embodiment  of  his  moral 
order  and  accordingly  the  object  of  his  faith 
in  Christ  the  Redeemer  as  well  as  in  the  Jew- 
ish God.  The  Catholic  definition  of  faith  has 
been  paraphrased  by  Cardinal  Newman  as  *be- 
Kef  in  certain  doctrines  because  God  has  re- 
vealed them.*  This  faith  is  especiatlj;  directed 
toward  the  Church  and  toward  certain  oflidal 
dicta  of  the  Church.  The  various  Protestant 
sects  differ  as  to  their  definition  of  faith,  but 
■11  emphasize  reliance  in  God.  See  Belief. 
Consult  Hamack,  'History  of  DoRma>  (Bos- 
ton 18M-99)  :  Inge,  'Faith  and  its  Psychology* 
(London  IW) ;  Jame^  <The  Will  to  Believ«> 
(New  York  1911). 

NOBBEBT  WiKNxa. 

FAITH,  Act  of.    See  Auto  ha  Ft 

FAITH,  Rule  of,  in  the  early  Church,  the 

summary  of  doctrines  taught  to  catechumens, 

and  to  which  they  were  required  to  give  their 

"    It  before  baptism.    From  the  anctenl  usage. 


source  of  our  knowledge  of  Christian  truth; 
and  (2)  the  criterion  or  standard  of  Christian 
doctnue.  Protestants  find  this  rule  in  the 
Scriptures  alone ;  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches,  and  some  An^icans,  find  it  not  only 
in  Scripture,  hut  also  in  the  (Tnurcli,  as  the  au- 
thorized interpreter  of  Scripture,  whose  inter- 
pretations are  embodied  in  tradition.  The  Ra- 
tionalists make  reason  the  final  arbiter,  and  the 
mind  of  man  the  measure  of  truth.  See  BlBLE; 
Ckeeds;  iNFALLiBiLrrv. 

FAITH  HEALER,  The.  This  play  in 
Uiree  acts,  by  William  Vaughn  Uoody,  was  first 
produced  in  New  York,  at  the  Savoy  Theatre, 
on  24  Jan.  1910.  Henry  Miller  and  Laufft 
Hope  Crews  were  in  the  cast.  It  had  been 
previously  jiresented  in  Saint  Louis,  on  15 
March  IKS.  The  jiiecc  is  not  as  definite  in  its 
theme  nor  as  human  in  its  story  as  'The  Great 
Divide.'  But  it  was  a  sincere  endeavor  on  the 
part  of  tlie  dramatist  to  ^ow  the  struggle  that 
takes  place  between  material  and  spiritual 
forces  to  the  weakening;  of  the  latter.  Uoody, 
bein^  a  poet,  here  tned  to  write  something 
my^cal,  and  only  partly  suggested  why  the 
Faith  Healer,  endowed  with  the  power  of  re- 
viviiiK  the  lick  and  raising  the  dead,  suddenly 
lost  that  j)ower  through  a  Tack  of  faith  in  him- 
self. Bemg  a  dramatist,  be  was  obliged  to 
justify  the  human  love  of  the  Ruth  Healer  for 
the  heroine,  and  here  be  accomplished  die  one 
■atisfactoiy  stroke  in  the  play  — the  estahlisb- 
ntcnt  of  the  behef  that  love  does  not  weaken 
the  exercise  of  the  sjarit,  but  ladier  enhances 
it 

As  an  acting  play,  'The  Faith  Healer'  is 
nisty,  it  is  unconvinan^.  This  may  be  due 
to  mt  fact  that  it  is  treated  almost  rralistically. 


whereas  it  is  mystic;  it  takes  for  granted  a 
theme  rarely  proven  in  human  experience. 
The  quickenuig  of  a  paralyzed  woman  into  life, 
the  restoring  of  a  sick  baby  and  then  the  failure 
as  the  Faith  Healer's  power  wanes,  are  difficult 
of  externalizing.  But  UoodVa  art  is  sincere, 
and  one  feels  his  sinceritv  above  his  dramatic 
effectiveness.  As  in  'The  Great  Divide'  he 
falls  into  the  obvious,  here  contrasting  the 
qnritual  exaltation  of  a  devout  man  with  the 
science  of  a  doctor  and  the  conventional  tradi- 
tions of  a  minister, 

MoimosE  J.  Moses. 

FAITHFUL  8HBPHBSDESS,  The,  a 
pastoral  drama  by  John  Fletcher,  nublished  in 
1609,  and  ranking  with  'Comus,'  which  it 
partly  inspired,  as  one  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  this  Italian  form  of  poetry  extant  in  English 
Hterature. 

FAITHFULL,  Emily,  English  philanthro- 
pist: b.  Headky.  Surrey.  1S3S;  d.  31  May  1895. 
Out  of  pure  philanthropy,  she  founded  the 
Victoria  Prtst,  I860,  in  which  women  akne 
were  employed  as  operatives.  Queen  Victoria 
encouraged  her  by  appointing  her  'orimcr-in- 
ordinan'  to  the  queen.'  She  startea  the  yic- 
toria  Maqamne   as   an   advocate   of    women's 

5'}ht   to   lucrative    employment,    and    in    the 
nited  States  lectured  in   1872-73,  and  1882. 
She  was  the  author  of  <Chan|je  Upon  Chan^> 


!  Visits 


America' 


a  novel   (1868);   'Thre 
(1884). 

FAITHORNB,  Williaai,  English  engraver: 
b.  London,  1616;  d.  1691.  He  received  most  of 
his  early  training  from  Sir  Robert  Feake,  and 
taking  the  side  of  the  Royalists  in  the  civil 
itrunje  of  1640  he  was  banished  to  France. 
In  that  country  he  stodied  under  Nateuil  and 
after  his  return  to  England  in  1650  practised  as 
an  engraver  and  also  marketed  prints.  He 
executed  many  portraits  in  crayOn  after  16B0 
and  engraved  several  portraits  by  Lely,  Van 
Dyiai  and  other  eminent  masters.  Consult 
FaEpn,  <A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Woito 
of  William  Faitfaome'   (London  1888). 

FAIZABAD.    See  Fysabad. 

FAJARDO,  f&-hiir'd6,  Porto  Rico,  a  sea- 
port on  the  nordieast  coast,  on  the  Fajardo 
River.  It  has  a  good  harbor  and  extcnuvc 
sugar  interests.    Molasses,  sugar  and  tortmaa  | 

shell  are  exported.    Pop.  6,086. 

FAKHR-AS-DIN  AR-RAZI  Sk'r-ad- 
d£n  ar-ra'ze,  Mohammedan  theologian :  b.  Rai,  I 

Tabaristan,  1149;  d.  1209.  He  was  educated  at 
Merv  and  Maraf^ia,  where  among  his  masters  I 

was  the  celebrated  scholar,  Al  Maid  al  JiU.    He  I 

wrote  a  famous  commentary  on  toe  Koran,  the 
well-known  <Mafatih~al-haib'  and  gave  much 
time    to   all   branches   of   learning.    He   spent  I 

huge  sums  on  experiments  in  alchemy,  then  a 
favorite  delusion  among  the  learned.  He  was 
also  professor  at  Rai  and  Ghssn!  and  finally  be- 
came president  of  the  University  of  Herat 
His  coromenUry  was  issued  at  OtirD  in  cigbt 
volumes  in  1890. 


medan  faidi,  alTleaditig  a  life  of  pover^  and 
generally  practising  mendicancy.  The  Arabic 
word  Fii^lr  si^ftn  'poor'  usm  ii 


h,  Google 


PAKUMSN  —  FALCK 


be^  from  door  to  door.  The  observance  of 
strict  formi  of  fasting  and  acts  of  pie^  give 
them  a  character  of  sanctity  among  tne  people. 
They  Iiv«  partly  in  monasteries,  partly  alone, 
and  from  their  number  the  imams  are  gen- 
erally chosen.  Throughout  Turkey  they  are 
freelv  received,  even  at  the  tablet  of  persons 
of  tne  hi^est  rank.  There  are,  throughout 
Asia,  multitudes  of  these  devotees,  monastic 
and  ascetic,  not  ony  amone  the  Mohammedani, 
but  also  among  the  followers  of  Brahma. 
They  trace  their  ultimate  origin  to  Abu  or  Ali 
Belcr,  and  in  Egypt  all  are  under  the  rule  of  a 
supposed  direct  descendant  of  the  latter.  There 
are  32  religious  orders  now  existing  in  the 
Turkish  Empire,  many  of  which  are  scarcely 
known  beyond  its  limits:  but  others,  such  as  the 
Nakxhbendies  and  Mevlevies,  are  common  in 
Persia  and  India  and  Morocco.  All  these  com- 
munities are  properly  stationary,  though  some 
of  Ibem  send  out  a  portion  of  their  members  to 
collect  alms.  In  fact,  all  religious  faqirs  are 
divided  into  two  great  classes,  the  ba  thar 
(within  the  law)  or  those  who  govern  their 
conduct  according  to  the  principles  of  Isl&m ; 
and  the  be  skar  (without  the  law),  or  those 
who  do  not  live  their  lives  according  to  the 
principles  of  any  religious  creed  All  these 
orders,  except  the  Nakshbendies,  are  considered 
as  living  in  seclusion  from  (he  world;  but  that 
order  is  cndreiy  composed  of  persons  who, 
without  quitting  the  world,  bind  themselves  to 
a  strict  observance  of  certain  forms  of  devotion, 
and  meet  once  a  week  to  perform  them  to- 
gether. Each  order  has  its  peculiar  statutes, 
exercises  and  habits.  Since  the  orders  are 
secret,  it  is  impossible  to  discover  the  exact 
nature  of  these. 

The  numerous  orders  of  dervishes  are  all 
divided  by  Europeans  into  two  great  classes, 
the  dancing  and  the  howling  dervishes.  Ttie 
former  are  the  Mevlevies,  ana  are  held  in  much 
higher  estimation  than  the  other  class.  They 
are  the  wealthiest  of  all  the  religious  bodies  of 
the  Turkish  Empire.  The  dancing  of  these 
dervishes  is  conducted  to  sounds  of  music.  The 
movement  at  first  is  slow,  but  as  the  dervishes 
become  excited  it  grows  m  animation,  until  at 
last  the  actors  are  exhausted,  and  are  obliged 
to  sit  down.  After  a  while  they  rise  up  again 
and  resume  their  dancing,  which  is  repeated 
several  times.  The  whole  is  concluded  hy  a 
sermon.  The  howling  dervishes  accompany 
dieir  dancing  with  loud  vociferations  of  the 
name  of  Allah,  and  violent  contortions  of  the 
body  such  as  are  seen  in  persons  seized  with 
epileptic  fits.  In  former  times  these  dervishes, 
after  working  themselves  up  into  a  freniy,  used 
to  cut  and  torture  themselves  in  various  ways 
with  apparent  delight.  The  sheiks  of  all  orders 
have  the  credit  of  possessing  miraculous  powers. 
The  interpretation  of  dreams,  the  cure  of 
diseases  and  the  removal  of  barrenness  arc  the 
gifts  for  which  the  dervishes  are  most  in  repute. 
See  S<;nsH. 

None  of  the  falan  are  bound  by  oath  to  rt- 


priviiegE  is  rarely  used.     The  head  of  the 

vent   is   called  shaikh,   and  he  is  appointed  V 

the  general  of  the  order.    They  reside  usually      1838,  but"his  policy  alii 

'•■y  the  city  whkJi  contains  the  ashes  of  the      "         ■■■  ■     '    --'     ■■ 


tion  over  them.  In  Tuikey  the  Shaikhu  '1  I^ro 
has  the  rieht  of  removing  the  generals  of  the 
various  orders.  The  Uutti  has  also  the  right 
to  coniirm  the  shaikhs  who  may  be  nominated 
by  any  of  the  generals  of  the  orders.  Consult 
Lane,  'Modem  Egyptians'  (3d  ed.,  New  York 
1908) ;  Brown,  J.  P.,  'The  Dervishes  or 
Orienul  Spiritualism*  (London  186B)  ;  Hughes, 
'Dictionary  of  Islam'    (London  1885). 

PAKUMSN,  Manchuria,  town  in  the  south 
about  40  miles  north  of  Mukden  and  about  20 
miles  west  of  Tie  Pass.  On  18  March  1905 
Fakumen  was  occupied  by  the  Japanese. 

FALAISB,  fa1az'  France,  town  in  the 
department  of  Calvados,  20  miles  south  of 
Caen,  on  the  Ante.  It  is  located  on  a  diff  and 
has  two  fine  Gothic  churches,  a  college,  public 
library,  a  hospital  and  an  andent  castle,  in 
which  was  bom  William  the  Conqueror.  It  has 
also  manufactories  of  cotton  goods,  hosiery, 
leather  dyes  and  chimes.  Nearby  at  Guibray 
since  the  11th  centuiy  is  held  an  annual  fair  in 
August,  Consult  Dodd,  'Falaise  the  Town  of 
the  Conqueror*  (Boston  1900).  Pop.  (com- 
mune) b^. 

FALASHAS,  a  Hamlttc  tribe  of  Abyssinia, 
supposed  to  be  descended  from  Jewish  immi- 
grants of  the  tine  of  Solomon.  They  claim 
to  have  came  from  Jerusalem  and  to  belong 
lo  the  tribe  of  Levi  They  exhibit  many  Se- 
mitic traits,  although  their  complexion  is  a  red- 
dish brown  like  that  of  the  Abyssinians.  They 
practise  Israelitic  worship  although  in  a  some- 
what debased  form.  Contrary  to  the  method 
of  the  Jews  of  other  lands  they  despise  com* 
merce  and  devote  their  energies  more  freely  to 
agriculture  and  practise  minor  trades.  llietr 
synagogues  are  always  surmotmted  by  a  red 
earthen  pot.  They  have  8  monastic  system  and 
education  is  in  the  hands  of  the  monks.  Esti- 
mates of  the  number  of  these  people  vary  from 
100,000  to  250,000.  Consult  Flad,  'The  Fal- 
ashas  of  Abyssinia'  (London  1869) ;  Fait- 
lovitch,  F.,  'Notes  d'un  voyage  chez  les  Fal- 
ashas'  (Paris  1905). 

PALB,  fitp,  Rudolf,  Austrian  meteorolo- 
gist: b.  Obdach,  Styria.  1838;  d.  1903.  He  was 
educated  at  Grati,  where  he  studied  theology 
and  entered  the  pnesihood.  He  soon  afterward 
was  converted  to  Protestantism  and  in  1869-?2 
studied  mathematics,  physics  and  astronomy  at 
the  universities  of  Prague  and  Vienna.  In 
18?7-80  he  traveled  in  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica, after  which  he  settled  in  Berlin.  His  theo- 
ries of  earthquakes  were  unacceptable  to  the 
scientists  of  this  day  and  have  never  been  seri- 
ously considered.  He  founded  the  astronomical 
periodical  Siriits  in  1868.  His  published  woiks 
are  *Von  den  Umwalzungen  im  Weltall'  (3d 
ed.,  1890) ;  'Das  Wetter  und  der  Mond'  C2d 
ed.,  1892) ;  'Kalender  der  kritiscfaen  Tage> 
(1892-  ). 

FALCK,  falk,  Niels  Nikolaai.  German 
jurist:  b.  Emmerief,  Schleswig,  1784;  d.  1850. 
He  received  his  education  at  the  University  of 
iCiel  and  in  1814  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
law   there.    He  was  chosen  president  of  the 


fonnders  of  their  orders,  and  are  subordinate 
to  the  Mufti  of  the  capital  who  has  juris(Uc- 


Schleswig-Hol stein  Assembtv  of  the  States  in 
1838,  but  his  policy  alienated  the  Liberal  party. 
He  published    'Handbuch    des    schleswig-hol- 


■8l^ 


T9e 


FALCKENSTEIH  —  FALCONER 


f  162S) ;  'Jiiristische  Encyklopadie'  (Sth  ed., 
1851).  He  was  editor  of  the  Staatsbiirger- 
liekes  Magaein  from  1821  to  1831,  and  contin- 
ued it  as  the  Neues  Staatshurgerliches  Maga- 
sin  from  1833  to  1841. 

FALCKENSTEIH,  Sduard  VoecI  von. 
See  VocB-^voN   Falckenstein,  Eduasd. 

FALCON,  fal-kon,  Juan  Criedstomo,  Ven- 
ezuelan statesman :  b.  on  the  Peninsula  of 
Paraguana  (now  the  state  of  Falc6n),  1820;  d. 
Martinique.  1870.  He  was  a  brilliant  soldier  in 
his  youth  and  in  1858  was  made  leader  of  the 
Federalist  revolutionary  party.  He  was  elected 
President  of  Venezuela  in  1863,  and  in  that 
year  entered  Caracas.  The  Constitution  of  1864 
was  sanctioned  by  him,  but  on  the  overthrow  of 
bis  government  in  1867,  he  retired  to  Europe. 
Three  years  later  a  counter  revolution  broti^t 
him  a  call  to  again  lead  the  nation,  but  he  died 
en  route  at  Martinique. 

FALCON,  Venezuela,  a  tnaritime  state  and 
flie  most  nonhem,  with  an  extensive  coast  line 
on  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Vene- 
zuela. Its  adjoining  states  are  Lara  to  the 
south  and  Zulia  to  the  west.  It  has  a  much 
broken  surface,  with  low  mountains  inland 
and  sandy  plains  and  swamps  along  the  coast. 
The  climate  is  healthful  except  in  the  swampy 
districts  of  the  coast.  The  mountain  valleys 
are  very  fertile,  yielding  crops  of  cofEee,  cacao, 
cotttMi,  com,  sugar,  tobacco  and  fruits.  Stock 
raising  is  on  the  increase.  The  state  is  sparsely 
settled.  Its  area  is  9,572  square  miles,  with  a 
M^Hilation  of  139,110.  Coro,  the  capital,  is  of 
interest  historically  and  is  the  chief  commercial 
centre.  A  railway  connects  Coro  with  La  Vela 
de  Coro,  die  state's  only  seaport,  about  six 
miles  east  of  the  cajHtal.  Coro  has  a  population 
of  9,452. 

FALCON,  a  term  broadly  (^ven  to  any  of 
many  birds  of  the  family  Faleomdce  (q.v.),  but 
more  narrowlj^  to  the  species  of  the  typical  sub- 
family Faiconitut,  whence  are  derived  most  of 
the  hawks  usedin  falconry.  The  falcons  proper, 
for  strength,  symmetry  and  powers  o£  flight, 
are  the  most  perfectly  developed  of  the 
feathered  race.  They  are  distinguished  by  haV' 
ing  the  beak  hooked  at  the  point,  the  upper 
mandible  with  a  notch  or  tooth  on  its  cutting 
edge.  The  wings  are  long  and  powerful,  the 
second  feather  rather  the  longest ;  lezs  short 
and  strong.  The  largest  falcons  are  tne  three 
great   Arctic  ones   represented   by   the   circum- 


grinus),  to  the  female  of  which  the  term  "fal- 
con" was  alone  giveii  by  falconers,  and  was 
most  highly  esteemed  for  the  fierceness,  dash 
and  perfection  with  which  she  worked.  The 
female  is  about  17  inches  long  and  V/^  feet  in 
extent  of  wing;  the  male  is  2  or  3  inches  less. 
The  head,  neck,  a  patch  under  the  eye  and  the 
whole  upper  surface  are  dusky,  with  pray  and 
brownish  shades ;  the  throat  and  unacr  parts 
whitish  or  cream -colored,  with  dusky  bars  and 
arrowheads;  le^^  and  feet  ;yellow,  bill  bluish. 
It  chiefly  inhabits  wild  districts,  and  preys  on 
grouse,  ducks,  ptarmigans,  pigeons,  rabbits,  sea- 
fowl,  etc.,  pouncing  upon  them  from  above 
with  terrific  swiftness  and  force,  and  always 
showing  ih.i  greatest  courage  in  its  encoimters 


with  rivals  or  in  defense  of  its  nest,  which  is 
usually  placed  on  a  ledge  of  some  lofty  cKff. 
This  species  is  to  be  found  in  nearly  all  quarters 
of  the  globe,  for  the  North  American  duck- 
hawk  (variety  analum)  and  certain  tropical 
forms  are  only  sub-species. 

Other  American  true  falcons  are  tbe 
pigeon-hawk,  sparrow-hawk  (qq.v.)  and  some 
closely  allied  western  and  northern  forms. 
Many  of  the  Old  World  falcons  are  famous, 
and  are  elsewhere  individually  described,  such 
as  the  European  hobby,  kestrel,  merlin  and 
lanncr ;  the  Asiatic  smibeen,  saker,  luggur, 
tunimti  and  other  species  trained  by  Eastern 
falconers;  the  Australasian  quail-bawk;  and 
the  large  African  genus  Baza,  which  ha?  the 
pcculiarih'  of  possessing  two  *teelh*  on  the 
edge  of  ine  beak.  Another  interesting  genus  is 
Microhierai,  containing  the  finch-falcona  (q.v.). 
Falcons  attain  to  a  great  age.  One  is  said  to 
have  been  found  in  France,  about  1790,  with  a 
collar  of  gold  dated  1610,  showing  it  to  have 
belonged   to  James  I   of   England. 

FALCON,  a  small  light  cannon  in  general 
use  in  the  late  Middle  Ages.  We  know  from  a 
decree  of  Henry  II  of  France  that  it  dischaised 
a  ball  weigUng  one  pound.  Some  guns  of  fliis 
type  are  said  to  have  thrown  a  projectile  «f 
six  pounds.     See  AhtiU-ery. 

FALCONBRIDOE,  Sir  01«tibolme,  Ca- 
nadian jurist :  b,  Drummondville,  Ontaria,  12 
May  1846.  He  is  a  graduate  of  Toronto  Uni- 
versity, and  was  called  to  die  bar  in  1871.  He 
was  appointed  a  senator  of  Toronto  University 
in  ISSli  in  1887  became  a  judge  of  Queen's 
Bench  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  of 
Ontario;  and  in  1900  chief  iusbce.  He  was 
knighteii  in  1908. 

FALCONE,  fal-ko'na,  Anielle,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Naples,  1600;  d.  there,  1665.  He 
studied  under  de  Ribera  and  through  bis 
numerous  battle  pieces  came  to  be  called 
"L'oracolo  dclle  batta^lie."  When  the  Neapoli- 
tans rose  against  Spain^  Falcone  organized  his 
pupils  into  a  *Dcath  Company,*  wnich  never 
^vc  quarter  to  a  Spaniard.  Tne  failure  of  the 
insurrection  obliged  Falcone  to  retire  to  Rome. 
Later  he  went  to  France,  where  he  was  gra- 
ciously received  by  Louis  XIV.  Under  the 
powerful  protection  of  Colbert  he  was  enabled 
to  return  to  his  native  ci^,  where  he  spent  his  . 
last  years.     The  Louvre  has  one   of  his  battle 

S'  ;ceSj  the  Naples  Museum  two  and  the  Prado, 
adnd,  two. 

FALCONER,  fa'k'ner,  Bdnnmd  ("Edmund 
O'Rourke*).  Irish  playwrif^t:  b.  Dublin.  1814; 
d.  29  Sept  1879.  He  joined  a  provincial  com- 
pany in  England,  went  to  London  and  in  1858 
became  manager  of  the  Lyceum  Theatre,  In 
186^-66  he  was  manager  of  Drury  Lane.  In 
1867-69  he  was  engaged  at  the  Olympic  Theatre, 
New  York.  He  composed  many  plasrs  and 
adapted  others,  'Peep  o'Day'  (1861)  was  long 
very  popular.  Fs^coner  excelled  in  Us  delinea- 
tions of^  Irish  peasant  life, 

FALCONER,  Hnsfa,  Scottish  botanist  and 
palseontologist :  b.  Forres,  Moras^htre,  29  Feb. 
1808;  d.  London,  31  Jan.  ISffi,  He  was  gradu- 
ated in  arts  at  Aberdeen  University  in  1826^  and 
in  medicine  at  Edinburgh  in  1829,  He  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  surgeon  on  flie  Bengal  estab- 
lishment of  the  East  India  Company.    Arriving 


I  GoslMwk  4  Flmh  H«rk 

t  Hanb  Hiwk  S  Stktt  Falcoa 

I  PiieoD  Hiwk  «  Hnliu 


Digiiizcd  by  VjOOQ  IC 


.yGooi^le 


FALCONER  —  PALCONIO 


in  India  (1830)  he  examined  and  reported  on  a 
collection  of  fossil  bones  from  Ava,  and  won^ 
scientific  standing  in  India.  In  1832  he  was 
made  superintendent  of  the  botanic  garden  at 
Saharanpur.  He  discovered  and  was  the  first 
to  describe  the  assaftctida  plant  of  commerce; 
and  he  discovered  the  geoloKicat  character  of 
the  Sewalik  Hills,  and  in  order  to  study  thar 
ossiferous  deposits  he  compared  them  with. 
skeletons  of  extant  species.  For  these  re- 
searches he  received  the  Wollaston  medal  of 
the  Geological  Society  of  England.  He  was 
appoinied  (1847)  superintendent  of  the  botanic 
garden  at  Calcutta  and  professor  of  botuiy  at 
Oie  Calcutta  Medical  College. 

FALCONER,  Sn  Rob«rt  Alexander,  Ca- 
nadian educator;  b.  Charlotte  town,  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island,  !0  Feb.  1867.  He  was  educated  at 
Queen's  Royal  College  School,  Trinidad,  and  at 
we  universities  of  Edinburgh,  Leipzig,  Berlin 
and  Marburg.  From  1892  to  1907  he  was  lec- 
turer and  professor  of  New  Testament  Greek 
in  Pine  Hill  College,  Halifax,  N.  S.,  and  also 
served  as  principal  from  1904  to  1907.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  chosen  president  of  Toronto 
University,  He  received  the  degrees  of 
Litt.D  and  LL.D,  from  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, from  Erinceton,  U.  S.  A,,  Toronto  and 
other  Canadian   universities.     He   is   Fellow  of 


He  published  'The  Truth  of  the 
Apostolic  Gospel'  (1904)  ;  'The  German 
Tragedy  and  Its  Meaning  for  Canada'  (1915), 
also  articles  in  professional  journals,  encyclo- 
paedias and'diclionaries  in  Britain  and  America; 
articles  on  education  and  public  questions,  etc. 

FALCONER,  William,  English  poet:  b. 
Edinburgh,  11  Feb.  1732;  d.  at  sea  off  Mozam- 
bique, 1769.  Having  early  shipped  before  the 
mast,  he  became  before  1750  second  mate  of  a 
Hud  trading  lo  the  Levant.  The  experience  of 
a  3bij)wreCK  off  Cape  Colonna,  Greece,  furnished 
material  for  the  poem  of  'The  Shipwreck* 
(1762),  by  which  he  is  best  known.  He  was 
later  appointed  purser  of  the  frigate  Aurora, 
bound  for  Indk,  The  Aurora  touched  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  December  1769  and  was 
shortly  after  lost  with  all  hands.  Falconer's 
'Poetical  Works,'  with  »  biogiai^  by  Gilfil- 
lan,  appeared  in  1854. 

FALCONET,  Btienne  Maurice,  3-te  en 
mo-res  fal-c6-na,  French  sculptor:  b.  Vevay, 
Switzerland,  1716;  d.  Paris.  4  Jan.  1791. 
Catharine  II  of  Russia  patronized  him,  and  he 
was  employed  by  her  to  execute  the  colossal 
statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  erected  at  Saint 
Petersburg. 

FALCONETTO.  falTco-nct'tai  Giovanni 
Maria,  Veronese  architect  and  painter:  b.  \458; 
d.  1534.  He  received  his  early  instruction  from 
his  father,  Jacopo  Falconetto,  an  artist  of  note,' 
and  many  are  of  the  opinion  that  he  studied  also 
under  Melozzo  da  Forli.  Falconetto  executed 
frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  San  Biagio,  the  churdi 
of  San  Nazaro,  the  Duomo  and  the  church  of 
San  Pietro,  Martire,  all  in  Verona,  His  'Au- 
gustus and  the  SibyP  is  in  the  Veronese  Gallery, 
but  is  by  no  means  his  best  work.  His  most 
noteworthy  architectural  work  is  the  Palazzo 
Giustiniani  (1524)  at  Padua.  He  abo  designed 
many  of  the  Padua  city  gates. 


PALCONID^,  a  familv  of  raptorial  birds, 
comprising  the  sub-families  Gypaetina  (lammer- 
gders),  Polyborina  {carrion-hawks  and  Idtes), 
AccipilrituB    (hawks),     Buteonina     (buzzards). 


hooked  bills,  with  a  distinct  cere,  usually 
fleshy'  and  most  of  them  have  sharp  and  power- 
ful talons,  designed  to  seize,  kill  and  tear  lo 
pieces  the  living  prey  upon  which  most  of  them 
subsist.     In  the  eagles  and   falcons  these  char- 


cases  down  to  the  very  toes,  which  arc  arranged 
three  in  front  and  one  behind  and  are  exceed- 
ingly strong  and  tenacious.  There  is  a  pro- 
jection over  the  eyebrows  except  in  the  osprcys, 
which  gives  an  appearance  to  the  eyes  of  being 
very  deeply  set  in  the  orbits.  These  birds  range 
in  size  from  the  mighty  laramergeier  to  the 
falconets^  hardly  bigger  than  sparrows.  The 
female  is  usually  decidedly  larger  than  the 
male  and  upon  her  falls  the  burden  of  the  sup- 
port of  the  young.  The  tribe  is  represented  in 
all  climates,  even  to  the  remote  north,  but  is 
most  numerous  in  the  tropics,  while  some  species 
are  neqriy  cosmopolitan.  Many  migrate,  but 
few  show  any  tendency  toward  flocking.  The 
color  of  the  plumage  frequently  differs  much  in 
the  young  from  that  of  the  full-grown  birds  and 
as  their  first  plumage  is  retained  for  some  time, 
this  has  caused  more  species  to  be  enumerated 
than  really  exist.  Plain  tints  rule,  but  while 
and  black  are  often  strikingly  displayed  and  a 
few  species  present  a  considerable  variety  of 
colors.  Their  voice  is  limited  as  a  rule  to 
screaming  cries,  but  a  few  utter  somewhat 
melodious  notes.  The  nests  of  all  are  rude 
structures,  placed  in  trees,  on  rock-cliffs,  on  the. 
ground  or  in  some  hole.  The  eggs  are  few  in 
number^ one  to  five  as  a  rule  —  and  are  laid 
much  earlier  in  the  year  than  a  the  case  with 
birds  generally;  and  they  and  the  young  are 
well  cared  for  and  ably  defended  by  the  par- 
ents. The  sport  of  falconry  (q.v.)  took  its  name 
from  employing  certain  of  these  birds  in  the 
chase. 

Roman 


Sept.  1842;  d.  Rome,  8  Feb.  1917,  He  entered 
the  Frandscan  order  2  Sept.  1860,  and  upon 
cotnpleting  his  studies  came  to  the  United 
States  as  a  missionary,  reaching  Allegany,  N.  Y., 
December  1865  and  being  ordained  priest  by 
Bishop  Timon  of  Buffalo,  4  Jan.  1866.  In  1868 
he  was  named  president  of  the  College  and  Semi- 
nary of  Saint  Bonaventure,  Allegany,  N.  Y.,  and 
on  29  Nov.  1871  was  sent  by  his  superiors  to 
Harbor-Grace,  Newfoundland,  at  the  request  of 
the  bishop  of  that  diocese,  who  appointed 
Father  Falconio  his  secretary  and  chancellor 
and  rector  of  the  cathedral.  In  1882  he  came 
back  to  the  United  States,  where  he  remained 
a  year.  Returning  to  Italy  in  1883,  he  was 
elected  provincial  of  die  Franciscans  in  the 
Abmezi,  and  in  1889  he  was  clu>sen  procurator- 
general  and  later  visitor-general  in  various 
provinces.  He  was  preconized  bishop  of  Lace- 
donia  11  July  1892,  and  on  the  17th  of  that 
month  was  consecrated  at  Rome  by  Cardinal 
Monaco  La  Valletta.  On  2  Feb.  1893,  Monsignor 
Falconio  assumed  char^  of  his  diocese.  He 
was  elevated  lo.  the  United  Archiepiscopal  See 


■'3'^ 


7aS  PALCC 

□f  Accerenza  and  Maters  in  Basil  icata,  29  Nov. 
1895,  but  was  called  thence  by  Leo  XIII,  3  Aug. 
1899,  and  a;^poialed  first  apostolic  delegate  to 
Canada,  talane  possession  at  Ottawa,  1  Oct. 
1899.  On  30  Sept.  1902  he  was  nominated  apos- 
tolic delegate  to  the  United  Stales  and  assumed 
possession  at  Washington,  D.  C,  21  November 
of  the  same  year.  He  was  elevated  to  the  car- 
dinalate  in  1911.  A  volume  of  'Pastoral  Let- 
ters' appeared  in  French  in  1900. 

FALCONSY,  or  HAWKING,  the  employ- 
ment of  fakons  in  the  chase.  This  sport  is  of 
Oriental  origin,  and  has  been  practised  in  the 
East  since  before  the  days  of  any  record  —  in 
China  at  least  2,000  years  before  Christ ;  and  it 
was  probably  followed  at  that  date  all  over  Asia 
and  down  into  the  Nile  Valley,  for  falconers 
with  their  hawks  are  depicted  in  some  of  the 
oldest  Egyptian  mural  paintings.  The  sport 
spread  over  Europe  with  the  Roman  domina- 
tion, but  seems  not  to  have  been  introduced  into 
En^and  until  the  9th  century.  Manjy  laws  and 
social  customs  regulated  this  pursuit  in  Great 
Britain  and  many  terms  and  pnrases  remain  in 
the  language  as  an  inheritance  from  the  art  and 
etiquette  □?  this  moat  elegant  form  of  the  chase. 
Thus  the  sauare  frame  on  which  hawks  were 
carried  to  the  field  was  named  a  •cadge,*  and 
the  servant  who  bore  it  a  "cadger' ;  and  a  'cast* 
of  hawks  meant  two  taken  on  a  chase  together. 
To  ^man  a  hawk>  was  to  tame  it;  and  one  so 
thoroughly  trained  as  to  be  flown  with  young 
ones  to  show  them  how  to  work  was  called  a 
•make  hawk.*  A  hawk  was  said  to  "mew* 
when  molting,  and  to  "plume*  when  she  pulls 
ofF  feathers.  A  female  of  any  species,  but  es- 
pecially of  the  peregrine,  is  a  "falcon*;  a  male 
a  'tiercel* ;  one  caught  wild  a  'ha^fard*  or 
'passage  hawk* ;  one  reared  from  the  nest  an 
"eyas,*^and  a  young  one  is  a  "red  hawk';  while 
a  falcon's  nest  is  an  *eyry-*  AH  the  actions  of  a 
hawk  in  its  work  are  named.  A  hawk  'stoops* 
when  she  descends  upon  the  'quarry*  (prey) 
with  closed  wings,  to  Idll  it  b^  a  stroke  of  the 
beak;  she  'binds*  when  she  seizes  large  prey  in 
the  air  and  clings  to  it  in  its  fall,  or  'trusses* 
when  the  orey  is  of  small  size.  A  hawk  is  said 
to  'clutch*  \^eQ  (as  do  short-winged  hawks) 
«he  seizes  it  in  her  feet;  to  'carry,*  when  she 
tries  to  fly  away  with  the  prey;  to  "cbeck*  when 
she  flies  at  a  bird  other  than  the  one  intended 
for  her;  to  'foot  well*  when  she  Idlla  success- 
fully; to  'make  her  point*  when  she  rises  and 
hovers  over  some  quarry  which  has  escaped  to 
cover,  as  in  thick  hedges ;  to  'ring*  when  she 
rises  spirally  in  the  air;  to  'take  the  air*  when 
she  tnes  to  get  above  the  fleeiiw  quarry;  to 
*wait  OR*  when  she  hovers  above  her  master  at 
a  certain  'pitch*  (beiriit),  waiting  for  quariv 
to  be  flushed.  "Seeling*  is  dosinp  the  eyes  with 
a  fine  thread  (no  longer  done)  ;  'imping.*  mend- 
ing broken  feathers:  'mantling.*  stretching  out 
the  wii^  or  one  inng  and  a  leg;  and  'jarak* 
means  keen,  or  in  gooo  condition  for  work. 

The  extensive  urictiltunil  changes  which  oc- 
cnired  in  England  daring  the  l7th  century, 
calling  the  enclosure  and  improTement  of  waate 
lands;  the  growth  of  towns  and  industry;  the 
altered  temper  of  the  people  preceding  and  dur- 
ing the  Protectorate;  and  most  of  all  the  intro- 
duction of  firearms,  followed  by  the  sports  of 
shooting  and  the  consequent  preserving  of  game 
—  all  tended  toward  the  decline  of  falconry, 


both  in  England  and  an  the  Continent;  and 
game-keepers  and  peasants  began  to  shoot  as 
•vermin*  the  grand  and  valuaWe  birds  upon 
which  their  forefathers  had  doted.  Neverthe- 
less the  sport  is  still  followed  by  fanciers  who 
keep  alive  its  traditions. 

The  hawks  used  in  falconry  arc  all  true 
falcons,  and  nearly  or  quite  the  whole  list  have 
at  some  time  or  place  been  regularly  trained, 
except  in  the  United  Stales,  although  here  the 
best  of  material  exists,  in  our  duck-hawk  (the 
peregrine),  pigeon,  and  sparrow-hawks,  south- 
western prairie- falcon  and  others.  A  few  clubs 
here  and  there  have  fiown  their  hawks,  but  the 
sport  shows  little  si^  of  becoming  general  in 
North  America.  It  is  more  frequent  m  Central 
and  South  America.  In  North  Africa  and  the 
Orient  the  sport  flourishes  as  much  as  formerly; 
and  there  eagles  are  often  employed  and  quarry 
as  large  as  gazelles  and  bustards  is  struck  down. 

Falconers  divide  their  birds  into  'long- 
winged'  or  'dark-eyed*  hawks,  and  •short.- 
winged*  or  'yellow- eyed*  hawks.  The  first 
class  contains  the  true  falcons,  of  which  the 
great  jerfalcon  (q.v)  was  in  old  times  reserved 
for  royalty,  the  peregrine  for  an  earl  and  the 
others  for  the  nobility ;  hence  these  were  known 
as  'noble,*  while  the  goshawk,  kestrel,  etc.,  on 
account  of  the  inferiority  of  thetr  masters  as 
well  as  of  their  own  powers,   were  styled  'ig- 

Hawks  are  taken  for  training  either  as  nest- 
lings or  when  full-grown.  They  are  trained  by 
being  hooded,  made  to  wear  bands  of  leather 
Cjesses*)  about  the  legs,  to  which  arc  at- 
tached 'varvels*  (rings,  sonjetimes  carrying  bells 
hung  by  'bewils*),  and  a  swiveled  "leash*  ;  and 
gradually  are  accustomed,  at  first  in  complete 
darkness,  to  being  fed  and  handled,  and  later  to 
feeding  in  the  light  and  among  spectators,  and 
finally  to  take 'first  live  birds  tnrown  toward  it 
and  finally  wild  quarry.  During  this  process 
yonng  birds  are  much  at  liberty  and  are  then 
said  to  be  'Hying  at  hack.* 

The  sport  was  one  in  which  women  as  well 
as  men  of  all  classes  mi^ht  indulge,  going  afield 
on  foot  and  alone,  or. in  mounted  cav^cades, 
and  often  during  medizval  times  with  royal 
pomp.  The  hawks,  hooded,  were  earned 
by  servants  on  frames  suspended  from  their 
shoulders,  but  each  sportsman  was  likely  to  hold 
a  favorite  bird  upon  his  gauntleled  wrist  —  in 
Europe  on  the  left  wrist,  in  the  Orient  on  the 
ri^t.  D<^,  especially  small  greyhounds  and 
pointers,  were  likely  to  accompany  the  falconer 
and  were  put  to  use  in  flushing  birds,  starting 
hares  and  the  like.  When  the  hunting  scene 
was  reached  the  hawks  were  prepared  for  flight, 
and  some  were  freed  to  'wait  on*  until  quarry 
was  sighted ;  but  others,  limned  differently, 
were  kept  hooded  until  the  falconer  himself 
.started  or  perceived  the  game,  when  they  were 
'unhooded  and  sent  after  it  The  sportsmen  then 
followed,  watched  the  chase  and  recovered  prey 
and  hawk  as  well  as  they  could.  Good  falcons 
Aow  a  keen  interest  and  great  intelfigence  in 
their  work. 

Many  books  describe  both  the  sport  and  the 
falcons  in  great  detail.  One  of  the  best  of  the 
early  works  is  'The  Booke  of  Faulconrie  or 
Hawking,' by  Turberville  (1575).  Recent  Brit- 
ish authors  of  repute  are  B  rod  rick.  Salvia, 
FrMOian  (Tractic^  Falconry,'  1869),  and  j.  E. 


FAXDSTOOL — F  AL.KB 


79S 


Harting  (<Hmti  on  the  Management  of  Haiwki,' 
1884).  The  latest  general  work  is  'Coursing 
and  Falconry,'  by  Cox  and  Lascellet,  in  the 
BactmintoD  Library,  1892.  Consult  also  the  ar- 
ticle 'An  Ancient  Sport  io  the  New  World,'  in 
Outing  for  March  1914. 

FALDSTOOL,  or  FOLDSTOOL,  the 
name  of  various  pieces  of  English  church  fur- 
niture, the  prinapal  being  a  i>ortable  folding 
leat,  also  called  faldistory,  similar  to  a  camp- 
stool  used  by  a  bishop  when  officiating  in  other 
than  his  own  calfaedral  church;  and  a  small 
desk  at  which  the  litany  is  read,  the  name  dat- 
ing from  a  period  when  folding  lecterns  were 

FALEHE,  fii-li'me,  a  tributary  of  the 
Senegal  River,  in  West  Africa.  It  rises  in 
Fota-Jatlon  and  flows  in  a  northerly  direction 
for  a  total  distance  of  about  300  miles. 

FALERII.     See  Fausci. 

FALERNIAN  WINK,  one  of  the  favorite 
wines  of  the  Roinans,  so  called  from  Falemui 
Ager  (the  Falemian  Field),  the  district  in 
which  it  was  grown,  in  Campania,  Italy.  It  is 
described  by  Horace  as,  in  his  time,  surpass- 
ing all  other  wines  then  in  repute.  In  the  time 
of  Pliny,  however,  as  he  himself  informs  us, 
Palernian  wine  had  already,  owing  to  a  want 
of  care  in  its  cultivation,  Mgun  to  decline  in 
quality.     See  Wine. 

FALERNUS  AGER,  a  district  of  northern 
Campania,  in  ancient  Italy,  situated  north  of 
the  river  Voltumus.  It  was  famed  in  classic 
days  for  its  wine.  In  modem  times  the  quality 
of  the  wine  has  declined.  Consult  Nissen, 
'Italische  Landeskunde'  (Vol.  II,  Berlin  1902). 

FALGUltiRE,  fa-gyar,  Jean  Alexandre 
Joseph,  ih6n  i-lex-iandr  zho-ty',  French  sculp- 
tor and  figure  painter;  b.  Toulouse,  France,  7 
Sept  1831;  d.  Paris  1900.  In  sculpture  his 
work  is  of  very  notable  excellence,  and  displays 
originality  and  vigor  and  grace.  The  Luxem- 
bourg Galleiv  in  Paris  contains  his  sculptures: 
'Christian  Martyr'  (1868)  ;  and  'Victor  in  the 
Cock  Fight'  (1870).  'Pr^ress  Abasing 
Error^  is  in  the  Pantheon,  'Poet  Holdii^  a 
Lyre>  is  in  the  Place  dc  I'Opcra,  and  among 
other  works  are  statues  of  Baliac  and  Lanjar- 
tine  and  one  of  Lafayette  in  Washington. 
His  paintings  are  inferior  to  his  sculptures. 

FALIERI,  Marino,  ma-re'n&  fa-lE-a'r! 
Dotc  of  Venice;  b.  1278;  d.  Venice,  17  April 
1355.  He  commanded  the  troops  of  the  republic  at 
the  siege  of  Zara  in  Dalmatia.  He  there  gained  a 
brilliant  vi'ctory  over  the  King  of  Hungary,  and 
was  afterward  Ambassador  to  Genoa  and  Rome. 
He  was  elected  Doge  of  Venice  on  11  Sept.  13S4, 
but  in  the  following  year  dissatisfaction  with 
the  light  punishment  imposed  upon  a  noble  who 
had  insulted  Falieri's  young  wife  caused  him 
to  conspire  with  the  lower  orders  to  overthrow 
the  republic  and  make  himself  sovereign  of  the 
state.  His  plot  was  discovered  on  the  nig^t 
before  it  was  to  have  been  consummated,  and 
he  was  beheaded  17  April  1355.  The  last 
scenes  of  his  life  are  depicted  in  Byron's  trag- 
edy of  'Marino  Falieri.'  Plays  have  been 
written  on  the  same  subject  by  Casimir  Dela- 
vigne  and  Swinburne.  Consult  Brown,  Hora- 
tius,  'Studies  in  Venetian  History'   (1907). 


FALISCI,  fi-lis'i,  a  people  of  Etruria,  said 
to  have  been  originally  a  Macedonian  colony. 
They  occupied  FaJerii,  one  of  the  12  Etruscan 
cities.  When  they  were  besieged  by  the  Roman 
general  Camillus,  a  schoolinaster  offered  to 
betray  his  pupils  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy, 
that,  by  such,  a  possession,  he  mi^t  easily 
oblige  the  place  to  surrender.  Camillus  heard 
the  proposal  witlf  indignation,  and  ordered  the 
man  wnipped  back  to  the  town  by  the  verv 
pupils  whom  his  perfidy  would  have  betrayed, 
Tlus  instance  of  magnanimity  operated  upon  the 
people  so  powerfully  that  toey  surrendered  to 
the  Romans. 

FALK,  falk,  Johannes  Daniel,  German  au- 
thor and  philanthropist :  b.  Dantzic,  Prussia,  28 
Oct.  1768;  d,  14  Feb.  1826l  His  capacity  for 
satire  was  considerable.  Among  his  works  are 
'A  Pocket  Book  for  Friends  of  Jest  and 
Satire'  (1797);  'Men  and  Herx)es>  (1796).  a 
satire  in  verse,  and  'Prometheus'  (1804),  a 
dramatic  poem.  He  foimded  at  Weimar  in  1813 
an  organiiation  called  the  'Society  of  Friends  in 
Need^  and  established  there  an  institution  for 
the  care  of  orphan  and  neglected  children, 
which  later  was  taken  over  by  the  stale,  ana 
which  still  bears  his  name. 

PALK,  falk.  Max,  Hungarian  politician;  b. 
Pest,  1828;  d.  1908.  He  received  his  education 
at  Pest  and  at  the  Polytechnic  Institute,  Vienna. 
In  1848  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Academic 
Le^on,  and  became  editor  of  the  Wanderer,  in 
which  he  advocated  a  restoration  of  the  Hun- 
garian constitution.  Soon  afterward  he  was 
made  private  lecturer  on  Hungarian  hislory 
and  literature   to   the  empress.     He  wielded  a 

r^werful  influence  as  editor  of  the  Fetter 
loyd,  in  \W)  became  a  member  of  the  Hun- 
garian Parliament  and  allied  his  fortunes  with 
the  par^  policies  of  Dcik,  Eotvos  and  An- 
drassy.  He  ^blished  'Graf  Stephan  SzJchenyi 
und  seine  Zeit'  (1868,  in  German  and  Hunga- 
rian) ;  'Riickerinnerungen  an  die  K()nigin 
Elisabeth'  (1902) ;  and,  with  Brachelli,  the  iZth 
edition  of  Gallettis'  'AUgemeine  Weltkunde' 
(1860). 

FALK.  Paul  X^dwiE  Adalbert,  powl  lood'- 
viH  a'dal-bin  falk.  Prussian  statesman;  b. 
Metschkau,  Silesia,  10  Aug.  1827;  d.  7  Julv  190a 
He  was  ap^nted  Minister  of  Public  Worship 
and  Education  in  1872,  and  in  this  capacity  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  carrying  the  so-called 
May  laws  (because  passed  in  ISky  1873-74-75), 
aimed  at  the  restriction  of  the  Roman  Cathohc 
Church  in  Germany,  by  limiting  the  influence  of 
the  clerpy  in  the  schools,  by  reorganizing  the 
seminaries  for  the  training  of  teachers  and  by 
defining  in  a  stricter  and  more  comprehensive 
manner  the  relations  generally  of  the  clergy  to 
the  state.  (See  Kitlturkampf).  When,  how- 
ever, Bismarck  came  to  bid  for  the  support  of 
the  clerical  pa^t3^  in  order  to  carr^  out  his  later 
internal  policy,  Falk  was  compelled  to  resign. 
He  was  latterly  president  of  the  Supreme  Court 
at  Hamm.  His  biography  by  Fischer  was  pub- 
lished at  Hamm  in  1900. 

FALKB,  falke'.  GtuUv,  (German  poet;  b. 
Liibeck,  1853.  He  received  his  education  at  the 
Lubeck  Catharineum,  engaged  in  business  as  a 
bookseller  until  1878,  when  he  began  the  teach- 
ing of  music  at  Hamburg.  In  1903,  on  his  50th 
tnrthday.  the  HamburEf  Senate  and  Ccnnmonalty 


'8lc 


T90 


FALKBNHAYN  — FALKLAND  ISLANDS 


bestowed  on  him  an  annual  gn 
marks.  Falke's  works  include  ine  novels  'Aus 
dem  Durchschnitt'  (1892) ;  'Landen  and 
Slranden'  (1895);  and  'Der  Mannim  Nebel' 
(1899);  and  the  volumes  of  verse   'Mynheer 


(1K»);  'Hohe  Sommenage'  (1902);  'Der 
gestiefelte  Kater'  (1904)  ; '  'Frohe  Fracht' 
(1907) ;  'Hamburg'  (in  'Stadte  und  Land- 
sdiaften  Series,'  1908). 

FALKENHAYN,  falk'en-hin,  Erich  G. 
A.  S.  von.  German  general;  b.  U  Sepl,  1861. 
He  passed  from  the  War  Academy  in  1880, 
spent  three  years  as  military  instniclor  in  China 
and  served  as  major  in  the  German  brigade  of 
occupation  in  eastern  Asia.  He  was  on  the 
staff  of  Count  Waldersee  during  the  Boxer  Re- 
bellion in  1900.  In  1912  he  became  Prussian 
Minister  of  War,  in  which  capacity  he  sup- 
ported Lieutenant  von  Forstner  of  Zabem 
fame.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  General  von  Moltke  was  chief  of  the 
general  staff;  he  was  reported  to  have  fallen 
ill  in  October  1914,  and  Falkenhayn  took  over 
his  duties.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  von  Moltke 
was  superseded  on  account  of  disagreement 
with  the  Kaiser.  He  held  that  the  main  strat- 
egic object  should  be  to  break  the  Allied  line 
at  Verdun,  while  the  Kaiser,  unable  to  reach 
Paris,  desired  to  strike  for  the  Channel  coast 
and  attack  England,    See  Wah,  Eubopean. 

FALKBNSTEIN,  falk'en-stin.  Julius  Au- 
snat  Ferdinand,  German  explorer:  b.  Berhn, 
1842.  At  the  University  of  Berlin  he  studied 
medicine  and  geology  and  in  1873-?6  was  a 
member  of  an  exploring  expedition  to  Loango 
sent  out  by  the  African  Society  of  Germany. 
On  this  tnp  Falkenstein  made  important  dis- 
coveries and  extensive  and  valuable  collections. 
He  brought  home  the  first  gorilla  ever  taken 
_i; c —    Ac:^^       Ai 4  looi  i*«  c  -    -    - 


'.•E 


alive  from  Africa.  About  1^1  he  founded  the 
German  General  School  Association  which  later 
exerted  great  influence  on  the  educational 
terns  of^  foreign  countries.  H 
Loango-Ktiste  in  72  Original- Photographic 
(1876) ;  'Die  Loango  Expedition'  (1879)  ;  <Af- 
rikans  Westkiiste:  Vom  Ogowe  bis  rum  Dam- 
ara  Land'  (188S) ;  <Aeritlichcr  Reisebegleiter 
und  Hausfreund'   (10th  ed.,  1893). 

FALKIRK,  fglTterk,  Scotland,  a  parliamen- 
taiy  and  municipal  burgh  of  Stirlingshire.  10 
miles  southeast  of  Slirbng  and  25  miles  from 
Edinburgh.  Its  port,  Grangemouth,  is  three 
miles  distant  to  the  northeast  and  two  canals 
pass  close  by  the  town  which  is  a  station  on 
the  North  British  railways.  Falkirk  includes 
the  suburbs  of  Graham  si  on,  Bains  ford.  Cam  el  on 
and  Laurieston.  Notable  features  are  the 
burgh  buildings,  the  town  hall,  a  free  libra^, 
the  Camelon  fever  hospital  and  the  church.  In 
the  churchyard  lie  several  persons  once  promi- 
nent in  Scottish  history.  Falkirk  is  the  princi- 
pal seat  of  the  iron-casting  industry  of  Scot- 
land, being  conveniently  situated  in  regard  to 
supplies  of  coal  and  iron  ore.  Other  industries 
are  flour-milling,  brewing,  distilling,  tanning, 
explosives  and  chemicals.  Trysts,  or  cattle 
fairs,  were  long  important  but  have  been  re- 
placed by  local  auction  sales,  held  weekly. 
Falkirk  was  an  important  town  as  early  as  the 
11th    century,   being   then    known   as   Eaglais 


breac  ("church  of  speckled  stone")  later  trans- 
literated as  Egglesbreth.  Near  the  town  in 
1298  was  fought  an  important  battle  between 
the  forces  of  Edward  I  and  those  of  William 
Wallace,  in  which  the  Scots  were  worsted.  In 
1746  Prince  Charles  Edward  vrith  Highland 
forces  defeated  the  English  imder  General 
Hawley.     Pop.  33,574. 

FALKIRK,  Battle  of.  (1)  a  contest  in 
which  Edward  1  of  England  gained  a  victory 
over  Wallace.  22  July  1258.  The  king's  army  is 
said  to  have  contained  7.000  to  8.000  mounted 
men  and  80.000  footmen.  Wallace's  force 
amounted  to  about  a  third  of  the  En^isb  army. 
His  infantry  was  drawn  up  in  circles,  the  men 
in  the  outer  ring  kneeling  and  holding  their 
lances  obliquely.  The  archers  occupied  the  cen- 
tre of  the  circles.  The  overwhelming  superior- 
ity of  the  enemy's  horse,  however,  decided  the 
battle.  Wallace  retired  with  a  small  body  to 
Stirling,  but  the  bulk  of  his  army  was  broken 
up  and  destroyed.  (See  Wau-ace,  Sir  Wil- 
liam). (2)  A  battle  between  the  forces  of 
Prince  Charles  Edward  (.17  Jan.  1746)  and  the 
government  troops  commanded  by  General 
Hawley,  whose  army  was  completely  routed 
and  compelled  to  fall  back  on  Edinbur^ 

FALKLAND,  fak'l^nd,  Lacina  Cory,  Vis- 
count, English  statesman  and  soldier ;  b.  prob- 
ably at  Burford,  Oxfordshire  1610;  d.  New- 
bury, 20  Sept.  1643.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  Saint  John's  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  in  1630  succeeded  to  the  estates  of 
his  maternal  grandfather.  In  1633  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  peer^e  and  for  some 
years  after  chiefly  resided  at  nis.  seat  of  Bur- 
ford,  near  Oxford,  where  he  lived  in  close  in- 
tercourse with  scholars  from  the  neighboring 
universities.  Here  it  was  that_  Chillingworth 
composed  his  famous  work  against  "Popery"; 
and  questions  of  morals,  theology  and  literature 
were  discussed  in  a  congenial  circle  with  the  ut- 
most freedom.  In  1639  he  took  part  in  the  ex- 
pedition against  the  Scots.  At  first  he  warmly 
supported  the  Parliament  party,  but  a  strong 
attachment,  however,  to  establish  forms  and 
some   doubts    of    the   ultimate    objects    of    the 

Brliamentary  leaders,  caused  him  to  retract 
e  became  Secretary  of  Stale  in  January  1642. 
and  took  the  Royalists'  side  in  the  civil  war, 
attending  the  king  at  the  battle  of  Edgdiill  and 
the  siege  of  Gloucester.  So  dissatisfied  was 
he  with  both  parties  that  he  courted  death.  At 
the  first  battle  of  Newbury  he  made  for  a  pp 
in  a  hedge  from  which  bullets  were  raining 
and  so  fell.  His  'Poems,'  edited  by  A,  B. 
Grosart,  were  published  in  London  m  1870. 
Consult  Marriott,  'Life  and  Times  of  Lucius 
Cary,  Viscount  Falkland>  (New  York  1907). 

FALKLAND,  Seotland,  a  royal  burgh  in 
Fifeshirc,  21  miles  north  of  Edinbur^.  It 
contains  many  ancient  houses.  The  principal 
industries  are  brewing  and  linen- weaving.  A 
noteworthy  structure  is  the  ancient  royal  pal- 
ace of  the  Stuarts,  which  after  centuries  of 
neglect  has  been  restored  by  the  Marquis  of 
Bute  since  1888.  Pop.  2,356.  Consult  Wood, 
'Historical  Description  of  Falkland*  (Edin- 
bur^  1888). 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS,  two  large  islands. 
East  Falkland  (3,000  square  miles)  and  West 
Falkland  (^300  square  miles),  with  about  100 


.lOOglc 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS— FALL-PISH 


islands  surronndinK  them,  having  a  tola]  area  of 
lj200  square  miles,  in  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean, 
■txjut  300  miles  east  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan. 
The  scenery  bears  a  striking  resemblance  to 
parts  of  the  Western  Highlands  of  Scotland; 
th«  soil  is  lislit  and  but  scanty  crops  are  ob- 
tained The  highest  elevation  is  Mount  Adam, 
23S7  feet  in  height.  The  coast  is  deeply  in- 
dented and  contains  many  safe  anchorages. 
There  are  no  roads.  Sheep  raising  is  the  prin- 
cipal occupation,  there  being  2,325,000  acres  de- 
voted to  pasturage.  The  climate  is  strictly 
oceanic,  characterized  by  strong  winds,  eqirable 
temperature  and  moderate  rainfall.  The 
waters  round  the  isUnds  have  within  re- 
cent years  become  famous  as  a  whale  fish- 
ing ground,  the  exports  of  products  being 
vaTued  in  1914  at  fl,300,978  (including  South 
Georgia) .  Dependencies  of  the  islands  are 
South  Georgia,  the  South  Shetlands,  South 
Sandwich  Group,  South  Orkneys  and  Graham 
Land.  Revenue,  1914,  £42,923 ;  expenditure, 
£36,046.  Imports,  £233,379;  exports,  £1,505,464. 
Vessels  cleared  (1914),  139,  of  263,965  tons. 
Wireless  telegraphy  was  installed  in  1912  and 
cable  communication  established  in  1915.  There 
is  monthly  mail  communication  with  Liverpool 
(28  days'  sailing).  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  governor  assisted  by  an  executive  council 
of  four  and  a  nominated  legislative  coundl. 
The  capital  is  Port  Stanley,  on  the  east  coast 
,  of  East  Falkland  (pop.  905).  Pop.  3,27i 
mainly  Scottish,  except  for  980  Norse  and 
Swedish.  The  islands  were  discovered  by 
Davis  in  1592.  A  settlement  was  founded  by 
die  French  in  1764,  but  their  rights  were  sold 
to  Spain  in  1765,  who  in  turn  relinquished  them 
in  1/71.  A  British  colpny  which  had  been  es- 
tablished in  1765  was  withdrawn  in  1774,  but 
Great  Britain  maintained  her  claim  from  the 
date  of  her  occupancy,  and  since  1833  has  held 
uninterrupted  occupaoQ'  of  them.  On  8  Dec 
1914  a  British  squadron,  under  Sir  Frederick 
Sturdee,  attacked  and  defeated  a  German 
squadron  under  Von  Spee,  sinking  the  cruiser; 
Scltamkorst,  Gneisenav,  Ltifsic  and  Niirnberg. 
Von  Spee  went  down  with  his  flagship,  tha 
Scharnhorst.     See  Wab,  European. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS,  Battie  of  the.  A 
naval  engagement  fought  on  8  Dec,  1914  be- 
tween a  British  squadron  under  Rear-Admiral 
Sir  Frederick  Sturdee  (qv.)  and  the  German 
Pacific  squadron  under  Admiral  von  Spee.  Of 
the  five  CJerman  battleships  four  were  sunk, 
also  two  transports.  The  Dresden  escaped, 
but  was  sunk  off  Juan  Fernandez  on  14  March 
1915.    See  Wa«,  European — Naval  Operations. 

FALKNBR,  fak'ner.  Roland  Post,  Ameri- 
can statistician  I  b.  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  14  April 
1866.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1885 ;  studied  economics  at 
Berlin.  Leipzig  and  Halle-on-Saale,  Germany; 
was  instructor  m  accounting  and  statistics  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  .1888-91,  and 
professor  of  statistics  1891-1900.  He  served 
also  as  statistician  of  the  United  States  Senate 
Committee  of  Finance  in  1891 ;  as  secretary  o£ 
the  United  States  delegation  to  the  International 
Monetary  Conference;  and  as  secretary  of  tiie 
conference  in  1892.  He  is  author  of  numerous 
essays  on  criminology,  socioto^,  etc. ;  and  was 
editor  of  Annals  of  the  Amencan  Academy  of 


Political  and  Social  Science  1890-1900.  From 
1904  to  1907  he  served  as  commissioner  of  edu- 
cation in  Porto  Rico;  from  1908  to  1911  he  was 
statistician  in  charge  of  sohoo!  inquiries  for  the 
United  States  Immigration  Commission,  and  in 
1911-12  was  assistant  director  of  the  census. 
He  has  contributed  essays  on  professional  top- 
ics to  economic,  statistical  and  other  journals, 
and  has  published  a  translation  of  Au^st 
Ueitzen's  'History,  Theory,  and  Technique 
of  Statistics'  (1893). 

FALKNER.  ThomiiB,  English  Jesuit  mis- 

cinnQi-u-    I.     M-inr.h.c(.^r      \Tm .    A      179/1         1J„..:,~^ 


slave-ship  of  the  South  Sea  Company,  in  which 
he  sailed  to'  the  coast  of  Guinea  in  1731.  He 
next  accompanied  a  cargo  of  slaves  to  Buenos 
Aires,  and  while  there  was  taken  dangerously  ill 
and  was  carefully  tended  by  the  Jesuits.  He 
was  so  impressed  by  the  work  of  the  order 
that  he  became  a  Catholic  and  entered  the 
Jesuit  order.  He  became  a  priest  in  1732  and 
from  that  time  until  1767  labored  as  a  mission- 
ary in  Paraguay  and  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  region. 
The  expulsion  of  his  order  from  South  America 
in  1767-68  caused  him  to  return  to  England 
where  he  became  a  private  chaplain.  He  wrote 
several  works,  including  'Botanical,  Mineral 
and  Like  Observations  on  the  Products  of 
America'  (1774)  ;  'A  Description  of  Patagonia 
and  the  Adjoining  Parts  of  South  America,' 
_r  ...i>:_u  —  .{j^  gjjjj  fayijj,  edition  was 


jf  which  a  .      .  _    _  ..,    __.. 

published  by  one  of  Falkner's  fnends. 

FALKNER  ISLAND,  .an  island  in  Long 


in  height,  with  a  white  Sash  light 

FALKOPING,  fql'che'pTng,  Sweden  town 
in  Skarabor^.  It  is  an  important  railroad  junc- 
tion and  is  important  in  Swei^sh  history  as  the 
scene  of  the  victory  of  Margaret  of  l5enmark 
and  Norway  over  Uie  king  of  Sweden  in  1389. 
The  immediate  result  was  the  junction  of 
Sweden  with  Denmark  and  Norway.    Pop.  4,8CIIX 

FALL,  Albert  Bacon,  American  legislator: 
b.  Frankfort,  Ky.,  26  Nov,  1861.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  country  schools,  but  was  principally 
self-taught.  From  1879  to  1881  he  taught 
scliool  and  read  law,  and  from  1889  to  1904  was 
a  practising  lawyer.  He  worked  on  a  farm,  on 
a  cattle  ranch  and  as  a  miner.  He  became  in- 
terested in  mines,  lumber,  lands  and  railroads, 
and  for  many  years  has  been  engaged  in  farm- 
ing, stock-raising  and  mining.  He  served  in 
the  legislature  of  New  Mexico  and  also  as  asso- 
ciate justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
Mexico,  and  member  of  (he  Constitutional  Con- 
vention. On  27  March  1912  he  was  elected  by 
the  legislature  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States  for  the  short  term  expiring  4  March  1913. 
He  was  re-elected  in  June  1912,  and  his  cre- 
dentials not  being  signed  by  the  governor  he 
was  again  elected  on  23  Jan,  1913  tor  the  term 
1913-19. 

PALL.    See  Watertau.  and  Cataracts. 
:     FALL  ARMY  WORM,  the  caterpillar  of  a 
gregarious  moth   {Laphygma  frugiperda).     See 
Grass  Worm, 

FALL-FISH,  or  SILVER  CHUB,  a  cy^ 
prinodont  fish,  or  ^fmnnow*  (Setnotilus  cor- 
'      "^     '  '        United  Slates. .  It  1> 


Poraks)    of   Ok  < 


788 


FALL  OP  THB  HOUSE  OF  USHES  — FALL  OP  HAN 


very  common  east  of  the  AUef^unies  io  dear, 
swift  streams  and  rocky  j»ooU,  and  has  been 
known  to  reach  18  inches  in  length.  It  is  steel 
blue  above,  sides  aiu}  belly  silvery,  but  in  the 
breeding  season  the  fins  and  lower  surface  of 
the  males  are  rosv.  The  fins  are  of  moderate 
size  and  unspottea. 

PALL  OF  THB  HOUSE  OP  USHER, 
The,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  prose  tales 
of  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  is  to  be  grouped  among  the 
author's  stories  of  morbid  psycnolosy.  The 
strange  obsession  which  afflicts  the  chief  char- 
acter may  be  described  as  the  fear  of  fear. 
The  'Fall  of  the  House  of  Usber>  conforms 
admirably  to  Poe's  dictum  that  every  word  in  a 
short  story  should  tend  toward  a  preconceived 
effecL  The  sense  of  gloom  and  depression  pro- 
duced in  the  opening  sentence  is  maintained  and 
if  anything  deepened  to  the  close.  The  scene  is 
laid  "Out  of  space  — out  of  time,'  yet  it  gives 
a  thrilling  impression  of  reality.  The  story 
also  illustrates  the  author's  skill  in  preparing 
tor  the  end,  both  by  minor  details  which  ex- 
plain later  happenings,  and  by  more  elusive 
methods.  Thus,  the  momentary  repulsion  which 
the  visitor  feels  on  meeting  the  physician  is 
connected  with  the  decision  regarding  the  tem- 

Krary  entombment  of  Madeline,  narrated  pages 
er;  and  the  picture  painted  by  Usher  inevi- 
tably suggests,  Oiou^  in  no  vei^  tangible  way, 
the  vault  in  which  the  coffin  is  placed.  The 
poem,  'The  Haunted  Palace,*  recited  by  the 
diief  character,  is  an  allegory  of  a  ruined  mind. 
No  story  of  Poe's  shows  better  handling  of  at- 
mosphere, and  it  is  justly  ranked  as  one  of  the 
most  admirable  of  its  class.  It  was  first  puh- 
Ushed  in  Burton's  Gentltmon's  Magaiine  in 
1839,  and  was  revised  for  the  collection  of 
Foe's  tales  issued  in  1845. 

WiujAU  B.  Cauks. 
FALL  LINE.  The  boundary  between  the 
Atlantic  Coastal  Plain  and  the  Piedmont  Belt 
(q.v.)  to  the  west  is  marked  by  falls  or  rapids 
on  most  of  the  streams,  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  rivers  can  cut  more  rapidly  on  the  soft 
unconsolidated  rocks  of  the  coastal  plain  than 
on  the  harder  crystalline  rocks  of  the  adjacent 
region.  At  an  early  date  the  falls  marked  the 
head  of  navigation  for  coastwise  trade.  Power 
is  also  largely  developed  along  the  fall  lin^ 
which  has  been  responsible  for  the  location' of 
numerous  cities,  among  which  are  "rrenton, 
Philadelphia  Baltimore  Washington,  Rich- 
mond, Raleigh.  Columbia,  Uacon  and  Mont- 
gomery. 

FALL  OF  UAN,  a  commonly  received  doc- 
trine of  Christianity,  founded  upon  the  his- 
torical narrative  contained  in  the  third  chapter 
of  the  book  of  Genesis,  together  with  the  al- 
lusions to  the  same  matter  in  other  parts  of 
Scripture.  The  history  of  the  fall,  as  ^ven  in 
Genesis^  contains  the  following  particulars : 
God  having  placed  Adam  and  Eve  in  the  garden 
of  Eden  and  forUdden  them  under  pain  of 
death  to  eat  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  the 
knowledge  of  good  and  evil^  Eve,  tempted  by  the 
serpent,  first  ate  of  the  fnut  herself,  and  after- 
ward gave  of  it  to  her  husband,  who  followed 
her  example.  Both  were  driven  out  of  Eden. 
Punitive  sentences  were  passed  u^on  each  of 
them,  and  upon  die  serpent,  which  is  alluded  to 
by  Saint  Paul  as  representing  the  devil.  In  the 
lubiequent  narrative  the  consequences  of  the 


fall  significantly  apfiear.  The  first  mam  bom 
of  the  original  pair  is  a  murderer,  and  his  de- 
scendants grow  in  wickedness  until  a  flood  is 
sent  to  carry  them  away.  As  might  be  expected, 
this  most  suggestive  narrative  has  given  rite  to 
inexhaustible  controversy.  The  opinions  on  the 
fall  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  those 
which  reject  the  narrative  altogether;  those 
which  accept  it  as  a  mythical  or  allegorical  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  evil ;  those  which  regard 
It  as  in  the  main  historical.  As  a  mere  matter 
of  iilerary  criticism,  the  uninterrupted  flow  of 
the  narrative  down  to  times  and  events  evidently 
historical,  together  with  the  uniformity  and  so- 
briety of  its  style,  leave  little  ground  for  the 
supposition  that  the  writer  himself  supposed  he 
was  dealing  in  allegory.  The  histoncal  view 
of  the  fall,  besides  the  theoretical  controversies 
to  which  it  gives  rise  as  to  its  account  of  the 
origin  of  evil,  encounters  difficulties  from  two 
sources  —  the  modem  sciences  of  chronology 
and  ethnology.  In  the  meantime  these  remain 
difficulties  only  as  these  sciences  are  by  no 
means  in  a  state  of  sufficient  maturity  to  allow 
their  conclusions  to  be  absolutely  applied.  It 
is  remarkable  that  in  most  mytholo^es  the  ser- 
pent is  worshiped  as  a  beneficent  being,  thou^ 
Tylor  shows  that  Aii  Dahaka  of  the  Zarathus- 
tnans  (Zoroastrians),  which  is  a  personification 
of  evil,  may  have  an  historical  connection  with 
the  serpent  of  Eden.  With  regard  to  the 
relation  of  man's  fall  to  that  of  Adam,  Saint 
Paul  says  'by  one  man's  disobedience  many 
were  made  sinners*  (Rom.  v.  19),  and  "as  by 
one  man  sin  entered  into  the  world,  and  death 
by  sin,  and  so  death  passed  upon  all  men  for 
that  all  have  sinned*  (ver.  12),  It  seems  im- 
possible to  reconcile  the  constant  a^eals  made 
in  Scripture  to  the  moral  nature  ot  man  with 
the  notion  that  that  nature  is  inherently  and 
radically  corrupt.  It  would  also  appear  that  the 
statements  of  Scripture  with  regard  to  the 
actual  moral  condition  of  man,  strong  as  tbey 
are,  do  not  absolutely  retjuire  this  mode  of  ac- 
counting for  them.  Without  supposing  any 
radical  change  of  man's  moral  nature,  or  even 
any  change  of  it  whatsoever  it  is  only  necessary 
to  suppose  a  change  in  his  relation  to  God  to 
explain  all  that  is  said  regarding  him.  It  is 
supposed  that  man's  moral  nature  ccmiists  of 
capabilities  which  are  good  or  bad  according  as 
they  are  directed,  and  that  God  himself  is  the 
object  of  all  its  highest  aspirations,  llie  fall 
being  supposed  to  consist  in  the  alienation  of 
man  from  God,  it  is  easy  to  oerceive  that  all 
these  aspirations,  being  deprived  of  their  proper 
objects,  must  apply  themselves  to  improper  ones, 
and  become  evil  in  their  tendency;  hence  the 
sudden  rise  of  pride,  selfishness,  ambition  and 
all  evil  passions.  In  as  far  also  as  man's  nature 
is  affected  t^'the  hereditary  transmission  of 
qualities  it  might  become  actually  vitiated  in  its 
toidendes  and  this,  together  with  the  accumula- 
tion .  of  evil  habits,  would  produce  those 
climaxes  of  violence  or  corruption  which  have 
from  time  to  time  convulsed  or  disintegrated 
society,  which  have  called  forth  the  denuncia- 
tions of  prophets  and  by  their  very  excesses 
have  produced  a  reaction,  which,  however,  has 
left  human  nature  as  incompetent  to  guide 
itself  as  ever  and  ready,  after  a  period  of  re- 
pose, to  progress  toward  another  crisis.  The 
fall,  according  to  this  view,  consists  in  the  moral 
inadequacy  of  man's  nature  when  left  Io  ttidf, 


.lOogle 


FALL  KIVIK-FALLBH  TIMBERS 


quacy.    It  is  argncd  by  theologians  that 

oriKina.!  sentence  pronounced  on  the  trans- 
gressois  tbetv  is  contained  the  promise  of  a 
redemption  and  the;'  maintain  that  the  whole 
scope,  of  Scripture  is  directed  to  the  develop- 
ment of  this  promise  and  of  the  scheme  of 
providence  associated  with  it.  It  is  from  the 
New  Testament,  however,  and  not  from  the 
Old,  that  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  fall  has 
been  bnilt  np.  Uilton  seiied  on  tbis  as  the 
eroundwork  of  his  two  great  poems.  (See 
Adak:  Obioiwal  Sin).  Consult  Brown,  'Oiti»- 
tian  Theology  in  Outline*  (New  York  1906)  ; 
Fisher,  'History  of  Christian  Doctrine'  (ib. 
1896) ;  Qarke,  'Outline  of  Chrisdui  Theology> 
(ib  1899)  ;  Hamack,  'History  of  Dogma'  (Bos- 
ton 1899) ;  Mackintosh,  'Christianity  and  Sin' 
(New  York  1914). 

FALL  RIVBR,  Mass..  dty,  port  of  entry, 
in  Bristol  County,  on  Mount  Hmw  Bay  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Taunton  River;  on  Ine  New  York, 
New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad,  49  miles 
south  of  Boston.  It  is  connected  with  }^ev/ 
York  by  the  Fall  River  line  of  steamers,  with 
Fhiiadelphia  bv  the  Merchants  and  Miners 
freight  line  ana  with  New  England  seaports  by 
passenger  and  freight  lines  of  steamers.    The 


city  uses  comes  from  Lake  Watuppa  and  the 
waterworks  plant  is  owned  by  the  municipality. 
The  streets  are  well  laid  out;  manjr  of  the 
buildings  are  constructed  of  the  granite  which 
is  found  in  the  vicinity.  It  has  excellent  public 
and  parish  schools,  notably  the  B,  M.  C.  Ehirfee 

CiSlic  high  school  and  me  Academy  La  Stc. 
nion  des  Saciis  CitEurs ;  good  circulating  li- 
braries, a  Stat«  armory,  over  half  a.  hundred 
churches  and  chapels,  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers and  electnc  street  railway  connections 
with  neighboring  cities  and  towns.  Among 
educational  and  charitable  institutions  are  Notre 
Ciame  College,  the  free  textile  school,  free  civil 
service  school,  the  Conservatory  of  Music, 
Boys'  Oub,  Home  for  the  Aflfed.  Five  public 
parks  have  been  laid  out  in  vanous  parts  of  the 
cih^,    and    there   are   beautiful    drives    to    the 

Pall  River  is  the  largest  cotton- mil  ling  city 
in  the  United  States.  According  to  the  Federal 
census  of  1910  the  city  had  288  manufacturing 
establishments,  employing  $82,066,000  capit^ 
and    37,139  _personsj     paying    $16,833,000     for 


i-operative  banks.    The  exchanges  a 
United  States  clearing-house  during  the  year 
ending  30  Sept.  1910  aggregated  $61,031,300. 

The  United  States  census  of  manufactures 
tor  1914  showed  within  the  city  limits  315  in- 
dustrial establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 38,097  persons;  36,834  being  wage 
earners,  receiving  annually  a  total  of  $16,131,000 
in  wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated 
$89,290,000  and  the  year's  output  was  valued  at 
$64,663,000:  of  this,  $27,502,000  was  the  value 
added  by  manufacture. 

The  government,  under  a.  charter  of  19CE, 
is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  annually,  a  board 


and    37,139    persons;     E 

wages,  and  ^5,524,000  fu>  m<ii<:ii<u3,  duu  u^v- 
ing  a  combined  output  valued  at  $64,146,000. 
The  cotton  industry,  42  establishments  with 
$46,000,000  capital,  and  a  combined  output 
valued  at  $30,000,000,  Next  in  value  of  output 
was  the  dyeing  and  finishing  of  textiles 
($3,000,000).  Other  important  manufactures 
were  foundry  and  machine- shop  products 
($1,000,000) ;  bakery  products  (f6CO,000).  There 
art  also  manufactories  of  calico  prints,  ging- 
hams, woolen  goods,  men's  bats,  fur  goods. 
pianos,  knit  goods,  yarn,  thread,  boots  and 
shoes,  spools  and  bobhin»^  carriages,  rope  and 
twine,  rubber,  soap,  etc.  (iranite  quarrying  also 
employs  a  considerable  number  of  men.  The 
dty  has  a'nnrobcT  of  national  bardts,  with  a 


the  school  committee  of  nine  members  is  chosen 
by  popular  election.  Fall  River  has  an  ex- 
cellent system  of  sewers,  is  lighted  by  gas  and 
electrid^.  It  was  settled  by  arinttea  of  the 
Plymouth  Colony,  along  Mount  Hope  Bay  upon 
land  obtained  t^  treaty  with  Massasoit.  chief 
of  the  Wampanoags.  Its  inhabitants  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  War  of  King  Philip  and 
the  territory  long  remained  the  hunting  ground 
of  tiie  tribe.  An  Indian  reservation  is  still 
maintained.  The  village  was  included  within 
the  limits  of  Freetown  until  1803,  when  it  was 
incorporated  as  a  separate  town  under  its 
present  name.  It  was  called  Troy  from  1804 
to  1834,  when  its  old  name  was  restored.  In 
1854  Fall  River  was  chartered  as  a  city  and  in 
1862.  on  die  readjustment  of  the  Massacha- 
setts-Rhode  Island  boundary,  a  part  of  the  town 
of  Tiverton,  R.  1.,  with  a  population  of  3,590, 
was  annexed.  On  2  luly  1843,  a  disastrous  fire 
destroyed  several  buildings  and  other  property. 


eluding  over  50.000  persons  of  .foreign  birth  and 
about  400  of  negro  descent.  The.  population 
includes  also  &  great  number  of  Canadian 
French. 

FALL  TRANK,  a  drink  once  reputed  to 
cure  the  effects  of  falls;  a  vulnerary  made 
from  several  aromatic  and  slisbtly  astringent 
plants  which  grow  chiefly  on  the  Swiss  Alps; 
hence  the  name  yulnerairt  Suisse,  given  to  such 
dried  plants  cut  into  fragments.  Within  the 
19th  century,  in  England,  a  kind  of  vulnerary 
known  as  black  beer  was  often  prescribed  in 
country  practice  for  inward  bruises. 

FALL  WEBWORM.    See  Weswobus. 

FALLACY,  in  logic,  an  areument  used  as 
decisive  of  a  particular  issue,  wScb  in  reality  it 
does  not  decide.  Fallacies  are  variously  class- 
ified by  different  logicians.  A  fallacy  may 
either  exist  in  the  substance  or  in  the  form 
of  the  argtiment  If  it  exists  in  the  substance 
it  does  not  belong  to  logic,  as  commonly  un- 
derstood, to  expose  it;  but  logicians  differ  as 
to  what  constitutes  the  proper  distinction  be- 
tween form  and  substance.  .1.  S,  Mill  in  partic-. 
ular  exittids  the  sphere  of  lo^c  in  respect  to 
the  treatment  of  fallacies  beyond  what  has  been 
usually  assigned  to  it 

FALLEN  TIMBERS,  Bittle  of,  20  Aug. 
1794.  on  the  Maumee  River,  about  IS  miles 
from  Toledo,  Ohio,  The  Indians  had  about 
2,000  warriors,  with  70  white  rangers,  Frendi, 
English  and  renegade  Americans'  they  were  in 
a  line  some  two  miles  long  at  n^t  angles  to 


>y  Google 


784 

the  river,  behind  a  fomt  blown  down  by  a 
hurricane,  Wayne  had  some  3fiC0  men;  2fl00 
regulars  and  1,000  mouitled  volunieera  from 
Kentucky,  under  Qiarles  Scott,  who  were 
thrown  to  the  left  to  turn  the  enemy's  flank. 
The  Indians  began  the  attack  and  drove  in  the 
advance  volunteers;  then  Wayne  sent  his  regu- 
lar cavalry  to  repel  them,  while  his  first  line 
of  infantry  advanced  with  trailed  arms,  firing 
at  close  range  and  then  charging  with  the 
bayonet  Both  attaclcs  wqre  entirely  successful. 
Less  than  1,000  of  the  Ajnericans  were  engaged. 
They  chased  the  Indians  up  to  the  British  fort 
some  miles  away.  Their  total  loss  was  33 
killed  and  lOO  wounded,  the  Indians  and  British 
probably  losing-  two  or  three  times  as  many 
Ulled.  Eight  Wyandot  chiefs  were  slain.  This 
defeat,  the  greatest  ever  suffered  b]^  the  north- 
western Indians,  led  in  the  following  year  to 
the  treaty  of  Greenville  (q.v,). 

FALLIArES.  fal/er,  Climent  ArniBiid, 
French  politician  and  statesman:  b.  M^n  in 
the  department  of  Lot-et-Garonne,  6  Nov.  1S41. 
He  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of 
Nirac  and  from  1871-75  was  mayor  of  that  city. 
In  1876,  1877  and  1878  he  was  ciacted  as  a  R*- 

Eublican  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  the 
Ltter  year  being  appointed  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  a  position  which  he  again  occupied  in 
1S82  and  18B3.  From  1883-65  and  again  from 
1889-90  be  was  Minister  of  Public  Instrucrion ;  in 
1887  Minister  of   the  Interior;  and  i 


FALUkKSS — FALLOW 


,  la 


__. ,  i  position  which 

he  has  held  ever  since.  In  1899,  when  Loubet 
became  President  of  the  Republic,  Fallieres 
succeeded  him  as  president  of  the  Senate,  a  post 
to  which  he  was  elected  in  1900  and  on  11  Jan. 
1906.  On  17  Jan,  1906  the  National  Assembly 
jelected  him  President  of  the  Republic  to  suc- 
ceed Loubet  (n-v.). 

FALLING  BODIES.  See  Acceleration; 
Force;  Force  of  Gravitv;  GaAvnATioM; 
Gravity  ;  MECHANica,  etc, 

FALLING-SICKNESS.    See  EptLEPsr. 

FALLING  STARS.    See  Shooting  Stabs. 

FALLMERAYER,  Jacob  FhUipp,  ya'kdp 
f«1ip  fal'  me-ri-er,  German  author:  b.Tsehotsch, 
Austrian  Tyrol,  10  Dec.  1790;  d.  Munich,  26 
April  1861.  He  fought  in  the  War  of  Libera- 
tion; in  1848  was  appointed  professor  of  his- 
tory at  Munich.  As  a  scholar,  especially  linguist, 
and  as  an  exiJorer  of  the  Orient  his  tame  is 
international  and  his  work  authoritative.  _  He 
published  'Fragments  from  the  Orient' 
(134S):  'History  of  the  Peninsula  of  Morea 
in  the  Middle  Ages'  (1830),  and  other  import- 
ant writings. 

FALLON,  Michael  Francis,  Canadian 
Catholic  prelate :  b.  Kingston,  Ontario,  1867.  He 
was  educated  at  Ottawa  College  and  at  the 
Gregorian  University,  Rome,  and  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  in  1894,  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Oblates  on  his  return  to  Canada  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  English  literature 
at  Ottawa  University  of  which  he  was  subse- 
quently vice-rector.  In  189&-1901  be  wai  rector 
oE  Saint  Joseph's  Church,  Ottawa  and  from  1901 
to  1904  of  Holy  An^U,  Buffalo.  From  1904 
to  1909  he  was  provincial  of  the  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate  and  in  the  latter  year  wag 
consecrated  bishop  of  London,  Ontario. 


FALLOPIAN  TUBES,  two  ducts  or  canals 
about  five  inches  long  and  one-third  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  attached  to  the  upper  comers  of 
the  ulems.  Within  they  are  lined  by  a  mucous 
membrane  continuous  with  that  of  the  uterine 
cavity,  but  differing  in  having  cilia.  Outside  of 
the  mucous  membrane  there  is  a  thin  layer  of 
muscle-tissue.  The  outermost  layer  is  from  the 
peritoneum,  in  large  part  a  fold  of  the  "broad 
ligament."  At  the  free  end  the  tube  flares  out 
into  limbriK,  thus  exposing  a  large  surface  to 
catch  the  ova  given  off  from  the  surface  of  the 
adjacent  ovary.  Aided  h^  the  waving  cilia,  an 
ovum  paases  down  this  tube  to  the  uterine 
cavity,  there  to  undergo  development  or  to  be 
extruded  with  menstrual  blood.  S^rmatozoa 
can  pas*  up  the  FallcHtian  tubes  and  impregnate 
an  ovum  within  the  fumen.  Development  then 
becomes  possible,  giving  rise  to  tubaf  pregnancy 
or  ectopic  gestation. 

FALLOPIO,  Oabriello^-hre-al6  fal-lop'- 
pe-6  (usually  known  as  I^llopius),  Italian 
anatomist:  b,  Modena,  1523;  d  9  Oct,  1562.  He 
studied  at  Ferrara  and  at  Padua,  at  which  last 
place  he  is  said  to  have  attended  the  lectures 
of  Vesalius.  He  became  professor  at  Ferrara, 
whence,  in  1548  he  removed  to  Pisa.  He  con- 
tinued there  three  years  and  was  then  made 
professor  of  surgery,  anatomy  and  the  miateria 
medica  at  Padua,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death.  The  principal  work  of  Faltopius  is  his 
'Observationes  Anatomicat*  (1561,  8vo.),  which, 
as  well  as  his  other  writings,  has  been  sev- 
eral times  reprinted.  He  was  the  first  anat- 
omist who  accurately  described  the  vessels  and 
bones  of  the  tcetus  and  his  account  of  the 
Fallopian  tubes  in  females  has  perpetuated  his 

FALLOUX,  Fr««ric  Alfred  Pierre, 
fri-dfi-rik  ll-fred  pf-ar  fa-loo,  French  writer: 
b.  Angers,  France,  7  May  I8I1 ;  d.  there,  7  Jan. 
1886.  Legitimist  and  clerical  sympathies  influ- 
enced his  career.  He  was  one  of  the  last  sur- 
vivors of  the  Liberal  Catholic  School,  was  for 
a  time  Minister  of  Education  under  Napoleon 
HI  and  passed  an  act  very  acceptable  to  the 
clericals.  He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in 
1857,  His  efforts  to  reconcile  the  Orleanist  and 
Bourbon  factions  in  1876  recoiled  upon  himself. 
His  typical  writings  are  'Madame  Swetchine, 
Her  Life  and  Works'  (15th  ed.,  1884)  ;  *Story 
of  Louis  XVI'  (6ih  ed.,  1881);  and  'Political 
Speeches  and  Miscellany'  (1882).  His  memoirs, 
edited  by  Veuillot,  were  issued  in  1888. 

FALLOW,  land  which,  after  being  tilled,  is 
left  for  a  season  or  more  without  being  planted 
or  sown.  The  Roman  system  of  wheat  raising 
was  a  rotation  of  fallow  and  wheal  alternately. 
Under   the    Romans   Britain   exported   a   great 

Suantity  of  wheat,  and  for  centuries  afterward 
le  same  system  was  followed.  The  method 
presupposed  a  moderately  fertile  soil,  and 
turned  out  best  where  clav  was  present.  The 
object  of  fallowing  is  to  lioerate  fertilizing  ele- 
ments from  the  mold,  admitting  air  and  destroy- 
ing noxious  plants  and  insects.  Improvements 
in  agricultural  methods  and  the  multiplication 
of  fertilizing  material  has  caused  the  abandon- 
ment of  this  resort  to  fallowing  which,  bow- 
ever,  might  in  some  cases  be  revived  with  ad- 
vantage.   For  summer  f&llow  the  land  should 


>y  Google 


FALLOW  DBEK  — FALMOUTH 


be  plous^ed  at  the  end  of  May;  for  winter 
fallow  t£e  land  should  be  ploughed  in  autumn. 
Fallow  crops  is  a  term  applied  to  green 
manuring  crops  which  are  of  more  advantage 
in  moist  than  in  dry  climates,  where  injury  is 
likely  to  be  wrou^t  by  autumnal  draughts. 
Bastard  fallowing  is  the  Scotch  practice  of 
ploughing  ha^-stubUe  at  the  end  of  summer. 
It  is  known  in  North  America  as  short  fallow 
and  is  very  beneficial 


northern  Africa  and  eastward  of  Persia,  rep- 
reGentins;  a  group  of  Cervids  in  whicn  the 
antlers,  borne  only  by  the  bucks,  are  round  at 
the  base,  but  are  more  or  less  flattened  at  the 
extremities.  These  deer  were  introduced  into 
northern  Europe  many  centuries  ago  and  now 
are  one  of  the  common  park  deers  of  Great 
Britain  and  elsewhere,  while  still  remaining 
wild  in  their  native  regions.  In  size  they  are 
small  (three  feet  tall  at  the  withers)  and  in 
color  vary  from  fawn  to  dark  browil,  the  fine 
soft  coat  ornamented  with  large  whitish  spots, 
which  in  some  varieties  have  almost  disappeared 
except  in  the  fawns.  The  under  parts,  and 
lower  side  of  the  rather  long  tail  are  white. 
The  antlers  do  not  reach  their  full  development 
until  the  fifth  year.  These  deer  assemble  in 
large  herds  when  free,  and  feed  mainly  on 
heritage,  but  are  fond  of  certain  other  foods, 
especially  hoi'se  chestnuts,  which  the  bucks 
knock  off  the  trees  with  their  antlers.  They 
are  favorites  in  parks  because  of  their  tame- 
ness  approaching  confidently  the  persons  with 
whom  uey  are  familiar  and  their  flesh  is  re- 

?arded  as  the  best  of  venison.  Two  or  three 
ossil  species  are  known,  from  remains  in 
recent  deposits,  indicating  recent  extinction. 
The  most  remarkaUe  of  these  is  the  anim^ 
usually,  but  erroneously,  called  *Ihsh  elk'  de- 
scribed below. 

Giant  Fallow  Deer,— In  the  peat-bogs  of 
Ireland,  and  in  caves  and  superficial  deposits 
in  Britain  and  on  the  Continent,  have  been 
found  many  skeletons  of  a  fallow  deer  which 
surpassed  even  the  moose  in  stature  standing 
si:t  feet  high  at  the  shoulders,  and  carrying 
antlers  that  in  some  large  specimens  measure 
11  feet  from  tip  to  tip.  These  antlers 
were  broadly  palmate,  as  in  the  moose,  but 
their  "points*  curled  upward.  There  is  much 
evidence  that  these  magnificent  deer  continued 
to  exist  after  the  bepnning  of  the  human  oc- 
cupation of  Europe,  and  probably  owes  its 
extinction  to  extermination  by  prehistoric  man. 
A  similar  extinct  species.  Ruff's  deer,  is  found 
fossil  in  Germany. 

FALLOWS,  Samuel,  American  Reformed 
Episcopal  bishop;  b.  Pendleton,  Lancashire, 
England,  13  Dec,  1835.  He  came  to  America  in 
18^,  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin in  1859,  was  minister  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  1859-75  and  later  of  the  Re- 
formed Episcopal  Church,  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Civil  War;  was  State  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  in  Wisconsin  1871- 


1866-74,  and  president  of  Wesleyan  University 
in  1874-75.  He  became  rector  of  Saint  Paulas 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church  in  Chicago  in  1875 
and  bishop  in  18/6.  He  was  chairman  of  the 
Educational  Congress  of  the  World's  Colum- 


bian Exposition  1893 ;  presideat  of  the  board  of 
managers  of  the  Illinois  State  Reformatocy 
1891-1912;  chaplain-in-chief  of  the  Grand  Army 
of  the  Republic  1907-03,  and  its  national  pa- 
triotic instructor  1908-09 ;  commander  Military 
Order  of  the  Loyal  Legion  of  the  United  States 
for  Illinois  1907;  department  commander  for 
Illinois  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic 
1914-15;  president  of  the  State  Illinois  Com- 
mission for  the  International  Celebration  of  the 
50th  Anniversary  of  Negro  Freedom  and  Con- 
duct of  the  Lincoln  Jubilee  1913-16.  He  is  the 
author  of  mmierous  works,  including  _'Hand- 
book  of  Abbreviations  and  Contractions' : 
'Life  of  Samuel  Adams';  'Students'  Biblical 
Dictionary*;  *PastNoon';  'Splendid  Deeds' ; 
'Supplemental  Dictionaiy  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage'; 'Popular  and  Critical  Biblical  Ency- 
clopedia*    (1901);     'Health    and    Happiness' 

FALLS  CITY,  Neb.,  city,  county-seat  of 
Richardson  County,  on  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton and  (Juincy  and  the  Missouri  Pacific  rail- 
roads, about  85  miles  southeast  of  Lincoln.  Its 
chief  manufactures  are  flour,  canned  goods, 
cigars,  toundiy  products,  furniture,  cement, 
stock  powder,  cider,  vinegar  and  beer.  The  trade 
is  chiefly  in  wheat,  com.  cattle  and  manufactured 
articles.  It  has  railroad  shops,  grain  elevators 
and  a  poultry-packing  plant.  'The  electric-li^t 
and  waterworks  plants  are  owned  by  the  aty. 
It  has  a  good  public  library.    Pop.  3,500. 

FALMOUTH,  fal'muth  England,  munici- 
pal borough  and  seaport  in  Ute  county  of  Corn- 
wall, at  the  mouth  of  the  Pal  River^  11  miles 
from  Truro,  and  is  an  important  point  of  call 
for  steamer  lines.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  the 
docks  extending  to  100  acres,  and  a  fine  and 
spacious  roadstead  There  are  two  castles  on 
the  coast,  one  of  which,  Pendennis,  commands 
the  entrance  of  the  harbor  on  the  west,  and  the 
other,  on  the  opposite  aide  is  Saint  Mawes 
Castle.  Its  trade  consists  chieRy  in  engineer- 
ing, shipbuilding  and  ropemaking.  Great  im- 
provements have  been  made  on  the  sea  front, 
and  Falmouth  has  risen  into  favor,  owing  to  its 
beautiful  surroundings  and  mild  and  equable  cli- 
mate, as  a  wintering  resort.  The  borough  forms 
part  of  the  parliamentary  borough  ot  Penryn 
and  Falmouth.    Pop,  13,132, 

FALMOUTH,  Ky.,  city  and  county-  seat  of 
Pendleton  County.  59  miles  northeast  of  l-ex- 
ington,  on  the  Licldng  River  and  on  the  Louis- 
ville and  Nashville  Railroad.  It  is  in  an  agri- 
cultural and  dairying  region,  widi  a  trade  in 
tobacco,  grain,  clover  seed  and  live  stocl^  and 
has  flour,  lumber  and  woolen  mills,  tobacco 
warehouses,  a  creamery,  distillery  and  cannery. 
It  contains  two  banks  with  resources  of  $600^- 
000  and  the  value  of  the  taxable  property  is 
placed  at  $750,000.  The  waterworks  and 
electric-light  plant  are  owned  by  the  munici- 
pality. The  ^vermnent  is  vested  in  a  ma^r 
and  six  counctlmen.    Pop.  1,&X}. 

FALMOUTH,  Mass.,  town  in  Barnstable 
Connty,  on  Buiiard's  Bay,  Vineyard  Sound  and 
on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
Railroad,  at  the  extreme  west  end  of  Cape  Cod, 
SO  miles  northwest  of  Boston.  It  is  the  centre 
of  an  agricultural  and  cranberry  region.  It  is 
best  known  as  containing  the  Wood's  Hole 
(q.v.)  Swtion  of  the  United  States  Fish  Com- 


lyGoot^Ie 


FAL8B  ACACIA— PALSBTTO 


million.  It  hai  »  pubtic  library  and  is  a  vopa- 
lor  luminer  reiort  Falmouth  was  settled  in 
1636  and  incorporated  in  1686.  The  town  owni 
the  waterworlu.    Pop.  3,144. 

FALSE  ACACIA.    See  Locust  Tbee. 

FAL5B  BAY,  an  inlet  on  the  co«t  of  Cape 
Colony,  South  Africa,  circular  in  form,  about 
24  miles  long,  and  so  well  protected  from 
itortns  as  to  render  it  a  good  shelter  harbor. 
Simon stown,  a  British  naval  base,  is  in  the 
northwest  angle. 

FALSE  CADENCE,  a  musical  term.  When 
the  last  chord  of  a  phrase  is  other  than  the 
tonic  diord  and  is  preceded  by  that  of  the  domi- 
naol,  the  cadence  is  said  to  be  interrupted,  false 
or. deceptive.    See  Cadence. 

FALSE  CHINCH-BUG.  See  Wheat  Im- 
flECr  Pests. 

FALSE  DECRETALS.  See  Decretals, 
False  ob  Pseudo-Ieunxuan. 

FALSE   DEHETSIU8.    The.     See    De- 

UETSIUS. 

FALSE  IMPRISONMENT,  the  unlawful 
detention  of  a  person,  whether  in  a  common 
prison  or  a  private  house,  or  even  by  forcibly 
detaining  one  in  the  streets  or  highways.  The 
law  punishes  false  imprisonment  as  a  crime,  be- 
sides giving  reparation  to  the  party  injured 
through  an  action  in  tort. 

FALSE  INDIGO,  a  common  name  for 
some  American  species  of  the  genus  Anmrpha 
of  the  pea  family.  The  most  widely  known 
plant  called  by  this  name  is  A.  fmticosa,  a 
shrub  growing  from  5  to  20  feet  in  height , 
along  streams  Id  Ohio,  Minnesota  and  Mani- 
toba, south  to  Florida,  Colorado  and  Mexico. 
When  found  in  the  Middle  States  it  is  an  escape 
from  cultivation,  its  spike  of  purple  flowers 
making  an  exceedingly  ornamental  snrub. 

FALSE  PERSONATION,  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  property  of  others,  was  formerly 
a  misdemeanor  punishable  by  a  fine  or  impris' 
onment,  but  is  now  made  penal  by  special  stat- 
ute. The  penalties  for  personation  are  fre- 
quently heavy.  '  Thus  to  personate  the  owner 
of  any  share,  stock  or  annuity,  etc,  is  felony, 
and  bable  to  a  term  of  imprisonment.  The 
false  personation  of  voters  at  an  election  is  a 
misdemeanor  punishable  with  imprisonment. 

FALSE  POINT,  a  cape  (with  lighthouse) 
and  harbor  of  Bengal,  43  miles  east  of  Cuttack. 
The  roadway  in  which  ships  anchor  is  some- 
what exposed  and  loading  and  unloading  can 
Only  be  carried  on  in  comparatively  fair 
weather.  Large  rice  shiinnents  are  made.  The 
name  was  ^ven  because  fre<^ently  this  projec- 
tion was  mistaken  for  Point  Palmyras. 

FALSE  POSITION,  Rtde  of.  An  ancient 
method  of  recUoning  indirectly,  now  superseded 
by  the  method  of  equations.  In  the  ancient 
method  a  number  for  the  unknown  quantity  was 
assimiedi  next  a  trial  was  made  to  sec  if  the 
assumed  number  filled  the  conditions;  it  was 
then  corrected  by  the  method  of  simple  propor- 


tion. For  example,  what  number  is  that  whose 
third  exceeds  its  quarter  t»  5P  Assaming  72 
to  be  the  nnmber,  we  get  24>lfr-6.  which  is 
too  great.  Now,  by  means  of  proportion  we 
have  6;5;:72:(0.  Hence  60  is  the  number 
whose  third  (20)  exceeds  its  quarter  (IS)  by  5. 

FALSE  PRETENSES^  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  property,  is  a  misdemeanor  at  com- 
mon law,  and  punishable  by  fine  or  imprison- 
ment Some  lands  of  it  are  now  punishable  by 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  five  years,  the  stat- 
utes, however,  varying  in  different  States. 

FALSE  SCORPION,  or  BOOK  SCOR- 
PION, a  diminutive  spider-like  creature  of  the 
order  PsendOKorpionida  (see  Akacbnida), 
allied  to  the  "harvestmen*  and  'false  spiders.* 
Tbey  occur  in  all  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
world,  tmder  bark,  stones  and  rubbish,  or  hid- 
den in  deep  moss;  and  one  typical  species,  the 
"book  scorpion*  (Chelifer  cancraides),  infests 
museums,  old  libraries  and  dusty  corners  gen- 
erally. Unlike  the  spiders  these  bave  no  con- 
stricted 'waist*  separating  the  abdomen  from 
the  foreparts;  and  like  the  true  scorpions  the 
pedipalps  are  developed  into  relatively  enormons 
chelate  arms.  The  book  scorpion  thus  resembles 
a  minute  crab.  They  are  slow  in  their  motions, 
feeling  their  way  along  with  their  pincers;  and 
several  blind  spedes  InKabit  caverns.  They  have 
spinning  glands,  situated  in  the  cepbalo thorax, 
but  use  the  silk  only  for  making  shiall  protective 
cells  or  cases  into  which  they  retreat  when  lay- 
ing eggs  (afterward  carried  about  by  the  fe- 
male), or  molting,  or  during  hibernation. 

FALSE  SPIDER.    See  Scorpion  Spider. 

FALSE  SWEARING.     See  PERjURy. 

FALSE  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 
See  WEiiiHTB  AKD  Measures. 

FALSEN,  i^'ihn.  Christian  Magnus,  Nor- 
wegian historian  and  statesman :  b.  Olso,  near 
Christiania,  1782;  d.  1830.  He  entered  the  legal 
profession  and  m  1608  was  appointed  circuit 
judge  at  Folio.  He  became  interested  in  poli- 
tics about  1814  and  helped  draw  up  a  constitu- 
tion for  Norway  after  the  separation  of  the 
latter  from  Denmark.  He  divided  honors  with 
Sverdrup  in  pariiamentaiy  leadership,  became 
attorney-general  in  1822,  but  lost  much  of  his 
support  among  the  liberal  element  through  his 
administration  of  this  office.  He  was  made 
bailiff  for  Bergen  in  1825  and  two  years  later 
became  chief  ol  the  Supreme  Court.  He  wrote 
'Norges  Historie>  (1824).  Consult  the  lives  by 
Daa  (Christiania  1860)  and  Vullum  (ib.,  1881). 

FALSETTO  (Ital),  in  singing,  a  term 
applied  to  the  notes  above  the  natural  compass 
of  the  voice.  It  is  also  called  a  head  or  throat 
voice,  in  contradistinction  to  the  chest  voice, 
which  is  the  natural  one.  The  falsetto  voice  is 
produced  by  tightening  the  ligaments  of  the 
glottis.  Its  thin,  constrained  effect  b  most 
noticeable  in  men  with  deep-set  voices  the  reg- 
ister of  which  it  frequently  extends  more  than 
an  octave  above  the  pure  chest  voice. 


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